Page numbers in italics refer to illustrations.
Abe Sueo, 58, 59, 60–61, 155n77
Adachi Kenzō, 69
Africa: Italy’s imperial ambitions in, 6, 45, 90, 96; Japan’s trade with, 99; Western colonialism in, 91, 94. See also Ethiopia; Italo-Ethiopian War
Africans, racialized views of, 103, 104
agrarianism (nōhonshugi), 6, 77, 84
Akamatsu Katsumarō, 86
Amur River Society (Kokuryūkai), 70, 93
Anglo-Saxon domination: Axis opposition to, 118, 120; Japanese criticism of, 6, 90
“anguished youth” (hanmon seinen), 11
anticolonialism, in Japanese response to Italo-Ethiopian War, 93, 102, 103
Anti-Comintern Pact, 111, 112; celebrations of, 112–13, 113; debate sparked by, 6, 121–28, 133, 136; Italo-Japanese rapprochement following, 111–21; and regional federalism, 131; shared notion of culture and, 133
anticommunism: Axis Powers and, 112, 118; fascist regimes and, 64, 89
Aono Suekichi, 79
Aquinas, Saint Thomas, 127
Araki Sadao, 109
Ardemagni, Mirko, 118, 138, 170n35
Asian regionalism: conceptions of, 110, 128–29, 132, 133. See also Pan-Asianism
Auriti, Giacinto, 94, 107, 113, 116
Axis Powers: debate on nature of alliance of, 6, 121–28, 133, 136; festivities promoting alliance of, 111–17, 134–35; imperialism as common ground among, 6, 107–8; limits on collaboration among, 108, 110–11, 118–20, 128, 134; and new world order, 109, 128–35, 136; and World War II, 136, 137–38. See also Anti-Comintern Pact; Tripartite Pact
Baracca, Francesco, 30
Battisti, Cesare, 29
Bellonci, Goffredo, 15
Beltramelli, Antonio, 37, 151n121
biographies: of Mussolini, 48, 54–61, 60; popularity in 1920s, 54–55
Blackshirts: Hitler’s Brownshirts compared to, 65; Japanese liberals on, 9; Japanese theater on, 51, 53
bloc economy, concept of, 101, 102, 129; as free trade alternative, 98, 101
Bonomi, Ivanoe, 55
Bottai, Giuseppe, 162n2
bourgeoisie, and fascism, 70–72, 74
Brandon, James R., 48
Brecht, Berthold, 38
Brentano, Lujo, 157n6
Britain: fascist movement in, 71; Italo-Ethiopian War and, 95, 96, 97, 102; Italo-Japanese rapprochement and, 168n13; Japan’s imperialist ambitions and, 107; and League of Nations, 89, 107; and London Naval Treaty (1930), 94
bunshi (literary warriors), 79
bureaucrats, and Japanese fascism, 73. See also reformist bureaucrats, Japanese
bushido (way of the warrior): international applicability of, 102–3, 164n42; Italian Fascism compared to, 8, 26
Byas, Hugh, 139
Caesarism, 3
capitalism, crisis of 1930s, 1, 64, 66; Italo-Ethiopian War in context of, 100; and Japanese imperialism, 107; revisionist history ignoring, 140
capitalist class conflict, and fascism, 4, 64, 70–71
Cardinal Principles of Our National Polity (Kokutai no hongi), 87–88
Chamberlin, William Henry, 139
Chiang Kai-shek, 64, 163n13, 169n14
Chichibu, Prince, 116, 151n118, 169n30
children’s literature, in 1920s Japan: folktales, 12–13; on Mussolini, 57, 58–60, 60; on World War I, 29
China: fascist movement in, 64; Japanese invasion of, 109, 110, 169n14; Mussolini’s policy on, 163n13, 169n14; open-door policy in, 44, 90; response to Italo-Ethiopian War, 162n7
Ciano, Galeazzo, 169n14
Civinini, Guelfo, 18
class conflict, and fascism, 64, 70–71
Cold War, and revisionist history of fascism, 137, 140
colonial redistribution, call for, 90, 163n8
Comintern thesis on fascism, 50, 72, 141
communism. See anticommunism; socialism
Concordia Association (Kyōchōkai), 82, 158n20
conservatives, Japanese: critique of fascism, 6, 75–76, 80–88; on fascism as nationalism, 3–4, 75, 81–82, 86; on Italian Fascism, 5, 9, 75–76, 117; on Italo-Ethiopian War, 93–94, 115, 116; on kokutai (national polity), 3, 65, 75, 80–81, 83, 87–88; on Mussolini, 39, 42–43, 84–85. See also Right, Japanese
constitutional fascism (rikkenteki fashizumu), 74
cool fascism, thesis of, 71, 72
cooperativism (kyōdōshugi), 129, 156n83
corporatism (corporate state): fascist regimes and, 64, 120; after Great Depression, 66, 98
Corradini, Enrico, 90
Coudenhove-Kalergi, Richard Nikolaus von, 130, 131
Craigie, Robert, 175n15
culture: fascism and, 64, 72–73; Italian, Japanese intellectuals on, 122–25; national, vs. international law, 133
culture, Japanese: Italian Fascism compared to, 8; and politics, Shimoi on, 28; vs. Western civilization, 122
D’Annunzio, Gabriele, 14, 17, 19–22, 28; Mussolini compared to, 53, 54; occupation of Fiume, 19–20; planned flight to Japan, 20–21, 22, 23, 25–26, 148n62
Dan Takuma, 24
Dante Alighieri, 13, 21, 25, 28, 124, 127
Davico, Vincenzo, 24
de’ Calboli, Giacomo Paulucci, 113, 115, 116
De Felice, Renzo, 143n5, 174n11
De Grand, Alexander, 162n2
de Grazia, Victoria, 146n12
Deguchi Onisaburō, 77, 78, 79, 159n55
De Lorenzo, Giuseppe, 147n35
democracy. See liberalism; parliamentary democracy, in Japan; Taishō democracy
Doi (Tsuchii) Bansui, 22
East Asian Federation (Tōa renmei), 131
economy: bloc, concept of, 101, 102, 129; corporatism and, 64, 66, 98, 120; Fascist, 66, 120, 162n3; managed, Great Depression and trend toward, 98; national, Germany and, 66–67
economy, Japanese: imperial expansion in Manchuria and, 63, 98, 165n45; Italo-Ethiopian War and, 98–102, 165n47
education: Italian Fascism and, 5, 28–29, 85–86; Meiji system of, 12
Egypt, fascist movement in, 64
emperor: and religion and politics, 46; state and, Japanese debate on, 43, 64
“emperor system fascism,” concept of, 141
empire: vs. imperialism, 173n94; and mobilization, 144n8; Roman, Japanese discourse on, 126. See also imperialism
England. See Britain
Ethiopia: Italian annexation of, Japan’s recognition of, 112; trade relations with Japan, 99. See also Italo-Ethiopian War
exceptionalism, Japanese, and understanding of fascism, 3–4, 75, 83, 102
Facta, Luigi, 52
Farinacci, Roberto, 170n35
fascism: alternative explanations/terms for, 2, 9–10, 64–65, 143n5; bourgeoisie and, 70–72, 74; class conflict and, 64, 70–71; Cold War and revisionist history of, 137, 140; Comintern thesis on, 50, 72, 141; as community-building ideology, Japanese interest in, 85; fascist critique of, 6, 80–88, 137; fundamental contradiction of, 2–3, 75, 137; ideals vs. means of, Japanese response to, 7; and imperialism, 89; insidiousness of, 72–73; interest in, in 1920s Japan, 5, 9, 10, 25, 37; and international politics, 89–90; Japanese interpretations of, 2, 3–4, 5–7, 68–75, 132–33, 136; and liberalism, Japanese thinkers on, 2, 56–57, 68, 73–74, 81–83; Marxists on, 2, 9, 72–75, 143n5; Mussolini on, 68; and nationalism, 2, 3–4, 10, 68, 70, 75, 81–82, 86, 117; and Nazism, 4, 67; open-endedness of concept of, 3, 141–42; as process, 3; as “restoration-revolution,” 1, 7; use of term, 3; as world trend, 64, 67, 68, 71–72, 73, 117, 136; after World War II, 137–42, 144n8, 174n11. See also Italian Fascism; Japanese fascism
fascist literature (bungei), 80
Fascist National Party (PNF), 23
Fassho undō (Shimoi), 30
feminism: Japanese youth in 1920s and, 29; Shimoi on, 31
Ferrero, Guglielmo, 55
Ferretti, Valdo, 112
First Normal School, Tokyo, 11–12
folktales (tsūzoku dōwa), Shimoi on, 12–13
foreign policy: Japanese, Italo-Ethiopian War and, 97; Mussolini’s, Japanese admiration for, 44–45
France: Italo-Ethiopian War and, 95, 96, 97; Japan’s imperialist ambitions and, 107; and League of Nations, 89, 107
Franco, Francisco, 64
free trade: bloc economy as alternative to, 98, 101; Great Depression and backlash against, 98, 100; Italo-Ethiopian War as blow to, 89, 98
Fujisawa Chikao, 130, 132–34, 173n94
Fujitani, Takashi, 174n13
Fuke Takahiro, 85, 144n6, 156n4
Fukuda Tokuzō, 157n6
Furukawa Tetsushi, 162n6
Furukawa Toshitaka, 50, 51, 61
Gandhi, Mahatma, 162n7
Gasco, Alfonso, 50
Gentile, Giovanni, 86
Germany: Hitler’s rise in, 64, 65, 72; Japan’s relations with, 65–66, 157n6, 157n7; national economics in, 66–67. See also Axis Powers; Nazism
Gluck, Carol, 156n5
Gorgolini, Pietro, 55
Gotō Shinpei, 28
Gotō Tadanao, 112
Gottl-Ottlilienfeld, Friedrich von, 66
Govoni, Corrado, 15
Gramsci, Antonio, 1, 3, 72, 152n6
Great Depression: and backlash against free trade, 98, 100; corporatism after, 66, 98; Darwinian argument on colonies during, 90
Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere (Daitōa Kyōeiken), 110, 128, 129, 132, 133
Greater Japan Production Party (Dai Nihon Seisantō), 70
Greece, fascist movement in, 137
Greek culture, Japanese discourse on, 126
Grossraum, international order based on, 129, 133, 134
Gyorai no se ni matagarite (Shimoi), 30
haiku, Italian intellectuals’ interest in, 15, 147n32
Hara Kei, 5
Harootunian, Harry, 122, 140, 143n5, 146n19
Hasegawa Nyozekan, 70–72, 73, 74, 118
Hatoyama Ichirō, 116, 140, 174n14
Hattori Takushirō, 166n78
Haushofer, Karl, 129
Hayashi Fusao, 80
Hesse, Hermann, 11
Higashinomiya (crown prince of Japan), 24
Higuchi Ichiyō, 24
Hijikata Seibi, 66
Hirai Kazomi, 174n12
Hitler, Adolf: demise of, 140; Japanese celebration of, 112, 113; rise of, 64, 65, 72
Hori Makoto, 96
House, Edward M., 167n88
Hozumi Yatsuka, 43
Ichikawa Sadanji II, 48, 49, 52
Iida Seizō, 101
Ikuta Chōkō, 20
imperialism: Axis Powers and, 6, 107–8, 128–35; vs. empire, 173n94; fascism and, 89; Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere and, 110, 128, 129, 132, 133; internationalism and, 107; Italian, 162n2; Italo-Japanese commonality in, 45, 90–91, 107; Japanese, Italo-Ethiopian War and revival of, 101–3, 107, 108. See also Manchuria, Japanese imperial expansion in
imperial rule (kō), 87
Imperial Rule Assistance Association Research Institute (Taisei Yokusankai Chōsakyoku Chō), 130, 169n28
imperial way. See ōdō
individual: mobilization for nation, Mussolini and, 47–48, 56; and state, kokutai (national polity) as reconciliation of, 83, 85
individualism: Japanese criticism of, 47, 87–88, 132; modernity and, 4; romanticism and, 12
internationalism: and imperial ambitions, 107; Italo-Ethiopian War as blow to, 89, 90, 98, 101; Japanese criticism of, 6, 44, 45, 47, 95–96; vs. regional blocs, 128–35. See also League of Nations
international politics, fascism and, 89–90
internment camps, Japanese, Italian diplomats in, 138, 139, 173n4
Ishida Tatsuo, 117
Ishihama Tomoyuki, 75
Ishikawa Sanshirō, 68
Italian Fascism: bourgeoisie and, 72; bushido compared to, 8, 26; economy under, 66, 120, 162n3; education under, 5, 28–29, 85–86; interest in, in 1920s Japan, 5, 9, 10, 25, 37; Japanese fascism compared to, 70–71, 74, 133; Japanese theater on, 50, 52–53; Mussolini and, 23; Nazism compared to, 65, 67; negation of, in 1930s Japan, 6, 75–76, 81, 82–86; Shimoi on, 5, 8–9, 10, 28–29, 30–31, 77–78; use of term, 3; violence associated with, Japanese response to, 52, 92; youth associated with, 10, 29, 41, 149n85
Italian Social Republic, 138
The Italian War (Shimoi), 18–19
Italo-Ethiopian War, 89; behind-the-scenes support for Italy in, 104–6, 111–12; Darwinian logic in response to, 104–5; and debate around fascism, 6, 90–108; economic implications for Japan, 98–102; international response to, 162n7; Italian strategy in, 163n14; Japanese conservatives on, 93–94, 115, 116; and Japanese imperialism, revival of, 101–3, 107, 108; Japanese observer in, 166n78; Japan’s expansion in Asia compared to, 6, 90, 100, 103; lead-up to, 162n2; and League of Nations, 89, 90, 93, 94–97, 107; popular criticism of, 91–93, 93, 102, 103, 104, 162n6; racial consciousness in response to, 93, 94, 103, 104, 105
Italo-Japanese affinity: Anti-Comintern Pact and, 111–21; byakkōtai affair and, 32–37; cultural exchanges and, 145n11; Ethiopian invasion and rift in, 91–94; history and, 123–27, 135; imperial ambitions and, 45, 90–91, 107; Mussolini on, 26; patriotism and, 70; poetry and, 22, 24–25; Shimoi on, 8, 9, 14, 17, 22, 23, 24–25, 31; World War II and rift in, 138–39
Itaria (publication), 118, 121
Itaria No Tomo No Kai (Society of the Friends of Italy), 117–18, 122
Iwasaki Junko, 80
Iwaya Sazanami, 12
Japanese fascism: alternative terms used for, 4, 144n8; ambiguities of, 7; Italian Fascism compared to, 70–71, 74, 133; kokutai (national polity) in discussions of, 3, 65, 75, 80–81, 83, 87–88; liberal intellectuals on, 68–72; Marxists on, 2, 72–75, 143n5, 144n8; vs. nationalism, 80; revisionist history of, 2, 137, 139–41, 143n5, 175n15; right-wing ideologues on, 6, 75–76, 80–88; rise of, 63–64; Shimoi and, 76–79; writers on, 79–80, 160n65. See also Italo-Japanese affinity; Japanism
Japanese Fascist League (Nihon Fassho Renmei), 79, 80
Japanese Poems (Marone and Shimoi), 15, 17, 146n30
Japanism (nihonshugi), 6, 73–75, 84, 133; as hybrid between liberalism and fascism, 74; vs. national socialism, 84–87
Japan Romantic Group, 125
Johnstone, William C., 140
Jones, Mark, 57
Jünger, Ernst, 18
kabuki plays, about Mussolini, 48–54
Kajima Morinosuke, 106, 129–32, 134, 164n42
Kajiwara Nakaji, 100
Kamei Katsuichirō, 120
Kamo Giichi, 124
Kanezaki Ken, 103
Kano Kizō, 96
Kanokogi Kazunobu, 85
Kanokogi Masanobu, 118
Katayama Sen, 9
Katō Yōko, 174n12
Kawai Eijirō, 73
Kersten, Rikki, 143n5
Kikuchi Kan, 79
kingly way. See ōdō
Kishida Tatsuya, 48, 50, 51, 154n42
Kitamura Tōkoku, 11
Kita Reikichi, 84, 85, 103, 161n79
kō (imperial rule), 87
Kobayashi Hideo, 126
Kobayashi Takiji, 79
kokkashakaishugi. See national socialism, in Japan
Kōkoku seinentō (Imperial Country Youth Party), 31–32, 33
Kokuhonsha (National Foundation Society), 75
Kokumin Seishin Bunka Kenkyūjo (Research Institute for the National Spirit and Culture), 130
Kokuryūkai (Amur River Society), 70, 93
kokutai (national polity), 164n41; in discussions of fascism, 3, 65, 75, 80–81, 83, 87–88, 137; Italo-Ethiopian war and, 97
Konno Nobuyuki, 156n5
Konoe Fumimaro: and byakkōtai affair, 34, 36; and call for colonial redistribution, 90, 163n8; on international New Deal, 108, 167n88; on new world order, 110, 129; and Shōwa Research Association, 66–67, 129
Kōyama Iwao, 127
Kunikida Doppo, 24
Kyōchōkai (Concordia Association), 82, 158n20
kyōdōshugi (cooperativism), 129, 156n83
Kyoto School of Philosophy, 107, 125, 126–28, 167n83, 174n10
La Diana (journal), 14–17, 24, 25, 146n27, 147n32
Lampedusa, Giuseppe Tomasi di, 1
Laval, Pierre, 96
leadership: cooperativism (kyōdōshugi) and, 156n83; fascism and, 2, 3; Japanese, criticism of, 43–44, 45; Japanese quest for, 5, 39–40, 47, 61–62; Mussolini as model of, 40, 44–45, 47, 61–62, 136; totalitarianism and, 120
League of Nations: disillusionment with, 89, 90, 104, 107; vs. East Asian federation, 131; Italo-Ethiopian War and, 89, 90, 93, 94–97, 107; Japanese criticism of, 6, 44, 45, 96–97, 107; Japanese withdrawal from, 94
legal fascism, concept of, 71
liberal capitalism. See capitalism, crisis of 1930s
liberalism (liberal democracy): crisis of, 5, 38–40, 100; fascism and, Japanese intellectuals on, 2, 56–57, 68, 73–74, 81–83; fascism as alternative to, 136
liberals, Japanese: on fascism, 5, 9, 68–72; on Mussolini, 39, 40–42
Literary Society, 125
literary warriors (bunshi), 79
literature: children’s, in 1920s Japan, 12–13, 29, 57, 58–60; fascist (bungei), 79–80; proletarian, 50, 79; romantic, 11, 12. See also poetry
London Naval Treaty (1930), 94
MacArthur, Douglas, 140
Machiavelli, Niccolò, 123, 124
Maedakō Hiroichirō, 48, 50, 52, 80, 154n47
Maida Minoru, 44
Maida Suikei, 147n32
Manchukuo, 90, 107; Axis Powers’ recognition of, 112
Manchuria, Japanese imperial expansion in, 6, 90; and economic experimentation, 63, 98, 165n45; Italian invasion of Ethiopia compared to, 6, 90, 100, 103; League of Nations on, 94; and reformist bureaucrats, rise of, 6, 98; and regionalism, 131
Mann, Thomas, 11
Marinetti, Filippo Tommaso, 14, 17, 19
Mario, E. A., 30
Marone, Gherardo, 14, 15, 17, 146n30
Martin, Benjamin, 122
Maruyama Tsurukichi, 21
Marxists/Marxism: on crisis of liberal capitalism, 1; on fascism, 2, 9, 72–75, 143n5; and nationalism, attempted synthesis of, 161n79; postwar, on fascism, 141, 144n8, 174n12, 175n15
Masamune Hakuchō, 104
materialism, Western: Japanese rejection of, 11, 12, 47, 132; Mussolini as counterimage to, 58
Matsudaira Michio, 58, 59, 155n77
Matsudaira Tsuneo, 34, 36, 151n118
Matsuda Shōichi, 96
Matsui Haruo, 100, 101, 165n57
Mazower, Mark, 108
Meiji constitution: German model for, 65; and “organ theory debate,” 43
Meiji period: romanticism of, 11, 12; youth of, 11
Mexico, fascist movement in, 64
Mikami Otokichi, 79
military: and fascism, Japanese intellectuals on, 64, 69, 70, 72, 73; and policy of autarky, 165n43
Mimura, Janis, 66
Minichiello, Sharon, 153n30
Minobe Tatsukichi, 43
Minseitō political party, 39, 71
Mitani Taichirō, 131
Miyamoto Kinpachi, 112
modernity: dislocations of, 1, 4; fascism as cure for, 2; symposium on overcoming, 127–28, 172n66
Montale, Eugenio, 147n32
Montanelli, Indro, 142
morality: bushido (way of the warrior), 102–3, 164n42; Mussolini as model of, 47–62
Mori Arinori, 12
Mori Eijirō, 50
Mori Ōgai, 24
Mosley, Oswald, 71
Mosse, George, 29
Musil, Robert, 11
Mussolini, Arnaldo, 170n35
Mussolini, Benito: biographies of, 48, 54–61, 60; Comintern thesis on, 50; Corfu incident (1923) and, 44; cult of personality of, 45; demise of, 140; Ethiopian invasion and criticism of, 92–93, 93; and Ethiopian invasion strategy, 163n14; on fascism, 68; Fiume occupation and, 20; fondness for cats, 155n69; foreign policy of, 163n13; gift of friendship by, 32–37, 35; gifts to, 112–15, 114; Hitler compared to, 65; humanity of, Japanese commentators on, 46–47; Japanese conservatives on, 39, 42–43, 84–85; Japanese liberals on, 39, 40–42; as leader, Japanese admiration for, 40, 44–45, 47, 61–62, 136; message addressed to Japan’s youth, 26–28; moral leadership of, Japanese commentators on, 47–62; and new world order, 2, 47; oratory of, 45; personal audiences with, 25, 46, 52, 115–17; planned flight to Japan and, 20, 147n46; plays about, 48–54, 49; popularity of, in 1920s Japan, 5, 25, 38–39, 48, 61; rise to prominence, 23; Shimoi and, xii, 26–28, 27, 31, 33, 36, 37, 48; and totalitarianism, 85, 120; use of violence by, justifications for, 106; during World War II, 137, 138
Mussolini, Bruno, 121
Mussorini no shishiku (Shimoi), 30
Mutō Naoyoshi, 105
Myers, Ramon Hawley, 165n45
Nakano Seigō, 42, 70, 116, 169n28
Nakano Shigeharu, 79
National Alliance (Japan), 69–70
national economics, Germany and, 66–67
National Foundation Society (Kokuhonsha), 75
nationalism: fascism and, 2, 3–4, 10, 68, 70, 75, 81–82, 86, 117; Marxism and, attempted synthesis of, 161n79; after Russo-Japanese War, 11
national polity. See kokutai
national self-determination principle: vs. imperial self-determination, 107; Japanese rejection of, 47
National Socialism, in Germany. See Nazism
national socialism (kokkashakaishugi), in Japan, 6, 69, 84, 157n16; vs. Japanism (nihonshugi), 84–87; and totalitarianism, 86
national uniqueness: Axis alliance and, 110–11, 136; Japanese belief in, 3–4, 75, 83, 102
Natsume Sōseki, 57
Nazism: Italian Fascism compared to, 65, 67; Japanese response to, 65–67, 133; in larger history of fascism, 4, 67
New Poet Society (Shinshisha), 15
New Political Order Movement (Shintaisei Undō), 110
new wave (shinpa) theater, 48
new world order: Axis Powers and, 109, 128–35, 136; contradictions in, 134; fascism and promise of, 1–2; Japanese vision of, 47, 109–10, 121, 128–29, 132–34; Mussolini and, 2, 47
Nichi-I bunka kenkyū (journal), 122–25, 126–27
Nichi-I kyōkai (Japan-Italy Association), 122–25
Nihon Fassho renmei (Japanese Fascist League), 79
nihonshugi. See Japanism
Nii Itaru, 80
Niizeki Ryōzō, 124
Nishida Kitarō, 134
Nishitani Keiji, 127
Nitti, Francesco Saverio, 18
Nogami Yaeko, 102
Nolte, Ernst, 174n11
Numada Zōroku, 48
ōdō (imperial/kingly way): in discussions of fascism, 3, 73, 87, 133, 137; and international law, proposed reform of, 132
Ohanashi no shikata (Shimoi), 12
Okada Tadahiko, 46
Ōkawa Shūmei, 118
Okumura Takeshi, 55
Ōkura Kishichirō, 34
Ōrui Noboru, 124
Overcoming Modernity symposium, 127–28, 172n66
Ōya Sōichi, 80
Pan-Asianism, 73, 90; and new world order, 128–29, 133
parliamentary democracy, in Japan, 5; criticism of, 43, 44, 61
particularism vs. universalism, fascism and, 2–3, 75, 137
Passerini, Luisa, 54
patriotism: experience of war and, 17–18; fascism and, 8–9, 10, 70; poetry and, 14, 17
Payne, Stanley G., 143n5
Peace Preservation Law (1925), 38
plays, about Mussolini, 48–54, 49, 50, 51
poetry: Italo-Japanese rapprochement and, 121; and Italo-Japanese spiritual affinity, 22, 24–25; Japanese, influence on Italian modernists, 15, 17, 147n32; Overcoming Modernity symposium on, 127; and patriotism, Shimoi on, 14, 17; and politics, 23, 25, 29–30
poets, Italian: Shimoi and, 13–17, 24–25; in World War I, 14, 19–20, 22, 30
Polanyi, Karl, 107
political parties, Japanese, 39, 71; abolition of, 110
politics: culture and, Shimoi on, 28; poetry and, 23, 25, 29–30; religion and, in Japan, 46
popular theater (taishū engeki), 48
proletarian literature, 50, 69
proletarian movement: in 1920s Japan, 4–5; and fascism, Japanese intellectuals on, 69, 72
Puccini, Giacomo, 15
race, Italo-Ethiopian War and issues of, 93, 94, 103, 104, 105
Realpolitik, Italo-Ethiopian War and, 96, 97
reformist bureaucrats, Japanese: Manchukuo and, 6, 98, 100; Nazi Germany and, 66–67
regionalism, vs. internationalism, 128–35
religion: Ōmoto sect, 77–79; Overcoming Modernity symposium on, 127; and politics, in Japan, 46
Renaissance: Japanese intellectuals on, 123–27; second, World War I and, 8, 28
restoration-revolution (ishin-kakumei), 1
revolution-restoration (rivoluzione-restaurazione), 1, 137
Right, Japanese, 83–87; embrace of Fascist Italy, 115–17; Shimoi and, 76–79. See also conservatives, Japanese
Rivetta, Pietro Silvio, 113
Rizzo, Luigi, 30
Roden, Donald, 11
Roman Empire, Japanese discourse on, 126
romanità (Romanness), 122; and Fascist ideology, 123
romanticism, of late Meiji period, 11, 12
Rosi, Giovanni Vittorio, 154n42
Royal Oriental Institute in Naples, Shimoi at, 13, 25, 148n71
Ruoff, Ken, 111
Russo-Japanese War: and European intellectuals’ interest in Japan, 15; Japanese nationalism after, 11; and new wave theater, 48
Ryū Shintarō, 67
Saba, Umberto, 15
Saionji Kimmochi, 109
Saitō Makoto, 76
Saitō Mōkichi, 121
Sakai, Naoki, 81, 170n48, 174n10
Sakai Eizō, 116
Sakura (journal), 24
Salandra, Antonio, 13
Salvemini, Gaetano, 162n3
Sano Manabu, 31
Sarfatti, Margherita, 55
Sasakawa Ryōichi, 94
Sassa Hiroo, 67
Sauro, Nazario, 29
Sawayanagi Masatarō, 28
Scalise, Guglielmo, 93–94, 103, 105
Seiyūkai political party, 39, 71
Shibusawa Eiichi, 28
Shidehara Kijurō, 34
Shimoi Harukichi, 5, 16; background of, 11; and byakkōtai affair, 32–37, 48; and Calpis affair, 25–28, 48; D’Annunzio and, 19–22, 25–26, 28; as educator, 10, 11, 12–13, 29, 76–77; family of, 11, 21, 26; Fiume occupation and, 20; on Italian Fascism, 5, 8–9, 10, 28–29, 30–31, 77–78; on Italo-Ethiopian War, 105; in Italy, 13–28, 151n120; and Japanese Right, 76–79; Mussolini and, xii, 26–28, 27, 31, 33, 36, 37, 48, 76; and plays about Mussolini, 154n47; poetry and, 13–17, 22, 24–25; postwar existence of, 142; and promotion of Fascist Italy, 118; publications of, 12, 15, 17, 18–19, 28–30, 159n48; return to Japan, 76; rise to prominence, 13–14, 21–23, 28, 32; at Royal Oriental Institute in Naples, 13, 25, 148n71; and Shōwa Shinseikai, 77–79, 78, 159n55; transition from poetics to politics, 23, 25, 29; World War I and, 8, 10, 14, 17–20, 28–30; World War II and, 137–38; youth mobilization project of, 28–32, 33, 54
Shimoi Kasuke, 11
Shimonaka Yasaburō, 128
Shinchō (journal), 80
Shinmei Masamichi, 67
Shirai Matsujirō, 115
Shōwa Holy Association (Shōwa Shinseikai), 77–79, 78
Shōwa Research Association (Shōwa Kenkyūkai), 66–67, 129
Silverberg, Miriam, 47
socialism (communism): in 1920s Japan, 4–5, 29; fascism and, 2; fascism as alternative to, 136; Japanese theater on, 52
Society of the East (Tōhōkai), 169n28
Sokokukai (Ancestral Land Association), 161n79
Sombart, Werner, 66
South Africa, fascist movement in, 64
Soviet Union, state planning in, 66
Spain, fascist movement in, 64
Stalker, Nancy K., 77
Sturzo, Luigi, 55
Suzuki Kisaburō, 42
Suzuki Shigetaka, 127
Syria, fascist movement in, 64
Tachi Sakutarô, 96
Taisenchū no Itaria (Shimoi), 28–30
Taishō democracy: discussions of fascism during, 4; interest in Mussolini during, 38–43; urban workers during, 4–5
Takabatake Motoyuki, 84, 85, 86, 161n79
Takahashi Korekiyo, 101, 166n62
Takamatsu, Prince, 34
Takayanagi Kenzō, 131
Takeuchi Kenji, 102
Tanaka, Stefan, 104
Tanaka Kōtarō, 122
Tange Kenzō, 135
Tansman, Alan, 80, 87, 143n5, 144n13
technocrats. See reformist bureaucrats, Japanese
theater, Japanese: musical, 154n42; Mussolini in, 48–54, 49, 50, 51
Tōa renmei (East Asian Federation), 131
Tokuda Shūsei, 104
Tokutomi Sohō, 29, 30, 32, 39, 77, 118
Torrance, Richard, 156n4
Tosaka Jun, 72–75, 76, 87, 130, 137, 158n38
totalitarianism: Japanese conservatives on, 85–87, 120; Mussolini’s doctrine of, 85, 120
total war, 144n8; Japan’s descent into, 111
Toti, Enrico, 30
Tōyama Mitsuru, 11, 26, 32, 93, 115, 116, 163n21, 169n30
Tōyō Mistunobu, 138
trade: Japanese, with Africa, 99. See also free trade
Tripartite Pact, 109–10, 112; celebrations of, 118–20, 119, 134–35; debate sparked by, 6, 121–28, 133, 136; historical significance of, Japanese intellectuals on, 121–28; Italy’s surrender as violation of, 138; shared notion of culture and, 133. See also Axis Powers
Tsubouchi Shikō, 48, 52, 53–54, 61, 154n43
Tsuchida, Kyōson, 160n65
Tsuda Shingō, 114
Tsuji Shinji, 58
Tsukui Tatsuo, 86
Tsurumi Yūsuke, 39–41, 47, 102–3
Ueda Sakuichi, 58
Ueda Tatsunosuke, 120
Uesugi Shinkichi, 43
Ungaretti, Giuseppe, 15, 17, 147n32
United States: declaration of war on, 136; London Naval Treaty (1930) and, 94; and postwar Japan, 139–40, 142
universalism vs. particularism, fascism and, 2–3, 75, 137
urban youth, in 1920s Japan, 4–5, 29
Ushijima Mitsune, 77
Van Gogh, Vincent, 15
Venosta, Giovanni Visconti, 18
Versailles Peace Conference, 90, 94, 163n8
Victor Emmanuel III (king of Italy), 23, 137
Villari, Luigi, 55
violence: in 1930s Japan, 63; Fascist, Japanese response to, 52, 92, 106; in Italo-Ethiopian War, Japanese response to, 92–93
Wada Eisaku, 123
Wada Kojirō, 120
war: experience of, and patriotism, 17–18; total, 111, 144n8. See also Italo-Ethiopian War; Russo-Japanese War; World War I; World War II
Washington Conference of 1922, 44
West: imperialism by, and Japanese expansion in Asia, 107; Japanese critique of, fascism subsumed into, 6–7, 75; Japan in relation to, Axis alliance and, 122–23
Western civilization: Italian Renaissance and, 123–27; Japanese criticism of, 11, 12, 47, 122–23, 126–27, 132
Wilson, Woodrow, 47, 94. See also internationalism; national self-determination principle
World War I: international relations after, Japanese criticism of, 94, 95–96; Italo-Ethiopian War compared to, 101; poets in, 14, 19–20, 22, 30; Shimoi’s experience of, 8, 10, 14, 17–20, 28–30
World War II: fascism after, 137–42, 144n8; Italo-Ethiopian War and anticipation of, 106; Japan’s aggression in, revisionist history of, 140–41
Yamakawa Kikue, 92
Yashiro Yukio, 123
Yasuhito, Prince Chichibu, 116, 151n118, 169n30
Yasui Kaoru, 133
Yokota Tsukuri, 100
Yonai Mitsumasa, 114
Yosano Akiko, 11, 15, 17, 24, 146n30
Yosano Tekkan, 15
Yoshida Yakuni, 45
Yoshikawa Eiji, 79
Yoshino Sakuzō, 69–70, 72, 73, 153n31
Young, Louise, 144n8, 164n28, 165n43, 165n45, 169n22
youth: in 1920s Japan, 4–5, 29; “anguished” (hanmon seinen), of late Meiji period, 11; education of, Shimoi on, 12–13; Italian Fascism associated with, 10, 29, 41, 149n85; mobilization of, Shimoi and, 28–32, 33, 54; Mussolini as model for, in interwar Japan, 54, 56, 57, 58–60, 136
zaibatsu (industrial conglomerates), 98
zentaishugi (transcendental state/totalitarianism), 85–86
Zhang Xueliang, 169n14