NOTES

Introduction The Crime of Genocide

1. Peter Balakian cites the number of 250 in Armenian Golgotha (New York: Knopf, 2009), xiii. Vahakn Dadrian claims this number increased to 2,345 in the weeks that followed. The History of the Armenian Genocide (New York: Berghahn Books, 2003), 221. For a full account of events of April 24, 1915, see Raymond Kevorkian, The Armenian Genocide (London: I.B.Tauris, 2011), 251–4.

2. On the American story see: Peter Balakian, The Burning Tigris (New York: Perennial, 2003); Jay Winter (ed.), America and the Armenian Genocide (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003); Merrill Peterson, “Starving Armenians”: America and the Armenian Genocide, 1915–1930 and After (Charlottesville, VA: University of Virginia Press, 2004).

3. Gary Bass focuses on the British response to the Eastern Question in the nineteenth century in Freedom's Battle (New York: Vintage, 2008). Davide Rodogno takes a long view of British humanitarianism and considers it in the context of Great Power politics particularly in relation to the French. Against Massacre (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2012).

4. See for example Stefan Ihrig, Justifying Genocide: Germany and the Armenians from Bismarck to Hitler (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2016); Margaret Anderson, “Down in Turkey, far away: Human Rights, the Armenian Massacres, and Orientalism in Wilhelmine Germany,” Journal of Modern History 79:1 (March 2007), 80–111; and Margaret Anderson, “A Responsibility to Protest? The Public, the Powers and the Armenians in the era of Abdülhamit II,” Journal of Genocide Research 17:3 (July 2015), 259–83.

5. Information comes from the British Periodicals I and II database published online by Proquest.

6. Anderson, “Down in Turkey, Far Away,” 80–111.

7. Jo Laycock, Imagining Armenia (Manchester: Manchester University Press 2009); Diane Robinson-Dunn, The Harem, Slavery and British Imperial Culture (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2006).

8. This scholarship most recently has been considered in Ronald Grigor Suny et al., A Question of Genocide (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011).

9. See for example Raymond Kevorkian, The Armenian Genocide; Suny et al., A Question of Genocide Vahakn Dadrian, The History of the Armenian Genocide (New York: Berghahn, 2008); Akaby Nassibian, Britain and the Armenian Question (London: Croom Helm, 1984); Richard Hovannisian (ed.), The Armenian Genocide (New York: St Martin's, 1992).

10. Mark Mazower, No Enchanted Palace (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2009), 14.

11. On the rise of internationalism see Mark Mazower, Governing the World (New York: Penguin, 2012).

12. E.J. Dillon, “Armenia: An Appeal,” Contemporary Review, January 1896, 19.

13. Hansard Online, House of Commons Debate, 23 August 1916, vol. 85 c2650; James Bryce, The Treatment of Armenians in the Ottoman Empire, Kessinger Facsimile (Whitefish, MT: Kessinger, 2010), 594. Originally published in 1916.

14. Morgenthau quoted in Suny, “Writing Genocide,” Suny et al., A Question of Genocide, 20.

15. Hansard Online, House of Lords Debate, December 17, 1919, vol. 38 cc 279–300.

16. “Joint declaration to Sublime Porte,” May 24, 1915. The concept itself has a longer history but it was the declaration that gave “crimes against humanity” meaning as an act related to genocide. Rooted in Enlightenment thinking and early humanitarian ideology, the notion of a crime committed against a broadly conceived humanity first emerged in relation to slavery. Jenny Martinez locates the term “crime against humanity” in a treatise by an American legal scholar, Henry Wheaton, regarding public sentiment in relation to slavery in 1842 in Slave Trade and the Origins of International Human Rights Law (New York: Oxford University Press, 2012), 115–16.

17. “Turks Talk of Reform: Punishment for Armenian Massacres,” The Times, London, November 30, 1918.

18. Raphael Lemkin used the Armenian massacres as a case study to understand what he would first label as the crime of genocide in Axis Rule in Occupied Europe (Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Endowment, 1944). The language of intent to eliminate particular populations through systematic and premeditated killing later was codified after the Holocaust in the UN Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (December 1948). http://www.hrweb.org/legal/genocide.html, accessed April 5, 2012.

Chapter 1 W.E. Gladstone and Humanitarian Intervention

1. “Germany to Recognize Killings as Genocide,” Wall Street Journal, April 25–26, 2015.

2. “Historical Narratives Compete in Turkish Centennial Events,” Wall Street Journal, April 25–26, 2015.

3. Although this responsibility was most often cast as one to Christian minorities during this period, the British did not necessarily exclude other oppressed minorities in this vision. Amir Mufti, Enlightenment in the Colony (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2007). For British intervention on behalf of Jewish communities see Abigail Green, “Intervening in the Jewish Question,” in Brenden Simms and D.J.B. Trimm (eds), Humanitarian Intervention (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011), 139–58.

4. Davide Rodogno's comparative study, Against Massacre understands nineteenth-century humanitarianism as shaped primarily by Great Power politics. He rejects Gary Bass' notion in Freedom's Battle that a popular mandate pushed humanitarianism forward during this period. On the connection between humanitarian activism and geopolitics during this period see Michelle Tusan, Smyrna's Ashes (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2012).

5. Green, “Intervening in the Jewish Question,” 146, 152–3.

6. The Tanzimat reforms, which attempted to modernize the Ottoman bureaucracy through centralization while granting greater equality between the empire's subjects, were the result of the confluence of forces. British influence over the Ottoman government after 1839 played an important role in instituting these reforms as well as, according to Erik Zürcher, a genuine desire to “introduce European-style reforms.” Erik Zürcher, Turkey: A Modern History (London: I.B.Tauris, 2004), 50–2, 56–7.

7. Green, “Intervening in the Jewish Question,” 154.

8. Exact numbers are hard to determine and range from the many tens of thousands up to well over 100,000 killed. Donald Bloxham, The Great Game of Genocide (Oxford: Oxford University Press), 51. “Mr. Gladstone on the Armenian Question,” The Times, September 25, 1896.

9. H.C.G. Matthew (ed.), Gladstone Diaries, vol. 13 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994), 427.

10. H.C.G. Matthew, Gladstone (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001 reprint), 635.

11. George W.E. Russell, William Ewart Gladstone (1891; reprint Chalford: Nonsuch Publishing, 2007), 169, 183.

12. Matthew, Gladstone, 17.

13. During a visit to Greece in the 1850s, Gladstone admired the “fusion of the Church with the people.” Matthew, Gladstone, 167.

14. Diplomats pressured the Ottoman Empire to institute reform as part of the peace negotiations that concluded the Crimean War in 1856. Arman Kirakossian, British Diplomacy and the Eastern Question (Princeton: Gomidas Institute, 1999), 26–9.

15. This policy bordered on avoidance under the leadership of Lord Derby who, according to Geoffrey Hicks, tried to minimize concerns over Ottoman minority issues by keeping “things quiet and avoid any re-opening of the eastern question.” “The Struggle for Stability,” Hicks (ed.), Conservatism and British Foreign Policy, 1820–1920 (Surrey: Ashgate, 2011), 95–7.

16. On Gladstone and the Bulgarian Atrocities see: R.W. Seton-Watson, Disraeli, Gladstone, and the Eastern Question (1935; repr., New York: Norton, 1972); David Harris, Britain and the Bulgarian Horrors of 1876 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1939); Richard Shannon, Gladstone and the Bulgarian Agitation 1876 (London: Thomas Nelson, 1963); Richard Millman, Britain and the Eastern Question (Oxford: Clarendon, 1979); and Ann Pottinger Saab, Reluctant Icon: Gladstone, Bulgaria and the Working Classes (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1991).

17. W.E. Gladstone, The Bulgarian Horrors (London, 1876), 30, 48. The pamphlet sold 200,000 copies in the first month and was reprinted in newspapers and other media. Over 10,000 people showed up to hear Gladstone speak at Blackheath on the topic several days after the initial publication of the pamphlet. Matthew, Gladstone, 283–4.

18. Liberalism and empire made strange bedfellows in the nineteenth century . For an analysis of this relationship see: Jennifer Pitts, A Turn To Empire (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2005); Thomas Metcalf, Ideologies of the Raj (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997). This proved at times “highly problematic” for a “Liberal Prime Minister of an imperial power.” Matthew, Gladstone, 375–6.

19. W.E. Gladstone, “England's Mission,” Nineteenth Century, September 1878, 569–70; Matthew, Gladstone, 374.

20. Gladstone, “England's Mission,” 584.

21. “England's Mission,” 570.

22. The protection of minorities in general was important to liberal notions of empire. Eastern Orthodox Christians were singled out by High Churchmen like Gladstone as connected to an authentic early Christianity which inspired his efforts on their behalf. Matthew, Gladstone, 629, 635; J.F. Coakley, The Church of the East and the Church of England (Oxford: Clarendon, 1992). On liberal imperial views on Jewish minorities see, Mufti, Enlightenment in the Colony, 37–56. Religious and relief workers who supported intervention on behalf of Armenians cited Armenia's early adoption of Christianity as a national religion and highly developed ancient culture as reasons for this particular connection. Michelle Tusan, “The Business of Relief Work: A Victorian Quaker and Her Circle in Constantinople,” Victorian Studies 51:4 (Summer 2009), 633–61.

23. Some of Gladstone's most strident supporters during the Bulgarian Atrocities agitation came from northern England where religious Nonconformity was strong.

24. Papers on the Eastern Question (London, 1877). Papers published by this organization included works by the clergy, MPs, feminists, philanthropists and Gladstone himself.

25. Erik Zürcher, Turkey, 79–81.

26. Humanitarian advocacy groups were founded by missionary, feminist, philanthropic and regional and national political organizations and included: The Eastern Question Association; the Archbishop of Canterbury's Assyrian Mission; The Anglo-Armenian Association; The British Armenia Committee; The Armenian Red Cross; The Friends of Armenia, with branches in Ireland, Scotland, Wales and England; the Armenian Bureau of Information, the Lord Mayor's Fund of Manchester; Armenian Orphans Fund (Manchester); The Religious Society of Friends, Armenian Mission; The Armenian Refugees Relief Fund run by the Armenian United Association of London; the Armenian Ladies Guild of London. Tusan, Smyrna's Ashes, 30–5.

27. In the end, the attempt to protect minority interests by adjusting the territories of the western Ottoman Empire to offer more autonomy to Bulgarians and others had only limited success. Carole Fink, Defending the Rights of Others (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), 37. See also Kirakossian, British Diplomacy, 70–9.

28. The most notable were those published by The Friends of Armenia through its “Information Bureau,” which printed articles, pamphlets and raised money for Armenian causes at meetings in provincial and urban venues. Meeting places included: Dundee, Hampstead, Hanley, Ipswich, London, Maidstone, Norwich, Rishton, Wigan and York. Hundreds of pamphlets published in the nineteenth century on behalf of Armenia causes survive in archival collections in Britain and the US. “Armenia,” Friends of Armenia Information Bureau pamphlet, n.d. Bodleian Special Collections, Oxford, Bryce Collection, MS 210; “Occasional Paper, no. 3,” International Association of the Friends of Armenia,” April 28, 1897, London School of Economics Special Collections [hereafter LSES], Misc Collection 0019.

29. The idea was not included in San Stefano and further limited Russian influence. Fink, Defending the Rights of Others, 3–5.

30. E.J. Dillon, “Armenia: An Appeal,” Contemporary Review, January 1896, 19. See also: “The Armenian Atrocities Agitation: Speech by Mr. Gladstone,” Daily Free Press, August 7, 1895; “The Massacres in Turkey,” Nineteenth Century, October 1896.

31. “British Armenian Committee Minutes,” Rhodes House Library Archives [hereafter RHL], Oxford.

32. The decline of the “taxes on knowledge” in the early 1850s brought the war home to a wider reading public by making periodicals a central feature of British political life. The press played an important role in drumming up pro-war sentiment for this “wildly” popular war, in the words of one contemporary observer, even before the official war declaration was made against Russia on March 28, 1854. See M.S. Anderson, The Eastern Question (London: Macmillan, 1966), 128–35 and Stefanie Markovits, “Participatory Journalism during the Crimean War,” Victorian Studies 50:4 (Summer 2008), 561.

33. “Communications with the Far East,” Fraser's Magazine, November 1856, 580.

34. David Fraser, Short Cut to India (Edinburgh: Blackwood, 1909), 13–46. Only after German plans to take over the financing and building of the southern route, the so-called Baghdad Railroad, sparked public outrage in Britain in 1903 did these plans for an overland route fade. On the controversy over the construction see: Sean McMeekin, The Berlin-Baghdad Express (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2010); Edward Mead Earle, Turkey, the Great Powers, and the Baghdad Railway (New York: Macmillan, 1923); and Maybelle Kennedy Chapman, Great Britain and the Bagdad Railway, 1888–1914 (Northampton, MA: Smith College, 1948).

35. “History of Eastern Church,” Edinburgh Review, vol. 107, April 1858, 356–7. Christ Church in Istanbul now is part of the Anglican Diocese of Europe.

36. These conceptions of Jews often were figured in a negative rather than positive light. See David Feldman, Englishmen and Jews (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1994); Anthony Wohl, “‘Dizzi-Ben-Dizzi': Disraeli as Alien,” Journal of British Studies, vol. 34, no. 3 (July 1995), 375–411. On the perceived importance of Christians along the proposed Anatolian Railway line see, Fraser, Short Cut to India, 298–307.

37. “Correspondence respecting the rights and privileges of the Latin and Greek Churches in Turkey: Presented to both Houses of Parliament by Command of Her Majesty,” Edinburgh Review, July 1854, 43.

38. “The Eastern Question,” London Quarterly, vol. 29, 1868, 405.

39. No official numbers exist leaving a wide range of possible statistics. David Harris quotes numbers given by a Turkish tribunal, a British consular agent, American investigators, and Bulgarian historians ranging from 12,000 to over 100,000 dead. Britain and the Bulgarian Horrors, 22.

40. R.J. Kendall used the terms in an article for the periodical Public Opinion, September 9, 1876. Quoted in Wohl, “Dizzi-Ben-Dizzi,” 387.

41. Quoted in John Morley, Life of Gladstone, vol. 2 (London: Macmillan, 1911), 417.

42. These reforms harkened back to failed attempts on the part of the British government to press for the modernization of the Ottoman government from within in 1839. In 1856, then British ambassador Stratford Canning was central in negotiating a liberalization of Ottoman policies towards non-Muslim subjects in the Treaty of Paris. The Tanzimat Reform Edicts of 1839 and 1856 both dealt with the issue of reforming the status of Ottoman minorities. For a contemporary account of the treaty negotiations see George Douglas Campbell Argyll, The Eastern Question, vol. 1 (London: Strahan, 1879), 1–35 (reprint). See also: Donald Bloxham, Great Game of Genocide, 31–3 and Vahakn Dadrian, The History of the Armenian Genocide, 14–20.

43. Seton-Watson and a generation of historians who followed argued for the importance of the controversy generated over the Bulgarian Atrocities in shaping liberalism during the late 1870s. R.W. Seton-Watson, Disraeli, Gladstone, and the Eastern Question. Those writing in this tradition after Seton-Watson include: David Harris, Britain and the Bulgarian Horrors; Richard Shannon Gladstone and the Bulgarian Agitation; Richard Millman, Britain and the Eastern Question; and Ann Pottinger Saab, Reluctant Icon.

44. “Lessons on Massacre, 1877,” Gladstone Papers, Add. MS 44696 f. 66, British Library.

45. Morley, Gladstone, 417.

46. Ibid., 418.

47. Ibid., 419.

48. Quoted in Wohl, “Dizzi-Ben-Dizzi,” 386.

49. Ibid., 388.

50. Gladstone Papers, Add. MS 44454 ff. 124–6, British Library.

51. The piece appeared in print as “Sonnet on the Massacre of the Christians in Bulgaria” and was compared to Milton's sonnet on the “Massacres at Piedmont” by one reviewer. The Athenaeum, July 23, 1881, 103–4.

52. “Derby at the Meeting of Conservative Working Men, Edinburgh,” The Times, December 17, 1875.

53. Between September 1 and December 1876 Derby received 455 memorials and petitions on the subject. Shannon, Gladstone and the Bulgarian Agitation, 148.

54. Gladstone to Layard, [19] April, 1877. Gladstone Papers, Box 9, GLA 437, Huntington Library.

55. On Gladstone and the Bulgarian question see: H.C.G. Matthew, “Gladstone, Vaticanism, and the Question of the East,” in D. Baker (ed.), Studies in Church History (1978); R.W. Seton-Watson, Disraeli, Gladstone and the Eastern Question; Harold William Temperley, “The Bulgarian and Other Atrocities, 1875–78,” Proceedings of the British Academy, 1931, 105–46.

56. A collection published by the Association included the following articles: “Armenia and the Lebanon” by J.W. Probyn, “The Slavonic Provinces of the Ottoman Empire” by W.E. Gladstone, “Fallacies of the Eastern Question” by Rev. William Denton, and “The Martyrs of Turkish Misrule” by Millicent Fawcett.

57. Those in attendance included the Duke of Westminster, the Earl of Shaftesbury, Sir G. Campbell, MP, the Bishop of Oxford, Anthony Trollope, Mr Fawcett, MP, Sir T.F. Buxton, Mr S. Morley, MP, Mr Trevelyan, Mr Cowper-Temple, Rev. Canon Liddon, Rev. W. Denton, E.A. Freeman, Lord Waveney and others that included “Ladies … accommodated in the gallery.” “The Eastern Question Conference,” Illustrated London News, December 16, 1876, 575.

58. Papers on the Eastern Question (London: Cassell, Petter and Galpin, 1877).

59. Shannon, Gladstone and the Bulgarian Agitation.

60. “Topics of the Week,” The Graphic, January 6, 1877, 2.

61. Gladstone to Hugh Mason, August 10, 1878. GLA 502, Huntington Library.

62. Gladstone to A. (Abraham) Hayward, November 17, 1878. Gladstone Papers, GLA 759 (89), Huntington Library.

63. “The war in Turkey,” undated fragment. Gladstone Papers, GLA 759 (148), Huntington Library.

64. David Brooks, “Gladstone and Midlothian: The Background to the First Campaign” The Scottish Historical Review, 61:177, Part 1 (April 1985), 50–1.

65. “Mr. Gladstone in Scotland,” Fraser's Magazine (January 1880), 103.

66. Quoted in Brooks, “Gladstone and Midlothian,” 57.

67. Diary for November 24, 1879. Quoted in Matthew, Gladstone, 293.

68. Brooks, “Gladstone and Midlothian,” 56.

69. Ibid., 67.

70. Ibid., 59.

71. Diary for December 28, 1879. Quoted in Matthew, Gladstone, 293.

72. Quoted and reported in “Mr. Gladstone in Scotland,” Fraser's Magazine, January 1880, 107.

73. Ibid., 110.

74. Ibid., 117.

75. W.E. Gladstone, Midlothian Speeches, 1879, ed. M.R.D. Foot (Leicester: Leicester University Press, 1971), 47.

76. “Mr. Gladstone in Scotland,” Fraser's Magazine, January 1880, 111.

77. Midlothian Speeches, 90–4.

78. Ibid., 178–9.

79. “Mr. Gladstone in Scotland,” Fraser's Magazine, 103.

80. Ibid.

81. Midlothian Speeches, 173.

82. Ibid., 160–1.

83. Ronald Suny, They Can Live in the Desert but No Place Else: A History of the Armenian Genocide (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2015), 25?9.

84. Seton-Watson, Disraeli, Gladstone, and the Eastern Question, 570.

85. Millman, Britain and the Eastern Question, 183–4.

Chapter 2 The New Diplomacy

1. “Lord Beaconsfield at Aylesbury,” The Times, September 21, 1876.

2. “The New Ministry,” Blackwood's Magazine, June 1880, 790.

3. G.C. Thompson, Public Opinion and Lord Beaconsfield, 1875–1880, vol. 1 (London: Macmillan, 1886), 184; David Harris, The Bulgarian Horrors, 44–5, 110–11.

4. Gladstone quoted in Gordon Waterfield, Layard of Nineveh (New York: Praeger, 1963), 358.

5. W.E. Gladstone to Henry Layard, April [19], 1877. Gladstone Papers, GLA 437, Huntington Library.

6. Layard to Gladstone, May 9, 1877. Gladstone Papers, Add. MS 44454, British Library.

7. This was the largest number of consuls employed in the Near East since the British government had taken over administration of this system from the Levant Company, which had run the consul system as a loose commercial network starting in 1592. Reforms to the Levant Consular Service in 1877 raised standards for applicants and set out to make the service more “English.” As Constantinople attaché Lord Strangford put it: “We must have Englishmen in our public service in Turkey, if we do not send out Englishmen we must Anglicize our Levantines, and for my part I think we can afford to do both.” John Dickie, The British Consul (New York: Columbia University Press, 2007), 61–3.

8. On late nineteenth-century missionary activity in the Near East see Dorothy Anderson, The Balkan Volunteers (London: Hutchinson, 1968).

9. Scholars interested in Britain's engagement with the Ottoman Empire primarily have relied on accounts written by travel writers to understand this world. See for example, Billie Melman, Women's Orients (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan), 1992; and Nancy Stockdale, Colonial Encounters among English and Palestinian Women (Gainesville: University of Florida Press, 2007). A notable exception is Priya Satia, Spies in Arabia (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008).

10. Henry Layard, Discoveries in the Ruins of Nineveh and Babylon, Part II, Elibron reprint (London: John Murray, 1853), 431.

11. William Bruce (ed.), Austin Henry Layard, Autobiography, vol. 1 (London: John Murray, 1903), 157–60.

12. Ibid., 248–51; Waterfield, Layard of Nineveh, 227–36.

13. William Gregory's comments in the House of Commons, quoted by Waterfield, 297–8.

14. Sir Arthur Otoway quoted by Bruce in Layard, Autobiography, vol. 2, 112, 267.

15. Layard to Granville, quoted in Waterfield, Layard of Nineveh, 236.

16. Layard to Lady Huntly, April 25, 1853. Layard Papers, Add. MS 38944, f. 120, British Library.

17. Layard to Lady Huntly, October 23, 1857. Layard Papers, Add. MS 38944, f. 164, British Library.

18. Waterfield, Layard of Nineveh, 287–8.

19. Layard to Morelli, July 20, 1876. Layard Papers, Add. MS 38966.

20. Layard to Lady Gregory, November 30, 1876. Layard Papers, Add. MS 38966, f. 198, British Library; Shannon, Gladstone, 109.

21. Layard, Autobiography, vol. 2, 195.

22. Ibid., 121–2.

23. “Our Relations with Turkey: Notes of a Conversation with Sir H. Layard.” Contemporary Review, May 1885, 612.

24. Layard, Nineveh, 4.

25. Layard to Viscount Redcliffe, September 10, 1877. Layard Papers, Add. MS 39124.

26. This was spelled out in Article 61 of the treaty that recognized Britain as the legitimate protector of Ottoman Christian minority interests.

27. Lord Strangford attended Oxford and served as a student attaché to Constantinople in 1845. He later served as Oriental Secretary during Crimean war. Beaufort's own interest in the Ottoman Empire stemmed from a tour to Syria, Asia Minor and Egypt which provided the basis of a popular two-volume travel book that went into multiple editions based on her adventures in 1861 called Egyptian Sepulchres and Syrian Shrines including some stay in the Lebanon, at Palmyra, and in Western Turkey. She met her future husband after he reviewed her book and they married soon after in February 1862. Their mutual interest in the western lands of the Ottoman Empire resulted in her second book, The Eastern Shores of the Adriatic, published in 1864 after a tour they took to Albania, Montenegro, Dalmatia and Corfu. Dictionary of National Biography, 2004, 467–8.

28. Upon the death of her husband, Lady Strangford took charge of her own fortune, from which she had only been drawing a £200 allowance. Lord Strangford was worth £3,000 when he died, while her fortune was estimated at £27,885 when she died. Lady Strangford's will, Beaufort Papers, Huntington Library.

29. Anderson, The Balkan Volunteers, 14–15, 208.

30. Lady Strangford's Bulgaria Journal. Beaufort Papers, Huntington Library; DNB, 457.

31. Journal, February 11, 1877. Beaufort Papers, Huntington Library.

32. Susan Thorne, Congregational Mission and the Making of an Imperial Culture in Nineteenth-Century England (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1999).

33. Journal, February 18, 1877. Beaufort Papers, Huntington Library.

34. Eugene Schuyler to Lady S, Philippopolis, 1876 (Turkey). Beaufort Papers, Huntington Library.

35. Journal entries: October 14–November 11, 1876. Beaufort Papers, Huntington Library.

36. Ibid., February 13 and 20, 1876.

37. Ibid., October 14, 1876.

38. Ibid., November 11, 1876.

39. Strangford to Layard, September 8, 1877, Layard Papers, Add. MS 39015, f. 54, British Library.

40. Strangford Journal, February 11, 1877.

41. Ibid., November 11, 1876.

42. Strangford to Layard, May 22, 1878. Layard Papers, Add. MS 39020, f. 134: emphasis in original.

43. Freeman quoted in Anderson, Balkan Volunteers, 16.

44. Strangford to Layard, Feb 19, 1880. Layard Papers, Add. MS 39031. More relief schemes followed including the Victoria Hospital at Cairo for British. She died on the outbound voyage to Port Said where was on her way to set up a subscription hospital for British seamen.

45. Layard to Everett, February 7, 1880. Everett Collection, Middle East Center Archive (MECA), Box 2, File 4b.

46. Diary, February 8, 1882. Everett Collection, MECA.

47. Diary, February 7, 8 and March 9, 1882. Everett Collection, MECA.

48. Strangford to Layard, September 2, 1877. Layard Papers, Add. MS 39015, f. 54, British Library.

49. Strangford to Layard, October 24, 1877. Layard Papers, Add. MS 39016, ff. 86–88, British Library.

50. Strangford to Layard, May 10, 1878. Layard Papers, Add. MS 39020, f. 71, British Library.

51. Strangford to Layard, July 1, 1878. Layard Papers, Add. MS 39021, British Library.

52. Strangford to Layard, September 21, 1878. Layard Papers, Add. MS 39022, f. 82, British Library.

53. The fund eventually raised over £13,500 from subscribers in Britain which Strangford gave to Layard to distribute. Strangford to Layard, February 19, 1880. Layard Papers, Add. MS 39031, f. 243, British Library.

54. Strangford to Layard, April 5, 1880. Layard Papers, 39032 f. 240, British Library.

55. Strangford to Layard, April 30, 1880. Layard Papers, 39033, f. 95, British Library.

56. Ibid.

57. Personal writings, March 11, 1883. Layard Papers, Add. MS 39143.

58. “Conversation with Layard,” Contemporary Review (May 1885), 611.

59. Confidential Print Correspondence on “Protestant Constitution” negotiations, April, May, June 1880. Layard Papers, Add. MS 39156, British Library.

60. Layard to Granville, June 1, 1880. Layard Papers, Add. MS 39156, f. 145, British Library.

61. Donald Bloxham, Great Game of Genocide; Nassibian, Britain and the Armenian Question.

Chapter 3 Hamidian Massacres and the Media

1. Letter from Anglo-Armenian Association, December 19, 1894. Gladstone Papers, Add. MS 44519 f. 285, British Library.

2. London School of Economics Armenian pamphlet collection.

3. Suny, “They Can Live in the Desert but Nowhere Else,” 106–7; Raymond Kevorkian, Complete History of the Armenian Genocide, 9–11.

4. Suny, “They Can Live in the Desert but Nowhere Else,” 101.

5. Quoted in Suny, “The Can Live in the Desert but Nowhere Else,” 111.

6. For a contemporary account of the Bank takeover see Simon Vratzian (ed.), translated by Haig Partizian, Bank Ottoman: Memoirs of Armen Garo (Detroit, Michigan: Hairenik Press, 1990).

7. “The Armenian Atrocities,” The Speaker, April 13, 1895, 408.

8. Suny, “They Can Live in the Desert but Nowhere Else,” 109–10.

9. “Armenian Atrocities,” The Speaker, 408.

10. Ibid., 409.

11. “The Sassoun Massacres,” The Speaker, December 1, 1894, 597.

12. The term is often attributed to W.E. Gladstone. See n30 below.

13. Taner Akçam, A Shameful Act (New York: Henry Holt, 2007), 38–9.

14. Queen Victoria's Journals, February 2, 1895, vol. 101, 30.

15. Ibid., December 4, 1895, vol. 102, 139

16. Ibid., December 10, 1895, vol. 102, 145.

17. “The Year of Shame,” Westminster Review, February 1898, 118.

18. “The Present Government in Turkey,” Edinburgh Magazine, July 1897, 21. According to Donald Bloxham, guilt ultimately rested with the Sultan who incited hatred and encouraged rumors of Armenian intrigue among the Muslim population who took part in the massacres. Great Game of Genocide, 55.

19. C. Chryssaphides, “The Last Sultan of Turkey,” Fortnightly Review, December 1910, 996.

20. “Abdul Hamid,” Pall Mall Magazine, June 1903, 264.

21. Lord Fisher, Memories (New York: George Doran, 1920), 101.

22. “Gossip about the Ex-Sultan,” Review of Reviews, July 1909, 55.

23. Sir Edwin Pears, Life of Abdul Hamid (London: Constable and Co., 1917), 3.

24. Chryssaphides, “The Last Sultan of Turkey,” 1004.

25. Pears, Life of Abdul Hamid, 265.

26. “The Present Government in Turkey,” Edinburgh Magazine, July 1897, 21.

27. Monsieur Jean Broussahi to W.E. Gladstone, January 21, 1891. Gladstone Papers, Add. MS 49656, f. 16, British Library; Nubar Pasha to Gladstone, April 22, 1885, Add. MS 52402, f. 28; Patriarch of Armenians in Turkey, Nerces, May 11, 1880; Director of L'Armenia to Gladstone, May 21, 1892, Add. MS 44514 f. 292.

28. Edward Atkin to Gladstone, December 19, 1894. Gladstone Papers, Add. MS 44519 f. 285, British Library; Gladstone to Bryce, March 11, 1881. Gladstone Papers, GLA 185, Huntington Library.

29. Margaret Anderson, “A Responsibility to Protest?,” 260.

30. Letter from Gladstone to the Sultan quoted in “The Massacres in Turkey,” Nineteenth Century, October 1896, 662.

31. “Mr. Gladstone,” The Times, September 25, 1896.

32. Gladstone, “Paths of Honor and Shame,” Nineteenth Century, March 1878, 593.

33. “What is the Eastern Question?,” St. Pauls (1878), 279.

34. R. Bosworth Smith, “The Eastern Question: Turkey and Russia,” Contemporary Review, December 1876, 148.

35. John Probyn, “Phases of the Eastern Question,” British Quarterly Review, April 1878, 519.

36. Gladstone to C.B. Norman, July 6, 1896. Gladstone Papers, GLA 537, Huntington Library.

37. Alfred Havighurst, Radical Journalist: H.W. Massingham (Cambridge University Press, 1974), 45. The Chronicle had become an influential “friend of the Progressives” in the early 1890s, according to Massingham's biographer.

38. Gladstone to Massingham, [n.d.]. Gladstone Papers, GLA 505, Huntington Library.

39. Gladstone to Massingham, September 11, 1896. Gladstone Papers, GLA 507, Huntington Library.

40. Ibid.

41. Gladstone to Massingham, September 13, 1896. Gladstone Papers, GLA 508, Huntington Library.

42. Gladstone to Massingham, September 11, 1896. Gladstone Papers, GLA 507, Huntington Library.

43. MacColl to H. Gladstone, September 16, 1896. Viscount Herbert, Gladstone Papers, Add. MS 46043, f. 30, British Library.

44. MacColl to H. Gladstone, September 17, 1896. Viscount Herbert, Gladstone Papers, Add. MS 46043, f. 32, British Library.

45. The illness of his friend the Duke of Westminster led to the choice of Liverpool over London for the speech. Herbert Gladstone to Malcolm MacColl, September 15, 1896. Viscount Herbert, Gladstone Papers, Add. MS 46043, f. 29, British Library.

46. “Mr. Gladstone on the Armenian Question,” The Times, September 25, 1896.

47. Notes on Liverpool speech. Gladstone Papers, Add. MS 44526, f. 182, British Library.

48. Ibid.

49. Ibid., f. 175, Gladstone Papers, British Library.

50. Gladstone to Massingham, September 21, 1897. Gladstone Papers, GLA 512, Huntington Library.

51. Queen Victoria's Journals, vol. 102, Dec 11, 147. Reported comments of Mr Goschen.

52. Bryce to Gladstone, December 22, 1896. Gladstone Papers, Add. MS 46019, f. 34, British Library.

53. MacColl to H. Gladstone, September 17, 1896. Viscount Herbert, Gladstone Papers, Add. MS 46043, f. 32, British Library.

54. MacColl to H. Gladstone, September 16, 1896. Viscount Herbert, Gladstone Papers, Add. MS 46043, f. 30, British Library.

55. Gladstone to Massingham, June 15, 1897. Gladstone Papers, GLA 511, Huntington Library.

56. “Lord Salisbury on the Free Expression of Public Opinion,” pamphlet (1896). “Armenian Pamphlets,” Coll MISC 0019, LSES.

57. “The New Humanitarianism,” Blackwood's Edinburgh Magazine, January 1898, 100.

58. “The Inhumanity of Certain Humanitarians,” National Observer, December 14, 1895, 122.

59. Morley, Gladstone, 417n.

60. Shannon, Gladstone and the Bulgarian Agitation, 69–78; Patrick Joyce, Democratic Subjects (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), 207.

61. W.T. Stead, “Relations of the Press and the Church,” Christian Literature and Review, 1894.

62. Shannon, Gladstone, 73; 78.

63. W.T. Stead, The MP for Russia, vol. 1 (New York: Putnam, 1909), ix.

64. “The Progress of the World,” The Review of Reviews, September 1893, 233–43.

65. “The Progress of the World,” The Review of Reviews, December 1894, 534.

66. “The Progress of the World,” The Review of Reviews, January 1895, 6–14.

67. “Character Sketch,” The Review of Reviews, July 1901, 20–6.

68. “The Armenian Fiasco,” The Review of Reviews, March 1896, 236.

69. For example, a biography of Swiss activist Madame Thoumaian in the Woman's Herald dubbed her “A Heroine from Armenia.” Woman's Herald, August 10, 1893; “Letter to the Editor,” from Lucy Thoumaian, Woman's Signal, June 6, 1895, 416–17.

70. Lady Henry Somerset, “A Cry from Armenia.” Response to a Letter from Armenian Women of Constantinople to Lady Henry Somerset, Shafts, 3:9 (1895), 132.

71. Berta Buss, “Armenia: What is Best?,” Shafts, November, 1896, 150.

72. Somerset, “Annual Address,” Woman's Signal, June 25, 1896, 405.

73. Woman's Signal, April 22, 1895, 121; “Lead Editorial,” August 29, 1895, 487; “Foreign Troubles,” October 10, 1895, 232.

74. “Armenians at Hawarden: Mr. Gladstone and the Refugees,” Woman's Signal, April 25, 1895, 264–5.

75. Ibid.

76. Michelle Tusan, Women Making News (Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 2005), 121–7.

77. Donations ranged from £100 to one shilling and totaled for one week over £240. “Lady Henry Somerset's Efforts for the Armenian Refugees,” Woman's Signal, October 15, 1896, 246.

78. The campaign ended in March 1897. “Lady Henry Somerset's Letter of Thanks,” Woman's Signal, March 18, 1897, 172.

79. Margaret Anderson, “A Responsibility to Protest?,” 260.

80. E.J. Dillon, “The Fiasco in Armenia,” Fortnightly Review, March 1896, 346.

81. “The Sultan and his Victims,” The Speaker, March 14, 1896.

82. “The Massacres in Turkey,” Nineteenth Century, October 1896, 662.

83. “The Red Book,” The Speaker, February 22, 1896, 205.

84. “The Responsibility of the Turkish Government for the Massacres,” Information (Armenia) Bureau pamphlet, LSES collection.

85. “The Armenian Massacres,” The Times, September 25, 1896.

86. E.J. Dillon, “Armenia: An Appeal,” Contemporary Review, January 1896, 19.

87. “The Year of Shame,” Westminster Review, February 1898, 120.

88. Ibid., 146.

89. Decypher, Sir Philip Currie, June 8, 1895. FO 78/4693.

90. Sir Philip Currie to Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, June 27, 1895. FO 78/4693.

91. Edward Atkin to Sir Philip Currie, July 19, 1895. FO 78/4693.

92. “The Sultan and his Victims,” The Speaker, March 14, 1896.

93. “The Two Eastern Questions,” Fortnightly Review, February 1896, 193.

94. E.J. Dillon, “The Condition of Armenia,” Contemporary Review, August 1895, 189.

95. H.F.B. Lynch, “The Armenian Question,” Contemporary Review, February 1896, 272.

96. Quoted in Lillian M. Penson, “The Principles and Methods of Lord Salisbury's Foreign Policy,” Cambridge Historical Journal, 5:1 (1935), 100. This policy shift demonstrated Salisbury's keen consideration of public opinion in making his decisions, 101.

97. Robert Zeidner, “Britain and the Launching of the Armenian Question,” International Journal of Middle East Studies (1976), 480.

98. The Times, October 8, 1896 cited in the entry for October 20, 1896, H.C.G. Matthew (ed.), The Gladstone Diaries, vol. 13, 427.

99. “The Year of Shame,” Westminster Review, February 1898, 126.

100. “Medical Mission among the Armenians: Occasional Paper,” March 21, 1896, Friends House London.

101. The leader of the medical mission, Dr Dobrashian, to fled to England with his family. “Friends’ Mission, Constantinople: Letter from A.M. Burgess at the Request of Many Friends and Supporters of the Mission,” Burgess Papers, Friends House, London.

102. Edward Annett, “Fifty Years Among Armenians,” 17. Burgess Papers, Friends House, London.

103. Friends of Armenia Annual Reports, 1897–1902, British Library.

104. The international character of this organization meant that these networks came to include both British and American philanthropic organizations. Friends of Armenia, “Constantinople News,” January 1920, ns 75; “Constantinople News,” October 1920, ns 78.

105. “Medical Mission among the Armenians: Occasional Paper,” March 21, 1896.

106. Not everyone took this line on the Eastern Churches. High Anglicans like Gladstone joined the Quakers in believing that they could revivify the Eastern Churches while the Church Missionary Society maintained that these churches had strayed too far from their Apostolic beginnings to be saved. Matthew, Gladstone, 264–6 and Andrew Porter, Religion vs. Empire (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2004), 217.

107. “Industrial Work, Constantinople: Letter from Ann M. Burgess,” 1904. Burgess Papers, Friends House, London.

108. Burgess to Miss Peckover, Constantinople, January 23, 1921. Burgess Papers, Friends House, London.

109. Ann Mary Burgess Obituary. Burgess Papers, Friends House, London.

110. “Fifty Years Among Armenians,” 24.

111. “Friends’ Mission in Constantinople: Appeal for Completion of New Buildings Fund and for Additional Subscribers,” 1906. Burgess Papers, Friends House, London.

Chapter 4 Revolution, Massacre and War in the Balkans

1. “The Turkish Revolution,” Fortnightly Review, September 1908, 353–68, 356.

2. Ibid., 354.

3. Ibid., 353.

4. “The Young Turk,” Athenaeum, November 6, 1909, 554–5.

5. The most important book on the subject is Bedross Der Matossian, Shattered Dreams of Revolution (Palo Alto: Stanford University Press, 2014).

6. W.T. Stead, “Our Death Camps in South Africa,” Review of Reviews, January 1902, 8.

7. Adam Hochschild, King Leopold's Ghost (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1999); Kevin Grant, A Civilised Savagery (New York: Routledge, 2005).

8. “Expert Opinion,” Punch, May 31, 1905.

9. This was a period of intense and sometimes violent activity among both Armenian and Turkish revolutionaries who wanted to see the enactment of liberal reforms to the empire. According to Ronald Grigor Suny, reform rather than separation from the empire was the goal of the Hunchaks and Dashnaks who cooperated with their Turkish counterparts in attempts to liberalize the empire. Suny, History of Armenian Genocide, 141–7.

10. “The Progress of the World,” Review of Reviews, September 1900, 216–17.

11. Hensley Henson, “The Sultan's Jubilee and the Armenian Massacres,” Saturday Review, September 15, 1900, 332.

12. “British Statesmanship,” Fortnightly Review, October 1901, 644.

13. Ibid.

14. Herbert Vivian, “The Future of Balkistan,” Fortnightly Review, June 1904, 1048.

15. “The Progress of the World,” Review of Reviews, June 1912, 595.

16. W.L. Courtney, “Dr Dillon,” Fortnightly Review, July 1933, 26, 28.

17. Noel Buxton, “Freedom and Servitude in the Balkans,” Westminster Review, May 1903, 489–90.

18. İpek Yosmaoğlu, Blood Ties: Religion, Violence, and the Politics of Nationhood in Ottoman Macedonia, 1878–1908 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2014).

19. Suny, “They Can Live in the Desert but Nowhere Else”, 141–4.

20. Bloxham, Great Game of Genocide, 49.

21. Suny, “They Can Live in the Desert but Nowhere Else”, 25–9.

22. Eyal Ginio, The Ottoman Culture of Defeat: The Balkan War and their Aftermath (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2016).

23. Pears, Life of Abdul Hamid, 293.

24. Ibid., 294.

25. Ibid., 326.

26. “The Coup d'etat in Turkey,” Saturday Review, February 20, 1909, 230–1.

27. “Notes of the Week,” Saturday Review, August 8, 1908, 161.

28. Angus Hamilton, “Turkey: The Old Regime and the New,” Fortnightly Review, September 1908, 373, 382.

29. Mark Sykes, “Modern Turkey,” Dublin Review, January 1909, 171.

30. “Correspondence respecting the constitutional movement in Turkey, 1908,” Consul-General Lamb to Sir G. Lowther, Salonica, August 20, 1908. Parliamentary Papers [Cd. 4529] Turkey. No. 1 (1909).

31. Consul-General Eyres to Sir G. Lowther, Constantinople, August 26, 1908. [Cd. 4529]

32. Sir G. Lowther to Sir Edward Grey, Therepia, September 20, 1908. [Cd. 4529]

33. Ibid.

34. Der Matossian, Shattered Dreams of Revolution, 1–2.

35. “Coup d'Etat in Turkey,” Saturday Review, February 20, 1909, 230.

36. Bedross Der Matossian, “From Bloodless Revolution to Bloody Counterrevolution: The Adana Massacres of 1909,” Genocide Studies and Prevention 6:2 (Summer 2011), 152–73.

37. Adana's pre-1909 population consisted of 62,250 Muslims, 30,000 Armenians, 5,000 Greeks, 8,000 Chaldeans, 1,250 Assyrians, 500 Christian Arabs and 200 foreign subjects. Muslim migrant workers exceeded Armenians by 2:1. Der Matossian, Shattered Dreams of Revolution, 156–7.

38. Report on the “causes of the recent massacres” from Doughty-Wylie from Adana dated, July 24, 1909. Included in Sir G. Lowther correspondence to Sir Edward Grey Constantinople August 8, 1909. FO 424/220, 69–74.

39. Doughty-Wylie to Sir G. Lowther, Adana, April 21, 1909. FO 424/219, 80–84.

40. Ibid.

41. In Britain, he was made Companion of the Order of St. Michael and St. George and decorated by the Turkish authorities for valour with the Order of Majidieh.

42. Doughty-Wylie to Sir G. Lowther, Adana, April 21, 1909.

43. Vice Consul Doughty-Wylie to Sir G. Lowther, Adana, April 24, 1909. FO 424/219, 85–7.

44. Vice Consul Doughty-Wylie to Sir G. Lowther, Adana, May 2, 1909. FO 424/219, 107–8.

45. “Disturbances in Asia Minor,” The Times, April 19, 1909, 5; Mr McKinnon Wood, HC Deb, April 21, 1909 vol. 3 c1508.

46. Catoni's report is included as an enclosure in the correspondence between Sir G. Lowther to Sir Edward Grey, Therapia, June 15, 1909. FO 424/219, 195–200.

47. Doughty-Wylie's report enclosed in the correspondence between Sir G. Lowther to Sir Edward Grey, Constantinople, August 8, 1909.

48. Sir G. Lowther to Sir Edward Grey, Therapia, June 15, 1909. FO 424/219, 195–200.

49. Sir G. Lowther to Sir Edward Grey, Constantinople, May 4, 1909. FO 424/219, 87–92.

50. Ibid.

51. Catoni report in correspondence between Sir G. Lowther to Sir Edward Grey. Therapia, June 15, 1909. FO 424/219/ 195–200.

52. “Ihsan Fikri,” The Times, April 30, 1910, 13.

53. The Times, September 23, 1909, 3.

54. “Affairs in Turkey,” HC Deb, April 22, 1909, vol. 3, cc 1653–1654.

55. “Massacres of Armenians in Asia Minor,” HC Deb, May 18, 1909, vol. 5, c382.

56. Sir G. Lowther to Sir Edward Grey Constantinople, May 6, 1909. FO 424/219, 92–6.

57. Vice Consul Doughty-Wylie to Sir G. Lowther, Adana, May 7, 1909. FO 424/219, 122–4.

58. Ibid.

59. Zabel Yessayan, In the Ruins (Boston: AIWA Press, 2016), xii, 231.

60. Tusan, “The Business of Relief Work,” 633–62.

61. Sir G. Lowther to Sir Edward Grey Constantinople, May 6, 1909. FO 424/219, 92–6.

62. Vice Consul Doughty-Wylie to Sir G. Lowther, Adana, May 2, 1909. FO 424/219, 107–8.

63. Vice Consul Doughty-Wylie to Sir G. Lowther, Adana, May 3, 1909. FO 424/219, 109–10.

64. Sir G. Lowther to Sir Edward Grey, Constantinople, May 6, 1909. FO 424/219, 92–6.

65. Vice Consul Doughty-Wylie to Sir G. Lowther, Adana, May 2, 1909. FO 424/219, 107–8.

66. Lilian Doughty-Wylie quoted in Yessayan, In the Ruins, 33–5.

67. Helen Davenport Gibbons, The Red Rugs of Tarsus (New York: Century Co., 1917), 111–32.

68. “The Adana Hospital,” The Times, August 12, 1911.

69. Ibid.

70. Vice Consul Doughty-Wylie to Sir G. Lowther, Adana, May 4, 1909. FO 424/219, 110–12.

71. On November 17, 1915, a woman was reported to have come to Gallipoli to lay a wreath and pay her final respects. Some believe it was his wife Lilian, while others suspect it was his long time love, the explorer and archeologist Gertrude Bell. Georgina Howell, Gertrude Bell (New York: Farrer, Straus and Giroux, 2007), 156–61.

72. Christopher Clark, Sleepwalkers: How Europe went to War in 1914 (New York: Harper Collins, 2013).

73. “The Friends of Armenia,” The Times, October 29, 1909.

74. Tusan, Women Making News, 176–80.

75. “Constitutionalism A La Turque,” Saturday Review, April 24, 1909, 520–1.

76. “Obituary,” The Times, January 21, 1924.

77. “Treatment of Subject Races,” Anti-Slavery Reporter, June 1907, 81–2.

78. “Albania and Montenegro,” HC Deb, May 8 1913, vol. 52, c2317.

79. Mark Sykes, “The Balkan Position,” Saturday Review, November 16, 1912, 606.

80. Kevorkian, Armenian Genocide, 155.

81. “Albania and Montenegro,” HC Deb, May 8, 1913, vol. 52, c2319.

82. Ibid., c2321.

83. Ibid., c2322.

84. Quoted in Kevorkian, Armenian Genocide, 135.

85. Ibid., 152.

Chapter 5 Genocide and the Great War

1. Treatment of the Armenians in the Ottoman Empire, 9.

2. John Ellis and Michael Cox (eds), The World War I Databook (London: Aurum Press, 2001), 269.

3. 3 million men were conscripted into the Ottoman Army. Over 770,000 were killed. An estimated 18 per cent of the Anatolian Muslim population would also perish, along with 90 per cent of the Armenian population. Suny, “They Can Live in the Desert,” 208.

4. Very little work has been done to quantify exactly how many Greeks and Assyrians were massacred during the Armenian genocide. Donald Bloxham puts the number of Assyrian victims at between 20,000–30,000. Greek deportations are estimated at around 150,000. Game of Genocide, 98–9. Evidence of the wholesale deportation of Greek and Assyrian residents before and during the war suggests that these populations were victims of the anti-Armenian fervor due to their status as part of the Ottoman Empire's remaining Christian minority population. For the Greek case see Ioannis K. Hassiotis, “The Armenian Genocide and the Greeks,” in Richard Hovannisian (ed.), The Armenian Genocide (New York: St. Martins, 1992), 129–51 and Thea Halo, Not Even My Name (New York: Picador, 2000). For the Assyrian case see David Gaunt, “The Ottoman Treatment of Assyrians,” in Suny et al., A Question of Genocide, 244–59.

5. A small population did survive in the historic vilayets but many found it difficult to live openly as Armenians. These crypto-Armenians became part of Turkish society and some converted to Islam. The story of how these Armenians lived in post-genocide Turkey is told in Fethiye Çetin, My Grandmother (New York: Verso, 2008); and in Raffi Khatchadorian, “A Century of Silence,” New Yorker Magazine, January 5, 2015.

6. Turkey allegedly brokered a secret treaty with Germany in August 1914 which promised protection against external threats. Nigel Steel and Peter Hart, Defeat at Gallipoli (London: Papermac, 1995), 3.

7. Suny, “They Can Live in the Desert,” 220–5.

8. J. Ellis Barker, Fortnightly Review, December 1914.

9. World War I's Eastern Front in general has generated less interest than the Western Front. These largely military histories do not deal with the British response to events on the Eastern Front and make little mention of events outside of major battles and military offensives. See for example: Norman Stone, The Eastern Front, 1914–1917 (New York: Scribner, 1975), and Steel and Hart, Defeat at Gallipoli. A notable exception is Eugene Rogan, The Fall of the Ottomans (New York: Basic Books, 2015).

10. W. Williams, Fortnightly Review, November 1915.

11. As Paul Fussell observed in The Great War and Modern Memory, “Correctly or not, the current idea of ‘the Great War’ derives primarily from the images of the trenches in Belgium and France.” The Great War and Modern Memory (London: Oxford University Press, 1975), ix.

12. Stone, The Eastern Front, 1914–1917.

13. Rogan, Fall of the Ottomans, 12–13, 139, 173.

14. Steel and Hart, Defeat at Gallipoli, 1.

15. Dadrian, The History of the Armenian Genocide, 61–8; Arman Kirakossian, British Diplomacy and the Armenian Question (Princeton: Gomidas, 2003), 172–87.

16. Jo Laycock, Imagining Armenia, 1. In the words of Donald Bloxham, the genocide became a “useful propaganda tool for the Entente,” Great Game of Genocide, 134. See also Nassibian, Britain and the Armenian Question, 78–119.

17. T.P. O'Conner and Harold Buxton were scheduled to accompany Williams. Williams to Bryce, November 26, 1913. Bryce Papers, MS Bryce 201, Bodleian Library.

18. HC Debate 10 July 1914 vol. 64 cc1383–463.

19. Records of Nubar Pasha's meeting with British and European leaders is found in Vache Ghazarian (ed.), Boghos Nubar's Papers and the Armenian Question (Waltham, MA: Mayreni Publishing, 1996).

20. A.S. Safrastian to Bryce, October 7, 1915. Bryce Papers, MS Bryce 201, Bodleian Library.

21. John Seaman, A Citizen of the World: James Bryce (London: I.B.Tauris, 2006), 208.

22. H.A.L. Fisher, James Bryce, vol. 1 (New York: Macmillan, 1927), 157–60.

23. Seaman, A Citizen of the World, 80.

24. Vartabed Astvazatourian wrote from the Armenian rectory on behalf of the Armenian Community of Manchester to congratulate him on his election to parliament in April 1880. Bryce Papers, MS 191, Bodleian Library.

25. Bryce to “My Dear Gladstone,” December 22, 1896. Gladstone Papers, Add. MS 46019, f. 34, British Library.

26. Seaman, A Citizen of the World, 203.

27. Letter from Bryce, May 20, 1895. Bryce-White Papers, HM 71995, Huntington Library.

28. Ibid.

29. Letter from Bryce, January 8, 1896. Bryce-White Papers, HM 71996, Huntington Library.

30. Nansen initially wrote Bryce to tell him that he had read his book and that Bryce had a following in Norway. They seemed to strike up a friendship, with Nansen sending him tickets to a lecture he was to give in London in 1898. Letter dated February 20, 1898. Bryce-White Papers, HM 71971, Huntington Library.

31. Bryce to Senator Theodore Burton, September 11, 1914. Bryce-White Papers, HM 71925, Huntington Library.

32. Nicoletta Gullace, ‘The Blood of Our Sons’: Men, Women and the Renegotiation of British Citizenship during the Great War (New York: Palgrave, 2004), 17–34; H.A.L. Fisher, James Bryce, 2 vols (New York: Macmillan, 1927), 2: 132–6; John Horne and Alan Kramer, German Atrocities (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2001), 237.

33. This was done through a reinterpretation of the 1899 Hague Convention.

34. Bryce to Theodore Burton, September 11, 1914. Bryce-White Papers, HM 71925, Huntington Library.

35. J.S. Malcolm made this comparison in Fisher, James Bryce, 1: 293. On connections with Gladstone's Armenian campaigns see: “Anglo-Armenian Association: Letter of Appeal,” January 31, 1893; “Viscount James Bryce,” Obituary, The Times, January 31, 1922.

36. Somerville College Bryce Memorial lecture, 1943. Gilbert Murray, A Conversation with Bryce (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1944).

37. The Courier and Argus (Dundee, Scotland), October 7, 1915.

38. “Lord Bryce's Report on Turkish Atrocities in Armenia,” New York Times Magazine (November, 1916).

39. Bryce, The Treatment of Armenians in the Ottoman Empire.

40. “Joint declaration to Sublime Porte,” May 24, 1915.

41. British consular officials starting in the nineteenth century warned of the threat posed by Russia and its attempts to win the hearts and minds of Orthodox Christians living in border towns like Erzeroom. Everett Papers, MECA, St. Antony's College, Oxford. On the Russian view see Robert Nichols and Theofanis Stavrou (eds), Russian Orthodoxy Under the Old Regime (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1978); Paul Werth, At the Margins of Orthodoxy (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2001); Thomas Meininger, Ignatiev and the establishment of the Bulgarian Exarchate (Madison, 1970).

42. Bryce, The Treatment of Armenians in the Ottoman Empire, 653.

43. “Manuscript on Turkish Massacres,” Raphael Lemkin Collection, P-154 Box 8, Folder 14, American Jewish Historical Society, New York, NY.

44. “Raphael Lemkin,” in Paul R. Bartrop and Steven Leonard Jacobs, Fifty Key Thinkers on the Holocaust and Genocide (London: Routledge, 2011), 181–6.

45. Bryce, The Treatment of Armenians, 637, 652–3.

46. Eric Weitz, A Century of Genocide (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2003), 1.

47. Ronald Grigor Suny has written a study of Morgenthau and understands his role as central to shaping the discourse of genocide. Though the Ambassador reportedly was encouraged by then President Wilson to publish his findings, his report on the massacres came out only in 1919 and did not have the official status of Bryce's Blue Book. “Writing Genocide,” in A Question of Genocide, 15–41. See also Balakian, Burning Tigris, 167–8, 219–24.

48. “Letter from Mr. H.A.L. Fisher,” Bryce, The Treatment of Armenians in the Ottoman Empire, xxix. See Nassibian, Britain and the Armenian Question; Tusan, Smyrna's Ashes, 123–4.

49. Joint declaration to the Sublime Porte, May 24, 1915.

50. David Bloxham has argued that, “the German role should still be seen in a comparative, interactive context with those of the other Great Powers.” Great Game of Genocide, 115. See also Margaret Anderson, “Down in Turkey,” 80–111.

51. Toynbee quoting from the New York Tribune, October, 1915. Arnold Toynbee, Armenian Atrocities: The Murder of a Nation (London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1915), 117.

52. Ibid., 7.

53. Bryce, The Treatment of Armenians, 25.

54. Toynbee to Bryce, July 22, 1916. Bryce Papers, MS 203, Bodleian Library.

55. Bryce, The Treatment of Armenians, xvii.

56. Nassibian, Britain and the Armenian Question, 78–84.

57. Toynbee papers, Bodleian Library, Box on Armenia, “Memorial,” September 26, 1924. Quoted in Nassibian, 81.

58. Charles Masterman to Bryce, June 14, 1916. Bryce Papers, MS 202, Bodleian Library.

59. Masterman to Bryce, June 20, 1916. FO 96/207.

60. Materman to Bryce, June 14, 1916. FO 96/207.

61. “Lord Bryce's Report on Turkish Atrocities in Armenia,” Current History 5:2, November 1916, 321.

62. Masterman to Sir John Simon, June 20, 1916. FO 96/207.

63. Toynbee to Bryce, June 20, 1916. FO 96/207.

64. Ibid.

65. Toynbee to Bryce, March 11, 1920. Bryce papers, MS 206, Bodleian Library.

66. Bryce to Nubar, May 9, 1915, in Ghazarin, Boghos Nubar's Papers, 23.

67. Bryce to White, August 12, 1914. Bryce-White Papers, HM 66725, Huntington Library.

68. Bryce to White, October 15, 1915. HM 66728.

69. Bryce to White, February 28, 1917. HM 66730.

70. Bryce to White, July 16, 1916. HM 66729.

71. Lord Curzon to White, August 12, 1916. HM 66743.

72. Bryce to C.P. Scott, December 17, 1916. Scott Papers, Add. MS 50909, f. 55, British Library.

73. Bryce to C.P. Scott, March 11, 1917. Scott Papers, Add. MS 50909.

74. “Visit of Boghos Nubar to Mr. Picot, with Messrs. Sykes, Mosditchian, and Malcolm” held in London on October 27, 1916, in Ghazarin, Boghos Nubar's Papers, 393–7.

75. Winston Churchill, The World Crisis, vol. 5 (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1929), 429. Some historians still use the disloyalty argument as an explanation for the mass killings. See Rogan, Fall of the Ottomans, chapter 7, “The Annihilation of the Armenians,” 139–58.

76. Stephen Bonsal, Suitors and Supplicants: The Little Nations at Versailles (New York: Prentice Hall, 1946), 194.

77. Ibid., 186.

78. Ibid., 198.

79. Williams to Nubar, London, October 27, 1916, in Ghazarin, Boghos Nubar's Papers, 261.

80. Michelle Tusan, “Crimes Against Humanity,” American History Review 119:1 (February 2014), 50–2.

81. Bryce, The Treatment of Armenians, 652.

82. “Lord Bryce's Report on Turkish Atrocities,” Current History Magazine, November 1916.

83. Pamphlet in Bryce papers, MS 209, Bodleian Library.

84. A.S. Safrastian to Bryce, March 14, 1917. Bryce papers, MS 204, Bodleian Library.

85. Coakley, The Church of the East, 336–40.

86. Archbishop of York to Archbishop Davidson, October 1, 1915. Davidson Papers 371, Lambeth Palace Archives.

87. Peter Balakian, The Burning Tigris, 280.

88. Archbishop of Canterbury to Archbishop of York, November 24, 1915. Lambeth Palace Archives.

89. Ibid.

90. Arnold Toynbee, Acquaintances (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1967), 149.

Chapter 6 Saving “The Remnant”

1. Keith Watenpaugh, Bread from Stones (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2015); Bruno Cabanes, The Great War and the Origins of Humanitarianism (Cambridge: University of Cambridge Press, 2014).

2. “‘Armenian Settlement Report’ presented by the Armenian (Lord Mayor's) Fund, being the body nominated by HM Government to deal with Armenian Settlement,” London: Armenian (Lord Mayor's) Fund, 1925.

3. Ararat, July 1915.

4. “Armenian Relief,” A. Williams, Letter to The Times, November 15, 1915.

5. “Lord Mayor's Fund” pamphlet (1923). Douglas Papers 61, Lambeth Palace Archives.

6. Aneurin Williams to the Archbishop, May 16, 1916. Davidson Papers 371, Lambeth Palace Archives.

7. For a history of Near East Relief see, Watenpaugh, Bread from Stones, 91–123.

8. James Barton, Story of Near East Relief (New York: Macmillan, 1930), 84.

9. Ibid., 4–5.

10. Stephan Thernstrom (ed.), Harvard Encyclopedia of American Ethnic Groups (Cambridge: Harvard University Press), 1980, 136.

11. “Friends of Armenia,” pamphlet. n.d.

12. “Industrial Relief: Conclusions and Proposals,” Friends of Armenia, March, 1917.

13. Barton, Story of Near East Relief, 84–5.

14. Ibid., 100–3.

15. Edward Annett, “Fifty Years Among Armenians,” 17.

16. “Semi-Jubilee of Miss A.M. Burgess,” The Orient, January 28, 1914.

17. Hetty M. Rowe to Algerina Peckover, July 24, 1916. Burgess Papers, Friends House, London.

18. Burgess to Mr Hurnard, March 9, 1916. Burgess Papers, Friends House, London.

19. CMS Gleaner, “Ann Mary Burgess,” May 1922, 98.

20. Barton, Story of Near East Relief, 74.

21. Ibid., 82.

22. Ibid., 83–4.

23. Burgess to Algerina Peckover, April 20, 1922. Burgess Papers, Friends House, London.

24. Burgess to Peckover, December 8, 1922. Burgess Papers, Friends House, London.

25. Members included James Bryce, Lady Henry Somerset, Lady Frederick Cavendish, MPs Noel Buxton, Aneurin Williams, and journalist Edwin Pears. Armenian Red Cross Annual Reports, British Library.

26. “Appeal for Funds,” Armenian Red Cross Pamphlet.

27. First Annual Report, February 14, 1916. British Library.

28. Most of the money came from subscriptions and donations which equaled £4,739. First Annual Report, 1916, British Library.

29. Events the first year that collected money for the fund included: E.T.A. Wigram, “The Cradle of Mankind”; Miss Amelia Bernard lectured at St Matthew's Parish Hall, Brook Green; Drawing room meeting held at Bolton hosted by the Reynolds; Mr N.I. Tiratsoo addressed School House Kineton on “Armenia Past and Present” and published a companion pamphlet.

30. Armenian Red Cross Annual Reports, British Library.

31. Nassibian, Britain and the Armenian Question, 41.

32. Imperial War Museum online collection, Armenia/2.

33. Gullace, ‘The Blood of Our Sons’, 17–34.

34. The fate of some of these girls has started to come to light recently in memoirs written by survivors and their children. See Çetin, My Grandmother and Halo, Not Even my Name.

35. Keith Watenpaugh, “The League of Nations' Rescue of Armenian Genocide Survivors and the Making of Modern Humanitarianism, 1920–1927,” American Historical Review 115:5 (December 2010), 1315–39.

36. Robinson to Douglas, June 3, 1923. Douglas Papers 61, Lambeth Palace Archives.

37. Manoug Somakian, Empires in Conflict: Armenia and the Great Powers, 1895–1920 (London: I.B.Tauris, 1995), 77–82.

38. Armenian Red Cross, 4th Annual report, adopted January 23, 1919. British Library.

39. Somakian, 82.

40. Churchill, World Crisis, vol. 5, 429.

41. Ibid., 364. Born in Constantinople in 1851, French-educated Boghos Nubar spent much of his life in Egypt. His work as head of the Armenian National delegation put him into regular contact with European leaders during the war making him, according to his biographer, “politically the most centripetal Armenian figure during the years 1913 through 1918.” Vatche Ghazarian (ed.), trans., Boghos Nubar's Papers, xviii.

42. Undated Armenian Red Cross Pamphlet. Davidson Papers 371, Lambeth Palace Archives.

43. Armenia/2, Imperial War Museum Archive.

44. J.A.R. Marriott, Fortnightly Review, June 1916, 943.

45. LMF Pamphlet [n.d.]. Bryce Papers, MS 210, Bodleian Library.

46. Armenian-run organization in Britain included the Armenian Ladies' Guild of London. It was organized on November 2, 1914 and made clothes to send to volunteers and refugees through Robinson's contacts in Russia. Asking for help from all British dominions, the organization raised about £1,192 in 1915. The Armenian Refugees' Relief Fund was run by prominent Armenians living in London and collected money from “Armenian colonies in the Far East” that was then given to the Catholicos (the head of the Armenian church). It had raised £7,249 by the Fall of 1915. Ararat Magazine, July–September 1915.

47. Nassibian, Britain and the Armenian Question, 253.

48. Lord Mayor's Fund, flyer, March 1919; the figure cited was 800,000.

49. LMF Appeal, March 25, 1919. Bryce Papers, MS 210, Bodleian Library.

50. Barton, Story of Near East Relief, 107.

51. Watenpaugh claims that after the war, NER switched its focus from ameliorating “a discrete humanitarian emergency … to a long term program for solving humanitarian problems.” Bread from Stones, 94.

52. A large number of these refugees arrived before the signing of the treaty from Smyrna and its surrounding areas. Skran, Refugees in Interwar Europe, 44–6. Elisabeth Kontogiori, Population Exchange in Greek Macedonia (Oxford 2006), 6.

53. John Hope Simpson, The Refugee Problem (London: Oxford University Press, 1939), 337. The Chatham House study was a survey which resulted from a tour of the region in fall of 1937 and was funded by Rockefeller foundation.

54. Maud Mandel, In the Aftermath of Genocide (Durham: Duke University Press, 2003), 20.

55. Bruce Clark, Twice a Stranger (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2006), 151–7.

56. On the history of Save the Children see: Clare Mulley, The Woman Who Saved the Children: A Biography of Eglantyne Jebb (Oxford: Oneworld, 2009); Kathleen Freeman, If Any Man Build: The History of the Save the Children Fund (London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1965); Edward Fuller, The Rights of the Child; Dorothy F. Buxton, The White Flame: the Story of the Save the Children Fund (London: Longmans, 1931).

57. This cooperation was widely acknowledged at the time. As the final intertitle read in the film, Salvage Austria, “Save the Children Fund has spent over a quarter of a million pounds in saving Austrian and Hungarian children. A large portion of that has been administered by the Society of Friends.” British Film Institute Archive.

58. LMF Appeal, March 25, 1919. Bryce papers.

59. Barton, Story of Near East Relief, 109.

60. Ibid., 110–11.

61. Ibid., 95.

62. Ibid., 412.

63. “Near East Conference,” Hansard Deb, March 30, 1922, vol. 49 cc985–1009.

64. “Eastern Committee Minutes,” December 9, 1918. British Library.

65. Ibid.

66. “Lausanne and its Lessons,” 324.

67. Clark, Twice a Stranger, 11–12. According to Skran, “Refugee movements in inter-war Europe dwarfed all previous ones,” Refugees in Interwar Europe, 14.

68. “Armenia” as a territory after the war had a precarious existence. Modern Armenia began as the Soviet Armenian Republic in December 1920. It was taken over by Russian forces and became part of the USSR in December 1922. Widespread starvation and inadequate resources made it a difficult place to support settlement despite efforts by the League to make it a permanent home for the Armenians. Richard Hovanissian, The Republic of Armenia: Between Crescent and Sickle, vol. 4 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996).

69. Harold Nicolson, Curzon: The Last Phase (London: Constable, 1934), 315.

70. Clark, Twice a Stranger, xii.

71. A small Christian minority population was allowed to remain in Constantinople after Lausanne. For a history of this community see Talin Suciyan, The Armenians In Modern Turkey (London: I.B.Tauris, 2016).

72. Curzon's response to Williams letter on Armenia, December 6, 1921. FO 286/879.

73. Lancelot Oliphant to Australian and Canadian Consulates, January 8, 1923. FO 286/879.

74. Correspondence with New Zealand Consulate, January 9, 1923; April 10, 1923. FO 286/879.

75. Correspondence with Canadian Consulate, December 20, 1922. FO 286/879.

76. Charles Gore, “The Living Remnant,” Aleppo, March 29, 1925. Marshall Fox Papers, Friends House, London.

77. Typescript to Douglas from Buxton on LMF stationary on June 30, 1924. Douglas Papers 61, Lambeth Palace Archive.

78. Ibid., Jan 1926. They estimated rescue costs of £8 per girl.

79. English Review Advertiser, December 1928, 626.

80. Michelle Tusan, “Genocide, Famine and Refugees on Film: Humanitarianism and the Great War,” Past and Present (forthcoming).

81. Ninth Report of the Emergency and War Victims' Relief Committee of the Society of Friends, April 1922. British Library.

82. Fuller, Right of the Child, 95.

83. Emphasis in original. Emily Robinson to John P. Fletcher, November 8, 1926. Friends Armenia Committee, ARM/P/3. Friends House, London.

84. BAC Armenia file, Augusta to Harris, December 28, 1929, RHL.

85. Nassibian, Britain and the Armenian Question, 248.

86. The Refugee camp in Bakuba was discussed as part of the Iraq settlement immediately after the war. T161/50, National Archives.

87. He was the grandson of the Earl of Iddesleigh who, though a loyal political Conservative, had close ties with W.E. Gladstone.

88. Northcote to mother, December 3, 1918. Northcote Papers, Add. MS 57559, British Library.

89. Northcote reported speaking Armenian “quite well” by July 5, 1919 in a letter home. Refugee statistics come from Simpson, The Refugee Problem, 49.

90. Letter dated July 18, 1919. Northcote Papers, Add. MS 57559, British Library.

91. Robert Hewsen, Armenia: A Historical Atlas (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 2001), 242. On the history of modern Armenia see: Richard Hovannisian, The Armenian People from Ancient to Modern Times, vol. II (Palgrave, 2004) and Razmik Panossian, The Armenians (New York: Columbia University Press, 2006), 246–56.

92. Letters from September 23 and 24, 1921. Northcote Papers, Add. MS 57559, British Library.

93. Nassibian, 248–9.

94. Northcote was still employed by LMF in March of 1926 but expressed his wish to “come home.” Funding given by Save the Children discussed in letter from February 3, 1922. Northcote Papers, Add. MS 57559, British Library.

95. Simpson, The Refugee Problem, 344.

96. Curzon to Williams, December 6, 1921. FO 286/879.

97. Charles Gore, “The Value of the Living Remnant,” unpublished manuscript written in Aleppo, March 29, 1925. Friends Armenian Committee papers, Friends House, London.

98. Quakers had been involved in the Near East since the 1860s where they started a medical mission and later engaged in industrial work and philanthropic activities. Tusan, “The Business of Relief Work,” 633–62.

99. John Ormerod Greenwood, Quaker Encounters, vol. 1 (York, England: William Sessions, 1975), 194–5.

100. Armenia Committee Minutes, August 25, 1925. Friends House, London.

101. Fox to Lucy Backhouse, February 18, 1927. Friends Armenia Committee, ARM/P/4, Friends House, London.

102. Marshall Fox, “Descriptive Account of the First steps towards the housing of homeless Armenians in Lebanon and Syria, 1926–1934.” Armenia Committee, MS vol. 216/1, Friends House, London.

103. Ibid.

104. William Jessop, “Armenian Refugee Situation in Syria,” marked “Confidential and Not for Publication.” Friends Armenia Committee, November 5, 1931.

105. Armenia Committee Minutes, February 5, 1930. Friends House, London.

106. Lilie Chouliaraki, The Ironic Spectator (Cambridge: Polity, 2013).

Chapter 7 “Crimes Against Humanity”

1. Stefan Ihrig, Atatürk in the Nazi Imagination (Cambridge, MA: Harvard, 2014), 108–46.

2. Confidential letter to Pollock from J.H. Morgan (War Office), October 29, 1918. Bodleian Special Collections, Oxford, Hanworth Papers [hereafter HP]; War Cabinet meeting minutes, October 31, 1918.

3. The most comprehensive study of the war crimes trials is Vahakn Dadrian and Taner Akçam, Judgment at Istanbul: The Armenian Genocide Trials (New York: Berghahn, 2011). See also Kevorkian, Armenian Genocide, 699–798; Dadrian, “The Turkish Military Tribunals' Prosecution of the Authors of the Armenian Genocide: Four Major Court-Martial Series,” Holocaust and Genocide Studies 11:1 (1997), 28–59.

4. October 22, 1918. CAB 23/14/37.

5. Tusan, “Crimes Against Humanity,” American Historical Review, 47–77.

6. The civil war effectively ended Russia's ability to maintain its claim that it was the rightful protector of Ottoman Christians over Britain. This, alongside the sensation caused by the Blue Book, allowed Britain to strengthen its already strong claims to protect Ottoman minorities. Though little has been written about the impact of the civil war on Ottoman Christians, the story of the war itself is chronicled in David Foglesong, America's Secret War against Bolshevism: U.S. Intervention in the Russian Civil War, 1917–1920 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001).

7. Lewis Einstein, Contemporary Review 111 (1917), 494.

8. T.P. O'Connor quoting Curzon in a House of Commons debate on “Armenians,” March 28, 1923, vol. 162, cc630–43.

9. Brock Millman, Pessimism and British War Policy (London: Frank Cass, 2001), 208, 230.

10. According to Lloyd George, “Young men from every quarter of this country flocked to the standard of international right as to a great crusade.” David Lloyd George, “Winning the War,” The Great Crusade: Extracts from Speeches Delivered During the War (New York: George H. Doran, 1918), 23.

11. Ibid., 34.

12. This number is documented in John Ellis and Michael Cox, World War I Databook (London: Aurum Press, 2001), 246. Little has been written about the troops who served in the Mediterranean during and after the war. Eugen Rogan shows that the British campaigns in the Middle East in particular relied heavily on Indian troops during the war and breaks down the numbers as follows: Gallipoli (9,400); Persian Gulf (50,000); Egypt (116,000) and Mesopotamia (590,000). Fall of the Ottomans, 73.

13. “The War and the Empire,” Great Crusade, 136.

14. “The War Aims of the Allies,” Great Crusade, 263.

15. Lloyd George's response to the Ottoman delegation, July 16, 1920, quoted in Kevorkian, Armenian Genocide, 769.

16. David Fromkin, A Peace to End All Peace (New York: Henry Holt, 2001), 404.

17. A comparison between the war crimes trials held at Leipzig and Constantinople is found in Gary Bass, Stay the Hand of Vengeance, 58–105.

18. For contemporary accounts of Leipzig see: Claud Mullins, The Leipzig Trials (London: H.F. & G. Witherby, 1921); “German War Trials: Report of Proceedings before the Supreme Court in Leipzig,” (London: H.M.S.O., 1921).

19. Paul Halpern, A Naval History of World War I (Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 1994), 401; Paul Halpern (ed.), The Mediterranean Fleet, 1919–1929 (London: Ashgate, 2011), 4.

20. M.P.A. Hankey Diary entry, October 29, 1918. Hankey served as the Secretary to the Committee of Imperial Defense from 1912–38, and the British Secretary to the Paris Peace Conference, recording his personal observations of the Conference in his diary. Hankey Papers, 1/6. Churchill College Archives, Cambridge University.

21. J.C. Hurewitz (ed.), The Middle East and North Africa in World Politics: A Documentary Record, 2 vols (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1979), 2, 128–30.

22. “Turks Talk of Reform: Punishment for Armenian Massacres,” The Times, November 30, 1918.

23. “More Armenian Massacres,” The Times, January 4, 1919.

24. Dadrian, “Turkish Military Tribunals' Prosecution,” 28–59.

25. Vartkes Yeghiayan (ed.), British Foreign Office Dossiers on Turkish War Criminals (La Verne, CA: American Armenian International College, 1991), vii–xxvi.

26. Admiral Calthorpe, Constantinople, January 7, 1919. FO 371/4173.

27. Caroline Finkel, Osman's Dream: The History of the Ottoman Empire (New York: Basic Books, 2005), 538.

28. As quoted in Vahakn Dadrian and Taner Akçam, Judgment at Istanbul, 58.

29. Ibid., 40–1.

30. Ibid., 127.

31. Ibid., 66.

32. Ibid., 126.

33. Ibid., 104.

34. Stefan Ihrig, Atatürk in the Nazi Imagination, 7.

35. Paul G. Halpern, “Calthorpe,” Dictionary of National Biography (London: Oxford University Press, 2004), 563–5.

36. See Churchill's correspondence regarding Calthorpe: May 6, 1913, CHAR 13/22A-B; March 5, 1915, CHAR 13/62/14; March 6, 1915, CHAR 13/62/16. Churchill Archives.

37. “Sir Somerset Gough-Calthorpe,” The Times, July 28, 1937, 16.

38. “The Turkish Armistice,” The Times, May 16, 1930, 19.

39. The sister flagships stationed in the Mediterranean were the Lord Nelson and the Agamemnon. The latter was recorded as the site of the historic signing. Sir Frederick Maurice, The Armistices of 1918 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1943), 85–7. A diary entry from a sailor present at the negotiations published in The Times and a separate Times article, both cited above, claim that those aboard the Lord Nelson also had a role to play.

40. “The Turkish Armistice,” The Times, May 16, 1930, 19. See Erik Zürcher, Young Turk Legacy and Nation Building (London: I.B.Tauris, 2014), 189–91 for a detailed account of the signing of the Armistice.

41. “Minutes,” October 31, 1918, War Cabinet 494A. CAB/23/14.

42. “Minutes,” November 4, 1918, War Cabinet 496. CAB/23/8.

43. “Eastern Report,” November 14, 1918, no. XCIV. CAB/24/145.

44. Ahmet Tevfik Pasha served as grand vizier four times between 1918–22. Zürcher, Turkey, 404.

45. “Eastern Report,” November 28, 1918, no. XCVI. CAB/24/145.

46. “Eastern Report,” December 5, 1918, no. XCVII. CAB/24/145.

47. “Eastern Report,” January 23, 1919, no. CIV. CAB/24/145.

48. “Minutes,” October 31, 1918, War Cabinet.

49. “Minutes,” January 15, 1919, War Cabinet 494A. CAB/23/9.

50. “Eastern Report,” January 30, 1919, no. CV. CAB/24/145.

51. He was made Pasha in 1888 and served as Grand Vizier five times. He became unpopular because of his cooperation with the British and anti-nationalist leanings. Zürcher, Turkey, 391.

52. “Eastern Report,” January 30, 1919, no. CV. CAB/24/145.

53. Pollock to A.J. Balfour, February 8, 1919. HP, MS. Eng. Hist. c. 943.

54. Tusan, “Crimes Against Humanity,” 47.

55. February 3, 1919 committee session discussed in Kevorkian, Armenian Genocide, 763–5.

56. Pollock to Lloyd George, February 7, 1919. HP, MS. Eng. Hist. c. 943.

57. “Remarks on Projet D'Organisation Des Tribunaux.” HP, MS. Eng. Hist. c. 943.

58. Pollock to A.J. Balfour, February 8, 1919. HP, MS. Eng. Hist. c. 943.

59. These dossiers are held in the National Archives. Some are published in Yeghiayan, British Foreign Office Dossiers.

60. Pollock to Balfour, February 26, 1919. HP, MS. Eng. Hist. c. 943.

61. Lloyd George quoted in Kevorkian. Lloyd George reportedly announced in front of his fellow Allied leaders Woodrow Wilson, David Lloyd George, Georges Clemenceau and Vittorio Orlando that this case was a good testing ground for the League but that it was not yet able to carry out this mission. Kevorkian, Armenian Genocide, 766.

62. As Ambassador Louis Mallet directly linked these crimes after the armistice: “It will be necessary to provide for the punishment of any Turks who can be proved to have been responsible for the perpetration of instigation of (1) Armenian massacres (2) outrages committed on any other subject races, Greeks, Nestorian Christians, etc. (3) ill-treatment of prisoners.” Louis Mallet to Sir R. Graham, “Necessity of punishing Turks responsible for Armenian Massacres and other outrages,” January 17, 1919. FO 371/4172.

63. Bass, Stay the Hand of Vengeance, 106–7; Akçam, Shameful Act, 368–72.

64. Plans to enquire into German war crimes against British subjects were underway by late October 1918 when the British Attorney General set up a committee authorized by the War Cabinet to investigate, October 29, 1918, Staff Captain (J.H. Morgan) to Sir E. Pollock. HP, MS. Eng. Hist. c. 943; Kevorkian, Armenian Genocide, 764.

65. Telegram from Sir E. Crowe (Urgent) December 20, 1919. Later this question would be extended to include German atrocities against Poles. HP, MS. Eng. Hist. c. 943.

66. Damat Ferit quoted in Kevorkian, Armenian Genocide, 770.

67. German war criminals were tried at Leipzig based on prosecution lists and evidence gathered by Allies. Mullins, Leipzig Trials, 35–50.

68. Admiral Calthorpe, “Report,” Constantinople, January 28, 1919. FO 371/4172.

69. “Treatment of British Prisoners of war and Armenians,” Letter from British High Commissioner, January 7, 1919. FO 371/4172.

70. Calthorpe, “Report,” Constantinople, January 24, 1919. FO 371/4172.

71. Ibid., January 28, 1919. FO 371/4172.

72. “Treatment of British Prisoners of war and Armenians,” Letter from British High Commissioner, January 7, 1919. FO 371/4172.

73. “Eastern Report,” February 6, 1919, no. CVI. CAB/24/145.

74. “Eastern Report,” February 13, 1919, no. CVII. CAB/24/145.

75. “Eastern Report,” March 13, 1919, no. CXI. CAB/24/145.

76. As quoted in Akçam and Dadrian, Judgment at Istanbul, 69.

77. “Eastern Report,” March 27, 1919, no. CXL. CAB/24/145.

78. “Eastern Report,” April 9, 1919, no. CXV. CAB/24/145.

79. “Eastern Report,” April 16, 1919, no. CXVI. CAB/24/145.

80. On the verdict and reaction see, Dadrian and Akçam, Judgement at Istanbul, 177–8, 195.

81. “Eastern Report,” April 16, 1919, no. CXVI. CAB/24/145.

82. “Eastern Report,” April 24, 1919, no. CXVII. CAB/24/145.

83. “Eastern Report,” May 22, 1919, no. CXXI. CAB/24/145.

84. Calthorpe understood the importance of this event and worried about its damaging effects on Anglo-Turkish relations. J.G. Wilson Heathcote to Baron Kinross, Kinross Papers, KIN 6072, Huntington Library. See also Vahakn Dadrian, “A Textual Analysis of the Key Indictment of the Turkish Military Tribunal Investigating the Armenian Genocide,” Armenian Review 44:1 (1991), 3.

85. At the end of May, Calthorpe began prosecuting Greek soldiers for atrocities against Turkish civilians that included court marshals and penal servitude. He believed that the Greek landing started a vicious cycle of reprisals between Christians and Muslims. “Turkey Report,” CAB 24/145 no. 122.

86. “Situation Report,” H.V. Whittall, Lieut., Document received May 17, 1919. FO 608/79.

87. “Eastern Report,” May 22, 1919, no. CXXI. CAB/24/145.

88. “Eastern Report,” May 29, 1919, no. CXXII. CAB/24/145.

89. “Eastern Report,” June 12, 1919, no. CXXIV. CAB/24/145.

90. “Eastern Report,” June 19, 1919, no. CXXV. CAB/24/145.

91. Fromkin, A Peace to End all Peace, 428, 536–7. France no longer wanted to support its force of 80,000 occupation troops and negotiated peace with the nationalist government at Angora in Fall 1921.

92. “Eastern Report,” June 5, 1919, no. CXXIII. CAB/24/145; “Eastern Report,” July 3, 1919, no. CXXVII. CAB/24/145.

93. “Eastern Report,” July 31, 1919, no. CXXXI. CAB/24/145.

94. De Robeck quoted in Gary Bass, Stay the Hand of Vengeance, 145.

95. As quoted in Dadrian and Akçam, Judgment at Istanbul, 80.

96. Ibid., 195.

97. “The Massacre of Armenians,” The Times, February 28, 1920.

98. “C.U.P. Maneuvers,” The Times, July 21, 1919; “Young Turks Again In Power,” The Times, October 13, 1919; “Grand Vizier Ousted,” The Times, October 9, 1919; “The Massacre of Armenians,” The Times, February 28, 1920; “Grand Vizier's Troubles,” The Times, August 9, 1920; “Damid Ferid Pasha,” The Times, October 8, 1923.

99. “Eastern Report,” No. CXXIX, July 17, 1919. CAB 24/145.

100. Bass, Stay the Hand of Vengeance, 144–5. See also Eric Bogosian, Operation Nemesis (New York: Little Brown, 2015).

101. Erik Zürcher considers the debates over genocide denial by nationalists after the war in Young Turk Legacy, 202–4.

Chapter 8 Winston Churchill's Realpolitik

1. Warren Dockter, Churchill and the Islamic World (London: I.B.Tauris, 2015).

2. Winston Churchill, The World Crisis, vol. 5, vii.

3. Norman Stone, The Eastern Front; and Nigel Steel and Peter Hart, Defeat at Gallipoli.

4. John S. Churchill (HMS Queen Elizabeth) to WSC, April 27, 1915, Churchill College Archives, Cambridge, Churchill Papers [hereafter CP], CHAR 1/392/30-47.

5. “Notes on the Armenian Question,” December 28, 1928. CP, CHAR 8/258.

6. J. Ellis Barker, Fortnightly Review, December 1914.

7. Telegram from Vice-Admiral John De Robeck, Dardanelles, to Admiralty, on preparations for minesweeping operation, CP, CHAR 13/65/114, March 21, 1915; Telegram from Vice-Admiral John De Robeck, Dardanelles to WSC, CP, CHAR 13/65/143, April 3, 1915.

8. Churchill, World Crisis, vol. 6, 317–18.

9. Churchill to Lord Kitchener, May 21, 1915. CP, CHAR 2/65/58.

10. As cited in Martin Thornton, “Winston Churchill as First Lord of the Admiralty,” www.churchillarchive.com, accessed March 23, 2016.

11. Paul Halpern, “Sir John Michael de Robeck,” DNB, 79.

12. Churchill, World Crisis, vol. 5, 430.

13. Admiral Calthrope, January 7, 1919. FO 371/4173.

14. Telegram from Calthorpe, dated January 6, 1919, Constantinople. FO 371/4173.

15. Churchill, World Crisis, vol. 5, 431–2.

16. Eastern Report, October 11, 1917, no. XXXVII.

17. Dockter, Churchill and the Islamic World, 49–50, 60.

18. “Mr. Gladstone,” The Times, September 25, 1896.

19. “Conflicting Aims in the Near East,” de Robeck to Commander of Grand Fleet, [n.d.]. De Robeck Papers, Churchill Archives Centre, Churchill College, Cambridge.

20. Conference Conclusions, held January 5, 1920 at Downing Street. CAB 23/37.

21. Ibid.

22. Ibid.

23. Curzon, “The Peace with Turkey: Appendix,” January 7, 1920. CAB 23/37.

24. Tusan, “Crimes Against Humanity,” 69–76.

25. Lawrence, “Peaceable Kingdom,” 574. The brutality of British imperial rule against Muslims during this period is further explored by Priya Satia, Spies in Arabia.

26. HO 45/10955/312971/103.

27. Letter from Sadrud Din, January 1, 1920. HO 45/10955/312971/100.

28. HO 45/10955/312971/105.

29. HO 45/10955/312971. Mr Petersen and Major McDonald attended a private screening of the film on behalf of the Foreign Office.

30. Response to Secretary of State's inquiry regarding Mr Amir Ali's objections to Auction of Souls, January 24, 1920. HO 45/10955/312971/98.

31. Letter sent on behalf of Lord Curzon, January 5, 1920. HO 45/10955/312971/92.

32. Proofs of Chapter 17, “Turkey Alive” in “The World Crisis.” Churchill to Lloyd George (copy), CP, CHAR 8/243.

33. Draft Chapters from “The Aftermath,” vol. 4 of “The World Crisis,” 50, 55. CP, CHAR 8/258.

34. Telegram from Richard Webb [assistant High Commissioner to Turkey]. February 26, 1919. CP, CHAR 16/5.

35. Ibid.

36. Ibid.

37. Sir Henry Wilson, [Chief of Imperial Staff] to WSC, April 21, 1920. CP, CHAR 16/46.

38. Details of meeting with Williams conveyed to WSC, February 2, 1920. CP, CHAR 16/44.

39. Fromkin, Peace to End all Peace, 404. By February 1920, plans were underway to further reduce forces in the Middle East to “30,000 white” and “110,000 native” troops which would cut expenditures in the region from £40 million to £20 million. Estimates Committee Minutes, February 6, 1920. CP, CHAR 16/44.

40. Churchill, World Crisis, vol. 5, 442.

41. Secret telegram from Sir H. Rumbold, Constantinople, September 19, 1922. CP, CHAR 8/258.

42. Ibid.

43. Aubrey Herbert to Churchill, May 12, 1920. CP, CHAR 16/47A.

44. R.H. Campbell to Sir A. Sinclair, June 11, 1920. CP, CHAR 16/47A.

45. Handwritten note at the bottom of prisoner report, MI2b, May 21, 1920. CP, CHAR 16/47A.

46. HC Deb, March 7, 1922 vol. 151cc.1118, 1125.

47. Yeghiayan, British Foreign Office Dossiers.

48. Churchill, The World Crisis, vol. 5, 153–4; 158.

49. A list of the names and affiliations of the men reprinted in Yeghiayan, British Foreign Office Dossiers, 460.

50. FO 371/6504.

51. Ibid.

52. “Turks' British Captives: Exchange for War Criminals,” The Times, October 5, 1921; “Turkish War Criminals: Double Negotiations,” The Times, October 17, 1921.

53. “Turkish War Criminals,” The Times, Letters to the Editor, Muriel Bromley Davenport, October 19, 1921.

54. “Turkish War Criminals,” The Times, October 6, 1921.

55. “Staff Minute Sheet,” September, 1919. De Robeck Papers, Churchill Archives Centre, Churchill College, Cambridge.

56. These experiences are recounted in documents found in FO 371/6505.

57. Emphasis in original. A. Rawlinson, Adventures in the Near East (New York: Dodd, Mead, and Company, 1923), 312.

58. Ibid., 342. Emphasis in original.

59. “Report by Lieutenant-Colonel Sir Alfred Rawlinson of the ill treatment suffered by himself and the men under his command whilst prisoners of the Turks,” November 11, 1921. CP, CHAR 2/117/4-33.

60. Rawlinson, Adventures in the Near East, 342.

61. Ibid., 338.

62. Letter from Lieutenant-Colonel Sir Alfred Rawlinson to WSC, Nov 1, 1921. CP, CHAR 2/117/3.

63. J.H. Godfrey, The Naval Memoirs of Admiral J.H. Godfrey, vol. 2 (manuscript). Churchill Archives Centre, Churchill College Cambridge.

64. “Conflicting Aims in the Near East,” de Robeck to Commander of Grand Fleet. De Robeck Papers, Churchill Archives, Cambridge.

65. Gary Bass traces Wilson's admiration for Gladstone back to his teenage years understanding him as almost a father figure to Wilson, Freedom's Battle, 315.

66. Published statement of the Near and Middle East Association held in the Philby Papers, MECA, St. Antony's College, Oxford.

67. Shorthand Notes of a Meeting of the Eastern Committee, December 2, 1918. “The Caucasus and Armenia,” 4–7. MSS Euro F 112/274, British Library.

68. Ibid., 9–13.

69. France signed the Angora Accord with Turkish nationalists in 1921. Fromkin, Peace to End all Peace, 536–7.

70. Churchill, World Crisis, vol. 5, 432–3.

71. “Draft of acceptance speech,” CP, CHUR 2/317.

72. “Mr. Churchill Honoured,” The Times, February 4, 1949.

Conclusion Forgetting Genocide

1. Quoted by Stefan Iring in Justifying Genocide: Germany and the Armenians from Bismarck to Hitler (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2016), 347–8. Sources for the quote come from: Louis P. Lochner, What About Germany? (London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1943), 12; see also, “Document L-3,” in Office of the United States Chief of Counsel for Prosecution of Axis Criminality, ed., Nazi Conspiracy and Aggression, vol. 7 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1946), 753.

2. Gary Bass, “Nuremburg,” Stay the Hand of Vengeance, 147–205.

3. Samantha Power, A Problem from Hell (New York: Harper Perennial, 2007).

4. Armenian Genocide Memorials Database, Armenian National Institute, http://www.armenian-genocide.org/memorials.html.