1. See Richards 1989.
2. See Darwin 1859.
3. See ibid.
4. See ibid.
5. See ibid.
6. See Campbell 1975.
7. See Campbell 1965.
8. See Malthus 1985 (1798).
9. See Spencer 1851.
10. See Lyell 1833.
11. See Flack and de Waal 2000.
12. See Darwin 1982 (1871), 71–72.
13. See Campbell 1975; see also Alexander 1974 and Wilson 1975.
14. See Hamilton 1964.
15. See Darwin 1982 (1871).
16. See Williams 1966.
17. See Wilson 1975.
18. See West et al. 2007.
19. See Wilson 1975 for an assessment of how genetic preparations make certain behaviors very easy to learn and how genetic leashes constrain behavior at the level of phenotype.
20. See ibid.
21. See Boehm and Flack 2010.
22. See Boehm 1979 and Boehm 2009; see also Sober and Wilson 1998.
23. See Boehm 2004a and Boehm 2008a.
24. See Kelly 1995.
25. See Alexander 1987.
26. See Boehm 2008b.
27. See Wilson and Wilson 2007.
28. See Darwin 1982 (1871), 98.
29. See Wilson and Wilson 2007.
30. See Darwin 1865 and Darwin 1982 (1871).
31. See Alexander 1987.
32. See Boehm 1997.
33. See West-Eberhard 1983; see also Nesse 2007, Bowles and Gintis 2011, Boehm 1978, Boehm 1991a, and Boehm 2008b.
34. See Boehm 1991b.
35. See Campbell 1965.
36. See Mayr 1988.
37. In this sense, humans have actually constructed part of the environment they are adapted to. See, for example, Boehm and Flack 2010; see also Laland et al. 2000.
38. Darwin talked about “sympathy” as a basis for humans and other social animals sacrificing their own interests to assist others, be they kin, nonkin, or even members of other species. Today, a number of researchers have investigated empathy as a way of understanding the emotions and cognitions that impel us to feel for others and assist them. There appear to be various types of empathy as well as differing academic definitions (see, for example, Batson 2011, Flack and de Waal 2000, Preston and de Waal 2002, and de Waal 2009), so basically I shall stay with Darwin’s more general-purpose term: sympathy.
1. See Piers and Singer 1971 for an interesting treatment of anthropological research on shame and guilt.
2. See Casimir and Schnegg 2002.
3. See Darwin 1982 (1871).
4. There is a fascinating study, conducted at a Siberian fox farm, that supports this view. See Trut et al. 2009.
5. See Lindsay 2000.
6. See Damasio 2002.
7. See Damasio et al. 1994. The Phineas Gage case history is particularly evocative for me because my maternal grandfather, William Askey of the Erskine clan, whose father emigrated from Scotland, was a foreman with the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad in western Maryland. He wore a glass eye that replaced the one he had lost in a similar but less traumatic accident.
8. See Damasio 2002.
9. See Hare 1993.
10. See Parsons and Shils 1952; see also Gintis 2003.
11. See Darwin 1982 (1871).
12. See Kiehl 2008; see also Kiehl et al. 2006.
13. See Freud 1918.
14. See Frank 1988.
15. See Alexander 1987, 102.
16. See Faulkner 1954.
17. See Batson 2009.
18. See Dunbar 1996.
19. See Boehm 1993.
20. See Turnbull 1961.
21. See Boehm 2004b.
22. See Turnbull 1961. The extensive quotations are to be found in Colin Turnbull’s (1961) The Forest People, Chapter 5, “The Crime of Cephu, the Bad Hunter,” 94–108.
23. See Lee 1979, 244.
24. See ibid., 246.
25. See Durham 1991.
26. See Wiessner 2002.
1. See Campbell 1975; see also Boehm 2009.
2. See Campbell 1972. See Sober and Wilson 1998, 142–149, for a fuller treatment of how altruism can be socially “amplified,” and Boehm 2004a.
3. See Fehr and Gächter 2002; see also Henrich et al. 2005 and Hammerstein and Hagen 2004. Generous moves in experimental games can lead to reciprocation in kind.
4. See Boehm 2008b.
5. This holds for the !Kung according to Polly Wiessner (personal communication).
6. See Gurven et al. 2001.
7. Ibid; see also Alexander 1987.
8. See Smith and Boyd 1990 and Wiessner 1982.
9. See Malinowski 1922.
10. See Gurven et al. 2001.
11. See Service 1975.
12. See Campbell 1975.
13. See Sober and Wilson 1998.
14. See Campbell 1972, 1975.
15. See, for instance, Aberle et al. 1950 for an academic view of what it takes to keep a society going.
16. See Eibl-Eibesfeldt 1982; see also Gintis 2003 and Simon 1990.
17. See Boehm 2009.
18. See Darwin 1982 (1871).
19. See Williams 1966.
20. See Sherman et al. 1991.
21. See Wilson 1975.
22. See Irons 1991 for one answer to this question; see also Lewontin 1970.
23. See Alexander 1987; see also Black 2011, Boehm 2000, Boehm 2008b, Boyd and Richerson 1992, and Simon 1990.
24. See, for example, Preston and de Waal 2002; see also Flack and de Waal 2000.
25. See Batson 2009 and de Waal 2009 for technical treatments of human sympathy that use “empathy” as a more carefully defined, scientific term that has found its way into our everyday vocabularies.
26. See Darwin 1982 (1871).
27. I borrow this terminology from Donald T. Campbell’s writings on altruism. See Campbell 1975.
28. See Williams 1966, 205.
29. See ibid., 203–204.
30. See ibid. For an example of this theory being put to use, see Boehm 1981. This application involves macaque monkeys, and the hypothesis is that costly alpha-male pacifying interventions in adult fights are altruistic and that they are an extension of females’ stopping fights among offspring, which pay off handsomely because of kin selection. The theory is that the alpha’s interventions—those that protect unrelated adults—are genetically piggybacking on the maternal interventions that protect offspring.
31. There are a number of ways of looking at altruism (see West et al. 2007), and here I have organized this effort in terms that should be both unambiguous and understandable to general readers. In doing so, I have restricted the meaning of altruism to costly generosity that is extrafamilial.
32. See Hill et al. 2011.
33. See, for example, Gintis 2003 and Simon 1990; see also Alexander 2006.
34. In biology, pleiotropy means that the same gene can have two or more disparate effects.
35. Piggybacking means that as an instance of pleiotropy, a useful trait may “carry” a somewhat deleterious trait that is set up by the same gene. This can work as long as the useful trait is strongly selected and the piggybacking trait isn’t too costly. See Gintis 2003.
36. See Bowles 2006; see also Sober and Wilson 1998.
37. See Mayr 2001.
38. See Wilson 1975; see also ibid.
39. See Alexander 1979; see also Wilson 1975 and Trivers 1971.
40. See Bowles 2006 and Bowles 2009.
41. See Trivers 1971.
42. See, for instance, Allen-Arave et al. 2008.
43. See Stevens et al. 2005.
44. See Alexander 1987.
45. See Kaplan and Hill 1985; see also Allen-Arave et al. 2008 for an example having to do with nepotistic food transfers, and Kaplan and Gurven 2005 for an overview.
46. See, for example, Alexander 2006, Brown et al. 2003, and Hammerstein and Hoekstra 2002.
47. See Marlowe 2010.
48. See Alexander 1987.
49. See ibid.
50. See, for instance, Bird et al. 2001; see also Zahavi 1995. Costly signaling is more narrowly conceived than Alexander’s original idea of selection by reputation, which is gossip based and involves far more than hunting prowess and can involve signals that are not indicative of fitness.
51. See Gurven et al. 2000; see also Henrich et al. 2005, Kaplan and Hill 1985, Nowak and Sigmund 2005, Wiessner 1982, and Wiessner 2002.
52. See Alexander 1987.
53. See Boehm 1997 and Boehm 2000.
54. See Williams 1966; see also Trivers 1971.
55. See Wilson and Wilson 2007.
56. See Alexander 1987.
57. See Cosmides et al. 2005; see also Trivers 1971, Williams 1966, and Wilson 1975.
58. See Boehm 1997 and Cummins 1999.
59. See Ellis 1995; see also Betzig 1986.
60. See Boehm 1999 and Boehm 2004a.
61. See Boehm 1999; see also Erdal and Whiten 1994.
62. See Cosmides et al. 2005.
63. See Boehm 1993; see also Erdal and Whiten 1994.
64. See Boehm 1997.
65. See Frank 1995.
66. See Fehr et al. 2008.
67. See Boehm 1999.
68. See Williams 1966.
69. See Boyd and Richerson 1992.
70. See Boehm 1993.
71. See Wiessner 2005a and 2005b; see also Lee 1979.
72. See Briggs 1970, 44.
73. See ibid., 47.
74. See ibid.
75. See ibid.
76. See Boehm 1993.
77. See also Bowles 2006.
78. See Hill et al. 2011.
79. See Bowles 2006 and Bowles 2009; see also Choi and Bowles 2007.
80. In the past, I have tried to give group selection every benefit of the doubt at a time when such theory was far more controversial than it is today; see, for example, Boehm 1993, Boehm 1996, Boehm 1997, and Boehm 1999. The free-rider suppression that is emphasized in this book addresses a major problem with group selection models as these were originally attacked by Williams (1966) and should add to the viability of group selection theory as applied to humans.
81. See West-Eberhard 1979, West-Eberhard 1983, and Wolf et al. 1999 for a broader perspective.
82. I thank Randolph Nesse for the suggestion that no single mechanism is likely to fully explain human altruism; see also Gurven and Hill 2010.
1. See Klein 1999.
2. See Kelly 1995; see also Service 1975.
3. See Burroughs 2005.
4. See Gould 1982.
5. See Dyson-Hudson and Smith 1978.
6. See Kelly 2000.
7. See Bowles 2006.
8. Unfortunately, the most detailed study, by Turnbull 1972, is of relocated hunter-gatherers for whom no baseline study exists.
9. See Balikci 1970; see also Mirsky 1937 and Riches 1974.
10. See Lee 1979.
11. See, for instance, Kelly 1995; see also Service 1975. Lawrence Keeley (1988) is an exception; he compiled a list of ninety-four economically independent foragers to investigate variations in prehistoric behavior with respect to population pressure and socioeconomic complexity.
12. See Steward 1955.
13. See Boehm 2002 and Boehm 2012.
14. See Binford 2001.
15. See also Keeley 1988.
16. See Boehm 2012.
17. See Klein 1999.
18. See ibid.
19. See Marlowe 2005 for some of the information just cited.
20. See Klein 1999.
21. See Hill et al. 2011.
22. See Kelly 1995.
23. See Potts 1996.
24. See Gould 1982; see also Steward 1938.
25. See McBrearty and Brooks 2000.
26. See Fleagle and Gilbert 2008.
27. See Boehm 1999.
28. See Lee 1979.
29. See Boehm 2008b; see also West-Eberhard 1979 and West-Eberhard 1983.
30. See, for instance, Wilson 1978.
1. See Flack and de Waal 2000.
2. See Watson and Crick 1953.
3. See Ruvolo et al. 1991.
4. See Boehm 2004b.
5. See Wrangham 1987.
6. See Brosnan 2006.
7. See Wrangham 1987.
8. Homology means, for instance, that two species exhibit a similar behavior because their genetic makeups are similar, and in turn this means that the behaviors are based on similar psychological mechanisms.
9. See Wrangham and Peterson 1996.
10. I first heard this term being used by my colleague Martin Muller, who is a primatologist at the University of New Mexico.
11. See Barnett 1958 and Lore et al. 1984.
12. See Wrangham and Peterson 1996.
13. See Boehm 1999.
14. See Boehm 1993.
15. See Erdal and Whiten 1994 for the origin of the term “counterdomination.”
16. See Hrdy 2009.
17. See Klein 1999.
18. See Keenan et al. 2003; see also Kagan and Lamb 1987.
19. See Malinowski 1929.
20. See Boehm 2000.
21. See Boehm 1999.
22. Cultural transmission is discussed by Boyd and Richerson 1985, while gene-culture evolution is explored by Durham 1991, with in-depth ethnographic exemplification.
23. See Darwin 1982 (1871).
24. See Damasio 2002.
25. See Gallup et al. 2002.
26. See Bearzi and Stanford 2008.
27. See Mead 1934.
28. See Gallup et al. 2002.
29. See, for instance, Bearzi and Stanford 2008.
30. See Gardner and Gardner 1994.
31. See Menzel 1974.
32. See de Waal 1982.
33. See Goodall 1986.
34. See Whiten and Byrne 1988.
35. See Diamond 1992.
36. See Durkheim 1933.
37. See de Waal and Lanting 1997.
38. See Lee 1979.
39. See Kano 1992.
40. See Parker 2007.
41. See de Waal 1982.
42. See Goodall 1986.
43. See Goodall 1992 and Nishida 1996; see also de Waal 1986 and Ladd
and Mahoney 2011.
44. See de Waal 1996 and Flack and de Waal 2000; see also McCullough et al. 2008.
45. See de Waal 1996, 91–92.
46. See, for example, Gardner and Gardner 1994; see also Savage-Rumbaugh and Lewin 1994.
47. See Goodall 1986.
48. With respect to apes’ learning American Sign Language, see Gardner and Gardner 1994 and Patterson and Linden 1981.
49. See Savage-Rumbaugh and Lewin 1994.
50. See Temerlin 1975, 120–121.
51. See Boehm 1980.
52. See de Waal 1982.
53. See de Waal 1996.
54. See Fouts 1997, 156.
55. See also Whiten and Byrne 1988.
56. See Savage-Rumbaugh et al. 1998, 52.
57. See ibid., 52–53.
58. See Fouts 1997, 151–152.
59. See Patterson and Linden 1981.
60. See ibid., 39.
61. See Flack and de Waal 2000; see also Preston and de Waal 2002 for a discussion of different types of empathy.
1. See Cavalli-Sforza and Edwards 1967.
2. See Wrangham and Peterson 1996.
3. See Pinker 2011.
4. See Bowles and Gintis 2011.
5. See, for instance, Goodall 1986.
6. See, for example, Burch 2005.
7. See Kano 1992.
8. See ibid.
9. See Furíuchi 2011, see also de Waal and Lanting 1997.
10. See Bowles 2006 and Bowles 2009.
11. See Sober and Wilson 1998.
12. See LeVine and Campbell 1972.
13. See ibid.
14. See Keeley 1996.
15. See Bowles 2006.
16. See ibid.
17. See Noss and Hewlett 2001; see also Mirsky 1937.
18. See Burroughs 2005.
19. See Stanford 1999.
20. See Boesch and Boesch-Achermann 1991.
21. See Blurton Jones 1991.
22. See Boehm and Flack 2010.
23. See Wrangham 1999.
24. See Watts and Mitani 2002.
25. See Boesch and Boesch-Achermann 1991 and Boesch and Boesch-Achermann 2000.
26. See Byrne 1993 for an assessment of empathy in other primates.
27. See Stanford 1999.
28. See Hohmann and Fruth 1993.
29. See Hrdy 2009.
30. See Kelly 1995.
31. See Peterson 1993.
32. See ibid.
33. See Winterhalder 2001.
34. See Winterhalder and Smith 1981; see also Winterhalder 2001.
35. See Winterhalder and Smith 1981.
36. See Kaplan and Hill 1985.
37. See Boehm 1982.
38. See Boehm and Flack 2010.
39. See Beyene 2010.
40. See Klein 1999.
41. See ibid.
42. See ibid.
43. See ibid.
44. See Thieme 1997.
45. See Stiner 2002.
46. See Boehm 1999.
47. See Ellis 1995.
48. See Nishida 1996.
49. See Goodall 1992.
50. See Parker 2007.
51. See Kano 1992.
52. The philosopher Karl Popper judges theories by their “falsifiability,” which means that they must be couched in terms that are susceptible of testing. In doing so, he makes some special allowances for the uniqueness of Darwinian explanations, which in their larger aspects are testable mainly in terms of their general plausibility in competition with other explanations. See Popper 1978.
53. See Campbell 1975.
54. See Whallon 1989.
55. See Wrangham and Peterson 1996.
56. See Stiner 2002.
57. See Hawks et al. 2000.
58. See Bunn and Ezzo 1993; see also Speth 1989.
59. See Boehm 2004b; see also Hawkes 2001.
60. See Whallon 1989; see also Knauft 1991.
61. See Pericot 1961.
62. See Kelly 2000.
63. See Lee 1979; see also Kelly 2005.
64. See Knauft 1991.
65. See Stiner et al. 2009.
66. See Klein 1999.
67. See Boehm 2004b; see also Boehm 1982 and Boehm 2000.
68. See Kelly 1995.
69. See Eldredge 1971.
70. See Boehm and Flack 2010.
71. For a broad evolutionary view of problem solving, see Dewey 1934. John Dewey’s views on evolution have yet to receive the attention they deserve.
72. See Wilson 1978.
73. See West-Eberhard 1983.
74. See Darwin 1982 (1871).
75. See Fisher 1930; see also Nesse 2000 and Nesse 2007.
76. See Campbell 1965; see also Campbell 1975.
77. See Trivers 1971. In this seminal article sociobiologist Robert Trivers led the way, not only in considering moralistic aggression as a force that acted on human gene pools, but also in analyzing pairwise cooperation from both a genetic and a psychological perspective.
78. See Alexander 1979 and Alexander 1987.
79. See West-Eberhard 1979 and West-Eberhard 1983.
80. See, for instance, Wiessner 1996 for her most recent treatment of !Kung safety nets.
81. See Alexander 1987, 94.
82. See Otterbein 1988.
83. See Wrangham 2001; see also Wrangham and Peterson 1996.
84. See Boehm 1999, 253–254.
85. See Voland and Voland 1995.
86. My Unitarian mother wanted me to make my own choices about religion, so she sent me to a variety of Sunday schools.
87. See Haile 1978.
88. See Haidt 2007.
89. See Haidt 2003.
90. See Greene 2003.
91. See Alexander 1987.
1. See Alexander 1979 and Alexander 1987.
2. See Trivers 1972.
3. See Campbell 1975; see also Neusner and Chilton 2009.
4. See Sullivan 1989.
5. See Campbell 1975.
6. See Alexander 1987.
7. See Boehm 1986.
8. See Durkheim 1933.
9. See Gurven et al. 2000.
10. See de Waal 2009; see also Flack and de Waal 2000 and Hrdy 2009.
11. See Kelly 1995.
12. See Balikci 1970.
13. See Wilson 1999.
14. See Zahavi 1995.
15. See ibid.
16. See Darwin 1982 (1871); see also Zahavi 1995.
17. See, for instance, Lee 1979.
18. See Keeley 1988; see also Kelly 1995.
19. Frank Marlowe, at Cambridge University in England, has already published on this basis. See Marlowe 2005. Kim Hill, at the University of Arizona at Tempe, is also working with a sizable database. See Hill et al. 2011. These databases focus on subsistence techniques and main features of social organization.
20. See Campbell 1972 and Campbell 1975; see also Brown 1991.
21. See Campbell 1975.
22. See Sober and Wilson 1998.
23. See Boehm 2008b.
24. See Alexander 1987.
25. See ibid.
26. See Marlowe 2005.
27. See Balikci 1970.
28. The analogy comes to mind because I once observed a Hopi Snake Dance, where the small desert rattlers that dancers carried in their mouths had secretly had their fangs removed. I didn’t know about it at the time, and this lack of knowledge contributed to an extreme case of culture shock on my part because a young dancer was “bitten” repeatedly on the cheek and the other dancers were simply taking this for granted.
29. See Wrangham and Peterson 1996.
30. See Johnson and Krüger 2004; see also Wade 2009.
31. See Johnson and Krüger 2004.
32. See Dawkins 1976, Ridley 1996, and Wright 1994.
33. See Ghiselin 1974.
34. See Boehm 1999.
35. See Ghiselin 1974, 247.
36. See Panchanathan and Boyd 2004.
37. See, for example, Fehr and Gächter 2002.
38. See Henrich et al. 2005.
39. See Boyd et al. 2003; see also Fehr 2004, Fehr and Gächter 2002, Kollock 1998, Panchanathan and Boyd 2004, and Price et al. 2002.
40. See Guala in press; see also Boehm in press.
41. See Lee 1979.
42. See Boehm 2011.
43. See West-Eberhard 1979.
44. See Boehm 1982; see also Alexander 1987.
45. See Zahavi 1995; see also Bird et al. 2001.
46. See Hrdy 2009.
47. See Boehm 2004a.
1. See Turnbull 1961.
2. See Durkheim 1933.
3. See, for instance, Elkin 1994.
4. See Coser 1956.
5. See Boehm 1999.
6. See Boehm 1983 and Boehm 1986.
7. For the Bushmen, see, for instance, Lee 1979, Heinz 1994, and Silberbauer 1981. For the Inuit, see, for instance, Balikci 1970 and Briggs 1970.
8. See Thomas 1989, Lee 1979, Wiessner 1982, Wiessner 2002, and Draper 1978.
9. See Shostak 1981.
10. See Rasmussen 1931 and Balikci 1970.
11. See Briggs 1970.
12. See Briggs 1998.
13. See Parsons and Shils 1952.
14. See Simon 1990.
15. See Gintis 2003.
16. See Waddington 1960 and Campbell 1975.
17. See, for instance, Eisenberg 2006 and Turiel 2005; see also Konner 2010.
18. See Kagan 1981; see also Kagan and Lamb 1987.
19. See Campbell 1975.
20. Robert Kelly published this example in his comprehensive 1995 book on hunter-gatherers. See also Leacock 1969.
21. See Leacock 1969, 13–14.
22. See Stephenson 2000.
23. See Westermarck 1906.
24. See ibid., 118.
25. See Draper 1978, 42; italics added.
26. See Whiting and Whiting 1975.
27. See Boehm 1972; see also Boehm 1980.
28. See Gallup et al. 2002.
29. See ibid., and Kagan and Lamb 1987.
30. See, for example, Warneken et al. 2007, which compares spontaneous altruism in human children and in young chimpanzees.
31. See Greene 2007. To explain further, the experiments involve a subject’s having to choose between passively letting five persons die in a runaway trolley and actively killing a sixth person to save the other five. In the first hypothetical scenario, you merely throw a switch so that the trolley will run into a bystander on the track, which saves the five passengers’ lives; in the second you involve yourself much more actively by pushing the fat guy off a bridge so that he falls in the path of the trolley and stops it.
32. See Briggs 1994.
33. See Briggs 1982, 118–119.
34. See ibid., 120–121.
35. See ibid., 121.
36. See Boehm 1989 and Boehm 1999.
37. See Briggs 1998.
38. See Hewlett and Lamb 2006.
39. See Konner 2010.
40. See ibid.
41. The quotations on pages 228–233 are taken from Shostak 1981, 46–57.
42. See ibid., 56.
43. See Durham 1991.
44. See, for instance, Freud 1918.
45. See, for instance, Wilson 1975.
46. See Konner 2010.
1. See Haviland 1977.
2. See Wiessner 2005a and Wiessner 2005b.
3. The Aleuts executed serious gossips whose words were harming their communities. See Jones 1969.
4. See Boehm 1986.
5. See Bogardus 1933 and Boehm 1985.
6. See Lee 1979.
7. See Briggs 1970.
8. See ibid.
9. See Boehm 1999, 57–58.
10. This extreme form of ostracism was mentioned in Table IV, page 198.
11. See Boehm 1985.
12. See Durham 1991.
13. See Haidt 2007.
14. See Westermarck 1906.
15. See Wolf and Durham 2004.
16. See Goodall 1986.
17. See Cantrell 1994.
18. See Balikci 1970, 191.
19. See Thomas 1989.
20. See Knauft 1991.
21. See Lee 1979.
22. See ibid., 372–373.
23. See Boehm 2011 and Knauft 1991.
24. See Fry 2000; see also von Furer-Haimendorf 1967 and Knauft 1991.
25. See Lee 1979.
26. See Boehm 2004b. Subsequently, Polly Wiessner explained to me exactly how this works with the Bushmen.
27. See Lee 1979.
28. See Draper 1978, 46.
29. See van den Steenhoven 1957, van den Steenhoven 1959, and van den Steenhoven 1962.
30. See Balikci 1970, 195–196.
31. See ibid.
32. See Lee 1979.
33. See Balikci 1970.
34. See Knauft 1991.
35. See Boehm 2007 and Boehm 2011.
36. See Lee 1979.
37. See ibid., 394–395.
1. See Balikci 1970.
2. Actually, there are fourteen separate body parts that can be exchanged in this way, but only seven of them involve long-term partnerships. See ibid.
3. See ibid.
4. See, for instance, Binford 1978.
5. See Balikci 1970.
6. See Lee 1979.
7. See Briggs 1970.
8. See Peterson 1993.
9. Again, see Sober and Wilson 1998 for a discussion of this important phenomenon. See also Boehm 2004a.
10. See Peterson 1993.
11. See Keely 1988.
12. See Gould 1982.
13. See, for instance, Balikci 1970.
14. See Laughlin and Brady 1978.
15. See Testart 1982.
16. See, for instance, Balikci 1970.
17. Leibig’s Law of the Minimum is often cited without further attribution. Actually, Baron Justis von Leibig merely popularized the idea of Karl Phillip Sprengel, a German agronomist who came up with the idea that the most scarce element in an environment would limit the success of a species. For instance, in a serious drought, this would be water. See Sprengel 1839.
18. See Hawks et al. 2000.
19. See Bowles 2006.
20. See Burroughs 2005.
21. See Balikci 1970.
22. See ibid.
23. See ibid.
24. See Gould 1982.
25. See Keeley 1988.
26. See Potts 1996.
27. See Boehm 1996.
28. See Balikci 1970.
29. See Peterson 1993.
30. See Shostak 1981, 44.
31. See ibid.
32. Quotes from Nisa on pages 282–288 taken from Shostak 46–54.
33. See Shostak 1981, 323.
34. See Wiessner 1982.
35. See Lorenz 1966.
1. See also de Waal 2008 and de Waal 2009.
2. See Gurven et al. 2000, 266; see also Gurven 2004.
3. See Gurven et al. 2000.
4. See also Woodburn 1982.
5. See Bird et al. 2001; see also Hawkes 1991 and Smith 2004.
6. Hawkes 1991, for example, emphasizes this in evaluating consequences of hunting success.
7. See Kelly 1995, 164–165; see also Bird-David 1992 and Myers 1988.
8. See Marlowe 2004.
9. See Woodburn 1979.
10. For the Hadza, see ibid.
11. See Shostak 1981, 116.
12. See Sober and Wilson 1998.
13. See Hill et al. 2011. Actually, a total of thirty-two foraging societies were sampled, of which about a third fit the technical criteria used here for being “Late Pleistocene appropriate or LPA.”
14. See ibid.
15. An exception is that as currently defined, kin selection and group selection appear to have overlapping applications because costly acts of generosity within groups of kin can be explained by either model. Alexander’s consideration of group-level selection taking place within kin units reflected this ambiguity. See, for instance, Wilson and Sober 1994 and Sober and Wilson 1998. A type of group selection that also could be affecting the social behaviors that are influencing genetic outcomes is cultural group selection. See Richerson and Boyd 1999.
16. See Boehm 1993 for a study that identifies qualifications for being chosen as a leader in egalitarian societies.
17. See Alexander 1987; see also Marlowe 2010, Figure 7.4.
18. See Wiessner 1982 and Wiessner 2002.
19. See Wilson and Dugatkin 1997.
20. Assortative mating is a major field of study for humans and other species, the idea being that individuals may choose as mates others who are similar physically or behaviorally. In this context, Wilson and Dugatkin 1997, have explored the possibility that altruists might be choosing other altruists (see also Hamilton 1975); their interest is in looking at group selection with respect to whether assortative choices could be enhancing the strength of group effects by increasing between-group variation, whereas my interest here is in whether such effects could be empowering selection by reputation that takes place within a group.
21. It doesn’t matter if the signal is costly or not. For instance, if two hard-working individuals choose each other, the signals are noncostly, but they are good indicators of superior genetic quality. If two altruists join up, the signals do have costs, but over time these costs will be mutually compensated because their cooperation will outclass the cooperation of a stingy pair.
22. See Fisher 1930. See also Nesse 2007 and Nesse 2010, who has discussed runaway selection in the specific case of altruism in humans and has emphasized its likely importance.
23. See Alexander 2005, 337–338.
24. See Mirsky 1937.
25. See Williams 1966.
26. See Tiger 1979.
1. See Mayr 1983 and Mayr 2001.
2. See Boehm and Flack 2010 and Laland et al. 2010.
3. See Midgley 1994, 118–119.
4. See Klein 1999. It is worth noting that power scavenging could have produced enormous whole carcasses with a surfeit of meat, but also “leftovers” with only enough meat for higher-ranking individuals if they were aggressively eating their fill.
5. See Campbell 1972 and Campbell 1975.
6. See Huxley 1894 and Spencer 1851.
7. See Nietzsche 1887.
8. See Breasted 1933.
9. The original date of publication for this precocious work was 1906.
10. See ibid.
11. See Wilson 1975.
12. See Wilson 1978.
13. See Ridley 1996.
14. See Wright 1994.
15. See Wilson 1993.
16. See Shermer 2004.
17. See Mayr 1988 and Mayr 1997; see also Wilson and Sober 1994 and Sober and Wilson 1998.
18. See Hauser 2006.
19. See Katz 2000.
20. See Flack and de Waal 2000; see also Preston and de Waal 2002.
21. See Boehm 2000.
22. See Sober and Wilson 1998.
23. See Sober and Wilson 2000.
24. See Skyrms 2000.
25. But see Dubreuil 2010.
26. See Krebs 2000.
27. See Rapoport and Chammah 1965.
28. See Frank 1988.
29. See Fehr and Gächter 2004; see also Fehr et al. 2008.
30. See Bowles and Gintis 2004.
31. See Bowles 2006 and Bowles and Gintis 2011.
32. See Bowles 2009; see also Keely 1996 and Kelly 2000.
33. See, for instance, Mithen 1990.
34. I thank Frans de Waal for a discussion of this matter.
35. See, for instance, Nowak et al. 2010 and Wilson and Wilson 2007.
36. See Campbell 1975.
37. On Hutterite communities, see Sober and Wilson 1998.
38. See Hrdy 2009.
39. Chimpanzees gang up against leopards. See Boesch 1991 and Byrne and Byrne 1988. I also have a videotape of a sixteen-foot python being harassed by the Gombe chimpanzees. It seems likely that bonobos have a similar mobbing capacity, but with far less field study, this has not been witnessed so far.
40. See Alexander 1987.
41. See ibid.
42. See Sober and Wilson 1998; see also Boehm 2008b and Boehm 2009.
43. See Boehm 1976, Boehm 1991a, and Boehm 2008b.
44. See Wilson 1975.
45. See, for example, Harpending and Rogers 2000 and Hawks et al. 2000.
46. See Burroughs 2005.
47. See Popper 1978.
1. See Boehm 2003.
2. See Pinker 2011.
3. See Boehm 2003.
4. See Pinker 2011.
5. See Wrangham 1999.
6. See Woodburn 1982.