Notes

INTRODUCTION

1For a fascinating account of the communications used in historical empires, see Harold Innis, Empire and Communications (Oxford: Clarendon, 1950).

2In 2002, US writer Charles Krauthammer observed that people were “now coming out of the closet on the word ‘empire,’ reflecting the unrivaled dominance of the United States ‘culturally, economically, technologically and militarily.’” Google statistics for words in books published in English over the thirty-year period to 2008 show a 450 percent increase in the use of the phrase “US empire” between 2000 and 2008, without any corresponding increase in the left-wing phrase “US imperialism” (Google Books Ngram Viewer, at books.google.com). On January 5, 2003, the Sunday magazine for the New York Times ran with a cover declaring: “American Empire: Get Used To It.” Even military operations are starting to adopt the word. For example, the yearly combined Anglophone space, air, and ground intelligence and targeting fusion exercise led by the United States, which posits an insurgent challenge to occupying Anglophone forces, is called “Operation Empire Challenge.” (https://wikileaks.org/wiki/Anglo_spy_fusion:_Operation_Empire_Challenge_-_87_documents,_2008).

3“The United States may conduct some ARSOF [Army Special Operations Forces] UW [Unconventional Warfare] operations in states that are not belligerents. The US Ambassador and his Country Team may in fact have complete or significant control over ARSOF inside the ambassador’s host country of responsibility. In such cases, the relationship between ARSOF conducting UW and the Country Team requires the best possible coordination to be effective and appropriate.” This quote is from what is probably the single most important book for understanding the current US approach to bringing all elements of US national power (diplomatic, media, financial, law enforcement, intelligence, commercial, and military) to bear in order to coerce smaller states into submission. The range of possible outcomes ascends to and includes covertly overthrowing the state’s government through the use of surrogate forces controlled by US Special Operations Command. The handbook, which is active policy, was not for public release, but was released by WikiLeaks. “Army Special Operations Forces Unconventional Warfare, FM 3-05.130, 30 Sep 2008,” Chapter 2-2: “Diplomatic Instrument of United States National Power and Unconventional Warfare,” at https://wikileaks.org/wiki/US_Army_Special_Operations_Forces_Unconventional_
Warfare,_FM3-05.130,_30_Sep_2008. It should be read together with the counter-revolution equivalent, also released by WikiLeaks, “US Special Forces Foreign Internal Defense Operations, FM 3-05.202, Feb 2007, at https://wikileaks.org/wiki/US_Special_Forces_Foreign_Internal_Defense_Operations,_FM_3-05.202,_Feb_2007, and the 2003 version of “Unconventional Warfare,” at https://wikileaks.org/wiki/US_Special_Forces_Unconventional_Warfare_Operations:_
overthrowing_governments%2C_sabotage%2C_subversion%2C_
intelligence_and_abduction%2C_FM_3-05.201%2C_Apr_2003.

4“Strategic Plan, FY 2014–2017,” at http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/223997.pdf.

5Brian Fung, “5.1 Million Americans Have Security Clearances. That’s More than the Entire Population of Norway,” Washington Post, March 24, 2014.

6“US Air Force Blocked Websites,” at muckrock.com.

7Defense Security Service, “Notice to Contractors Cleared under the National Industrial Security Program on Protecting Classified Information and the Integrity of Government Data on Cleared Contractor Information Technology (IT) Systems,” February 11, 2011, at muckrock.s3.amazonaws.com; “1-24-14_MR9321_RES_ID2014-095.pdf,” pp. 36–46, at muckrock.s3.amazonaws.com.

8Rachel Slajda, “Library of Congress Blocks Access to Wikileaks,” TPM, December 3, 2010, at talkingpointsmemo.com; Matt Raymond, “Why the Library of Congress Is Blocking Wikileaks,” December 3, 2010, Library of Congress, at blogs.loc-gov.

9Subsequently reversed. Kevin Gosztola, “US National Archives Has Blocked Searches for ‘WikiLeaks,’” The Dissenter, November 3, 2012, at dissenter.firedoglake.com.

10Chelsea (formerly Bradley) Manning was detained without trial for 1,103 days, an infringement of her right to speedy justice. The United Nations special rapporteur for torture, Juan Méndez, formally found that Manning had been treated in a manner that was cruel and inhuman, and that possibly amounted to torture. See Ed Pilkington, “Bradley Manning’s Treatment Was Cruel and Inhuman, UN Torture Chief Rules,” Guardian, March 12, 2012. The government charged Manning—accused of being a journalistic source for WikiLeaks—with thirty-four individual counts of violations of the Uniform Code of Military Justice, including parts of the Espionage Act, the combined maximum sentence for which was over one hundred years in prison. See Kim Zetter, “Bradley Manning Charged with 22 New Counts, Including Capital Offense,” Wired, February 3, 2011, at wired.com. Manning was prohibited by the court from making defense arguments as to public interest, motive, or the lack of actual harm resulting from her alleged actions (see Ed Pilkington, “Bradley Manning Denied Chance to Make Whistleblower Defence,” Guardian, January 17, 2013), and she offered a limited guilty plea (see Alexa O’Brien, “Pfc. Manning’s Statement for the Providence Inquiry,” Alexaobrien.com, February 28, 2013). This plea was refused by the government, which sought to convict Manning on the full charge sheet. The case went to trial in June 2013 under conditions of unprecedented secrecy, against which WikiLeaks and the Center for Constitutional Rights litigated. In August 2013 Manning was found guilty on seventeen counts and sentenced to thirty-five years in prison. See Tom McCarthy, “Bradley Manning Tells Lawyer After Sentencing: ‘I’m Going to Be OK’—as it happened,” Guardian, August 21, 2013. At the time of publication, she is appealing her case to the United States Army Court of Criminal Appeals, and a hearing is expected in mid 2015. See “Chelsea Manning’s 35-Year Prison Sentence Upheld by US Army General,” Guardian, April 14, 2014.

11Josh Gerstein, “Blocking WikiLeaks Emails Trips Up Bradley Manning Prosecution,” Politico, March 15, 2012, at www.politico.com.

12Simon DeDeo, Robert X. D. Hawkins, Sara Klingenstein, and Tim Hitchcock, “Bootstrap Methods for the Empirical Study of Decision-Making and Information Flows in Social Systems,” Cornell University Library website, February 5, 2013, at arxiv.org. “Scholars in other disciplines have been more willing to make use of leaked information. In fields as varied as informatics, applied mathematics, geography, and economics, researchers have enthusiastically turned to the leaked information of the Afghan War Diary and the Iraq War Logs as invaluable data sources for modeling and predicting conflict (O’Loughlin et al., 2010; Linke et al., 2012; Zammit-Mangion et al., 2012; Cseke et al., 2013; Rusch et al., 2013; Zammit-Mangion et al., 2013). Indeed, DeDeo et al. say that the Afghan War Diary ‘is likely to become a standard set for both the analysis of human conflict and the study of empirical methods for the analysis of complex, multi-modal data’ (p. 2,257). Legal scholars have also begun to discover the value of the Cablegate corpus as a data source. Khoo and Smith (2011) and Mendis (2012) both cite WikiLeaks cables to support their analyses of international relations in Asia. More recently, El Said (2012) quotes extensively from leaked diplomatic cables to elucidate the bilateral free trade agreement negotiations between the United States and Jordan.” Gabriel J. Michael, “Who’s Afraid of Wikileaks? Missed Opportunities in Political Science Research,” Review of Policy Research, December 22, 2014 (forthcoming).

13An example of political censorship by the New York Times involved the cable 10STATE17263. The cable, which is lengthy, covers discussions between Russian and American diplomats about the rumor that Iran had acquired ballistic missiles from North Korea. The New York Times claimed the cable showed that the North Korean missiles would let Iran’s “warheads reach targets as far away as Western Europe, including Berlin.” However, the overwhelming majority of the cable’s 11,150 words present the view that the shipment, if it occurred at all, was for research or part salvage, and was of little consequence, as North Korea had not even successfully tested the design. The New York Times actively misrepresented the content of the cable “on the request of the Obama administration,” gutting the document almost in its entirety, using only the twenty-six words that supported its stance on Iran, and censoring the other 99.97 percent of the original cable. William J. Broad, James Glanz, and David E. Sanger, “Iran Fortifies Its Arsenal with the Aid of North Korea,” New York Times, November 28, 2010. See also Peter Hart, “NYT Oversells WikiLeaks/Iranian Missiles Story,” FAIR, November 29, 2010, at fair.org.

Most of our media partners engaged in similar kinds of selective censorship of our materials. Among the more prolific of the censors were the New York Times, the Guardian and El País. The website Cabledrum has assembled statistics on the instances of censorship by some of our major partners. See Cabledrum, “Short Analysis of Cablegate Redactions,” Cabledrum, October 3, 2011 (see also Cabledrum, “Cable Publications by Mainstream Media,” Cabledrum, October 2011). Cabledrum has also assembled a list of particularly serious instances of political censorship. See Cabledrum, “Cablegate Redactions Abused for Censorship,” Cabledrum, October 3, 2011. See also Cabledrum, “Redacted Company Names,” Cabledrum, October 2011. All of the above references are available at cabledrum.net.

The topic of censorship among our media partners is discussed at length in my other work. See Julian Assange, Cypherpunks (New York: OR Books, 2012), pp. 121–4, and endnotes 104–12; Julian Assange, When Google Met WikiLeaks (New York: OR Books, 2014), pp. 167–70, and footnotes 259–63.

14Hillary Rodham Clinton, “America’s Engagement in the Asia-Pacific,” US Department of State, October 28, 2010, at state.gov.

15Daniel Ellsberg to Henry Kissinger, 1969, quoted in Secrets: A Memoir of Vietnam and the Pentagon Papers (London: Penguin, 2013), p. 238.

CHAPTER 1: AMERICA AND THE DICTATORS

1https://www.wikileaks.org/plusd/cables/09ASHGABAT1633_a.html.

2Justin Elliott, “What Other Dictators Does the US Support?,” Salon, February 2, 2011.

3Domenico Losurdo, Liberalism: A Counter-History (London/New York: Verso, 2011).

4See Antony Anghie, Imperialism, Sovereignty and the Making of International Law (Cambridge/New York: Cambridge University Press, 2004).

5On this background, see Erez Manela, The Wilsonian Moment: Self-Determination and the International Origins of Anticolonial Nationalism (Oxford/New York: Oxford University Press, 2007). On the colonial and racist aspects of Wilson’s policy, see Richard Seymour, The Liberal Defence of Murder (London/New York: Verso, 2008), pp. 97–104.

6William J. Foltz, “Building the Newest Nations: Short Run Strategies and Long Run Problems,” in Karl Wolfgang Deutsch and William J. Foltz, eds, Nation Building in Comparative Contexts (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction, 1966), p. 118.

7On the racist rationale for supporting right-wing dictatorships, see David F. Schmitz, The United States and Right-Wing Dictatorships, 1965–1989 (Cambridge/New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006), pp. 10–18. On the colonial assumptions of “modernization theory,” see Nils Gilman, Mandarins of the Future: Modernization Theory in Cold War America (Baltimore/London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2003). As Gilman puts it: “The categorical construction of enlightened modernity … emerged from the simultaneous construction of its malformed twin: a non-European, or non-Western Other. Although modernization theory eschewed the racism of earlier colonialist discourses, it still defined modernity in contrast to an implicitly inferior ‘traditional’ other” (p. 28).

8Jeane J. Kirkpatrick, “Dictatorship and Double Standards,” Commentary, November 1, 1979; Jeane J. Kirkpatrick, “The Hobbes Problem,” AEI Public Policy Papers, Washington, DC, 1981.

9On the rise of human rights discourse in US foreign policy, see Nicolas Guilhot, The Democracy Makers: Human Rights and the Politics of Global Order (New York: Columbia University Press, 2012).

10Thomas Carothers, In the Name of Democracy: US Policy Toward Latin America in the Reagan Years (Berkeley, CA/Oxford: University of California Press, 1991), p. 242.

11Weinstein quoted in David Ignatius, “Innocence Abroad: The New World of Spyless Coups,” Washington Post, September 22, 1991.

12Greg Grandin, Empire’s Workshop: Latin America, the United States and the Rise of the New Imperialism (New York: Metropolitan, 2006), pp. 100–6; William I. Robinson, Promoting Polyarchy: Globalization, US Intervention, and Hegemony (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996); Noam Chomsky, The Culture of Terrorism (London: Pluto Press, 1989); William I. Robinson, “What to Expect from US ‘Democracy Promotion’ in Iraq,” New Political Science 26: 3 (September 2004).

13The IRI, an affiliated institute of the NED, was directly involved in the Bush administration’s intervention in Haiti. See Walt Bogdanich and Jenny Norderberg, “Mixed US Signals Helped Tilt Haiti Toward Chaos,” New York Times, January 29, 2006. On Venezuela, see Christopher Marquis, “US Bankrolling Is Under Scrutiny for Ties to Chávez Ouster,” New York Times, April 25, 2002. On Egypt, see Eric A. Snider and David M. Faris, “The Arab Spring: US Democracy Promotion in Egypt,” Middle East Policy 18: 3 (Fall 2011), pp. 49–62.

14https://wikileaks.org/cable/2004/12/04ANKARA7211.html.

15Ibrahim Saleh, “WikiLeaks and the Arab Spring: The Twists and Turns of Media, Culture and Power,” in Benedetta Brevini, Arne Hintz, and Patrick McCurdy, eds, Beyond WikiLeaks: Implications for the Future of Communications, Journalism and Society (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013), p. 241.

16https://wikileaks.org/cable/2008/06/08TUNIS679.html.

17http://www.wikileaks.ch/cable/2009/07/09TUNIS492.html.

18“Fact Sheet on US Military and Political Assistance for Tunisia,” Embassy of the United States, Tunisia, April 2012, at tunisia.usembassy.gov.

19For some useful background on this, see L. B. Ware, “The Role of the Tunisian Military in the Post-Bourgiba Era,” Middle East Journal 39: 1 (Winter 1985), pp. 27–47.

20https://wikileaks.org/cable/2006/01/06TUNIS55.html.

21Ian Black, “WikiLeaks Cables: Tunisia Blocks Site Reporting ‘Hatred’ of First Lady,” Guardian, December 7, 2010.

22Sean Yom, “Authoritarian State Building in the Middle East: From Durability to Revolution,” Centre for Democracy, Development and the Rule of Law, Working Papers No. 121, February 2011.

23Milan Sanina, “WikiLeaks Cables Help Uncover What Made Tunisians Revolt,” PBS Newshour, January 25, 2011; David Kirkpatrick, “Protests Spread to Tunisia’s Capital, and a Curfew Is Decreed,” New York Times, January 12, 2011. On the wider issue of WikiLeaks’ role in the Arab Spring, see Ibrahim Saleh, “WikiLeaks and the Arab Spring: The Twists and Turns of Media, Culture and Power,” in Brevini, Hintz, and McCurdy, eds, Beyond WikiLeaks.

24Pro-American slogans reported in Anouar Majid, Islam and America: Building a Future Without Prejudice (Lanham, MA: Rowman & Littlefield, 2012), p. 6. See also “Statement by the President on Events in Tunisia,” White House Office of the Press Secretary, January 4, 2011, at whitehouse.gov. Amazingly, the Obama administration began to complain that it had not foreseen the revolt, and had been let down by intelligence and diplomatic staff. In fact, as the WikiLeaks documents attest, US diplomats told their bosses all they needed to know about Tunisia. Mark Mazetti, “Obama Faults Spy Agencies’ Performance in Gauging Mideast Unrest, Officials Say,” New York Times, February 4, 2011.

25https://wikileaks.org/cable/2009/07/09CAIRO1468.html.

26Ibid.

27http://www.wikileaks.ch/cable/2008/09/08CAIRO2091.html.

28https://www.wikileaks.org/cable/2009/05/09CAIRO874.html.

29Christian Fuchs, Social Media: A Critical Introduction (London: Sage, 2014), p. 193.

30Simon Mabon, “Aiding Revolution? Wikileaks, Communication and the ‘Arab Spring’ in Egypt,” Third World Quarterly 34: 10 (2013).

31“Egypt Braces for Nationwide Protests,” Agence France-Presse, January 25, 2011.

32Susanna Kim, “Egypt’s Mubarak Likely to Retain Vast Wealth,” ABC News, February 2, 2011.

33Heba Afify, “Activists Hope 25 January Protest Will Be Start of ‘Something Big,’” Almasry Alyoum, January 24, 2011; “Egyptians Report Poor Communication Services on Day of Anger,” Almasry Alyoum, January 25, 2011; Elizabeth Bumiller, “Calling for Restraint, Pentagon Faces Test of Influence with Ally,” New York Times, January 29, 2011.

34Dan Murphy, “Joe Biden says Egypt’s Mubarak No Dictator, He Shouldn’t Step Down…” Christian Science Monitor, January 27, 2011.

35“Blair Says Leak of Palestine Papers ‘Destabilising’ for Peace Process,” Ulster Television News, January 28, 2011.

36Quoted in Maria do Céu de Pinho Ferreira Pinto, “Mapping the Obama Administration’s Response to the Arab Spring,” Revista Brasileira de Política Internacional 55: 2 (July–December 2012).

37For an insight into the growing coordination between the Egyptian left and Islamists, see Hossam el-Hamalawy, “Comrades and Brothers,” Middle East Report 37: 242 (Spring 2007).

38Hossam el-Hamalawy and Joel Beinin, “Egyptian Textile Workers Confront the New Economic Order,” Middle East Research and Information Project, March 25, 2007.

39https://wikileaks.org/plusd/cables/08CAIRO2572_a.html; https://cablegatesearch.wikileaks.org/cable.php?id=07CAIRO3001.

40Nicholas Kitchen, “The Contradictions of Hegemony: The United States and the Arab Spring,” in After the Arab Spring: Power Shift in the Middle East? (London: LSE Ideas, 2012).

41Eric A. Snyder and David M. Faris, “The Arab Spring: US Democracy Promotion in Egypt,” Middle East Policy XVIII: 3 (Fall 2011).

42https://wikileaks.org/plusd/cables/08CAIRO2572_a.html. The April 6 movement was named after a wildcat labor strike that had turned into a violent conflict with state authorities. A Facebook group in support of the workers had gained 77,000 supporters by early 2009, at a time when only 500,000 Egyptians had Facebook access.

43Ron Nixon, “US Groups Helped Nurture Arab Uprisings,” New York Times, April 14, 2011.

44Kirit Radia and Alex Marquardt, “Young Leaders of Egypt’s Revolt Snub Clinton in Cairo,” ABC News, March 15, 2011.

45Anne-Marie Slaughter, “Interests vs. Values? Misunderstanding Obama’s Libya Strategy,” New York Review of Books Blog, March 30, 2011, at nybooks.com.

46https://wikileaks.org/plusd/cables/09SANAA1669_a.html. On the strikes in the Abyan province, see Hakim Almasmari, “US Makes a Drone Attack a Day in Yemen,” The National, June 15, 2011. On the broad-based opposition, see Ahmed Al-Haj, “100,000 Protesters Hit the Streets in Yemen,” NBC News, June 10, 2011.

47Adam Entous and Julian E. Barnes, “US Wavers on ‘Regime Change,’” Wall Street Journal, March 5, 2011; Kevin Baron, “Gates: Protracted Bahrain Negotiations Allowing Greater Iran Influence,” Stars and Stripes, March 12, 2011; Nick Turse, “How the Tiny Kingdom of Bahrain Strong-Armed the President of the United States,” TomDispatch.com, March 15, 2011.

48https://wikileaks.org/gifiles/docs/85/85406_-alpha-fwd-private-police-advisor-to-moi-update-.html.

49The suppression of the Yemen opposition began well before the Arab Spring. See, for example, Dana Priest, “US Military Teams, Intelligence Deeply Involved in Aiding Yemen on Strikes,” Washington Post, January 27, 2010. On the agreement with Saudi Arabia, see Pepe Escobar, “Exposed: The US–Saudi Libya Deal,” Asia Times, April 2, 2011. On the Obama administration’s close relationship with Egyptian dictator General Sisi, see “Egypt Army ‘Restoring Democracy,’ says John Kerry,” BBC News, August 1, 2014; and Jay Solomon, “John Kerry Voices Strong Support for Egyptian President Sisi,” Wall Street Journal, June 22, 2014. On the massacres, see Patrick Kingsley, “Egypt Massacre Was Premeditated, Says Human Rights Watch,” Guardian, August 12, 2014.

50On the largely overlooked intervention in Bahrain, see Amy Austin Holmes, “The Military Intervention that the World Forgot,” Al Jazeera America, March 29, 2014. On the wider Saudi-led offensive, see Mehran Kamrava, “The Arab Spring and the Saudi-Led Counterrevolution,” Orbis 56: 1 (2012), pp. 96–104.

51Quoted in Adam Hanieh, Lineages of Revolt: Issues of Contemporary Capitalism in the Middle East (Chicago: Haymarket, 2013), p. 21. On the origins of modern Saudi Arabia, see Robert Vitalis, America’s Kingdom: Mythmaking on the Saudi Oil Frontier (London/New York: Verso, 2009).

52Leo Panitch and Sam Gindin, The Making of Global Capitalism: The Political Economy of American Empire (London/New York: Verso, 2012), pp. 104–5.

53On the Lebanon crisis, see Douglas Little, American Orientalism: The United States and the Middle East since 1945 (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 2002).

54George H. W. Bush, “Address Before a Joint Session of the Congress on the Persian Gulf Crisis and the Federal Budget Deficit,” US Congress, September 11, 1990.

55Hanieh, Lineages of Revolt, p. 36.

56US trade representative Robert Zoellick made exactly this case in June 2003 at the World Economic Forum. See Hanieh, Lineages of Revolt, p. 38.

57Barack Obama, “Middle East Speech,” Washington, DC, May 19, 2011, available at newstatesman.com.

58David Cameron, “Prime Minister’s Speech to the National Assembly Kuwait,” February 22, 2011, available at gov.uk.

59Quoted in Hanieh, Lineages of Revolt, p. 166.

60G8, “Declaration of the G8 on the Arab Springs,” Deauville, May 26–27, 2011.

61On Tunisia’s stilted progress in implementing Deauville, see International Monetary Fund, “Arab Countries in Transition: Economic Outlook and Key Challenges,” Deauville Partnership Ministerial Meeting, October 10, 2013, Washington, DC.

62On the IMF loan issue and its divisiveness within Egyptian politics, see Tarek Amr, “Egypt: The IMF Loan,” Open Democracy, August 20, 2012.

63“Egypt: Security Forces Used Excessive Lethal Force,” Human Rights Watch, August 19, 2013, at hrw.org.

64Maggie Fick, Stephen Kalin, and Sophie Sassed, “Egypt Turns to Western Economic Advisers, Signalling Possible Reforms under Sisi—Sources,” Reuters, June 7, 2014; Asa Fitch, “IMF Cozies Up to Egypt Amid Economic Reform,” Wall Street Journal, October 7, 2014.

65On this process, see Jenny Pearce, Under the Eagle: US Intervention in Central America and the Caribbean (London: Latin American Bureau, 1982); and Edward Kaplan, US Imperialism in Latin America: Bryan’s Challenges and Contributions, 1900–1920 (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1998).

66See Mary A. Renda, Taking Haiti: Military Occupation and the Culture of US Imperialism, 1915–1940 (Chapel Hill, NC/London: University of North Carolina Press, 2001); Brenda Gayle Plummer, Haiti and the United States: The Psychological Moment (Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press, 1992); Hans Schmidt, The United States Occupation of Haiti, 1915–1934 (New Brunswick, NJ: University of Rutgers Press, 1995).

67The best account of this revolution is Michael J. Gonzales, The Mexican Revolution, 1910–1940 (Albuquerque, NM: University of New Mexico Press, 2002).

68Sidney Lens, The Forging of the American Empire: From the Revolution to Vietnam: A History of US Imperialism (London: Pluto/Haymarket, 2003), pp. 220–32; John A. Britton, Revolution and Ideology: Images of the Mexican Revolution in the United States (Lexington, KY: University of Kentucky Press, 2006), pp. 5, 30–2.

69On the background to this shift, see Neil Smith, American Empire: Roosevelt’s Geographer and the Prelude to Globalization (Oakland, CA: University of California Press, 2004); Walter LaFeber, Inevitable Revolutions: The United States in Central America (New York: W.W. Norton, 1993), p. 67.

70Greg Grandin, The Last Colonial Massacre: Latin America in the Cold War (Chicago/London: University of Chicago Press, 2004); Greg Grandin, The Blood of Guatemala: A History of Race and Nation (Durham, NC/London: Duke University Press, 2000).

71Pearce, Under the Eagle, pp. 61–6.

72Grandin, Empire’s Workshop, pp. 48–9, 94–6; Pearce, Under the Eagle, pp. 53–6.

73Tamar Jacoby, “The Reagan Turnaround on Human Rights,” Foreign Affairs, Summer 1986.

74Amy Wilentz, Rainy Season: Haiti—Then and Now (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2010), p. 272.

75Eva Golinger reports that the US distributed $100 million to Venezuelan anti-Chávez opposition groups in the 2000s. See Golinger, “The Dirty Hand of the National Endowment for Democracy in Venezuela,” Postcards from the Revolution, April 23, 2014, at chavez-code.com.

76On this quote, see David F. Schmitz, Thank God They’re on Our Side: The United States and Right-Wing Dictatorships (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1999), pp. 3, 313.

77By far the best history of this coup is Peter Hallward, Damming the Flood: Haiti and the Politics of Containment (London/New York: Verso, 2011).

78Kim Ives and Ansel Herz, “WikiLeaks Haiti: The Aristide Files,” Nation, August 5, 2011.

79Dan Coughlin and Kim Ives, “WikiLeaks Haiti: Let Them Live on $3 a Day,” Nation, June 1, 2011.

80Dan Coughlin and Kim Ives, “WikiLeaks Haiti: Country’s Elite Used Police as Private Army,” Nation, June 22, 2011.

81Wien Weibert Arthus, “The Omnipresence of Communism in the US-Haitian Relations under Eisenhower and Duvalier,” Institute for Russian, European and Eurasian Studies, George Washington University, April 23, 2010, available at gwu.edu; William Blum, Killing Hope: US Military and CIA Interventions since World War II (London: Zed Books, 2004), pp. 145–6.

82Quoted in Timothy Naftali, ed., The Presidential Recordings: John F. Kennedy: The Great Crises, Volume I, July 30–August 1962 (New York/London: W.W. Norton, 2001), p. 295.

83“Anti-Duvalier Activity and Projected Plan of Action by Louis Dejoie,” memorandum for Mr. McGeorge Bundy, Special Assistant to the President, Central Intelligence Agency, April 12, 1963, available at archives.gov.

84Hallward, Damming the Flood; Peter Hallward, “Option Zero in Haiti,” New Left Review II/27 (May–June 2004).

85Noam Chomsky, Year 501: The Conquest Continues (London/New York: Verso, 2002), pp. 210–11; Hallward, “Option Zero in Haiti.”

86These cables are included in the Public Library of US Diplomacy: https://search.wikileaks.org/plusd.

87https://wikileaks.org/plusd/cables/P860114-1573_MC_b.html.

88For some compelling reporting on this, see Brendan O’Malley and Ian Craig, The Cyprus Conspiracy: America, Espionage and the Turkish Invasion (London: I.B. Tauris, 2001); and Christopher Hitchens, Hostage to History: Cyprus, from the Ottomans to Kissinger (London/New York: Verso, 1997). For later documentary evidence, see Larisa Alexandrovna and Muriel Kane, “New Documents Link Kissinger to Two 1970s Coups,” Raw Story, June 26, 2007, at rawstory.com.

89Available at www2.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv.

90US Department of State, “Hinchey Report on CIA Activities in Chile,” September 18, 2000, available in full at tni.org.

91Quoted in Christopher Hitchens, The Trial of Henry Kissinger (London/New York: Verso, 2002), p. 56. On the coup prospecting, see “Memorandum of Conversation,” Dr. Kissinger, Mr. Karamessines, General Haig, White House, October 15, 1970, available at www2.gwu.edu.

92Hitchens, Trial of Henry Kissinger, pp. 56–62.

93Telegram, Davis to SecState, “Gen. Pinochet’s Request For Meeting With MILGP Officer,” September 12, 1973.

94REQUEST FOR CHILEAN ARMED FORCES FOR SPECIAL FORCES TRAINING, 1973 September 25, 22:19 (Tuesday), available at https://www.wikileaks.org/plusd/cables/1973STATE182051_b.html.

95Ibid.

96https://www.wikileaks.org/plusd/cables/1973SANTIA04909_b.html.

97Discussed in Hitchens, Trial of Henry Kissinger, p. 68. See also O’Malley and Craig, The Cyprus Conspiracy.

98PINOCHET REACTS TO UN HUMAN RIGHTS COMMISSION CABLE, 1974 March 7, 21:15 (Thursday), availalbe at https://wikileaks.org/plusd/cables/1976SANTIA01734_b.html.

99Quoted in Mark Ensalaco, Chile Under Pinochet: Recovering the Truth (Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2011), p. 160.

100DOD Intelligence Information Report, number 6 804 0334 76, cited in Cecilia Menjívar and Néstor Rodríguez, eds, When States Kill: Latin America, the US, and Technologies of Terror (Austin, TX: University of Texas Press, 2005), p. 30.

101For detailed background, see J. Patrice McSherry, “The Undead Ghost of Operation Condor,” Logos, Spring 2005.

102For a brief summary, see David Harvey, A Brief History of Neoliberalism, Oxford/New York: Oxford University Press, 2005), pp. 7–9.

103Panitch and Gindin, Making of Global Capitalism, pp. 215–17.

104“Is the Milgov Bearing Perceptibly Leftward?” Bureau of Inter-American Affairs, November 3, 1973, available at aad.archives.gov.

105Dana Frank, “In Honduras, a Mess Made in the US,” New York Times, January 26, 2012.

106https://www.wikileaks.org/plusd/cables/09TEGUCIGALPA645_a.html.

107Arshad Mohammed and David Alexander, “Obama Says Coup in Honduras Is Illegal,” Reuters, June 29, 2009.

108US Department of State, “Senior State Department Officials on Honduras,” Special Briefing, US Department of State, August 25, 2009, available at state.gov.

109Lauren Carasik, “Honduras: When Will the US Stop Funding Death Squads?,” Al Jazeera, June 4, 2013; Mark Weisbrot, “Top Ten Ways You Can Tell Which Side the United States Government Is On With Regard to the Military Coup in Honduras,” Common Dreams, December 16, 2009, at cepr.net; Dana Frank, “WikiLeaks Honduras: US Linked to Brutal Businessman,” Nation, October 21, 2011.

110Weisbrot, “Top Ten Ways.”

111Ismael Moreno, “Honduras: Behind the Crisis,” Open Democracy, July 3, 2009; Eva Golinger, “Obama’s First Coup d’État: Honduran President has been Kidnapped,” Venezuelanalysis, June 28, 2009, at venezuelanalysis.com.

CHAPTER 2: DICTATORS AND HUMAN RIGHTS

1Quoted in Global Policy Forum, “War and Occupation in Iraq,” June 2007, www.globalpolicy.org/security/issues/iraq/occupation/report/full.pdf.

2Talal Asad, On Suicide Bombing (New York: Columbia University Press, 2007); Talal Asad, “Thinking About Terrorism and Just War,” Cambridge Review of International Affairs 23: 1 (2010).

3Matthew Schofield, “WikiLeaks: Iraqi Children in US Raid Shot in Head, UN Says,” McClatchy, August 31, 2011.

4“Leaked US Video Shows Deaths of Reuters’ Iraqi staffers,” Reuters, April 5, 2010.

5Nick Davies, “Afghanistan War Logs: Task Force 373—Special Forces Hunting Top Taliban,” Guardian, July 25, 2010.

6Rob Evans and David Leigh, “WikiLeaks cables: Secret Deal Let Americans Sidestep Cluster Bomb Ban,” Guardian, December 1, 2010.

7John Goetz and Matthias Gebauer, “CIA Rendition Case: US Pressured Italy to Influence Judiciary,” Spiegel Online, December 17, 2010, at spiegel.de.

8Jeremy Scahill, “The (Not So) Secret (Anymore) US War in Pakistan,” Nation, December 1, 2010.

9See https://wikileaks.org/gitmo.

10Jeremy Scahill, “WikiLeaks and War Crimes,” Nation, August 12, 2010.

11Philippe Sands, Lawless World: Making and Breaking Global Rules (London: Penguin, 2006); Philippe Sands, Torture Team: Deception, Cruelty and the Compromise of Law (London: Allen Lane, 2008).

12Available at https://wikileaks.org/gitmo.

13wikileaks.org/gitmo/pdf/ym/us9ym-000027dp.pdf; Joel Campagna, “Sami al-Haj: The Enemy?,” Committee to Protect Journalists, October 3, 2006, at cpj.org.

14IZ ON IZ DETAINEE ABUSE INCIDENTS IVO ISKANDARIYAH: 4 CIV INJ, 0 CF INJ/DAMAGE, June 19, 2005, available at http://warlogs.wikileaks.org.

15Geraldine Sealey, “Hersh: Children Sodomized at Abu Ghraib, on Tape,” Salon, July 15, 2004.

16Caitlin MacNeal, “Cheney Seems Unfazed by Question About Innocent Detainee Who Died,” Talking Points Memo, December 14, 2014, at talkingpointsmemo.com.

17George W. Bush, “President George W. Bush’s Address to the Nation Regarding Iraq,” September 7, 2003, at whitehouse.gov.

18Walter Pincus, “CIA Studies Provide Glimpse of Insurgents in Iraq,” Washington Post, February 6, 2005; Loretta Napoleoni, Insurgent Iraq: Al-Zarqawi and the New Generation (London: Constable & Robinson, 2005); Nick Davies, Flat Earth News (London: Chatto & Windus, 2008), pp. 205–57; E. Knickmeyer and J. Finer, “Iraqi Sunnis Battle to Defend Shiites,” Washington Post, August 14, 2005.

19Department of Defense, “Measuring Stability and Security in Iraq,” June 2007, Report to Congress, at defense.gov; Fred Kaplan, “Western Targets: The Iraqi Insurgency Is Still Primarily an Anti-Occupation Effort,” Slate, February 9, 2006.

20International Council on Security and Development, “Eight Years after 9/11 Taliban Now Has a Permanent Presence in 80% of Afghanistan,” press release, September 10, 2009, available at uruknet.info; Antonio Giustozzi, Koran, Kalashnikov, and Laptop: The Neo-Taliban Insurgency in Afghanistan (New York: Columbia University Press, 2007), pp. 108–9.

21“Leverage Xenophobia,” Washington Post, April 10, 2006.

22General Sir Richard Dannatt, “Address to the International Institute for Strategic Studies,” September 21, 2007, at mod.uk.

23“King: WikiLeaks Release ‘Worse than Military Attack,’” CBS New York, November 28, 2010, at newyork.cbslocal.com.

24Chris McGreal, “Is WikiLeaks Hi-Tech Terrorism or Hype? Washington can’t decide,” Guardian, February 5, 2011.

25K. T. McFarland, “Yes, WikiLeaks Is a Terrorist Organization and the Time to Act Is NOW,” Fox News, November 30, 2011, at foxnews.com.

26David Leigh and Luke Harding, WikiLeaks: Inside Julian Assange’s War on Secrecy (London: Guardian, 2011).

27This phrase is from a chat with Assange, discovered by US authorities. Kim Zetter, “Jolt in WikiLeaks Case: Feds Found Manning-Assange Chat Logs on Laptop,” Wired, December 19, 2011.

28Ed Pilkington, “Bradley Manning Treated More Harshly than a Terrorist, Lawyer Argues,” Guardian, July 12, 2012; Ed Pilkington, “Bradley Manning’s Treatment Was Cruel and Inhuman, UN Torture Chief Rules,” Guardian, March 12, 2012.

29See Richard Jackson, Marie Breen Smyth, and Jeroen Gunning, eds, Critical Terrorism Studies: A New Research Agenda (Oxford: Routledge, 2009); and Marie Breen-Smyth, ed., The Ashgate Research Companion to Political Violence (Farnham: Ashgate, 2012).

30Steve Inskeep, “State Department Defends America’s Image Abroad,” National Public Radio, March 27, 2006.

31George W. Bush, in Presidential Debate with John Kerry, University of Miami, MSNBC, October 1, 2004.

32“22 US Code § 2656f—Annual Country Reports on Terrorism,” available from the Legal Information Institute, Cornell University Law School, at law.cornell.edu.

33Quoted in Alex P. Schmid, The Routledge Handbook of Terrorism Research (Abingdon/New York: Routledge, 2011), p. 46.

34Quoted in Steve Best and Anthony J. Nocella II, “Defining Terrorism,” Animal Liberation Philosophy & Policy Journal 2: 1 (2004).

35https://www.wikileaks.org/irq.

36Iraq Body Count estimates an additional 15,000 unreported deaths from a survey of the war logs. “Iraq War Logs: What the Numbers Reveal,” Iraq Body Count, October 23, 2010.

37An example in the files is the case of soldiers firing 200 bullets into a single vehicle, killing two children, and their mother and father: https://wikileaks.org/irq/report/2005/09/IRQ20050923n2490.html. Another incident involved troops firing up to fifteen rounds of bullets into a vehicle, killing the two children inside: https://wikileaks.org/irq/report/2005/10/IRQ20051026n2733.html.

38The lawyer at the airbase told the soldiers that killing them would be fine, as one cannot surrender to an aircraft: http://wardiaries.wikileaks.org/id/E8DE9B9F-E468-B587-E4B332C09FF48BE2.

39The US decision to overlook the continued practice of torture is contained in the infamous directive “Frago 242”: http://warlogs.wikileaks.org/id/88029AA5-6833-404A-826A-BD586F829FE0. As will be discussed later in this chapter, there is evidence that a significant reason for this is that the US was involved in organizing torture by Iraqi forces, under the rubric of “Iraqization.” An example of the type of torture that was deliberately overlooked included the case of a prisoner, said to have committed suicide, who had bruises and burns all over his body, and visible injuries to his head, arms, torso, leg, and neck: http://wardiaries.wikileaks.org/id/5D554D29-AA6A-1679-3B0EDB9A4357473F/.

40“Afghan War Diary, 2004–2010,” July 25, 2010, at wikileaks.org.

41http://wardiaries.wikileaks.org/id/080e0000011e1f38da79160d271
eb9ae.

42https://www.wikileaks.org/afg/event/2007/08/AFG20070816n891.html.

43https://www.wikileaks.org/afg/event/2007/03/AFG20070321n586.html.

44In fact, the cable shows that the US military suppressed the killings—which were subsequently exposed by human rights organizations—instead clinically recording an IED attack and escape: https://www.wikileaks.org/afg/event/2007/03/AFG20070304n586.html.

45Naomi Klein, “Iraq is not America’s to sell,” Guardian, November 7, 2003.

46Ahmed Janabi, “Iraqi Unemployment Reaches 70%,” Al Jazeera, August 1, 2004.

47George Packer, The Assassin’s Gate (New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 2006), pp. 66–8, 77–97.

48Aram Roston, The Man Who Pushed America to War: The Extraordinary Life, Adventures, and Obsessions of Ahmad Chalabi (New York: Nation Books, 2009), p. 222.

49Eric Herring and Glen Rangwala, Iraq in Fragments: The Occupation and Its Legacy (London: Hurst, 2006), pp. 16, 53, 126; Faleh A. Jabar, The Shi’ite Movement in Iraq (London: Saqi, 2002), pp. 253–63.

50“Torture in Iraq ‘Worse than Under Saddam,’” Guardian, September 21, 2006.

51Federal News Service, “Department of Defense Bloggers Roundtable with Brigadier General David Phillips, Deputy Commanding General, Civilian Police Assistance Training Team,” September 21, 2007, at defense.gov; T. Christian Miller, “Soldier’s Journey Ends in Anguish,” Los Angeles Times, December 4, 2005; Peter Maass, “The Way of the Commandos,” New York Times, May 1, 2005; General David Petraeus, “Gangs of Iraq: Interview with General David Petraeus,” PBS, October 11, 2006; Todd Clark, “Forging the Sword: Conventional US Army Forces Advising Host Nation (HN) Forces,” Armor, September 1, 2006.

52Michael Hirsch and John Barry, “‘The Salvador Option’: The Pentagon May Put Special-Forces-Led Assassination or Kidnapping Teams in Iraq,” Newsweek, January 9, 2005.

53Andrew Buncombe and Patrick Cockburn, “Iraq’s Death Squads: On the Brink of Civil War,” Independent, February 26, 2006; Neil Macdonald, “Iraqi Reality-TV Hit Takes Fear Factor to Another Level,” Christian Science Monitor, June 7, 2005; Jim Krane, “Pentagon Funds Pro-US Network in Iraq,” Associated Press, November 28, 2003; Peter Beaumont, “Revealed: Grim World of New Iraqi Torture Camps,” Guardian, July 3, 2005.

54Kim Sengupta, “Operation Enduring Chaos: The Retreat of the Coalition and Rise of the Militias,” Independent on Sunday, October 29, 2006.

55See “15,000 Previously Unknown Civilian Deaths Contained in the Iraq War Logs Released by WikiLeaks,” Iraq Body Count, October 22, 2010, at iraqbodycount.org.

56Prof. Gilbert Burnham, Riyadh Lafta, Shannon Doocy, Les Roberts, “Mortality After the 2003 Invasion of Iraq: A Cross-Sectional Cluster Sample Survey,” Lancet 368: 9,545 (October 12, 2006).

57Mark Benjamin, “When Is an Accidental Civilian Death Not an Accident?,” Salon, July 30, 2007.

58Michael Mann, Incoherent Empire (London/New York: Verso, 2003), p. 138.

59Data can be found at collateralmurder.com.

60“Investigation into Civilian Casualties Resulting from an Engagement on 12 July 2007 in the New Baghdad District of Baghdad, Iraq,” Department of the Army, available at i2.cdn.turner.com. Quoted in Tom Cohen, “Leaked Video Reveals Chaos of Baghdad Attack,” CNN, April 7, 2010.

61David Leigh, “Iraq War Logs Reveal 15,000 Previously Unlisted Civilian Deaths,” Guardian, October 22, 2010.

62Justin Podur, “The First Battle of Fallujah 2004 in the Iraq War Diary,” November 16, 2010, at killingtrain.com.

63“No Longer Unknowable: Falluja’s April Civilian Toll is 600,” Iraq Body Count, October 26, 2004, at iraqbodycount.org. IBC’s total estimate of civilian deaths was and remains far lower than that of the Lancet. “Red Cross Estimates 800 Iraqi Civilians Killed in Fallujah,” Democracy Now, November 17, 2004, at democracynow.org. An Iraqi NGO put the estimate at between 4,000 and 6,000. Brian K. Lamphear, “2. Media Coverage Fails on Iraq: Fallujah and the Civilian Deathtoll,” Project Censored, April 29, 2010, at projectcensored.org. The estimate comes from the Iraqi NGO group Monitoring Net of Human Rights in Iraq.

64Michael Hirsh, “Hirsh: How US Makes Enemies,” Newsweek, July 26, 2006; Robert F. Worth, “Sergeant Tells of Plot to Kill Iraqi Detainees,” New York Times, July 28, 2006; “US Won’t Let Men Flee Fallujah,” Associated Press, November 13, 2004.

65Jo Becker and Scott Shane, “Secret ‘Kill List’ Proves a Test of Obama’s Principles and Will,” New York Times, May 29, 2012. See also Chris Woods, “Analysis: Obama Embraced Redefinition of ‘Civilian’ in Drone Wars,” Bureau of Investigative Journalism, May 29, 2012, at thebureauinvestigates.com; and Glenn Greenwald, “‘Militants’: Media Propaganda,” Salon, May 29, 2012, at salon.com.

66Spencer Ackerman, “41 Men Targeted but 1,147 People Killed: US Drone Strikes—The Facts on the Ground,” Guardian, November 24, 2014; “US Drone Strikes Kill 28 Unknown People for Every Intended Target, New Reprieve Report Reveals,” Reprieve press release, November 24, 2014.

67Madelyn Hsiao-Rei Hicks, Hamit Dardagan, Gabriela Guerrero Serdán, Peter M. Bagnall, John A. Sloboda, and Michael Spagat, “The Weapons That Kill Civilians—Deaths of Children and Noncombatants in Iraq, 2003–2008,” New England Journal of Medicine 360: 1,585–1,588 (April 16, 2009).

68Quoted in Mohammad-Mahmoud Ould Mohamedou, Understanding Al Qaeda: The Transformation of War (London/Ann Arbor, MI: Pluto Press, 2007), p. 43.

69https://wikileaks.org/wiki/Classified_U.S_report_into_the_Fallujah
_assult; https://wikileaks.org/wiki/Complex_Environments:_Battle_of_Fallujah_I,_April_2004.

70Global Policy Forum, “War and Occupation in Iraq,” June 2007, at globalpolicy.org.

71Martin Shaw, The New Western Way of War (Cambridge: Polity Press, 2005).

72For example, the prison’s oldest detainee, Mohammed Sadiq, was eighty-nine when detained. He was unwell, was diagnosed with prostate cancer, and suffered from dementia and depression (wikileaks.org/gitmo/pdf/af/us9af-000349dp.pdf). Haji Faiz Mohammed was seventy. His file stated that “there [was] no reason on the record” for him to have been taken to Guantánamo (https://wikileaks.org/gitmo/prisoner/657.html). Naqib Ullah, a child when he was captured, was acknowledged on his record to have been abducted, abused, and conscripted to fight for the Taliban. Even though he possessed a weapon, he had never fired it (wikileaks.org/gitmo/pdf/af/us9af-000909dp.pdf).

73Pilkington, “Bradley Manning’s Treatment Was Cruel and Inhuman”; Ryan Creed, “Comments on Prisoner Treatment Cause State Department Spokesman to Lose His Job,” ABC News, March 13, 2011; Paula Reid, “DOJ Not Expected to Initiate Charges Against CIA Officers over Torture Report,” CBS News, December 9, 2014.

74“US Does Not Torture, Bush Insists,” BBC News, November 7, 2005.

75“White Paper on the Law of Torture and Holding Accountable Those Who Are Complicit in Approving Torture of Persons in US Custody,” available at prisonlegalnews.org.

76Greg Grandin, “Secrecy and Spectacle: Why Only Americans Are Worthy of Being Called ‘Torturable,’” Nation, December 17, 2014.

77Colin Freeman, “CIA Torture Report: How Waterboarding Reduced Even Interrogators to Tears,” Daily Telegraph, December 9, 2014.

78On this view of legal interpretation, see Martti Koskenniemi, From Apology to Utopia: The Structure of International Legal Argument (Cambridge/New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005); and China Miéville, Between Equal Rights: A Marxist Theory of International Law (Leiden/Boston, MA: Brill, 2005).

79Alfred W. McCoy, A Question of Torture: CIA Interrogation, from the Cold War to the War on Terror (New York: Metropolitan, 2010); Alfred W. McCoy, The CIA’s Secret Research on Torture: How Psychologists Helped Washington Crack the Code of Human Consciousness, Now and Then Reader, 2014; Alfred W. McCoy, Torture and Impunity: The US Doctrine of Coercive Interrogation (Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press, 2012).

80Many critics of the American empire, even the most radical, assume that it is contemptuous of the international legal system to whose creation it made such a large contribution. As Alfred W. McCoy puts it: “At the UN and other international forums, Washington opposed torture and advocated a universal standard for human rights. But, in contravention of these diplomatic conventions, the CIA propagated torture during those same decades.” This is a mistake: the US government obsessively legalized its torture program, providing rafts of interpretation to justify its stance. McCoy, A Question of Torture, p. 4.

81Louis Pérez, Jr, The War of 1898: The United States and Cuba in History and Historiography (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1998), pp. 13–14.

82On this, see David F. Schmitz, Thank God They’re on Our Side: United States and Right-Wing Dictatorships, 1921–65 (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1999); and Greg Grandin, Empire’s Workshop: Latin America, the United States, and the Rise of the New Imperialism (New York: Metropolitan Books, 2010).

83A detailed historical background is provided by Scott Packard, “How Guantánamo Bay Became the Place the US Keeps Detainees,” Atlantic, September 4, 2014.

84“Bush Defends Guantánamo Prison,” Al Jazeera, July 6, 2005.

85Paul Harris, “Soldier Lifts Lid on Camp Delta,” Guardian, May 8, 2005; Josh White, “Abu Ghraib Tactics Were First Used at Guantánamo,” Washington Post, July 14, 2005.

86“Bush State of the Union address,” CNN, June 29, 2002.

87“Cheney: Gitmo Holds ‘Worst of the Worst,’” Associated Press, June 1, 2009.

88See https://wikileaks.org/gitmo.

89https://wikileaks.org/The-Unknown-Prisoners-of.html; “WikiLeaks Documents Reveal US Knowingly Imprisoned 150 Innocent Men at Guantánamo,” Democracy Now!, April 24, 2011, at democracynow.org. Worthington himself had already accumulated extensive experience in analyzing the cases of prisoners at Guantánamo, documenting the process of extraordinary rendition, false imprisonment, and torture visited on hundreds of detainees. See Andy Worthington, The Guantánamo Files: The Stories of the 774 Detainees in America’s Illegal Prison (London/Ann Arbor, MI: Pluto Press, 2007).

90Chase Madar, The Passion of Bradley Manning (New York/London: Verso, 2013), p. 132.

91“WikiLeaks Documents Reveal US Knowingly Imprisoned 150 Innocent Men at Guantánamo,” Democracy Now!, April 25, 2011, at democracynow.org.

92Andy Worthington, “WikiLeaks Reveals Secret Files on All Guantánamo Prisoners,” wikileaks.org. There are also those whose situation is simply unclear. For example, Abd Al Rahim Abd Al Razzaq Janko was captured in Afghanistan in May 2002, and has been in the prison ever since, but his captors do not seem to have any idea whether he is a jihadi or an intelligence operative working for the United Arab Emirates. Nonetheless, he is listed as “medium” risk and held without any judicial process. wikileaks.ch/gitmo/pdf/sy/us9sy-000489dp.pdf.

93“President Obama Issues Executive Order Institutionalizing Indefinite Detention,” ACLU, March 7, 2011, at aclu.org.

94See Glenn Greenwald, “Newly Leaked Documents Show the Ongoing Travesty of Guantánamo,” Salon, April 25, 2011, at salon.com.

95McCoy, CIA’s Secret Research on Torture.

96McCoy, Torture and Impunity, Kindle loc. 2049–2280.

97Ibid., Kindle loc. 2345–2455.

98See the gruesome case of Manadel al-Jamadi, tortured to death during a CIA interrogation at Abu Ghraib. This case became notorious for the pictures of Specialists Charles Graner and Sabrina Harmon posing with the corpse. Seth Hettena, “Reports Detail Abu Ghraib Prison Death; Was It Torture?,” Associated Press, February 17, 2005; McCoy, Torture and Impunity, Kindle loc. 2545, 2584, 2599; ACLU, “Department of Defense Memoranda Released Under the Freedom of Information Act,” 2005, at aclu.org; Human Rights Watch, “Leadership Failure: Firsthand Accounts of Torture of Iraqi Detainees by the US Army’s 82nd Airborne Division,” Human Rights Watch 17: 3 (September 2005), available at hrw.org.

99Referenced in http://warlogs.wikileaks.org/id/88029AA5-6833-404A-826A-BD586F829FE0.

100Nick Davies, “Iraq War Logs: Secret Order that Let US Ignore Abuse,” Guardian, October 22, 2010.

101McCoy, Torture and Impunity, Kindle loc. 2627.

102For discussion and extensive referencing on the Special Police Commandos, see Richard Seymour, The Liberal Defence of Murder (London/New York: Verso, 2008), p. 227. The Guardian newspaper later alighted on this story with an in-depth account of the activities of Colonel James Steele, sent by Donald Rumsfeld to help organize the death squads. See Mona Mahmood, Maggie O’Kane, Chavala Madlena, and Teresa Smith, “Revealed: Pentagon’s Link to Iraqi Torture Centres,” Guardian, March 6, 2013.

103Senate Select Committee on Intelligence, “Committee Study of the Central Intelligence Agency’s Detention and Interrogation Program,” December 3, 2014, at intelligence.senate.gov.

104Guantánamo Detainee US9GZ-010016DP: Abu Zubaydah.

105Reed Brody, “Prisoners Who Disappear,” International Herald Tribune, October 12, 2004.

106Sam Masters, “CIA Torture Report: The Doctors Who Were the Unlikely Architects of the CIA’s Programme,” Independent, December 9, 2014.

107“Former CIA Director: ‘We Don’t Torture People,’” CBS News, December 9, 2014.

108https://wikileaks.org/wiki/CIA_logbook_of_Congressional_
member_torture_briefings,_2009.

109Scott Shane, “Political Divide About CIA Torture Remains After Senate Report’s Release,” New York Times, December 9, 2014.

110“Memorandum for Alberto R. Gonzales, Counsel to the President,” US Department of Justice, Office of Legal Counsel, August 1, 2002, available at resourcelists.ed.ac.uk.

111Carl Schmitt, the German legal scholar and prominent Nazi, was cited by constitutional law professor Sanford Levinson as the “true éminence grise” of the Bush administration. Quoted in Noam Chomsky, Failed States: The Abuse of Power and the Assault on Democracy (London: Penguin, 2007).

112“White Paper on the Law of Torture and Holding Accountable Those Who Are Complicit in Approving Torture of Persons in US Custody,” National Lawyers Guild, at prisonlegalnews.org.

113McCoy, A Question of Torture, p. 113.

114Steven Donald Smith, “Guantánamo Detainees Being Held Legally, Official Says,” American Forces Press Service, February 15, 2006, at defense.gov.

115Lars Erik Aspaas, “The Power of Definition: How the Bush Administration Created ‘Enemy Combatants’ and Redefined Presidential Power and Torture,” University of Oslo, MA thesis, Spring 2009, available at duo.uio.no.

116Peter Forster, “CIA Tortured Terror Suspects ‘to Point of Death,’ US Senate Report Will Say: Source,” National Post, September 8, 2014.

117Anthony D’Amato, “True Confessions? The Amazing Tale of Khalid Shaikh Mohammed,” Jurist, March 16, 2007. For the list of confessions, see “Khalid Sheikh Mohammed’s ‘31 Plots,’” BBC News, March 15, 2007.

118Rebecca Gordon, “US Torture Didn’t End When Bush Left Office,” Nation, December 15, 2014.

CHAPTER 3: WAR AND TERRORISM

1Thomas Friedman, “A Manifesto for the Fast World,” New York Times Magazine, March 28, 1999.

2“Business and WikiLeaks: Be Afraid,” Economist, December 9, 2010.

3Andy Greenberg, “WikiLeaks’ Julian Assange Wants To Spill Your Corporate Secrets,” Forbes, November 29, 2010.

4https://wikileaks.org/wiki/Minton_report:_Trafigura_toxic_
dumping_along_the_Ivory_Coast_broke_EU_regulations,_14_Sep_2006.

5David Leigh, “Trafigura Hoped to Make a Fortune. Instead They Caused a Tragedy,” Guardian, September 16, 2009.

6“A Gag Too Far,” Index on Censorship, October 14, 2009.

7Mark Sweney, “Bank Drops Lawsuit against Wikileaks,” Guardian, March 6, 2008; “Wikileaks Given Data on Swiss Bank Accounts,” BBC News, January 17, 2011; “WikiLeaks to Target Wealthy Individuals,” Daily Telegraph, January 17, 2011.

8Yochai Benkler, “A Free Irresponsible Press: Wikileaks and the Battle over the Soul of the Networked Fourth Estate,” Harvard Civil Rights-Civil Liberties Law Review 46 (2011); Lisa Lynch, “‘We’re Going to Crack the World Open’: Wikileaks and the Future of Investigative Reporting,” Journalism Practice 4: 3 (2010)—Special Issue: The Future of Journalism.

9John Vidal, “WikiLeaks: US Targets EU over GM Crops,” Guardian, January 3, 2011.

10See Mariana Mazzucato, The Entrepreneurial State: Debunking Public vs Private Sector Myths (London/New York/Delhi: Anthem Press, 2013), Kindle loc. 2302–2320; and Leo Panitch and Sam Gindin, The Making of Global Capitalism: The Political Economy of the American Empire (London/New York: Verso, 2013), p. 288.

11https://wikileaks.org/tpp-ip2/pressrelease.

12Peter Gowan, The Global Gamble: Washington’s Faustian Bid for World Dominance (London/New York: Verso, 1999).

13Quoted in Leo Panitch and Sam Gindin, “Global Capitalism and the American Empire,” Socialist Register 40 (2004).

14Figure cited in Andrew G. Terborgh, “The Post-War Rise of World Trade: Does the Bretton Woods System Deserve Credit?” London School of Economics, Working Paper No 78/03, September 2003, available at lse.ac.uk.

15On the breakdown of Bretton Woods, see Fred L. Block, The Origins of International Economic Disorder: A Study of United States International Monetary Policy from World War II to the Present (Berkeley/Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1977). On the political significance of Washington’s adaptation to this trend, see Gowan, Global Gamble.

16On the convergence of austerity policies and financial interests, see Robert W. Bailey, The Crisis Regime: The Mac, the ECFB, and the Political Impact of the New York City Financial Crisis (New York: State University of New York Press, 1984); William K. Tabb, The Long Default: New York City and the Urban Fiscal Crisis (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1982); Eric Lichten, Class, Power and Austerity: The New York City Financial Crisis (Westport, CT: Bergin & Garvey, 1986).

17Dianna Melrose, Nicaragua: The Threat of a Good Example? (London: Oxfam, 1989).

18https://wikileaks.org/plusd/cables/01HANOI686_a.html; “Vietnam: Progress on Reform under World Bank and IMF Poverty Reduction Loans,” November 20, 2000, [01HANOI3054_a]; https://www.wikileaks.org/plusd/cables/04HANOI898_a.html; https://www.wikileaks.org/plusd/cables/04HANOI3331_a.html.

19Thomas Oatley and Jason Yackee, “American Interests and IMF Lending,” International Politics 41 (2004), pp. 415–29.

20The best overall guide to postwar Vietnam and its economic policies is Gabriel Kolko, Anatomy of a Peace (London/New York: Routledge, 1997).

21https://www.wikileaks.org/plusd/cables/06QUITO1157_a.html.

22On “dollar diplomacy,” see Eric Helleiner, “Dollarization Diplomacy: US Policy Toward Latin America Coming Full Circle?,” Review of International Political Economy 10: 3 (August 2003). On the uses of different currencies to support a Jim Crow pay system, see Robert Vitalis, “The Graceful and Generous Liberal Gesture: Making Racism Invisible in American International Relations,” Millennium—Journal of International Studies 29 (2000). On the reaction to dollarization in Ecuador, see Sean Healy, “Latin America: Trend toward Dollarisation Accelerates,” Green Left Weekly, January 24, 2001.

23https://cablegatesearch.wikileaks.org/cable.php?id=
05QUITO882&q=ecuador.

24https://www.wikileaks.org/plusd/cables/05QUITO895_a.html.

25https://www.wikileaks.org/plusd/cables/05QUITO897_a.html.

26https://wikileaks.org/plusd/cables/05QUITO900_a.html.

27https://www.wikileaks.org/plusd/cables/05QUITO945_a.html.

28https://www.wikileaks.org/plusd/cables/05QUITO898_a.html.

29https://wikileaks.org/plusd/cables/05QUITO2699_a.html; https://wikileaks.org/cable/2006/08/06QUITO2150.html; https://wikileaks.org/cable/2006/04/06QUITO995.html. On NED funding, the fact is advertised on its own web page—see information on Ecuador at ned.org.

30https://www.wikileaks.org/plusd/cables/08QUITO35_a.html.

31https://wikileaks.org/plusd/cables/08QUITO75_a.html. This program entailed using state control of strategic sectors of the economy, such as oil, to benefit the poor, and to shift power from capital to labor. At the same time, a peculiar irony of Correa’s development model was that it actually required the state to produce less oil, leaving some 20 percent of the confirmed oil reserve unexploited in order to protect the environment and promote the rights of the indigenous: the “good life” and sustainability took precedence over economic growth. This was a product of his relationship to popular social movements to which, within the limits of his powers, he sought to give some expression in government. More generally, his government argued that it would subordinate economic growth to the needs of the people, and would seek to update and democratize the old constitution, consistent with the participatory aspect of “twenty-first-century socialism.” Cristina Espinosa, “The Riddle of Leaving the Oil in the Soil: Ecuador’s Yasuní-ITT Project from a Discourse Perspective,” Forest Policy and Economics, 2012, published on academia.edu. The limits of Correa’s environmental commitments, which took second place to development, led to a series of conflicts with indigenous movements. See Paul Dosh and Nicole Kligerman, “Correa vs. Social Movements: Showdown in Ecuador,” NACLA: Report on the Americas 42: 5 (2009).

32A constitutional referendum in Ecuador passed with just over 80 percent popular support and became the supreme law of the land in 2008. Previous constitutional settlements had mainly been imposed by dictatorial regimes more concerned with the interests of economic elites than the popular classes. Like similar referenda in Venezuela and Honduras, this reform combined a series of progressive measures, long overdue democratic reforms, and the bolstering of the executive branch of government as a locus of strength for the populist left. The key measures established a series of popular rights, including sexual and gender rights, as well as ecosystem rights protecting the environment, the right to food self-sufficiency, and the legalization of drugs for personal consumption. It also promised an end to the neoliberal development model; overturned the independence of the central bank, making it part of the executive branch; and proposed the expansion of popular and solidarity-based financial systems—such as co-ops and credit unions—to compete with the for-profit sector. On the relationship between the constitutional change and the social movements, see Marc Becker, “Correa, Indigenous Movements, and the Writing of a New Constitution in Ecuador,” Latin American Perspectives 38: 1 (January 2011).

33https://www.wikileaks.org/plusd/cables/07QUITO2604_a.html.

34https://www.wikileaks.org/plusd/cables/07QUITO2575_a.html.

35https://www.wikileaks.org/plusd/cables/08QUITO36_a.html.

36https://cablegatesearch.wikileaks.org/cable.php?id=07QUITO2659.

37Judith Ugwumadu, “Ecuador Urged to Moderate Public Spending,” Public Finance International, August 22, 2004.

38https://wikileaks.org/cable/2009/10/09QUITO905.html; https://wikileaks.org/cable/2009/11/09QUITO973.html.

39https://www.wikileaks.org/plusd/cables/09QUITO579_a.html. The purpose of the court was to “depoliticize” such disputes by deciding them in a formally neutral setting. Ibrahim Shihata, “Towards a Greater Depoliticisation of Investment Disputes: The Roles of ICSID and MIGA,” ICSID Review: Foreign Investment and Law Journal I (1986). By agreement, the court took precedence over Ecuadoran national sovereignty. This was both unacceptable to Correa and arguably inconsistent with the new constitution.

40https://wikileaks.org/plusd/cables/10QUITO53_a.html.

41https://wikileaks.org/cable/2009/10/09QUITO893.html; https://www.wikileaks.org/plusd/cables/10QUITO75_a.html.

42https://wikileaks.org/plusd/cables/10QUITO53_a.html.

43https://www.wikileaks.org/plusd/cables/08QUITO191_a.html.

44Karl Polanyi, The Great Transformation: The Political and Economic Origins of Our Time (Boston, MA: Beacon Press, 2001).

45https://wikileaks.org/tisa-financial.

46https://wikileaks.org/tpp-ip2.

47An insightful critique of intellectual property is Christopher May, The Global Political Economy of Intellectual Property Rights: The New Enclosures? (London/New York: Routledge, 2000). See also Debora J. Halpert, Resisting Intellectual Property (London/New York: Routledge, 2003).

48https://wikileaks.org/tpp-ip2/attack-on-affordable-cancer-treatments.html.

49Ibid.

50“No Party may prevent a service supplier of another Party from transferring, accessing, processing or storing information, including personal information, within or outside the Party’s territory, where such activity is carried out in connection with the conduct of the service supplier’s business.” This passage from TISA was released through the WikiLeaks-like organization the Associated Whistleblowing Press. “Proposal of New Provisions Applicable to All Services of the Secret TISA Negotiations,” Associated Whistleblowing Press, December 17, 2014, at data.iwp.is.

51“Trade in Services Agreement,” US Chamber of Commerce, February 7, 2014, at uschamber.com.

52Parker Higgins and Maira Sutton, “How the US Trade Rep Ratchets Up Worldwide Copyright Laws that Could Keep Your Devices Locked Forever,” Electronic Frontier Foundation, March 26, 2013, at eff.org.

53For example, Apple invoked this Act in 2008 to threaten a nonprofit website that discussed how to make the iPod interact with other software, claiming that this constituted circumvention of its DRM technology. Fred von Lohmann, “Apple Confuses Speech with a DMCA Violation,” Electronic Frontier Foundation, November 25, 2008, at eff.org.

54This is pointed out by Canadian lawyer Michael Geist in “New TPP Leak: Canada Emerges as Leading Opponent of US Intellectual Property Demands,” October 16, 2004, at michaelgeist.ca.

55Edmund T. Pratt, chair of Pfizer Plc, attended GATT negotiations as the official advisor to the US trade representative, and he remarked: “Our combined strength enabled us to establish a global private sector government network which laid the groundwork for what became TRIPs.” Edmund J. Pratt, “Intellectual Property Rights and International Trade,” Pfizer Forum, 1996, quoted in “WTO Millennium Bug: TNC Control Over Global Trade Politics,” Corporate Europe Observer 4 (July 1999).

56See “Remarks by Ralph G. Neas on Trans Pacific Partnership,” Pharmacy Times, December 17, 2014.

57Simon Lester, “The WTO vs. the TPP,” Huffington Post, May 2, 2014, at huffingtonpost.com.

58“WikiLeaks Reveals True Intent of Secret TiSA Trade Talks,” ITUC, June 26, 2014, at ituc-csi.org.

59http://wikileaks.org/tisa-financial/Analysis-of-secret-tisa-financial-annex.pdf. In the 1999 agreement, it was the Financial Leaders Group, comprising the likes of Barclays, Chase Manhattan, and Goldman Sachs, that led the charge to liberalization. A significant lobby in today’s TISA negotiations, meanwhile, is the business coalition named Team Tisa, chaired by Citigroup, IBM, UPS, and Walmart, among others. See teamtisa.org.

60It is worth noting that most financial activity has little to do with supporting productive investment. In 2001, the total daily turnover of international financial markets was $40 trillion, well above the $800 billion that would be needed to support transactions and investment flows in the “real” economy. David Harvey, A Brief History of Neoliberalism (Oxford/New York: Oxford University Press, 2005), p. 161. On the pitfalls of “innovation” and its role in the great financial crash, see Ewald Engelen, Ismail Ertürk, Julie Froud, Sukhdev Johal, Adam Leaver, Mick Moran, Adriana Nilsson, and Karel Williams, After the Great Complacence: Financial Crisis and the Politics of Reform (Oxford/New York: Oxford University Press, 2011), Kindle loc. 979–1063. On the drawbacks of financialization for productive investment, see Costas Lapavitsas, Profiting Without Producing: How Finance Exploits Us All (London/New York: Verso, 2013).

61Panitch and Gindin, Making of Global Capitalism, pp. 216–19.

62“Conclusion,” in “The Financial Crisis Inquiry Report: Final Report of the National Commission on the Causes of the Financial and Economic Crisis in the United States,” February 2011, at gpo.gov.

63David McNally, Global Slump: The Economics and Politics of Crisis and Resistance (Oakland, CA: PM Press, 2011), p. 86.

64Panitch and Gindin, Making of Global Capitalism, pp. 236–7.

65Ibid., pp. 310–30. See also Leo Panitch, Sam Gindin, and Greg Albo, In and Out of Crisis: The Global Financial Meltdown and Left Alternatives (Oakland, CA: PM Press, 2010); Philip Mirowski, Never Let a Serious Crisis Go to Waste: How Neoliberalism Survived the Financial Meltdown (London/New York: Verso, 2013).

66Tony Wood, “Good Riddance to New Labour,” New Left Review II/62 (March–April 2010).

CHAPTER 5: US WAR CRIMES AND THE ICC

1Lesley Wroughton, “US, Afghans Agree Most of Pact, Elders to Make Final Decision,” Reuters, October 13, 2013, at reuters.com.

2Josh Dougherty, “When Victimless Crimes Matter and Victims Don’t: The Trial of Bradley Manning,” Iraq Body Count, August 2, 2013, at iraqbodycount.org.

3Glen Greenwald, With Liberty and Justice for Some: How the Law Is Used to Destroy Equality and Protect the Powerful (New York: Metropolitan, 2011).

4White House, “Statement of President Barack Obama on Release of OLC Memos,” April 16, 2009, at whitehouse.gov.

5White House, “Statement by the President Report of the Senate Select Committee on Intelligence,” December 9, 2014, at whitehouse.gov.

6John R. Bolton, “‘Legitimacy’ in International Affairs: The American Perspective in Theory and Operation,” November 13, 2003, at 2001-2009.state.gov, cited in Erna Paris, The Sun Climbs Slow: The International Criminal Court and the Struggle for Justice (New York: Seven Stories Press, 2009), p. 79.

7http://wikileaks.org/cable/2002/12/02TEGUCIGALPA3350.html.

8http://wikileaks.org/cable/2002/10/02COLOMBO2003.html.

9http://wikileaks.org/cable/2002/12/02COLOMBO2323.html.

10http://wikileaks.org/cable/2006/06/06MASERU261.html.

11Ian Traynor, “East Europeans Torn on the Rack by International Court Row,” Guardian, August 17, 2002, cited in Paris, The Sun Climbs Slow, p. 70.

12Institute for the Study of Human Rights, “US & ICC: Bilateral Immunity Agreement Campaign: Reaction to BIAs,” n.d., at amicc.org.

13http://wikileaks.org/cable/2003/04/03ZAGREB798.html.

14http://wikileaks.org/cable/2008/03/08CHISINAU314.html.

15http://wikileaks.org/cable/2004/06/04GUATEMALA1361.html.

16http://wikileaks.org/cable/2003/12/03SANAA3010.html.

17http://wikileaks.org/cable/2004/07/04SANAA1733.html.

18http://wikileaks.org/cable/2004/05/04MANAMA676.html.

19http://wikileaks.org/cable/2004/06/04MANAMA831.html.

20http://wikileaks.org/cable/2005/02/05MANAMA158.html.

21http://wikileaks.org/cable/2004/03/04MANAMA368.html.

22http://wikileaks.org/cable/2004/03/04MANAMA368.html.

23http://wikileaks.org/cable/2004/06/04MANAMA831.html.

24Anna Fifield and Camilla Hall, “US and Bahrain Secretly Extend Defence Deal,” Financial Times, September 1, 2011.

25http://wikileaks.org/cable/2007/04/07KUWAIT487.html.

26http://wikileaks.org/cable/2005/07/05AMMAN5624.html.

27http://wikileaks.org/cable/2005/08/05AMMAN6612.html.

28http://wikileaks.org/cable/2006/11/06MANAMA1925.html.

29http://wikileaks.org/cable/2005/07/05ASUNCION869.html.

30http://wikileaks.org/cable/2005/07/05ASUNCION860.html.

31http://wikileaks.org/cable/2006/07/06ASUNCION750.html.

32http://wikileaks.org/cable/2005/07/05ASUNCION860.html.

33Elise Keppler, “The United States and the International Criminal Court: The Bush Administration’s Approach and a Way Forward Under the Obama Adm,” Human Rights Watch, August 2, 2009, at hrw.org.

34http://wikileaks.org/wiki/CRS:_Article_98_Agreements_
and_Sanctions_on_U.S._Foreign_Aid_to_Latin_America,_March_22,_2007.

35http://wikileaks.org/cable/2005/11/05SANJOSE2717.html.

36Council on Hemispheric Affairs, “Costa Rica’s Fateful Move: San José Expands Its Role in US-Led Counter-Narcotics Efforts,” August 4, 2010, at coha.org.

37http://wikileaks.org/cable/2004/03/04BRASILIA745.html.

38http://wikileaks.org/cable/2004/12/04BRASILIA3154.html.

39http://wikileaks.org/cable/2005/12/05SANTIAGO2573.html.

40http://wikileaks.org/cable/2005/12/05SANTIAGO2573.html.

41http://wikileaks.org/cable/2006/01/06SANTIAGO130.html.

42http://wikileaks.org/cable/2004/11/04QUITO3028.html.

43http://wikileaks.org/cable/2004/11/04QUITO3103.html.

44http://wikileaks.org/cable/2005/03/05QUITO590.html.

45http://wikileaks.org/cable/2005/04/05QUITO773.html.

46http://wikileaks.org/cable/2005/05/05QUITO1048.html.

47http://wikileaks.org/cable/2005/05/05QUITO1169.html.

48http://wikileaks.org/cable/2005/09/05QUITO2235.html.

49http://wikileaks.org/cable/2006/05/06QUITO1157.html.

50http://wikileaks.org/wiki/CRS:_Article_98_Agreements_
and_Sanctions_on_U.S._Foreign_Aid_to_Latin_America,_March_22,_2007.

51Glenn Greenwald, “US Continues Bush Policy of Opposing ICC Prosecutions,” Salon, February 28, 2011, at salon.com.

52Colum Lynch, “Exclusive: US to Support ICC War Crimes Prosecution in Syria,” Foreign Policy, May 7, 2011, at foreignpolicy.com.

53https://wikileaks.org/cable/2010/02/10TELAVIV417.html.

54Clayton Swisher, “Spy Cables: Abbas and Israel Ally Against 2009 UN Probe,” Al Jazeera, February 23, 2015, at aljazeera.com.

55Jeff Rathke, “Statement on ICC Prosecutor’s Decision,” Press Statement, US Department of State, January 16, 2015, at state.gov.

56Allyn Fisher-Ilan, “US Senator Threatens Aid Cut to Palestinians Over ICC Move,” Reuters, January 19, 2015, at reuters.com.

CHAPTER 6: EUROPE

1For a full rundown of American assessments of Sarkozy’s personality and leadership style, see Angelique Chrisafis, “Nicolas Sarkozy Thin-skinned and Authoritarian,” Guardian, November 30, 2010.

2“Internal Source Kept US Informed of Merkel Coalition Negotiations,” Der Spiegel, November 28, 2010.

3Annalisa Piras, “WikiLeaks Cables Portrait of Silvio Berlusconi Is a Worry Beyond Italy,” Guardian, December 3, 2010.

4Eric Lipton, Nicola Clark, and Andrew Lehren, “Diplomats Help Push Sales of Jetliners on the Global Market,” New York Times, January 2, 2011.

5Ivan Dikov, “The Bulgaria 2011 Review: Defense,” Novinite.com, January 6, 2012.

6Mark Adomanis, “Defense Spending in ‘New Europe’ Is Collapsing,” Forbes, July 31, 2013.

7Food and Water Watch, Biotech Ambassadors (Washington, DC: Food and Water Watch, 2013), p. 16.

8Geoff Pugh, “Food Minister Owen Paterson Backs GM Crops,” Daily Telegraph, December 12, 2012.

9Belén Fernández, “Monsanto and the Other Chemical Weapon,” Warscapes, April 25, 2014.

10Vlad Odobescu, “Romania Bowing to US Pressure to Rethink GMO Ban,” Black Sea, October 30, 2013.

11On September 22, 2003, the European Commission passed Regulation 1829/2003 which established a single authorization for the sale and use of GM food and feed products. The full text of the Regulation on genetically modified food and feed, “Regulation (EC) No 1829/2003 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 22 September 2003,” can be found at ec.europa.eu.

12According to the European Union, “Under European Commission regulation No. 1829/2003 GM food and feed may only be placed on the market when, after an extensive risk assessment by EPSA, it has been authorized following a single authorization procedure. Poland did not respect the harmonized procedures foreseen in this Regulation neither for the authorization of GM feed nor for the adoption of safeguard measures … Therefore, the Commission considers that, by introducing a ban in 2013, Poland is creating legal uncertainty and is in breach of its obligations under EU law.” For more information and documents related to the dispute, see europa.eu/rapid/press-release_IP-11-292_en.htm.

13Dave Keating, “French Court Annuls GMO Ban,” European Voice, August 2, 2013.

14Frederic Bozo, Histoire secrète de la crise irakienne (Paris: Perrin, 2013).

15“Rumsfeld: France, Germany Are ‘Problems’ in Iraqi Conflict,” CNN.com, January 23, 2003.

16Jean-Marie Colombani, “Nous Sommes Tous Américains,” Le Monde, September 12, 2001.

17Matthias Gebauer and Marcel Rosenbach, “Skimming Off the TOP: US Army Charged Germany Fees for Afghanistan Donations,” Der Spiegel, December 2, 2010.

18For more on the continuing public protests at Shannon Airport, see “Protests at Shannon Airport Increase Despite Two-Thirds Fall in US Military Flights,” Irish Times, February 19, 2014.

19“Italians ‘Cannot Try US Soldier,’” BBC, October 27, 2007.

20Khaled El-Masri, “I am not a state secret,” Los Angeles Times, March 3, 2007.

21Nicholas Kulish, “Court Finds Rights Violation in CIA Rendition Case,” New York Times, December 13, 2012.

22John Goetz and Matthias Gebauer, “US Pressured Italy to Influence Judiciary,” Der Spiegel, December 17, 2010.

23Gaia Pianigiani, “Italy Jails Ex-Officials for Rendition,” New York Times, February 12, 2013.

24“Spanish Jurist Garzon at Forefront of WikiLeaks Fight,” EuroNews, August 17, 2012.

CHAPTER 7: RUSSIA

1David Remnick, “Watching the Eclipse,” New Yorker, August 11, 2014.

2Fred Weir, “Wikileaks Release: In Russia, Fear of Damage to Future US Relations,” Christian Science Monitor, November 26, 2010.

3Heather Hurlburt, “Why WikiLeaks is Bad for Progressive US Foreign Policy,” New Republic, November 30, 2010.

4Michael Barker, “Elite ‘Democratic’ Planning at the Council on Foreign Relations,” ZNet, February 27, 2008, at zcomm.org.

5Keir A. Lieber and Darryl G. Press, “The Rise of US Nuclear Primacy,” Foreign Affairs, March/April 2006.

6Charles King, “The Five Day War,” Foreign Affairs, November/December 2008.

7“How the Rose Revolution Happened,” BBC News, May 10, 2005.

8Niall Green, “WikiLeaks Exposes US Cover-Up of Georgian Attack on South Ossetia,” World Socialist Web Site, December 6, 2010, at wsws.org.

9C. J. Chivers, “Embracing Georgia, US Misread Signs of Rifts,” New York Times, December 1, 2010.

10Jonathan Masters and Greg Bruno, “Ballistic Missile Defense,” Council on Foreign Relations, May 1, 2013, at cfr.org; James E. Goodby, “Looking Back: The 1986 Reykjavík Summit,” Arms Control Today, September 2006.

11“US Missile Defense Programs at a Glance,” Arms Control Association Fact Sheet, June 2013, at armscontrol.org.

12Ibid.

13David M. Herszenhorn and Michael Gordon, “US Cancels Part of Missile Defense that Russia Opposed,” New York Times, March 16, 2013.

14Eric Auner, “Missile Defense Budget Holds Steady,” Arms Control Association, April 2014, at armscontrol.org.

15Jeffrey Lewis, “Bar Nunn,” Foreign Policy, October 17, 2012.

16SBLMs are submarine-launched ballistic missiles, as opposed to ICBMs, which are land-based intercontinental ballistic missiles. CBMs are conventional ballistic missiles, which are not armed with nuclear warheads.

17The United States Department of Defense, “National Security and Nuclear Weapons in the 21st Century,” September 2008, at defense.gov.

18Streltsov was referring to Secretary of State Clinton, who was in Moscow to meet with Minister of Foreign Affairs Lavrov.

19Interview by email with Jeffrey Lewis of the James Martin Center for Nonproliferation Studies, March 10, 2014.

20“Russia Warns of Nuclear Response to US Global Strike Program,” RIA Novosti, November 11, 2013.

CHAPTER 8: TURKEY

1Michael Kelly, “Former Ambassador: NATO Needs to Help ‘Contain and Isolate’ the Chaos in Syria,” Business Insider, October 5, 2012, p. 2.

2“Turkish Experts Not Surprised by WikiLeaks Revelations,” Today’s Zaman, November 30, 2010, pp. 1–2.

3Eric Draitser, “Russia, Europe, and the Geopolitics of Energy,” New Eastern Outlook, February 25, 2014, p. 2.

4Ibid.

5Okan Al Tiparmak and Claire Berlinski, “The Wikileaks Cables on Turkey: 20/20 Tunnel Vision,” Meria Journal 15: 1 (March 2011).

6Valerie Strauss and Sharon Higgins, “Largest Charter Network in US: Schools Tied to Turkey,” Post Local, March 27, 2012.

7Fabio Vicini, “The Irrepressible Charm of the State: Dershane Closures and the Domestic War for Power in Turkey,” Jadaliyya, March 24, 2014.

8David P. Goldman, “Turkish Financial Crisis Adds to Region’s Chaos,” Asia Times, February 5, 2014.

9Murat Yetkin, “Kurdish and German Angles of Erdoğan-Gülen Rift,” Daily News, February 4, 2014.

CHAPTER 9: ISRAEL

1Jill Lawless/Associated Press, “WikiLeaks Release: US Briefs Allies About Upcoming Revelations,” Huffington Post, November 26, 2010, at huffingtonpost.com.

2Ross Colvin, “‘Cut Off Head of Snake’ Saudis Told US on Iran,” Reuters, November 29, 2010, at reuters.com.

3Allyn Fisher-Ilan, “Israel Says WikiLeaks Vindicates Its Iran Focus,” Reuters, November 29, 2010, at reuters.com.

4Sever Plocker, “The World Thinks Like Us,” Ynetnews, November 29, 2010, at ynetnews.com.

5Anti-Defamation League, “Conspiracy Theories Linking Israel to WikiLeaks Circulate on the Internet,” January 18, 2011, at archive.adl.org.

6Amira Howeidy, “PA Relinquished Right of Return,” Al Jazeera, January 24, 2011, at aljazeera.com.

7Ed Pilkington, “US Vetoes UN Condemnation of Israeli Settlements,” Guardian, February 18, 2011.

8See, for example, Human Rights Watch, “Israel/Palestine: Growing Abuse in West Bank,” January 21, 2014, at hrw.org.

9“Dirty water” is a reference to the IDF’s chemically treated water that duplicates the effects of skunk spray.

10Conal Urquhart, “Gaza on Brink of Implosion as Aid Cut-Off Starts to Bite,” Guardian, April 15, 2006.

11Following Israel’s granting of access to Goldstone of documents to which the commission had previously been denied access, Goldstone expressed his belief that one short segment of the 575-page report accusing Israel of certain crimes against humanity should not have been written as definitively as it had. Some analysts have erroneously claimed subsequently that he renounced the entire report.

12See Stephen Zunes, “Gaza and the Bipartisan War on Human Rights,” Foreign Policy In Focus, October 17, 2014, at fpif.org.

13See Juan Cole, “Wikileaks: Israel Plans Total War on Lebanon, Gaza,” Informed Comment, January 2, 2011, at juancole.com.

14“US Senate Committee Passes Resolution to Back Israel in Conflict with Iran,” Haaretz, April 17, 2013.

15See Jewish Chronicle Online, “WikiLeaks: Extent of US-Israel Ties Laid Bare,” April 14, 2011, at thejc.com.

16Seymour Hersh, “Our Men in Iran,” New Yorker, April 6, 2012.

17Isabel Kersher, “Israeli Strike on Iran Would Be ‘Stupid,’ Ex-Spy Chief Says,” New York Times, May 8, 2011.

18Noah Habeeb, “A US Shift Away from Israel?,” Foreign Policy in Focus, August 8, 2014, at fpif.org.

CHAPTER 10: SYRIA

1“Influencing the SARG in the End of 2006,” December 13, 2006, https://wikileaks.org/cable/2006/12/06DAMASCUS5399.html.

2“Saudi Intelligence Chief Talks Regional Security with Brennan Delegation,” March 22, 2009, https://wikileaks.org/plusd/cables/09RIYADH445_a.html.

3“Saudi Shia Clash with Police in Medina,” February 24, 2009, http://www.wikileaks.org/plusd/cables/09RIYADH346_a.html.

4“Khaddam Slams Syria over Row with Saudi Arabia,” Beirut Daily Star, August 20, 2007, at dailystar.com.lb.

5“Interview with Former Syrian Vice-President Abdul Halim Khaddam,” Asharq Al-Awsat, January 6, 2006, at aawsat.net.

6See, for example, Stephen Kinzer, Overthrow: America’s Century of Regime Change from Hawaii to Iraq (New York: Times Books, 2006).

7Alexander Cockburn, “Fact Finding,” Village Voice, December 27, 1983, republished in Alexander Cockburn, Corruptions of Empire (London: Verso, 1987), p. 349.

8Andy Sullivan, “Candidate Paul assigns reading to Giuliani,” Reuters, May 24, 2007, at reuters.com.

9Nitya Venkataraman, “Ron Paul Recruits Anonymous to Attack Rudy’s Foreign Policy,” ABC News, May 22, 2007, at abcnews.go.com.

10“US Walks Out on Ahmadinejad’s 9/11 Comment,” CBS News, September 23, 2010, at cbsnews.com.

11“US admits funding Syrian opposition,” CBC News, April 18, 2011, at scbc.ca.

12“Announcement to Fund Opposition Harshly Criticized by Anti-Regime Elements, Others,” February 21, 2006, https://wikileaks.org/plusd/cables/06DAMASCUS701_a.html.

13“Behavior Reform: Next Steps for a Human Rights Strategy,” April 28, 2009, https://wikileaks.org/plusd/cables/09DAMASCUS306_a.html.

14“Human Rights Updates—SARG Budges on TIP, but Little Else,” February 7, 2010, https://wikileaks.org/plusd/cables/10DAMASCUS106_a.html.

15“Murky Alliances: Muslim Brotherhood, the Movement for Justice and Democracy, and the Damascus Declaration,” July 8, 2009, https://wikileaks.org/plusd/cables/09DAMASCUS477_a.html.

16“Show Us the Money! SARG Suspects ‘Illegal’ USG Funding,” September 23, 2009, https://wikileaks.org/plusd/cables/09DAMASCUS692_a.html.

17“Human Rights Updates—SARG Budges On TIP, But Little Else.”

18Elise Labott, Brian Todd, and Dugald McConnell, “US Denies Support for Syrian Opposition Tantamount to Regime Change,” CNN, April 19, 2011, at cnn.com.

CHAPTER 11: IRAN

1Gareth Porter, Manufactured Crisis: The Untold Story of the Iran Nuclear Scare (Charlottesville, VA: Just World Books, 2014), pp. 275–7.

2Glenn Kessler, “US Hails Israeli Plan on West Bank Settlement Building,” Washington Post, November 26, 2009.

3Gary Samore, remarks at a Council on Foreign Relations Symposium on “Iran and Policy Options for the Next Administration, Session Two, The Nuclear Dimension and Iranian Foreign Policy,” Harvard University, September 8, 2008. The transcript of the session has been taken down from the CFR website, but the author has a copy of the transcript in his possession. See also Gareth Porter, “US Nuclear Option on Iran Linked to Israeli Attack Threat,” Inter Press Service, April 23, 2010.

4Gareth Porter and Jim Lobe, “Obama Team Debates Stance on Israel Attack Threat,” Inter Press Service, April 8, 2009.

5On the CIA’s retreat from its 1995 NIE on ballistic missile threats under political pressure from the missile defense interests in Congress, see Michael Dobbs, “How Politics Helped Redefine Threat,” Washington Post, January 14, 2002.

6See National Security Presidential Directive/NSPD-23, December 16, 2002, at fas.org.

7Michael Abramowitz and Walter Pincus, “Administration Diverges on Missile Defense,” Washington Post, October 24, 2007.

8DOD News Briefing with Secretary Robert Gates and Vice-Chairman of the JCS Gen. James Cartwright, September 17, 2009.

9On the previous Russian cooperation with the US in putting pressure on Iran to cease enrichment, see Gareth Porter, “Russian Manipulation of Reactor Fuel Belies US Iran Argument,” Inter Press Service, May 19, 2014.

10William Broad, James Glanz, and David E. Sanger, “Iran Fortifies Its Arsenal with the Aid of North Korea,” New York Times, November 28, 2010.

11The most authoritative analysis of the North Korean missile program confirmed that it was only in October 2010—ten months after the joint assessment meeting—that North Korea first displayed what appeared to be a B-25 or “Musadan” missile in a military parade. And a close examination of the photographs of the missile showed clearly that it had been a crudely constructed mock-up rather than a real missile. Markus Schiller, Characterizing the North Korea Nuclear Missile Threat (Santa Monica, CA: RAND Corporation, 2012), p. 87.

12Reuters, “UAE First Mideast Buyer of PAC-3 missile—Lockheed,” December 23, 2008; Antonie Boessenkool, “UAE to Buy Raytheon’s Patriot Missiles,” Defense News, December 18, 2008.

13Adam Entous, “Saudi Arms Deal Advances,” Wall Street Journal, September 12, 2012; Michael Knights, Rising to Iran’s Challenge: GCC Military Capability and US Security Cooperation, Washington Institute for Near East Policy, Policy Forum 177, June 2013, p. 9; Arthur Bright, “Eyeing Iran US Details $60b. Arms Sale to Saudi Arabia,” Christian Science Monitor, October 21, 2010.

14David E. Sanger, James Glanz, and Jo Becker, “Around the World, Distress Over Iran,” New York Times, November 28, 2010; Barak Ravid, “Netanyahu: WikiLeaks Cables Show Israel Is Right on Iran,” Haaretz, November 29, 2010.

15Porter, Manufactured Crisis, pp. 272, 277–8.

16David E. Sanger and Eric Schmitt, “US Speeding Up Missile Defenses in Persian Gulf,” New York Times, January 31, 2010.

17Porter, Manufactured Crisis, pp. 135–9, 191–208.

18Ibid., pp. 178–87.

19IAEA Report GOV/2007/58, November 15, 2007, pp. 4–5.

20Iran: Nuclear Intentions and Capabilities, National Intelligence Estimate, November 2007, at graphics8.nytimes.com.

21Mohamed ElBaradei, The Age of Deception: Nuclear Diplomacy in Treacherous Times (New York: Metropolitan, 2011), p. 253.

22GOV/2011/65, November 8, 2011, annex, p. 2.

23Porter, Manufactured Crisis, pp. 212–16.

CHAPTER 12: IRAQ

1Dahr Jamail, “Iraq War Vet: ‘We Were Told to Just Shoot People, and the Officers Would Take Care of Us,’” Truthout, April 7, 2010, truth-out.org.

2Just Foreign Policy estimates 1,455,590 Iraqi deaths as a result of the US-led invasion and occupation, as of April 26, 2014.

3FM 3-05.130.

4FM 3-05.130.

5Dahr Jamail, “The Dirty War,” Truthout, July 9, 2009, truth-out.org.

6Dahr Jamail, “Govt. Death Squads Ravaging Baghdad,” Inter Press Service, October 19, 2006.

7Dahr Jamail, “Baghdad Slipping into Civil War,” Inter Press Service, April 19, 2006.

8Dahr Jamail, “Partition Fears Begin to Rise,” Inter Press Service, July 16, 2007.

9Dahr Jamail, “A Tale of One City, Now Two,” Inter Press Service, November 12, 2007.

10Dahr Jamail, “Iran Ties Weaken Government Further,” Inter Press Service, August 13, 2007.

11Dahr Jamail, “Kurds and Shia Fight for Power in Baghdad,” Inter Press Service, May 29, 2007.

12Dahr Jamail, “Skeptical After Second Shrine Attack,” Inter Press Service, June 20, 2007.

13Human Rights Watch, “Iraq: Detainees Describe Torture in Secret Jail,” April 27, 2010, at hrw.org.

14Dahr Jamail, “‘Illegal’ Execution Enrages Arabs,” Inter Press Service, January 2, 2007.

15Philip Dermer, “The ‘Sons of Iraq,’ Abandoned by Their American Allies,” Wall Street Journal, 1 July 2014.

16Ibid.

17Dahr Jamail, “‘Awakening’ Forces Arouse New Conflicts,” Inter Press Service, December 26, 2007.

18“WikiLeaks: Iraq War Logs ‘Reveal Truth about Conflict,’” BBC, October 23, 2010.

19WikiLeaks, “Revealed: Pentagon’s Link to Iraqi Torture Centres,” March 6, 2013, at wikileaks-press.org.

20Ibid.

21Human Rights Watch, “US: Abu Ghraib Only the ‘Tip of the Iceberg,’” April 28, 2005, at hrw.org.

22Amnesty International, “Iraq: A Decade of Abuses,” March 11, 2013, at amnesty.org.

23WikiLeaks, “Classified Memo from US Maj. Gen. Kelly Confirms Fallujah Gulag,” March 26, 2008, at wikileaks.org.

24Human Rights Watch, World Report 2010, at hrw.org.

25WikiLeaks, “Murder in Iraq: US Army Protective Order for Article 32 Investigation, Jul 24, 2006,” February 9, 2009.

CHAPTER 13: AFGHANISTAN

1Russell O. Davis, “Hybrid Power: Mobility Air Forces and Foreign Policy,” Army Command and General Staff Coll., Fort Leavenworth KS School of Advanced Military Studies, May 21, 2010, at dtic.mil.

2Deborah Zabarenko, “US Offers Lesson on How to Tell Cluster Bombs from Food Packs,” Washington Post, October 30, 2001.

3Richard Sale, “A New Kind of War Part 1,” Sic Semper Tyrannis, May 25, 2009, at turcopolier.typepad.com.

4ISAF, “Metrics Brief, 2007–2008,” at wlstorage.net.

5Cpt Nathan Finney, “Human Terrain Team Handbook,” September 2008, at wlstorage.net.

CHAPTER 14: EAST ASIA

1Foreign Policy, January 19, 2012.

2Normitsu Onishi, “Bomb by Bomb, Japan Sheds Military Restraints,” New York Times, July 23, 2007.

3Martin Fackler, “With Bold Stand, Japan Opposition Wins a Landslide,” New York Times, August 31, 2009.

4Choe Sang-Hun, “North Korea Claims to Conduct 2nd Nuclear Test,” New York Times, May 25, 2009.

5I summarized the impact of the Lee-Obama collaboration in Tim Shorrock, “North Korea: What’s Really Happening,” Salon.com, April 5, 2013.

6Martin Fackler, “Memo From Japan: Japan’s Relationship with US Gets a Closer Look,” New York Times, December 1, 2009.

7Martin Fackler and Hiroko Tabuchi, “Japanese Leader Backtracks on Revising Base Agreement,” New York Times, May 10, 2009.

8The article’s title, too, was sadly revealing: Martin Fackler and Mark Landler, “US Relations Played Major Role in Downfall of Japanese Prime Minister,” New York Times, June 3, 2010.

9If this comes to fruition, Okinawa will receive over $24 billion in subsidies over the next eight years.

10Gavan McCormack, “Storm Ahead: Okinawa’s Outlook for 2015,” Asia Pacific Journal 13: 2 (3) (January 12, 2015), available at japanfocus.org.

11Readers interested in following events in Okinawa since the dramatic November 2014 election should follow the Japan Times dispatches of Jon Mitchell, a Welsh reporter based in Tokyo, at japantimes.co.jp.

CHAPTER 15: SOUTHEAST ASIA

1Patrick Porter, “Sharing Power? Prospects for a US Concert-Balance Strategy,” Strategic Studies Institute, 2013, at strategicstudiesinstitute.army.mil.

2John Mearshimer, “Can China Rise Peacefully?,” National Interest, October 25, 2014, at nationalinterest.org.

3Ibid.

4Walden Bello, “From American Lake to People’s Pacific in the Twenty-First Century,” in Setsu Shihematsu and Keith Camacho, eds, Militarized Currents: Toward a Decolonized Future in Asia and the Pacific (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2010).

5James Holmes and Toshi Yoshihara, “Is China Planning String of Pearls?” The Diplomat, February 21, 2011, at thediplomat.com.

6Bello, “From American Lake to People’s Pacific.”

7Neil Sheehan, A Bright Shining Lie: John Paul Vann and America in Vietnam (New York: Vintage, 1989), p. 131.

8Benedict Anderson, “Old Corruption,” London Review of Books, February 5, 1987.

9Pankaj Mishra, From the Ruins of Empire: The Revolt Against the West and the Remaking of Asia (New York: Picador, 2013); Benedict Anderson, “First Filipino,” London Review of Books, October 16, 1997.

10James Fallows, “A Damaged Culture: A New Philippines?,” The Atlantic, November 1, 1987; Anderson, First Filipino.

11Mishra, From the Ruins of Empire.

12Fallows, “A Damaged Culture.”

13Benigno Aquino, “What’s Wrong with the Philippines,” Foreign Affairs, July 1968.

14Walden Bello and David Kinley, Development Debacle: The World Bank in the Philippines (California: Institute for Food and Development Policy, 1982).

15Mearsheimer, “Can China Rise Peacefully?”

16Porter, “Sharing Power?,” p. 16.

17Benedict Anderson, “From Miracle to Crash,” London Review of Books, April 16, 1998.

18Walden Bello, Dilemmas of Domination: The Unmaking of the American Empire (New York: Holt, 2006); Benedict Anderson, “Exit Suharto: Obituary for a Mediocre Tyrant,” New Left Review II/50 (March 2008).

19Henry Kissinger, On China (New York: Penguin, 2011).

20Francis Fukuyama, “The End of History?,” National Interest, Summer 1989.

21“Excerpts From Pentagon’s Plan: ‘Prevent the Re-Emergence of a New Rival,’”New York Times, March 8, 1992.

22Bello, Dilemmas of Domination.

23Eric Schmitt, “US-Philippine Command May Signal War’s Next Phase,” New York Times, January 16, 2002.

24Richard Javad Heydarian, “The China-Philippines-US Triangle,” Foreign Policy in Focus, Institute for Policy Studies, Washington, DC, December 16, 2010.

25Ibid; Achariya and Arabinda Achariya, “The Myth of the Second Front: Localizing the ‘War on Terror’ in Southeast Asia,” Washington Quarterly, Fall 2007.

26It was common knowledge, reflected in Washington’s statements in Obama’s trips to these countries, that the US has been irked by the supposedly protectionist policies of these countries, which had affected American companies’ ability to increase their exports.

27Richard Javad Heydarian, “Obama’s Free Trade Strategy Falters in Asia,” Inter Press Service, June 14, 2014, at ipsnews.net; “Japan, America and the Trans-Pacific Partnership: Stalemate,” The Economist, October 4, 2014.

28Joshua Kurlantzick, Charm Offensive: How China’s Soft Power Is Transforming the World (New York: Yale University Press, 2007).

29Amado Mendoza and Richard Javad Heydarian, “Member Country: Philippines,” ASEAN-CHINA Free Trade Area: Challenges, Opportunities, and the Road Ahead, Monograph No. 22, National University of Singapore, 2012.

30Heydarian, “China-Philippines-US Triangle.”

31Kurlantzick, Charm Offensive.

32Kurt Campbell and Ely Ratner, “Far Eastern Promises,” Foreign Affairs, May/June 2014.

33Kissinger, On China.

34Kurlantzick, Charm Offensive.

35American popularity in the Philippines is in fact consistently reflected in surveys by Gallup and Pew. See, for example, Pew Research Center, “Chapter 1. Attitudes toward the United States,” July 18, 2013, at pewglobal.org; and Zachary Keck, “Obama’s Approval Rating Rises in Asia,” The Diplomat, April 12, 2014, at thediplomat.com.

36Robert Kaplan, Asia’s Cauldron.

37See Kaplan, Asia’s Cauldron.

38Heydarian, “Obama’s Free Trade Strategy Falters in Asia.”

39https://wikileaks.org/tpp.

40Henry Farrell, “US Isolated in the Trans-Pacific Partnership Negotiations,” Washington Post, November 18, 2013.

41Heydarian, “Obama’s Free Trade Strategy Falters in Asia”; “Japan, America and the Trans-Pacific Partnership: Stalemate.”

42Toby Harnden, “WikiLeaks: US diplomats ‘have been spying on UN leadership,” Daily Telegraph, November 28, 2010.

43“Cables ‘Character Assassination’: SBY,” Sydney Morning Herald, March 14, 2011.

44Kaplan, Asia’s Cauldron.

45Critics of the policy of pivoting toward Asia, such as Robert Ross, however, contend that Washington has exacerbated the maritime disputes by encouraging hardliners both in Beijing and in rival claimant states to push the boundaries of their territorial posturing in order to test American commitment to its allies amid China’s expanding maritime ambitions. See Robert Ross, “The Problem with the Pivot,” Foreign Affairs, November/December 2012.

CHAPTER 16: SOUTH AFRICA

1Francis Njubi Nesbitt, Race for Sanctions: African Americans Against Apartheid, 1946–1994 (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 2004).

2Charles C. Diggs and Lester L. Wolff, Report of Special Study Mission to Southern Africa, August 10–30, 1969 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1969).

3Nesbitt, Race for Sanctions, pp. 73–4.

4Ibid., p. 105.

5Ibid., p. 105.

6“Group Decries Rhodesia Elections, Urges Sanctions,” Washington Post, March 21, 1979, p. A17.

7“Is There Life After Andy?,” Washington Post, September 16, 1979, p. A4.

8Nesbitt, Race for Sanctions, pp. 92, 129.

9Truth and Reconciliation Commission of South Africa (1998, 2003). Report (Volumes 1-7). Cape Town: The Truth and Reconciliation Commission. TRC, 1998, vol. 2, p. 176.

10Francis Njubi Nesbitt, “The rise and fall of apartheid,” in Patrick Mason, ed., Encyclopedia of Race and Racism, Vol. 2 (New York: Macmillan Reference, 2013), p. 159.

11Ibid., p. 160.

CHAPTER 17: LATIN AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN

1John Kerry, “Remarks on US Policy in the Western Hemisphere,” November 18, 2013, at state.gov.

2Juan Forero, “Cables Released by WikiLeaks Reveal US Concerns over South America,” Washington Post, December 2, 2010.

3William I. Robinson, A Faustian Bargain: US Intervention in the Nicaraguan Elections and American Foreign Policy in the Post–Cold War Era (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1992).

4Greg Grandin, Empire’s Workshop: Latin America, the United States, and the Rise of the New Imperialism (New York: Holt, 2007).

5This is not to underplay US interference in foreign elections, bribery, and the cooptation of foreign officials, politicians, civil society and other groups, and other forms of foreign interference, which the US had carried out for decades, through the CIA and other agencies—and which it still does. See, for example, Tim Weiner, Legacy of Ashes: The History of the CIA (New York: Anchor: 2008).

6This was between 1980 and 2000. See Mark Weisbrot and Rebecca Ray, “The Scorecard on Development, 1960–2010: Closing the Gap?,” Center for Economic and Policy Research, April 2011, at cepr.net.

7Joe Rubin, “El Salvador: Payback,” Frontline (PBS), October 12, 2004, at pbs.org.

8Millennium Challenge Corporation, “El Salvador Compact,” at www.mcc.gov.

9World Bank, “El Salvador Overview,” at worldbank.org.

10World Economic Outlook Database, April 2014 Edition, International Monetary Fund, at imf.org.

11See “EUA ya eligió a Munguía Payés para el cargo, dice vocero del FMLN,” La Prensa Grafica, November 15, 2011, at laprensagrafica.com.

12Robinson, Faustian Bargain.

13Colin Powell, “Remarks with Nicaraguan President Enrique Bolaños before Their Working Dinner,” State Department, November 3, 2003, at 2001-2009.state.gov.

14Sean McCormack, “Daily Press Briefing,” State Department, November 2, 2006, at 2001-2009.state.gov.

15Adam Thompson, “Interview: Paul Trivelli, US Ambassador to Managua,” Financial Times, September 14, 2006.

16Organization of American States, “Declaracion de Prensa Mision de Observacion Electoral en Nicaragua,” September 25, 2006, at oas.org.

17“La retórica ocultaba las reales intenciones de la embajada,” El Telégrafo, May 15, 2012, at www.telegrafo.com.ec.

18“La base de Manta, la ‘joya’ por la que EE.UU. se jugó todo,” El Telégrafo, May 16, 2012, at telegrafo.com.ec.

19Constitution of the Republic of Ecuador, October 20, 2008, at pdba.georgetown.edu.

20Public Citizen, “Timeline on Ecuador’s Compulsory Licensing,” at citizen.org.

21World Bank, World Development Indicators, “Antiretroviral Therapy Coverage (% of People Living with HIV),” at data.worldbank.org.

22ULAN, “Confirman participación de agentes externos en intento de golpe de Estado en Ecuador en 2010,” June 12, 2014, at agenciasulan.org.

23See Richard Lapper and Hal Weitzman, “Morales Poised for Win in Bolivia,” Financial Times, December 19, 2005.

24US Department of State, “Bolivia (06/05)” (background note), June 2005, at state.gov.

25See Mark Weisbrot, “Bolivia’s Economy: The First Year,” Center for Economic and Policy Research, January 2007, at cepr.net.

26See also [08LAPAZ1426].

27Mark Weisbrot and Luis Sandoval, “The Distribution of Bolivia’s Most Important Natural Resources and the Autonomy Conflicts,” Center for Economic and Policy Research, July 2008, at cepr.net.

28USAID, “USAID/OTI Bolivia Field Report Jan.–Mar. 2007,” archived at web.archive.org.

29See, for example, Eduardo Garcia, “Foes of Morales Stage General Strike in Bolivia,” Reuters, August 19, 2008; Franz Chávez, “Bolivia: Divisions Emerge in Opposition Strategy,” Inter Press Service, September 4, 2008, at ipsnews.net; Dan Beeton, “The Fun House Mirror: Distortions and Omissions in the News on Bolivia,” NACLA Report on the Americas, May 4, 2009, at nacla.org.

30Senator Richard Lugar (R-IN), the ranking minority member of the Foreign Relations Committee at the time, would subsequently issue a statement acknowledging that the US had made a mistake in not condemning the violence. See Beeton, “Fun House Mirror.”

31See Franz Chávez, “BOLIVIA: Governor Arrested for ‘Porvenir Massacre,’” Inter Press Service, September 16, 2008, at www.ipsnews.net.

32See also [08LAPAZ2000], which states: “There is increasing chatter about threats to President Evo Morales. EAC will form a working group to review consequences should Morales be removed from power either by assassination or coup.”

33Jake Johnston, “Bolivia Expels USAID: Not Why, but Why Not Sooner,” Americas Blog (CEPR), May 1, 2013, at cepr.net.

34Jeb Sprague has done important original research on this subject through interviews with many of the paramilitary leaders, their financiers, and others involved in these events, as well as numerous declassified US government documents. See Jeb Sprague, Paramilitarism and the Assault on Democracy in Haiti (New York: Monthly Review, 2012). See also Peter Hallward, Damming the Flood: Haiti and the Politics of Containment (London: Verso, 2010); Randall Robinson, An Unbroken Agony: Haiti, From Revolution to the Kidnapping of a President (New York: Basic Civitas, 2007); Justin Podur, Haiti’s New Dictatorship: The Coup, the Earthquake and the UN Occupation (London: Pluto, 2012).

35Podur includes many cable excerpts and analyses of cables in Haiti’s New Dictatorship.

36Dan Coughlin and Kim Ives, “WikiLeaks Haiti: Let Them Live on $3 a Day,” Nation, June 1, 2011.

37For more analysis of this cable, see CEPR, “US Embassy: ‘Without a UN-Sanctioned … Force, We Would Be Getting Far Less Help … in Managing Haiti,’” Haiti Relief and Reconstruction Watch Blog, August 24, 2011, at cepr.net.

38See, for example, Hallward, Damming the Flood, pp. 281–6; Athena Kolbe and Royce Hutson, “Human Rights Abuse and Other Criminal Violations in Port-au-Prince, Haiti: A Random Survey of Households,” Lancet 368 (September 2006), pp. 6–9.

39Kolbe and Hutson, “Human Rights Abuse.”

40Dan Kovalik, email communication with Dan Beeton, June 11, 2014: “… this would be a knowing and premeditated violation of the Geneva Conventions which requires the protection of civilians during an armed conflict, including one of a non-international character, and which prevents the indiscriminate killing of civilians. In this instance, it is being acknowledged in advance that there would be civilian casualties in this operation, and no one, including the [chargé], is saying anything about trying to protect the lives of the civilians in advance or even trying to limit civilian casualties; they are only saying that they will try to provide some aid after the inevitable slaughter has already happened. Indeed, one could argue that this amounted to a premeditated mass murder or massacre (of 4 individuals at a time or more) which would certainly be a war crime and violation of international humanitarian law. This would also amount to a crime against humanity as defined by Article 7 of the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court which forbids the act of murder ‘when committed as part of a widespread or systematic attack directed against any civilian population, with knowledge of the attack.’ This would also amount to a war crime as defined by Article 8 of the Rome Statute of the ICC which prohibits ‘willful killing’ as well as ‘[i]ntentionally directing attacks against the civilian population as such or against individual civilians not taking direct part in hostilities … when committed as part of a plan or policy …’”

41For additional analysis, see CEPR, “As US Chargé D’Affaires, Clinton Bush Haiti Fund VP Green Lighted Assault on Slum Despite ‘Inevitable …civilian casualties,’” Haiti Relief and Reconstruction Watch, August 31, 2011, at cepr.net.

42Kim Ives, “WikiLeaks points to US meddling in Haiti,” Guardian, January 21, 2011.

43Haiti Information Project, “US Embassy in Haiti Acknowledges Excessive Force by UN,” January 24, 2007, at haitiaction.net.

44See “Haiti’s UN Occupation Forces Carry Out Massacre of Poor in Port-au-Prince,” July 8, 2005; and “Evidence Mounts of a UN Massacre in Haiti,” July 12, 2005, both available at haitiaction.net. Some video footage from the incident is included in Pina’s documentary Haiti: We Must Kill the Bandits (Haiti Information Project, 2007).

45Podur provides a summary accounting of many, if not all, of these raids in Haiti’s New Dictatorship.

46Dan Coughlin, “WikiLeaks Haiti: US Cables Paint Portrait of Brutal, Ineffectual and Polluting UN Force,” Nation, October 6, 2011.

47Kim Ives and Ansel Herz, “WikiLeaks Haiti: The Aristide Files,” Nation, August 5, 2011.

48Reported in ibid., among other articles.

CHAPTER 18: VENEZUELA

1Chávez’s “lack of support for the war on terrorism” and “involvement in the affairs of the Venezuelan oil company and the potential impact of that on oil prices” were cited as policies that “irrita[ted]” the US government in a report by the Office of the Inspector General of the United States Department of State and the Broadcasting Board of Governors. See “A Review of US Policy Toward Venezuela: November 2001 April 2002,” Report 02-OIG-003, July 2002, at oig.state.gov, pp. 37–9.

2For additional details, see Mark Weisbrot, “Venezuela’s Election Provides Opportunity for Washington to Change Course,” McClatchy-Tribune Information Services, December 6, 2006, at cepr.net; Eva Golinger, The Chávez Code: Cracking US Intervention in Venezuela (London: Pluto, 2006); South of the Border, dir. Oliver Stone (Cinema Libre, 2010).

3Golinger, Chávez Code.

4Hagamos Democracia, a beneficiary of IRI grants.

5International Republican Institute, “IRI President Folsom Praises Venezuelan Civil Society’s Defense of Democracy,” press release, April 12, 2002, at thefreelibrary.com.

6See, for example, [06CARACAS1262] and [06CARACAS2478].

7See, for example, [04CARACAS3291].

8See, for example, [05CARACAS1011], [04CARACAS3342], and [04CARACAS3013].

9See the excerpt from López and Corina Machado’s press conference in the video “What’s Really Going on in Venezuela,” March 14, 2014, youtube.com.

10Footage of this incident can be seen in the video “Heroes of Human Rights,” available at vimeo.com.

11https://WikiLeaks.org/U-S-secret-blueprint-to-undermine.html.

12White House, Office of the Press Secretary, “Remarks to the Press by Vice President Biden and Colombian President Santos, Bogota, Colombia,” May 27, 2013, at whitehouse.gov.

13“Lula advierte sobre interés geopolítico de la Alianza del Pacífico,” at youtube.com.

14Jamaica Information Service, “US$2.4 Billion Provided Under Petrocaribe,” March 18, 2013, at jis.gov.jm.

15Dan Coughlin and Kim Ives, “WikiLeaks Haiti: The PetroCaribe Files,” Nation, June 1, 2011.

16Ian James, “AP Interview: Haiti Leader Says Venezuela Aid Key,” Associated Press, December 4, 2011, at news.yahoo.com.

17Ernesto J. Tover, “Pdvsa provee 43% de la energía de 17 países en Petrocaribe,” El Universal, March 16, 2014, at eluniversal.com.

18John F. Kelly, “Department of Defense Press Briefing by Gen. Kelly in the Pentagon Briefing Room,” US Department of Defense, March 13, 2014, at defense.gov.

19https://www.WikiLeaks.org/plusd/cables/07SANTIAGO1828_a.html.

20https://WikiLeaks.org/cable/2006/02/06QUITO407.html.

21https://WikiLeaks.org/cable/2006/08/06QUITO2150.html.

22Rudi Williams, “SOUTHCOM Faces Threats to Peace in Latin America, Caribbean,” US Department of Defense, American Forces Press Service, March 31, 2004, at defense.gov.

23https://www.WikiLeaks.org/plusd/cables/07TEGUCIGALPA1828_a.htm.

24Tim Padgett, “Is US Opposition to the Honduran Coup Lessening?,” Time, October 16, 2009.

25See, for example, [09GUATEMALA977] and [09MEXICO3387].

26See, for example, [09MONTEVIDEO641] and [10BUENOSAIRES11].

27Mark Weisbrot, “The United States shows its contempt for Venezuelan democracy,” Guardian, April 22, 2013.

28See David Rosnick and Mark Weisbrot, “A Statistical Note on the April 14 Venezuelan Presidential Election and Audit of Results,” Center for Economic and Policy Research, May 2013, at cepr.net.