Notes

Introduction

1. Campbell, “St Kilda and Its Sheep,” 28.

2. Clutton-Brock et al., “Sheep of St Kilda,” 24, 25–29. See also Campbell, “St Kilda and Its Sheep,” 30–31. Campbell notes that Soay sheep are not amenable to herding, and “must be run down and captured individually,” although whether this is attributable to their prehistoric character or simply to their more recent prolonged semiferal existence must be a matter of debate. Ibid., 31. See also Harman, Isle Called Hirte, 190–93.

3. Earliest estimates have Soays brought to Britain circa 4500 B.C.E. by an early wave of human migrants. Fraser Darling, “Foreword,” in Island Survivors, x, italics in original; Clutton-Brock, Pemberton, and Coulson, “Sheep of St Kilda,” 28, 29. These sheep have had the run of Soay, their original islet, and Hirta, the largest of St Kilda’s composite parts, since the early 1930s, when the archipelago’s last permanent human inhabitants voluntarily evacuated. Long before this, though, successive changes to human occupation and the introduction of more modern breeds of sheep had progressively marginalized the breed, eventually isolating them on Soay, where they continued to subsist largely beyond the reach of human interference, thus inadvertently preserving a set of intriguing archaic attributes. The Norse were the next to arrive with their own ovine domesticates, a type known as the Hebridean. A millennium or so later, in the mid-nineteenth century, the St Kildans replaced these old Norse sheep (now known as Boreray sheep for the small island to which remnant herds were confined) with Cheviot or improved black-faced breeds popular in Scotland. Harman, Isle Called Hirte, 192.

4. The human population of St Kilda was always small, never exceeding 200 at the highest estimate. Prior to the emigration of a full one-third of its population to Australia in 1852, the number of St Kildans sat between 100 and 110. The population continued to decline, especially under the dampening demographic effect of World War I, until 1930 when the remaining inhabitants, unable to sustain their island economy, evacuated. Harman, Isle Called Hirte, 124–41, 134; Richards, From Hirta to Port Phillip, 110.

5. R. M. Lockley, “Wild Viking Sheep of Soay,” Country Life 77 (10 March 1960), 509. See also Morton Boyd and Jewell, “Soay Sheep and Their Environment,” 360.

6. Notably populations of sheep from the Isle of Man and the Orkney Islands.

7. Contemporary estimates are based on the number of breeding females in existence, which the Rare Breeds Survival Trust (RBST) estimated to be between 900 and 1,500 in 2016. RBST, “Watchlist 2016,” http://www.rbst.org.uk/%252FOur-Work%252FResource-Library%252FWatchlists%252FWatchlist-2016; RBST, “RBST Fact Sheet—Soay,” http://www.rbst.org.uk/Rare-and-Native-Breeds/Sheep/Soay. Cf. RBST, “Guidelines for Acceptance onto the Rare Breeds Survival Trust Watchlist,” http://www.rbst.org.uk/Our-Work/Watchlist/About-the-Watchlist. Earlier estimates ranged only as high as between 650 and 700 in 1948. Morton Boyd, “Introduction,” in Island Survivors, 2.

8. J. C. Hindson, “Questions on Trust Policy,” The Ark, no. 1, December 1974, 18.

9. Ibid.

10. These fall into a category of lands that Crosby has called “neo-Europes” for their ecological homology with Europe. Crosby, Ecological Imperialism, esp. 2–6 and 147–51.

11. Pearce, Berkshire, 46. See also Wood, “Sheep Breeders’ View,” 230.

12. Halifax, “Foreword,” in Britain Can Breed It, 5.

13. Franklin, Dolly Mixtures, 53.

14. Abigail Woods explores some of the impetus to breed livestock for higher yields in “Breeding Cows, Maximising Milk.”

15. Halifax, “Foreword,” 4.

16. Virginia Anderson, Creatures of Empire, 3.

17. See Crosby, Ecological Imperialism; Crosby, Columbian Exchange; John McNeill, Mosquito Empires; Jones, Rationalizing Epidemics. For a more sweeping view of epidemiology in history, see William McNeill, Plagues and Peoples.

18. Virginia Anderson, Creatures of Empire; Benjamin Breen, “ ‘Elks Are Our Horses’ ”; Cronon, Changes in the Land; Melville, Plague of Sheep.

19. Crosby, “Virgin Soil Epidemics”; Jones, “Virgin Soils Revisited.”

20. Melville, Plague of Sheep. Melville’s analysis of the Valle de Mezquital has subsequently come under revision from historical geographers who assert that the ecological condition of central Mexico must take into account the more complex history of pre-Columbian and colonial land use, not only the impact of introduced ungulates. See, for example, Sluyter, “Making of the Myth in Postcolonial Development,” 377–401.

21. Flannery, Future Eaters, 41, 42.

22. Cronon, Changes in the Land.

23. Virginia Anderson, Creatures of Empire, esp. 7.

24. See Brooking and Pawson, Seeds of Empire; Muir, Broken Promise of Agricultural Progress; Dunlap, Nature and the English Diaspora; Beattie, O’Gorman, and Henry, Climate, Science, and Colonization. For a similar argument made in the context of the Caribbean, see McCook, “New-Columbian Exchange.”

25. Bradford, Bradford’s History, 166.

26. Valenze, Milk, 144; ibid., 139–45 for cattle in the Americas more generally.

27. Ritvo, Platypus and Mermaid.

28. Derry, Ontario’s Cattle Kingdom; Derry, Bred for Perfection; Peden, “Pastoralism and the Transformation of the Open Grasslands”; Sayre, Ranching, Endangered Species, and Urbanization.

29. For the twentieth century, the opportunity to pursue breeds as a tool of analysis is even more pronounced. For a recent example, see for instance, Saraiva, Fascist Pigs, esp. chaps. 4 and 6.

30. For example, Isenberg, Destruction of the Bison.

31. Cronon, Nature’s Metropolis, esp. 225–30.

32. Dunlap, Nature and the English Diaspora. For the transformation of human identities within the context of empire, see Catherine Hall, Cultures of Empire; Burton and Kennedy, How Empire Shaped Us.

33. Harrison, Climates & Constitutions; Chaplin, “Creoles in British America”; Chaplin, Subject Matter.

34. For instance, see Farland, “Modernist Versions of Pastoral.” For an example of a primary source writing against this tendency, see Jefferson, Notes on the State of Virginia.

35. For example, T. H. Breen, “Empire of Goods”; Cook, Matters of Exchange; Magee and Thompson, Empire and Globalisation.

36. Mintz, Sweetness and Power.

37. Hall, Civilising Subjects. See also Hall and Rose, At Home with the Empire; Wilson, New Imperial History.

38. Vialles, Animal to Edible.

39. Pachirat, Every Twelve Seconds. See also Lee, Meat, Modernity; Shukin, Animal Capital.

40. See Gabriel N. Rosenberg for an analysis of this point in American hog production. Rosenberg, “Race Suicide among the Hogs.”

41. Colley, Britons; Shapin, “ ‘You Are What You Eat’ ”; Rogers, Beef and Liberty.

42. They did travel in great numbers to South America, but this is largely beyond the purview of this study.

43. Dunlap, Nature and the English Diaspora; Belich, Replenishing the Earth.

44. Carter, His Majesty’s Spanish Flock.

45. Heath-Agnew, History of Hereford. See also Ritvo, Animal Estate, for pedigree Shorthorn breeding in the nineteenth century.

46. Collins, “Food Supplies and Food Policy.”

47. Peden, “Pastoralism and the Transformation of the Open Grasslands.”

48. Recent work by James Belich and Frances Steel examine the importance of steam transport to Australasian colonization, Steel for the role it played in stimulating the development of a regional identity for “Oceania,” Belich, for its reinforcement of wider imperial ties. Steel, Oceania under Steam; Belich, Replenishing the Earth.

49. The phrase is borrowed from The Corriedale, New Zealand’s Own Breed: History of Development. See also Holford, Contribution to the Sheep World.

50. This chapter is based in part on oral history interviews conducted with Traditional Hereford Breeders in England in 2009–10, as well as on archival research.

51. For post–World War II British immigration, particularly from the colonies and former colonies, see the following: Hansen, Citizenship and Immigration in Post-War Britain; Karatani, Defining British Citizenship; Ryan and Webster, Gendering Migration.

52. For some of the cultural effects of colonial and postcolonial immigration, see Sauerberg, Intercultural Voices; and Dawson, Mongrel Nation.

53. “Sir Alfred Haslam, KT., J.P.: A Sketch of His Career,” in The Queen’s State Visit to Derby May 21st, 1891, 144. Derbyshire Record Office, D1333 Z/Z 8.

Chapter One

1. Brown, Sheep Farming, 39.

2. Ibid., 67.

3. Ibid., 29.

4. Ibid.

5. For definitions of “breed,” and for the challenge of defining breeds, see Ritvo, Platypus and Mermaid, esp. 78–81. See also the work of Juliet Clutton-Brock, especially Natural History of Domesticated Mammals; Darwin, On the Origin of Species, chap. 1; Darwin, Variation of Animals, vol. 1.

6. Coventry, Remarks on Live Stock, 36; Ritvo, Platypus and Mermaid, 81.

7. Sebright, Art of Improving, 12–13.

8. Lawrence, General Treatise, 31.

9. Darwin, Variation of Animals, 1:2.

10. Ibid., 3.

11. Jonsson, Enlightenment’s Frontier; Zilberstein, Temperate Empire.

12. Prince, “Changing Landscape,” 44–46; Turner, Enclosure in Britain, 28–32, 64–67, 82; Wild, Village England, 22–44. What constituted “improvement” varied from region to region, including, for example, land drainage as well as enclosure in Lincolnshire. See Fussell, “Four Centuries of Lincolnshire Farming,” 9–10.

13. Morgan and Mingay, “Root Crops,” 296–304, esp. 299–300.

14. John Sinclair, Observations, iv. See also Prince, “Changing Landscape,” 30–41.

15. Harriet Ritvo explores the ability to formulate a “genetic template” in purebred livestock in the late-eighteenth-century livestock breeding in “Possessing Mother Nature.”

16. Arthur Young’s 1769 A Six Weeks’ Tour through the Southern Counties of England and Wales is generally held to be the first of this genre, and the inspiration for the series of “general views” of the various counties of the United Kingdom subsequently commissioned by the Board of Agriculture. See Young, Six Weeks’ Tour. Fredrik Jonsson has recently argued that the form of natural history expertise produced by this kind of reportage was a significant factor in the development of “civil cameralism” in the Scottish Enlightenment, and ensuing debates over population ecology, demography, and the future of Scotland. Jonsson, Enlightenment’s Frontier, esp. 43–68.

17. Gooch, Cambridge, 266.

18. Worgan, Cornwall, 137.

19. Ibid.

20. Ibid.

21. Pearce, Berkshire, 46. See also Wood, “Sheep Breeders’ View,” 230.

22. Contemporary theories of epigenetics are the most important caveat to this claim.

23. Sinclair, Observations, ii.

24. Brown, Sheep Farming, 80.

25. Sinclair, Observations, ii.

26. Brown, Sheep Farming, 78.

27. Ibid., 2, 1.

28. Ibid., 78.

29. Marshall, Rural Economy of Yorkshire, 2:154.

30. “On the Improvement of the Highlands,” Scots Magazine, December 1774, 643.

31. Ibid., 644.

32. Ibid.

33. Importantly, the ascent of the gene in the twentieth century has not wholly erased the significance of tacit or embodied knowledge to selective breeding. See Grasseni, Skilled Visions; Theunissen, “Breeding without Mendelism.”

34. Brown, Sheep Farming, 120.

35. Ibid., 34.

36. “Experience,” Livestock Journal and Fancier’s Gazette, 63 (20 August 1875): 399.

37. Ibid., 400.

38. Ibid.; Wood, “Sheep Breeders’ View,” 229.

39. John Little, Practical Observations, 118, i.

40. Ibid., ii.

41. Ibid., ii–iii.

42. Ibid., iv.

43. Ibid., 118.

44. Derry, Masterminding Nature. The monastic sheep breeders in Silesia who selected according to Mendel’s theory inheritance for decades before “Mendelian genetics” were “rediscovered” were the major exception to this. See Wood and Orel, Genetic Prehistory; Wood, “Sheep Breeders’ View.”

45. Hunt, Memoirs, 21.

46. “Breeding for Fertility,” New Zealand Farmer 22, no. 9 (September 1902): 468.

47. While breeders sought tangible profits in the form of their stock’s progeny, early geneticists were preoccupied with determining the principles underlying processes of inheritance. Not until the 1920s did these disparate aims converge with the science of livestock husbandry. Derry, Masterminding Nature.

48. Lawrence, General Treatise, 28. Müller-Wille and Rheinberger, “Heredity”; Wood, “Sheep Breeders’ View”; Wood and Orel, Genetic Prehistory.

49. Lawrence, General Treatise, 28.

50. Ibid. See also Russell, Like Engend’ring Like.

51. Quoted in Hunt, Memoirs, 17.

52. Derry identifies the “progeny test” as a major feature of eighteenth and nineteenth-century livestock breeding, and as one of the dividing lines between the sciences of heredity and the practices of breeding. Derry, Masterminding Nature.

53. Coventry, Remarks on Live Stock, 5.

54. Ibid., 6.

55. Sebright, Art of Improving, 6.

56. Ibid., 8.

57. Ibid., 5.

58. Ibid., 6–7.

59. Coventry, Remarks on Live Stock, 36–37.

60. Agricolanus, “Directions for Raising and Managing Sheep,” American Museum, or, Repository of Ancient & Modern Fugitive Pieces, &c. Prose & Poetical 2, no. 3 (September 1787): 295.

61. Agricola, “Letters on the Improvement of the Highlands of Scotland: The Influence of Climate upon the Quality of Wool,” Scots Magazine, October 1774, 529.

62. Ibid.

63. Lawrence, General Observations, 306.

64. “Improvement of the Highlands,” 646.

65. Ibid.

66. Ibid., 645.

67. “Natural History of the Sheep,” Monthly Miscellany 2, no. 12 (December 1774): 303.

68. Chaplin, “Creoles in British America”; Harrison, Climates & Constitutions; Shapin, “ ‘You Are What You Eat.’ ”

69. Chaplin, “Creoles in British America”; Chaplin, Subject Matter; Kupperman, “Fear of Hot Climates.” For colonial racial vulnerability in later centuries, see Warwick Anderson, Cultivation of Whiteness; Warwick Anderson, “Disease, Race, and Empire”; Kennedy, “Perils of the Midday Sun.”

70. For the analogy, see Ritvo, Platypus and Mermaid, 75–81, 121–27; Pawley, “Point of Perfection.”

71. Lawrence, General Observations, 307.

72. Ibid. Now largely out of usage, the term “shangalla” referred to peoples of neither Ethiopian nor Arab descent in northeast Africa. See, for example, Koettlitz, Journey Through Somaliland.

73. Rudge, Gloucester, 305, 307–9. The Cotswolds are a region in England that encompass portions of Worcestershire, Gloucestershire, Wiltshire, Oxfordshire, Warwickshire, and Somersetshire.

74. Worgan, Cornwall, 148.

75. Wood, “Sheep Breeders’ View,” 232–36; Ritvo, “Possessing Mother Nature.”

76. Somerville, Facts and Observations, 3.

77. Ibid., 2.

78. Brown, Sheep Farming, 29, 27.

79. Archer and Sinclair, Domestic Breeds and Their Treatment, 12.

80. Brown, Sheep Farming, 29.

81. Ibid.

82. Ibid.

83. The other improved breed of sheep with a significant impact at this time was the Southdown breed.

84. Ritvo, “Possessing Mother Nature,” 416.

85. Ibid., 418.

86. Rudge, Gloucester, 307.

87. Worgan, Cornwall, 148.

88. Ibid., 305; for the extinction of the Norfolk Horn breed of sheep in the mid-nineteenth century, see Low, Breeds of the Domestic Animals, 116.

89. Brown, Sheep Farming, 28.

90. Trow-Smith, History of British Livestock, vol. 2.

91. Langford, “Eighteenth Century,” 440–47.

92. For an example of a work that locates this at the center of British identity, see Rogers, Beef and Liberty. See also Ritvo, Platypus and Mermaid, 200.

93. Brown, Sheep Farming, 31.

94. James Vernon discusses the inverse of this—hunger as political critique—in Hunger. For the impact of demography in world history, and particularly the effect of Europe’s population explosion in the early modern period, see Pomeranz, Great Divergence. See also Otter, “Civilizing Slaughter.”

95. Hunt, Memoirs, 22–23.

96. Ibid.

97. Sinclair, Observations, xviii.

98. Ibid.

99. Rudge, Gloucester, 305–6.

100. Ibid.

101. Shapin, “ ‘You Are What You Eat.’ ”

102. “Our Meat-Supply,” Chambers’s Journal 257 (28 November 1868): 760.

103. Quoted in “Typical Differences in English and French Beef Cattle,” New Zealand Farmer 21, no. 10 (October 1901): 444.

104. “Imported Cattle and Disease,” Livestock Journal 2 (27 August 1875): 424.

105. Brown, Sheep Farming, 24.

106. Ibid., 115.

107. Ibid.

108. Ibid., 28.

109. Worgan, Cornwall, 149.

110. Brown, Sheep Farming, 99.

111. Ibid., 116.

112. Sinclair, Observations, v–vi. Original spelling preserved.

113. Brown, Sheep Farming, 38.

114. Ibid., 29.

115. Ibid., 116.

116. Quoted in Archer and Sinclair, Domestic Breeds and Their Treatment, 13.

117. F. Boys, “Agricultural Minutes, Taken during a Ride through the Counties of Kent, Essex, Suffolk, Norfolk, Cambridge, Rutland, Leicester, Northampton, Buckingham, Bedford, Hertford, Middlesex, Berks, and Surry, in 1792,” Annals of Agriculture 19 (1793): 120.

118. See chapter 4.

119. Gooch, Cambridge, 266.

120. The extreme pitch of the topography in some parts of New Zealand necessitated breeding for “well-sprung” hocks—the joints of the hind legs—in cattle. Oral history interview with Philip Barnett, Akitoa, New Zealand, 24 June 2010. See also Peden, “Pastoralism and the Transformation.”

121. Brown, Sheep Farming, 79.

122. Lawrence Alderson, “Conserving the Cattle of Britain,” Ark no. 4, May 1977, 157.

Chapter Two

1. Arthur Young, “Don Merino,” Annals of Agriculture 17 (1792): 531.

2. C. Mordaunt, “Lancashire Improvements,” Annals of Agriculture 19 (1793): 253.

3. Joseph Banks, “A Project for Extending the Breed of Fine-Wooled Spanish Sheep, Now in the Possession of His Majesty, into All Parts of Great Britain, Where the Growth of Fine Clothing Wools Is Found to Be Profitable,” European Magazine, 1800, 175.

4. George Tollet, “Merino Sheep,” Annals of Agriculture 44, no. 256 (1806): 9.

5. Ibid., 10.

6. Practicus, “Remarks on the Duke of Bedford’s Discontinuing His Premiums to the New Leicester and Southdown Breed of Sheep, and on Lord Somerville’s and Dr. Parry’s Encouragement of the Spanish Breed,” Agricultural Magazine, or, Farmers’ Monthly Journal of Husbandry and Rural Affairs 6, no. 35 (June 1802): 434.

7. C. H. Parry, “Dr. Parry, in Answer to Practicus, on the Breed of Sheep,” Agricultural Magazine, or, Farmers’ Monthly Journal 7, no. 36 (July 1802): 8, 9. Cf. Parry, Practicability and Advantage.

8. John Hunt, “Perfections and Superiority of the Leicestershire Breed,” Agricultural Magazine 3, no. 14 (August 1808): 88, 90; John Hunt, “On the Imperfections and Inferiority of the Merino Sheep; and the Impropriety of Introducing Them into This Country, in Answer to Mr. Thompson,” Agricultural Magazine, or, Farmers’ Monthly Journal 4, no. 19 (January 1809): 57; Cultivator Middlesexiensis, “On the New Leicester and the Merino Sheep, in Answer to Mr. Hunt,” Agricultural Magazine, or, Farmers’ Monthly Journal 3, no. 15 (September 1808): 188; Benjamin Thompson, “Refutation of Mr. Hunt’s Absurdities,” Agricultural Magazine, or, Farmers’ Monthly Journal 3, no. 18 (December 1808): 360; Benjamin Thompson, “The Merino Cause—Description of His Majesty’s Spanish Sheep—and Final Reply to the Dishley Quack,” Agricultural Magazine, or, Farmers’ Monthly Journal 4, no. 21 (March 1809): 160.

9. Practicus, “Remarks on the Duke of Bedford,” 434.

10. Carter, His Majesty’s Spanish Flock, 3–4, 8, 11; Trow-Smith, History of British Livestock, 1:39.

11. Trow-Smith, History of British Livestock, 1:39.

12. Carter, His Majesty’s Spanish Flock, 3, 44.

13. See Ritvo, “Possessing Mother Nature”; Franklin, Dolly Mixtures, chap. 2, esp. 52–54.

14. Rudge, Gloucestershire, 312. See also Ritvo, “Possessing Mother Nature.”

15. Carter, His Majesty’s Spanish Flock, 6–8.

16. First published as “Account of the Sheep and Sheep-Walks of Spain,” Scots Magazine, 1764, 361–68. Abridged and reprinted as “The Method of Managing the Royal Flocks of Sheep in Spain,” Columbian Magazine; or, Monthly Miscellany: Containing a View of the History, Literature, Manners & Characters of the Year, 1789, 475–79. But this is hardly a comprehensive list. Citations for this chapter are drawn from a three-part series of the full letter, “Account of the Sheep and Sheep-Walks of Spain, in a Letter from a Gentleman in Spain to Mr. Peter Collinson, F.R.S.,” New York Magazine, August 1790, 454–57; ibid., September 1790, 518–21; and ibid., October 1790, 567–71.

17. “Sheep and Sheep-Walks of Spain,” 2:519.

18. Ibid.

19. Ibid., 3:570.

20. For example, de Lasteyrie, Introduction of Merino Sheep. First published in French in 1802. See also “Memoir on the Management of Sheep, at Cauterrets; A Department in the Basses Pyrenees. From the French of M. Jenow,” Annals of Agriculture 17 (1792).

21. “Sheep and Sheep-Walks of Spain,” 1:455.

22. Culley, Observations on Live Stock (1807), 237.

23. Carter, His Majesty’s Spanish Flock, 49–53.

24. Culley, Observations on Live Stock (1807), 237.

25. Carter, His Majesty’s Spanish Flock, 54–59; Banks, Circumstances Relative to Merino Sheep, 7.

26. Banks, Project for Extending the Breed, 1. In return, George III sent “eight fine English coach horses” to the Marchioness. Ibid.

27. Banks, Circumstances Relative to Merino Sheep, 8.

28. Ibid., 10.

29. Joseph Banks, “A Report of the State of His Majesty’s Flock of Fine-Wooled Spanish Sheep, during the Years 1800 and 1801; With Some Account of the Progress That Has Been Made towards the Introduction of That Valuable Breed into Those Parts of the United Kingdom Where Fine Cloathing Wools Are Grown with Advantage,” Annals of Agriculture 40, no. 233 (1803): 357.

30. Banks, Circumstances Relative to Merino Sheep, 8.

31. “Sale of Part of His Majesty’s Flock of Spanish Sheep,” Agricultural Magazine, or, Farmers’ Monthly Journal 11, no. 61 (August 1804): 145.

32. Ibid., 146.

33. Ibid., 145.

34. Ibid., 147.

35. Ibid., 144.

36. “The King’s Annual Sale of Sheep,” Agricultural Magazine, or, Farmers’ Monthly Journal 13, no. 73 (August 1805): 132.

37. Ibid.

38. Ibid., 134.

39. At subsequent auctions, prices realized only continued to rise, peaking at £74 for a ram in 1808. Banks, Circumstances Relative to Merino Sheep, 9.

40. Banks, “Report 1800 and 1801,” 356.

41. Ibid.

42. Ibid., 354.

43. Ibid., 355.

44. Carter, His Majesty’s Spanish Flock, 426.

45. Figures from Mitchell, Abstract of Statistics, 191. See app. A.

46. Somerville, Somerville’s Address to the Board, 3.

47. Broers, Europe under Napoleon, 96.

48. Bucke, “Report,” 17; Banks, “Address to the Members,” 6.

49. Montalivet, “Report of the Minister of the Interior,” 48; Benjamin Thompson, “Preface to First Report,” iii.

50. Bucke, “Report,” 18.

51. Benjamin Thompson, “Appendix: Letter from Thompson to Banks,” 138–39.

52. George Hall, “Growth and Management of Merino Wool,” 45.

53. Benjamin Thompson, “Appendix: Letter from Thompson to Banks,” 138.

54. George Hall, “Growth and Management of Merino Wool,” 42; Banks, Circumstances Relative to Merino Sheep, 5.

55. Benjamin Thompson, “Appendix: Letter from Thompson to Banks,” 159.

56. Somerville, Somerville’s Address to the Board, 3.

57. Rudge, Gloucestershire, 313; Banks, “Address to the Members,” 5; Bucke, “Report,” 20.

58. Benjamin Thompson, “Merino Cause,” 160.

59. John Hunt, “Perfections and Superiority,” 91; John Hunt, “Commercial Philosophy, or an Address to Mr. Robert Bakewell of Wakefield in Answer to His Observations on the Influence of Soil and Climate upon Wool,” Agricultural Magazine, or, Farmers’ Monthly Journal 3, no. 15 (September 1808): 185.

60. Pastorius, “On Spanish Sheep,” Agricultural Magazine, or, Farmers’ Monthly Journal 11, no. 63 (October 1804): 240. Italics in original.

61. Ibid.

62. Jonsson, Enlightenment’s Frontier, esp. chap. 1.

63. John Hunt, “On the Merino Question: The Critic Unmasked, or Truth without Disguise, in Answer to Cultivator Middlesexiensis,” Agricultural Magazine, or, Farmers’ Monthly Journal 3, no. 17 (November 1808): 313.

64. Pastorius, “Spanish Sheep,” 242–43.

65. Benjamin Thompson, “On Merino, New Leicester Sheep, &c. in Answer to Mr. Hunt,” Agricultural Magazine, or, Farmers’ Monthly Journal 3, no. 16 (October 1808): 223.

66. Sebright, Art of Improving, 3.

67. Newnham, quoted in Bucke, “Report,” 73; Benjamin Thompson, “Appendix: Letter from Thompson to Banks,” 146.

68. “On the Improvement of the Highlands,” Scots Magazine, 1774, 645.

69. Sebright, Art of Improving, 18.

70. John Hunt, “Perfections and Superiority,” 92.

71. Ibid., 84.

72. Ibid., 86–87.

73. “Improvement of the Highlands,” 644.

74. Cultivator Middlesexiensis, “New Leicester and Merino Sheep,” 189.

75. “Improvement of the Highlands,” 646.

76. Ibid., 644. The major exception to this is overseas colonization (discussed in chapters 4 and 5) and the provisioning of ships (the subject of an article in production).

77. Sebright, Art of Improving, 20.

78. Pearce, Berkshire, 46. See also Wood, “Sheep Breeders’ View,” 230.

79. See also chapter 1.

80. F. H. Clay, “State of the Merino Improvement in Sherwood Forest Notts,” Agricultural Magazine, or, Farmers’ Monthly Journal 3, no. 18 (December 1808): 357.

81. Newnham, quoted in Bucke, “Report,” 73.

82. Ibid., 72.

83. Unattributed, quoted in Bucke, “Report,” 64.

84. Benjamin Thompson, “Merino Cause,” 155.

85. Somerville, Facts and Observations, 15.

86. Sebright, Art of Improving, 20; Bucke, “Report,” 8.

87. Benjamin Thompson, “Appendix: Letter from Thompson to Banks,” 119.

88. Bucke, “Report,” 9.

89. John Wright, “On Merino and New Leicester Sheep, in Answer to Mr. Hunt,” Agricultural Magazine, or, Farmers’ Monthly Journal 5, no. 25 (July 1809): 13.

90. Ibid., 9.

91. Agricola Northumbriensis, “On Merino Sheep, with Miscellaneous Observations,” Agricultural Magazine, or, Farmers’ Monthly Journal 5, no. 28 (October 1809): 243; Bucke, “Report,” 71.

92. Agricola Northumbriensis, “On Merino Sheep,” 243.

93. George Hall, “Growth and Management of Merino Wool,” 49.

94. Ibid., 46.

95. Charles Hunt, Merino and Anglo-Merino Breeds of Sheep, 15.

96. John Hunt, “Perfections and Superiority,” 90.

97. Sebright, Art of Improving, 22.

98. Somerville, Facts and Observations, 40–41.

99. Banks, Project for Extending the Breed, 6.

100. John Hunt, “Perfections and Superiority,” 88.

101. Somerville, Facts and Observations, 3.

102. Parry, Practicability and Advantage, 42.

103. George Hall, “Growth and Management of Merino Wool,” 52.

104. Somerville, Facts and Observations, 19.

105. Ibid.

106. Benjamin Thompson, “Appendix: Letter from Thompson to Banks,” 119.

107. Bucke, “Quality of the Mutton,” 13.

108. Lord Sheffield, quoted ibid., 16.

109. Ritvo, Platypus and Mermaid, 196–97; Banks, Circumstances Relative to Merino Sheep, 4.

110. Charles Hunt, Merino and Anglo-Merino Breeds of Sheep, 72.

111. Somerville, Facts and Observations, 15.

112. Ibid., 15–16.

113. Cultivator Middlesexiensis, “New Leicester and Merino Sheep,” 192.

114. Parry, Practicability and Advantage, 36.

115. Ibid., 42.

116. John Hunt, “Perfections and Superiority,” 88.

117. Benjamin Thompson, “Appendix: Letter from Thompson to Banks,” 121.

118. Cultivator Middlesexiensis, “New Leicester and Merino Sheep,” 192, 193.

119. Quoted in Charles Hunt, Merino and Anglo-Merino Breeds of Sheep, 117–18.

120. Benjamin Thompson, “Refutation of Mr. Hunt’s Absurdities,” 360.

121. Benjamin Thompson, “Successful Experiment of a Merino-Shetland Cross-Sheep-Sheering,” Agricultural Magazine, or, Farmers’ Monthly Journal 4, no. 24 (June 1809): 359.

122. John Wright, “A Comparative View of the New Leicester and Half-Bred Merino Sheep,” Agricultural Magazine, or, Farmers’ Monthly Journal 3, no. 18 (December 1808): 364.

123. “Extract from a Report on Lord Somerville’s Show,” quoted ibid., 8.

124. “Extract from a Report on Lord Somerville’s Show,” quoted in Bucke, “Report,” 7.

125. Ibid.

126. Mitchell, Abstract of Statistics, 192.

Chapter Three

1. Marshall, Rural Economy of Gloucestershire, 187, 188.

2. Ibid., 187. See also Duncumb, General View of Hereford.

3. Marshall, Rural Economy of Gloucestershire, 192.

4. Ibid., 193.

5. Duckham, “Breeding and Management,” 4. Paper originally given at the Breconshire Chamber of Agriculture, 2 January 1869.

6. Youatt, Cattle, 32; Marshall, Rural Economy of Gloucestershire, 193.

7. Youatt, Cattle, 31; quoted from the Hereford Times in “Hereford Cattle,” Maitland Mercury & Hunter River General Advertiser (New South Wales), 3 October 1885, supp.: 21; Duckham, “Breeding and Management,” 5.

8. Marshall, Rural Economy of Gloucestershire, 192. Juliet Clutton-Brock and Steven Hall call the Hereford “probably the most famous county breed of cattle.” Clutton-Brock and Hall, British Farm Livestock, 76.

9. Youatt, Complete Grazier, 12. See also chapter 1.

10. Culley, Observations on Live Stock (1807), v.

11. Youatt, Cattle, 9.

12. Ibid., 11, 9.

13. Ibid., 24.

14. “Hereford Cattle,” Livestock Journal and Fancier’s Gazette 2 (12 November 1875): 688.

15. “Cattle of the Various Breeds as Beef Producers,” Farmer’s Magazine 55 (February 1879): 99.

16. Ibid.

17. Youatt, Cattle, 11. Bridgewater, at the mouth of the river Taw, is a mere forty miles west of where the river Parrett meets the Bristol Channel.

18. “Among the Herefords: Mr. Boughton-Knight’s Herd at Leinthall,” Livestock Journal and Fancier’s Gazette 21 (2 April 1885): 327.

19. John Speed, England, Wales, and Scotland Described, 1627. Quoted in MacDonald and Sinclair, History of Hereford Cattle, 1.

20. George Garrard, A Description of the Different Oxen Common in the British Isles, 1800. Quoted in MacDonald and Sinclair, History of Hereford Cattle, 7.

21. Duckham, “History, Progress, and Comparative Merits,” 32. Paper originally given at the Royal Agricultural College at Cirencester, 4 December 1863.

22. Youatt, Cattle, 32.

23. “The Hereford Cattle Outlook,” Launceston Examiner, 6 April 1881, supp.: 2.

24. Duckham, “History, Progress, and Comparative Merits,” 4.

25. Thomas Andrew Knight, “Account of the Herefordshire Breeds of Sheep, Cattle, Horses, and Hogs,” Commercial and Agricultural Magazine 7, no. 40 (November 1802): 334; Duckham, “History, Progress, and Comparative Merits,” 8.

26. Duckham, “History, Progress, and Comparative Merits,” 8.

27. William Cronon explores the relationship of production, consumption, and extraction between a metropolis and its hinterlands in the American context, James Belich in the global context. Cronon, Nature’s Metropolis; Belich, Replenishing the Earth. For a discussion of how livestock reached London in the nineteenth century, see Metcalfe, Meat, Commerce and the City, 17–21; Trow-Smith, History of British Livestock, 2:3–10; 172–73; 226–28.

28. Trow-Smith, History of British Livestock, 2:45–46. See also Ritvo, Animal Estate, 47.

29. Youatt, Cattle, 4.

30. Fowler, Records of Old Times, 92.

31. See Freeman, Mutton and Oysters, 178–210, on changes to menus and dining habits in the nineteenth century.

32. Ritvo, Animal Estate, chap. 1, esp. 56.

33. “Extracts from Minutes of the Smithfield Club,” 27; Duckham, “History, Progress, and Comparative Merits,” 7.

34. “On the Late Cattle Show, with Remarks,” Agricultural Magazine, or, Farmers’ Monthly Journal, no. 1, new ser., January 1813, 31.

35. A number of agricultural worthies (including Westcar) together formed the Smithfield Club for the purpose, according to Powell, of “bringing out … the principle of early maturity.” Powell, History of the Smithfield Club, 1.

36. Culley, Observations on Live Stock (1807), 46.

37. “On the Late Cattle Show,” 32.

38. Youatt, Complete Grazier, 9.

39. Duncumb, General View of Hereford, 116.

40. Youatt, Complete Grazier, 9.

41. Clutton-Brock and Hall, British Farm Livestock, 76.

42. “Hereford Cattle,” Livestock Journal 18 (14 June 1882). Repr. in Maitland Mercury, 26 May 1883, 6.

43. Duckham, “Breeding and Management,” 5.

44. Duncumb, General View of Hereford, 118.

45. “Imported Hereford Cattle,” Maitland Mercury, 22 March 1879, 6.

46. Youatt, Complete Grazier, 9.

47. Duncumb, General View Hereford, 119.

48. Thomas Duckham, quoted in “The Hereford Breed of Cattle,” Mercury (Hobart, Tasmania), 3 May 1872, 3.

49. Duncumb, General View of Hereford, 119.

50. “Hereford Cattle,” Maitland Mercury, 3 October 1885, supp.: 21.

51. Ritvo, “Possessing Mother Nature.”

52. T. Weston, “General Remarks on the Shew of Fat Cattle in Smithfield,” Commercial and Agricultural Magazine 5, no. 29 (December 1801): 383.

53. “Hereford Cattle,” repr. from the Pacific Rural Press in South Australian Register, 14 December 1877, 9.

54. Youatt, Cattle, 68, 67.

55. “Hereford Cattle,” South Australian Register, 1877, 9.

56. “Hereford Cattle,” Brisbane Courier, 13 December 1882, 3.

57. Knight, “Account of Herefordshire Breeds,” 332.

58. “Hereford Breed of Cattle,” 3.

59. Ibid.

60. “Remarks and Observations on Different Kinds of Cattle, Continued from Our Last,” Agricultural Magazine, or, Farmers’ Monthly Journal 7 (December 1810): 390. Richard Parkinson remarked that he did not believe there was “a single cow to be found in the possession of any cow-keeper in London of the Hereford breed.” Parkinson, Breeding and Management of Live Stock, 111.

61. As William Youatt remarked in the preface to Cattle: Their Breeds, Management, and Diseases (1834), so strong did feelings of partiality run among breeders that “although there is some excellence peculiar to each breed, there is none exempt from defect, and the honest statement of this defect will not satisfy the partisan of any one breed.” Youatt, Cattle, iii.

62. “Important to Dairymen: Herefords and Short-horns,” Farmer’s Magazine 9 (May 1844): 555.

63. Quoted from The Field in “Hereford Breed of Cattle,” 3.

64. “Cattle as Beef Producers,” 100.

65. Youatt, Complete Grazier, 9.

66. “Cattle as Beef Producers,” 100.

67. Duckham, “Breeding and Management,” 7.

68. “The Humble Petition of 500,000 Frugally Disposed Housekeepers, Resident in the United Kingdoms of England, Scotland, and Ireland,” Commercial and Agricultural Magazine 3, no. 17 (December 1800): 404.

69. Ibid.; T. Weston, “Answer to the Petition of 500,000 Housekeepers,” Commercial and Agricultural Magazine 4, no. 18 (January 1801): 6.

70. “Humble Petition,” 404.

71. Ibid.

72. Weston, “Answer to the Petition,” 6.

73. Ibid., 7.

74. Ibid., 6.

75. Ibid.

76. Ibid., 8.

77. Quoted in Weston, “Shew of Fat Cattle,” 383.

78. Ritvo, Animal Estate, 72–74.

79. As proof, Weston cited a recent decision to give preference to one of Westcar’s oxen—of a larger size but less fat—over a fatter animal. Weston, “Shew of Fat Cattle,” 383.

80. “Proceedings of Agricultural Societies: Smithfield Club,” Agricultural Magazine, or, Farmers’ Monthly Journal 13, no. 77 (December 1805): 431.

81. “Remarks and Observations, Continued,” 395.

82. Ibid., 396.

83. See chapter 1 for a discussion of this in reference to sheep, especially the Dishley breed. See also Ritvo, Animal Estate, 17.

84. MacDonald and Sinclair, History of Hereford Cattle, 6.

85. “Remarks and Observations, Continued,” 396.

86. Powell, Smithfield Club, 2, 1.

87. Duncumb, General View Hereford, 177.

88. Weston, “Shew of Fat Cattle,” 383.

89. Ritvo, “Possessing Mother Nature.”

90. Coates, Short-Horned Herd-Book; Eyton, Herd Book of Hereford Cattle, vol. 1.

91. “Hereford Cattle,” Illustrated Sydney News, 19 March 1881, 15.

92. Duckham, “History, Progress, and Comparative Merits,” 32.

93. George Culley, Observations on Live Stock (1786), 21. Also quoted in J. H. Campbell, “On the Breeds of Cattle and Sheep,” Annals of Agriculture 16 (1790): 227.

94. Campbell, “Breeds of Cattle,” 226.

95. Ibid.

96. Ibid. For his part, upon further consideration, Culley replied to Campbell that he was willing to revise his position and “to suppose they may be an original breed,” and he promised to correct his mistake in future editions. See George Culley, “On Cattle,” Annals of Agriculture 16 (1790): 181. Culley made good on that promise, eliminating the offending remarks entirely from his description of the “Herefordshire Cattle.” Culley, Observations on Live Stock (1807), 52–53.

97. Q., “Remarks on the Late Cattle Show,” Agricultural Magazine, or, Farmers’ Monthly Journal 8 (January 1811): 15.

98. Ibid.

99. Ibid., 14.

100. Youatt, Cattle, 9.

101. Weston, “Shew of Fat Cattle,” 383.

102. “Remarks and Observations on Different Sorts of Cattle,” Agricultural Magazine, or, Farmers’ Monthly Journal 7 (November 1810): 326.

103. T. S., “On the Choice and Management of Dairy Stock, with a Few Observations on the Best Methods of Rearing Calves,” Agricultural Magazine, or, Farmers’ Monthly Journal 3 (July 1808): 7.

104. “Hereford Cattle,” Livestock Journal 2 (12 November 1875): 688.

105. Youatt, Cattle, 9.

106. That is, without horns. Ibid., 188.

107. Youatt, Complete Grazier, 11.

108. Breeds displaying markings of this sort are today called “belted” cattle. The “barrel” is the torso of an animal. Youatt, Cattle, 28.

109. Ibid., 9.

110. The great diversity of domesticates, bovine or otherwise, has at one time or another suggested to observers multiple moments of domestication for a given species. Current theory holds, and is supported by genetic evidence, that each species was domesticated only once.

111. Culley, Observations on Live Stock (1807), 55.

112. Youatt, Cattle, 9. Though Bakewell is credited with “improving” the Longhorn type native to Lancashire in the late eighteenth century, his methods were less effective upon cattle than sheep, and the Improved Longhorn was never as widely adopted, or as loudly applauded, as its contemporary, the Improved Shorthorn. Ritvo, “Possessing Mother Nature”; Trow-Smith, British Livestock Husbandry, 83–89. In the mid-1980s, the Longhorn Cattle Society of England continued to tout the English Longhorn as “Britain’s oldest Beef Breed.” Quoted in Worcester, Texas Longhorn, 14.

113. Youatt, Cattle, 9.

114. Marshall, West of England, 236.

115. Ibid.

116. Youatt, Cattle, 9.

117. Longhorns, according to Youatt, were “evidently of Irish extraction,” and Shorthorns of even more “foreign” extraction. Ibid.

118. Ritvo, “Race, Breed, and Myths of Origin,” 140–41. Ritvo notes that nineteenth-century antiquarians erroneously connected these so-called wild park cattle to a pre-Roman type found in the south of England and the midlands. Ritvo, Animal Estate, 46, 300n4. Bovines were originally domesticated in western Asia and southeast Europe, and in northern Europe, they “probably resembled quite closely the modern Dexter breed.” Juliet Clutton-Brock, Natural History of Domesticated Mammals, 68.

119. Marshall, West of England, 236.

120. Ritvo, “Race, Breed, and Myths of Origin,” esp. 148.

121. Youatt, Cattle, 9, 10.

122. Ibid., 10.

123. Ibid. In this, he followed Marshall, who wrote that “their color apart, they nearly resemble the wild cattle which are still preserved in Chillingham Park, in Northumberland.” Marshall, West of England, 236.

124. Youatt, Cattle, 10.

125. Ibid., 32.

126. Campbell, “Breeds of Cattle,” 226.

127. Duckham, “History, Progress, and Comparative Merits,” 10.

128. Ibid., 13, 15.

129. Thomas Andrew Knight was president of the London Horticultural Society during his lifetime, and also the author of a number of scientific papers on plant and animal breeding, including “Experiments of the Fecundation of Vegetables” and “Hereditary Instinctive Propensities.”

130. “Among the Herefords: Boughton-Knight’s Herd,” 327.

131. Coates, Short-Horned Herd-Book.

132. Youatt, Cattle, 226; “Herefords in Westmeath,” repr. from The Irish Farmers’ Gazette in the Livestock Journal 2 (3 September 1875): 450.

133. Duckham, “History, Progress, and Comparative Merits,” 9.

134. Ibid.

135. Duncumb, General View Hereford, 116.

136. Fowler, Records of Old Times, 96. He described himself as “for many years an ardent admirer and somewhat successful breeder of Shorthorns.” Ibid., 95.

137. Ibid., 96. Duncumb described the Hereford fair in similar terms: “The shew of oxen in thriving condition at the Michaelmas fair in Hereford, cannot be exceeded by any similar annual collection in England.” Duncumb, General View Hereford, 116. The Devons were considered closely related to the Hereford, although more frisky and not as easily fattened.

138. Welles, Remarks and Suggestions, 6, 7, 11. The chine refers to the spine and back of an animal.

139. Quoted from the Hereford Times in “Hereford Cattle,” Maitland Mercury, 3 October 1885, supp.: 3.

140. In the 1790s, the characteristic color of “the true breed” was “a middle red [with] a ‘bald face,’ ” according to MacDonald and Sinclair, and in 1802 Knight described the “Herefordshire colour” as “a deep red, with a white face.” MacDonald and Sinclair, Hereford Cattle, 5; Knight, “Herefordshire Breeds,” 332.

141. Thomas Andrew Knight, quoted in Duckham, “History, Progress, and Comparative Merits,” 5. Ibid., 4, 5. Knight was careful, though, not to suggest that the Hereford breed itself was exogenous, only that “its superiority was attributed to the importation of Flemish cattle … thus … convey[ing] the impression that the infusion of the Flanders strain into the Hereford cattle had developed the good properties of the native breed to a greater extent than had before been attained.” MacDonald and Sinclair, Hereford Cattle, 14.

142. Duckham, “History, Progress, and Comparative Merits,” 5.

143. “Among the Herefords: Boughton-Knight’s Herd,” 327.

144. MacDonald and Sinclair, Hereford Cattle, 7.

145. Duckham, “History, Progress, and Comparative Merits,” 12.

146. “Hereford Cattle,” Livestock Journal, 1875, 689.

147. Ibid., 688.

148. Duckham, “History, Progress, and Comparative Merits,” 9.

149. Clutton-Brock and Hall, British Farm Livestock, 77. Indeed, as Margaret Derry suggests, “That identification through public pedigree information was available for Shorthorns earlier than for other cattle breeds helped provide an important start to the breed’s ultimate popularity and geographic expansion.… Possibly Shorthorns became so popular … not because they were improved before other breeds … but rather because of the head start provided by the breed’s public herd book.” Derry, Bred for Perfection, 6.

150. Derry, Bred for Perfection.

151. Darwin, Variation under Domestication, 1:2.

152. Ibid., 4.

153. Ibid.

154. Ibid.

155. Culley, Observations on Live Stock (1807), viii.

156. Ibid.

157. Culley, Observations on Live Stock (1807), viii–ix.

158. V., “Stock Breeding,” Livestock Journal 21 (17 April 1885): 376.

159. Duckham, “Breeding and Management,” 5.

160. Quoted in “Cattle of the Various Breeds as Beef Producers,” Farmer’s Magazine 55 (February 1879): 99.

161. Derry, Bred for Perfection, chap. 1; Ritvo, Animal Estate, 60–63.

162. “Animals were believed to be ‘pure’ to breed type … when they carried public pedigrees.… Ideas about breed, the meaning of purity within breed, and the role of pedigrees in breeding became entangled in a complicated way.” Derry, Bred for Perfection, 9.

163. Practice, “Stock Breeding,” Livestock Journal 21 (10 April 1885): 350.

164. “Various Notes,” Farmer’s Magazine 55 (May 1879): 316.

165. “Cattle as Beef Producers,” 100.

166. “An American on Breeding,” Livestock Journal 2 (8 October 1875): 568.

167. “Various Notes,” 316.

168. “Cattle as Beef Producers,” 100.

169. Ibid.

170. Ibid.

171. “Remarks and Observations, Continued,” 390.

172. “British Breeds of Cattle,” Livestock Journal 21 (22 May 1885): 495.

173. “Cattle as Beef Producers,” 100.

174. “Various Notes,” 313.

175. “Herefords in Westmeath,” 2.

176. Cosmo, “Among the Herefords: The Hampton Court Herefords,” Livestock Journal 21 (17 April 1885): 373.

177. Ibid.

178. Arkwright served four terms as president, and five as vice president of the society between 1878 and 1898. MacDonald and Sinclair, Hereford Cattle, 144. Prior to 1878, the Herd Book of Hereford Cattle was privately operated.

179. Cosmo, “Among the Herefords,” 373.

180. Ibid.

181. Ibid.

182. Thomas Campbell Eyton (1809–80) was a naturalist who specialized in ornithology. He was the author of a number of works, including A History of the Rarer British Birds and A Catalogue of British Birds. He was a friend and contemporary of Charles Darwin, with whom he exchanged a number of letters on zoology, the anatomy of birds, and Herefordshire cattle. See in particular, Darwin, “to T. C. Eyton 27 August 1856,” http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/ entry-1946; and Darwin, “to Eyton 31 August 1856,” http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/entry-1948.

183. Duckham, “History, Progress, and Comparative Merits,” 12.

184. J. H. Arkwright, Draft letter to the editor of the Hereford Times (July 1888), in response to “Hereford Herd Book Society,” Hereford Times, 27 June 1888, signed Herefordian. Herefordshire Archive and Record Centre (hereafter HARC), A63/III/65/14.

185. Duckham, “History, Progress, and Comparative Merits,” 12, 10. Exasperated, Eyton declared his “intention [not] to carry the Work on further unless the breeders generally come forward to assist me more than they have done up to the present time” after publishing only two volumes. Eyton, “Preface,” 2: iv. At this point, the Hereford herd book copyright passed to Thomas Duckham, who published seven volumes before handing it off to the Hereford Herd Book Society in 1878.

186. J. R. Bailey to J. H. Arkwright, n.d. 1884, HARC, A63/IV/42/33.

187. Duckham, Eyton’s Herd Book, 3:iii.

188. Eyton, Herd Book of Hereford Cattle, 1:iii.

189. Duckham, Eyton’s Herd Book, 3:iii.

190. Ibid., iv.

191. Cosmo, “Among the Herefords,” 374.

192. Ibid.

193. Ibid. A remarkable number of these documents ended up in the Herefordshire Archive and Record Centre.

194. Hereford Herd Book Society, Herd Book of Hereford, 11:vii.

195. Joseph Russell Bailey to J. H. Arkwright, 26 April 1884, HARC, A63/IV/42/33.

196. Ibid.

197. Ibid.

198. Percy Powell to J. H. Arkwright, 25 June 1882, HARC, A63/IV/42/29.

199. J. R. Bailey to J. H. Arkwright, n.d. 1884, HARC, A63/IV/42/33.

200. Ibid.

201. “Concealed Connections,” Livestock Journal 21 (10 April 1885): 351.

Chapter Four

1. Holford, New Zealand’s Own Breed, 3.

2. Ibid., 11.

3. Holford, New Zealand’s Contribution, 11.

4. Holford, New Zealand’s Own Breed, 12.

5. Ibid., 10.

6. Ibid., 11.

7. See chapter 2.

8. Holford, New Zealand’s Contribution, 10.

9. Ibid., 10.

10. “Mutton Cutlets,” New Zealand Farmer 12, no. 2 (February 1892): 38.

11. Pearce, County of Berkshire, 46; see also chapter 2.

12. Holford, New Zealand’s Contribution, 10.

13. Brooking and Pawson, Seeds of Empire.

14. “The Farm: Month of October,” New Zealand Farmer 11, no. 10 (October 1891): 397.

15. “The Farm: March Month,” New Zealand Farmer 12, no. 3 (March 1892): 113.

16. Holford, New Zealand’s Own Breed, 11.

17. Rebecca Woods, “Breed, Culture, and Economy”; Rebecca Woods, “From Colonial Animal to Imperial Edible.”

18. David Jones, “New Zealand Trade,” 119.

19. Franklin, Dolly Mixtures, 122.

20. Ibid., 120.

21. Elinor Melville describes this as an “ungulate irruption.” Melville, Plague of Sheep, esp. 6–9. See also Flannery, Future Eaters. For the ecological transformation of colonies, see Virginia Anderson, Creatures of Empire; Cronon, Changes in the Land; Crosby, Columbian Exchange; and Crosby, Ecological Imperialism.

22. Muir, Broken Promise.

23. Formal colonization in Australia dates to 1788; in New Zealand, the Treaty of Waitangi (1840) marks the still-contested onset of British sovereignty.

24. “Wool,” New Zealand Country Journal 2, no. 3 (May 1878): 185.

25. Juliet Clutton-Brock, Walking Larder.

26. Stringleman and Peden, “Sheep Farming,” http://www.TeAra.govt.nz/en/sheep-farming/page-2.

27. Mitchell, Abstract of Statistics, 192.

28. Quoted in “Wool,” 187.

29. From its paltry initial offering, the combined export from the Australian colonies’ annual clip rose to nearly 100,000 in 1820, to more than three-quarters of a million in 1840, to almost six million in 1850, to two and a quarter million twenty-five years later. Armstrong and Campbell, Australian Sheep Husbandry, 61. See also Mitchell, Abstract of Statistics, 193.

30. Armstrong and Campbell, Australian Sheep Husbandry, 1.

31. Merinos from the state of Vermont, in particular, were popular enough in Australia to be considered a craze in the 1880s. Graham, Australian Merino, 13, 20; “Vermont Merinos in Australia,” New Zealand Farmer 11, no. 12 (December 1891): 492; Rebecca Woods, “Green Mountain Merinos.”

32. Graham, Australian Merino, 9.

33. “The Australian Meat-Trade,” Chambers’s Journal, 21 April 1894, 246.

34. Robin, How a Continent Created a Nation; Melville, Plague of Sheep.

35. Holford, Contribution to the Sheep World, 10.

36. “District Reports: Wellington Province, Wanganui,” New Zealand Farmer 12, no. 11 (November 1892): 457.

37. Pawson and Brooking, “Introduction,” 3. See also Beattie, O’Gorman, and Henry, Climate, Science, and Colonization.

38. “Discovery of Lost Sheep,” New Zealand Country Journal 4, no. 4 (July 1880): 226.

39. “Frozen Food,” Chambers’s Journal, 14 July 1883, 437.

40. Armstrong and Campbell, Australian Sheep Husbandry, 8.

41. “The Flocks of the Empire,” New Zealand Farmer 21, no. 2 (February 1901): 46.

42. Ibid.

43. Ibid.; Statistical Abstract 1889 to 1903, 2.

44. J. R., “Transportation of Live Stock, Part II: Public Health and Public Morals,” Livestock Journal and Fancier’s Gazette 2 (6 August 1875): 353.

45. The population of human colonists is given by Statistical Abstract 1876 to 1890, 5. The numbers of sheep in the Australian colonies and New Zealand are compiled from Grant, “Australian Meat Industry,” 1:33, 35; and Evans, Agricultural and Pastoral Statistics, 31, 7.

46. In 1881, the population of settlers, or pakeha, stood at approximately 440,000. The Maori population was roughly 45,000 in the same year; it “reached its nadir of 42,000” in 1892. Brooking and Pawson, “Contours of Transformation,” 13. See also McLintock, Encyclopedia of New Zealand.

47. David Jones, “New Zealand Trade,” 130.

48. Cyclopedia of New Zealand, 250–51.

49. “Export of Frozen Meat,” Timaru Herald, 24 March 1881, 8.

50. The conversion of numbers of sheep to pounds of meat is based on Holmes’s calculations, which estimated twenty sheep per ton, or 100,000 tons of meat for two million sheep. “Frozen Meat Export Company,” North Otago Times, 28 February 1881, 2.

51. Perren, Meat Trade in Britain, 3.

52. Davidson, Establishment of the Frozen-Meat Trade, 10. National Archives of Scotland GD435/614/6. Similar measures were reported resorted to in Argentina. Waters, Clipper Ship, 53.

53. “Australian Mutton,” All the Year Round, 12 September 1868, 319.

54. Some in New Zealand, in fact, looked forward to the day when Australia’s “large city populations capable of consuming enormous quantities of such commodities as New Zealand is particularly fitted to produce” would become “the best customers our cultivators of the soil will have.” “New Zealand and Intercolonial Federation,” New Zealand Farmer 11, no. 4 (April 1891): 145.

55. Collins, “Rural and Agricultural Change,” 115; Waters, Clipper Ship, 52; Leonard W. Lillingston, “Frozen Food,” Good Words, January 1898, 238.

56. “Australian Mutton,” All the Year Round, 1868, 319–20.

57. Collins, “Food Supplies and Food Policy,” 37.

58. “Scientific Notes,” The Graphic, 3 December 1881, repr. in Haslam’s Patent Dry Air Refrigerators, 10. Derbyshire Records Office (hereafter, DRO), D1333 Z/Z 5.

59. “The Australian Meat-Trade,” Chambers’s Journal, 21 April 1894, 246; Perren, Meat Trade in Britain, 70–74.

60. Davidson, Establishment of the Frozen-Meat Trade, 33; Waters, Clipper Ship, 52.

61. Ramsay, “World’s Refrigerated Meat Traffic,” 1721.

62. “Sir Alfred Haslam, KT., J.P.: A Sketch of His Career,” in The Queen’s State Visit to Derby May 21st, 1891, 140. DRO, D1333 Z/Z 8.

63. Perren, Meat Trade in Britain, 3. Domestic net production was growing at a modest rate of 1.5 percent per annum over the second half of the nineteenth century. Collins, “Rural and Agricultural Change,” 116.

64. Higgins, “Mutton Dressed as Lamb,” 175–76.

65. Collins, “Rural and Agricultural Change,” 110.

66. Ibid., 98, 109.

67. Quoted in “The Diminution of Live Stock,” New Zealand Country Journal 2, no. 3 (May 1878): 170.

68. “Our Meat-Supply,” Chambers’s Journal, 28 November 1868, 759.

69. “Our Meat-Supply,” Chambers’s Journal, 26 August 1899, 615–16; Perren, Meat Trade in Britain, 3. Prior to World War I, meat consumption in Britain peaked in the first five years of the twentieth century at 132 lbs. per capita.

70. Collins, “Food Supplies and Food Policy,” 35; Higgins, “Mutton Dressed as Lamb,” 166. See also chapter 5.

71. Craigie, “Twenty Years’ Change in Our Foreign Meat Supplies,” Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of England 23, 2nd ser. (1887): 472.

72. “American Meat,” Saturday Review of Politics, Literature, Science and Art 52, no. 1366 (1881): 811.

73. “Imported Beef and Mutton,” Chambers’s Journal, 22 April 1871, 253.

74. “Our Meat-Supply,” Chambers’s Journal, 1868, 759; Ritvo, “Mad Cow Mysteries,” 99–100; Ritvo, Platypus and Mermaid, 194–97. Otter, “Civilizing Slaughter,” 89; Rogers, Beef and Liberty.

75. “Flocks of the Empire,” 46.

76. Ibid.

77. “Scientific Notes,” Haslam’s Dry Air Refrigerators, 10.

78. Gordon H. Campbell, quoted in Proceedings of Fourth International Congress of Refrigeration, 32.

79. Davidson, William Soltau Davidson, 10; “Australian Mutton,” All the Year Round 20, no. 490, (12 September 1868): 319.

80. “Australian Meat-Trade,” Chambers’s Journal, 1894, 246.

81. Starting in the late 1860s, Thomas Mort and James Harrison in Australia began experimenting with freezing meat, but were unable to successfully ship it in its frozen state. Waters, Clipper Ship, 52.

82. Wallis-Tayler, Refrigeration, 21.

83. Ibid., 366; Waters, Clipper Ship, 53; Ramsay, “World’s Refrigerated Meat Traffic,” 1722; Cronon, Nature’s Metropolis, 230–47; “American Meat; How It Comes,” reprinted from The Farmer in the New Zealand Country Journal 1, no. 3 (July 1877): 194–95.

84. These relied on the dry air process of refrigeration, in which the compression of atmospheric air is used to cool an insulated chamber. The alternative, chemical refrigeration, relied on substances like anhydrous ammonia. Chemical refrigeration allowed for a more efficient heat cycle, but the chemicals used for it were flammable, and did “injurious action” upon the copper pipes that were needed to desalinate sea water for “marine refrigeration.” Wallis-Tayler, Refrigeration, 48, 211, 396.

85. “Australian Meat-Trade,” Chambers’s Journal (1894): 246.

86. Ramsay, “World’s Frozen Meat Trade,” 4. In 1873, an attempt was made to ship frozen meat from Melbourne to London, but it “turned out a failure.” Wallis-Tayler, Refrigeration, 2.

87. “Exportation of Butter,” Star, 17 February 1881, 3.

88. Thomas Mackenzie, quoted in Proceedings of Fourth International Congress of Refrigeration, 1:46.

89. Critchell and Raymond, History of the Frozen Meat Trade, 39.

90. “Notes and Comments,” Otago Daily Times, 17 December 1881, 7.

91. “Christmas Relish,” Otago Daily Times, 26 December 1881, 3.

92. Only one carcass was condemned. Critchell and Raymond, History of the Frozen Meat Trade, 42; “Our Meat-Supply,” Chambers’s Journal, 1899, 616.

93. Davidson, William Soltau Davidson, 37; Critchell and Raymond, History of the Frozen Meat Trade, 415; Waters, Clipper Ship, 51–57.

94. Wallis-Tayler, Refrigeration, 7.

95. By 1910, the United Kingdom had the capacity to store more than eight million sheep carcasses. Critchell and Raymond, History of the Frozen Meat Trade, 418–19. The East and West India Dock Company and the London and St. Katharine Dock Company led the establishment of “public refrigerated accommodation.” Broodbank, “Development of Refrigerated Accommodation,” 1705.

96. Wallis-Tayler, Refrigeration, 6.

97. “Arrival of the Sailing Ship Mataura,” European Mail, 5 October 1882, repr. in Haslam’s Dry Air Refrigerators, 12.

98. Davidson, Establishment of the Frozen-Meat Trade, 15–16.

99. “Frozen Meat Export Company,” 2.

100. This risk of exposure was also a problem at the other end of the journey, where transfer “from the vessel to the cold stores on land, and subsequent distribution by road or rail to the retailers,” offered ample opportunity for exposure to higher temperatures. Wallis-Tayler, Refrigeration, 6, 365.

101. Alexander Bruce, “The New Zealand Frozen Meat Trade,” Australasian Pastoralists’ Review 2, no. 11 (14 January 1893): 1024.

102. “Export of Frozen Meat,” Otago Daily Times, 24 March 1881, 7.

103. Bruce, “New Zealand Frozen Meat Trade,” 1024.

104. “The Frozen Meat Industry,” Australasian Pastoralists’ Review 3, no. 2 (15 April 1893): 72.

105. “A Visit to the Australian Frozen Meat Company’s Works,” Leisure Hour, September 1882, 561.

106. Bruce, “New Zealand Frozen Meat Trade,” 1025.

107. “Frozen Meat Export Company,” 2.

108. For race and the colonization of Australia, see Warwick Anderson, Cultivation of Whiteness.

109. “Australian Meat-Trade,” Chambers’s Journal, 1894, 247.

110. Lillingston, “Frozen Food,” 241.

111. Ibid., 241; Wallis-Tayler, Refrigeration, 285.

112. Wallis-Tayler, Refrigeration, 374, 379.

113. “Australian Refrigerated Meat,” Daily News, 5 October 1881, repr. in Haslam’s Dry Air Refrigerators, 6.

114. “Arrival of Frozen Meat from Australia,” Daily News, 24 October 1881, repr. in Haslam’s Dry Air Refrigerators, 7.

115. Lillingston, “Frozen Food,” 238.

116. “Our Meat-Supply,” Chambers’s Journal, 1899, 616.

117. “Visit to the Australian Frozen Meat Company,” 560.

118. Craigie, “Twenty Years’ Change,” 465.

119. “American Meat,” Saturday Review of Politics, Literature, Science and Art 52, no. 1366 (1881): 812.

120. Lillingston, “Frozen Food,” 237.

121. Ernest E. Williams, “The Foreigner in the Farmyard,” New Review 16, no. 93 (February 1897): 149.

122. Ibid.

123. “Annual Statement of the Trade of the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and British Possessions for the Year 1885,” Quarterly Review 165, no. 329 (July 1887): 54–55; Williams, “Foreigner in Farmyard,” 150.

124. Williams, “Foreigner in Farmyard,” 150; Lillingston, “Frozen Food,” 238; Ritvo, Platypus and Mermaid, 194.

125. Lillingston, “Frozen Food,” 238.

126. “The Australian Meat-Trade,” Chambers’s Journal (1894): 247.

127. Lillingston, “Frozen Food,” 238.

128. Higgins, “Mutton Dressed as Lamb,” 173, 175, 177.

129. House of Lords, Report on Marking Foreign Meat.

130. Higgins, “Mutton Dressed as Lamb,” 167–71.

131. House of Lords, Report on Marking Foreign Meat, xi. Economic historian David M. Higgins has conducted a detailed analysis of the evidence given to the Select Committee, and concluded that not only was fraud less prevalent than contemporaries supposed, its effects were also less pernicious. Had fraud existed at a significant scale, Higgins argues, the price differential between meat of foreign origin, including colonial, and domestically produced meat would have narrowed over time. That this did not occur suggests a relatively low degree of fraud in the marketplace. What misrepresentation existed, Higgins concludes, was practiced over a relatively short span of time in the early years of the trade. Moreover, outrage over the misrepresentation of the point of origin of meat expressed an objection to the act of fraud itself, not necessarily a prejudice against foreign or colonial meat. That is, consumers objected to being sold a false article (colonial meat passed off as British), not necessarily to colonial meat per se. Britons wished “to exercise their patriotic preference in favour of domestic meat,” and misrepresentation of colonial mutton as British prevented them from doing so. Higgins, “Mutton Dressed as Lamb” 182, 176, 174.

132. As Higgins argues in “Mutton Dressed as Lamb.”

133. “Fraudulent Dealings with New Zealand Mutton,” New Zealand Farmer 11, no. 9 (September 1891): 357.

134. Ibid.

135. “The Frozen Meat Industry,” Australasian Pastoralists’ Review 3, no. 2 (15 April 1893): 73.

136. “Fraudulent Dealings,” 357.

137. Australasian Pastoralists’ Review 2, no. 10 (15 December 1892): 953.

138. “Fraudulent Dealings,” 357.

139. “Pure-Bred Hampshire Downs,” New Zealand Farmer 12, no. 1 (January 1892): 3.

140. “Frozen Meat Industry,” Australasian Pastoralists’ Review, 72.

141. “Export Only Good Mutton,” New Zealand Farmer 11, no. 9 (September 1891): 371.

142. “River Plate and New Zealand Mutton,” New Zealand Farmer 12, no. 1 (January 1892): 4.

143. “Export Only Good Mutton,” 371.

144. Australasian Pastoralists’ Review 2, no. 11, (14 January 1893): 993. Australians worried that, while “Australian meat sold as Australian finds ready market both in London and the country towns, but every now and then a shipment of inferior mutton comes in from other places, the meat is sold as Australian, the public are dissatisfied, and will not buy again for some time.” Australasian Pastoralists’ Review, 15 March 1893, 37.

145. Lillingston, “Frozen Food,” 239.

146. “How Down Mutton Went Down,” New Zealand Farmer 12, no. 9 (September 1892): 370.

147. Australasian Pastoralists’ Review 3, no. 2 (15 April 1893): 72.

148. William Darley, “Mutton Cutlets,” New Zealand Farmer 12, no. 2 (February 1892): 38.

149. “Down and Lincoln Breeds of Sheep,” New Zealand Farmer 12, no. 6 (June 1892): 249.

150. “The Frozen Meat Trade in Victoria and New Zealand,” New Zealand Farmer 20, no. 5 (May 1900): 193.

151. Taylor White, “Cross-Breeding of Sheep,” New Zealand Farmer 12, no. 5 (May 1892): 198.

152. Corin, “The Management of Sheep on Small Farms,” New Zealand Farmer 12, no. 5 (May 1892): 197.

153. Worgan, County of Cornwall, 149.

154. Taylor White, “On Cross Breeding Sheep,” New Zealand Farmer 12, no. 4 (April 1892): 157.

155. Corin, “Management of Sheep,” 197.

156. T. H. Anson, “On Sheep,” New Zealand Country Journal 1, no. 3 (July 1877): 190.

157. “The Farm: September Month,” New Zealand Farmer 11, no. 9 (September 1891): 1.

158. “The Farm: November Month,” New Zealand Farmer 11, no. 11 (November 1891): 445.

159. Butler, A First Year in Canterbury Settlement, 36.

160. Anson, “On Sheep,” 190.

161. John McBeath, “Cross-Breeding of Sheep,” New Zealand Country Journal 1, no. 4 (October 1877): 267. Italics in original.

162. “Breeding for Wool in the North,” New Zealand Farmer 12, no. 1 (January 1892): 4.

163. “Farm: Month of October,” 397.

164. White, “On Cross Breeding Sheep,” 157.

165. “Rusticus,” “Stud Breeding,” Australasian Pastoralists’ Review 3, no. 2 (15 April 1893): 76.

166. Ibid.

167. Corin, “Management of Sheep,” 197.

168. W. Weddel, quoted in “The Mutton of Most Value in London Markets,” New Zealand Farmer 12, no. 12 (December 1892): 476.

169. “Visit to the Australian Frozen Meat Company,” 560.

170. Lillingston, “Frozen Food,” 239.

171. See also Ritvo, “Possessing Mother Nature.”

172. Holford, New Zealand’s Own Breed, 11.

173. John Roberts, “Crossbred Sheep in New Zealand,” Australasian Pastoralists’ Review 2, no. 9, (15 November 1892): 220. See also “The Intercolonial Stock Conference,” Australasian Pastoralists’ Review 2, no. 9 (15 November 1892): 903–4.

174. Roberts, “Crossbred Sheep,” 220.

175. White, “On Cross Breeding Sheep,” 156.

176. “Cross-Bred Sheep,” New Zealand Country Journal 1, no. 4 (October 1877): 269.

177. Ibid.

178. White, “Cross-Breeding of Sheep,” 198.

179. “Probable Changes in New Zealand Sheep-Breeding,” New Zealand Farmer 12, no. 11 (November 1892): supp., 4.

180. “English and New Zealand Bred Lincolns,” New Zealand Farmer 20, no. 1 (January 1900): 18.

181. “Probable Changes,” 4; White, “On Cross Breeding Sheep,” 156.

182. “Southdown Prize Ram,” New Zealand Farmer 11, no. 10 (October 1891): 400.

183. “The Dry Air Refrigerator, or Freezing Machine,” British Mail, April 1882, reprinted in Haslam’s Dry Air Refrigerators, 11.

184. “Downs V. Lincolns for Crossing,” New Zealand Farmer 12, no. 7 (July 1892): 278. Also reprinted in “Sheep Breeding,” Australasian Pastoralists’ Review 2, no. 8 (15 October 1892): 881.

185. Ibid.

186. White, “On Cross Breeding Sheep,” 156.

187. Ibid.

188. W. Weddel, quoted in “Mutton of Most Value,” 476.

189. Anson, “On Sheep,” 190.

190. “District Reports: Canterbury Province, North and Mid,” New Zealand Farmer 11, no. 11 (November 1891): 468.

191. “Show Reports: Canterbury Agricultural and Pastoral Association’s Metropolitan Show,” New Zealand Farmer 11, no. 12 (December 1891): 522.

192. “District Reports: Canterbury Province,” 468.

193. Little established his pure-breeding cross from the Romney breed and merino sheep “before anyone else had thought of such a thing.” Little, Story of the Corriedale, 3.

194. Davidson, William Soltau Davidson, 23.

195. Davidson, Establishment of the Frozen-Meat Trade, iv.

196. In fact, controversy surrounding early efforts led parties involved to publish memoirs detailing competing claims to primacy. “Corriedale” was eventually settled upon as the name for the fixed cross in honor of Little’s initial efforts as the manager of an Otago estate by that name. Davidson and the New Zealand and Australia Land Company advocated for “Southern Cross” as a moniker for the type. Davidson, William Soltau Davidson; Little, Story of the Corriedale.

197. “District Reports: Wellington Province, Wanganui,” New Zealand Farmer 12, no. 11 (November 1892): 457.

198. Ibid.

199. White, “On Cross Breeding Sheep,” 156.

200. Ibid.

201. “Of the improved Leicester,” White claimed, “we have no certain knowledge whether Bakewell used a cross or no. They are said to be descended from the old Teeswater breed.” White, “On Cross Breeding Sheep,” 157.

202. “Selecting Sheep for a Breeding Flock,” New Zealand Farmer 11, no. 4, (April 1891): 133.

203. White, “On Cross Breeding Sheep,” 157.

204. “Selecting Sheep,” 133.

205. Australasian Pastoralists’ Review 3, no. 1 (15 March 1893): 4.

206. White, “On Cross Breeding Sheep,” 157.

207. Ibid.

208. Ibid.

209. By and large, interested parties in New Zealand fell out along the lines of Down breeds versus the longwools, in recognition of the changing preferences of Britons, and the need to cater to metropolitan taste if New Zealand was to maintain primacy in the frozen meat trade. See, for example, “Pure-Bred Hampshire Downs,” 3; “Longwool and Down Mutton Sheep,” New Zealand Farmer 12, no. 1 (January 1892): 21; “Down and Lincoln Breeds of Sheep,” New Zealand Farmer 12, no. 6 (June 1892): 249; “The Down v. Lincoln Question,” New Zealand Farmer 12, no. 6 (June 1892): 250.

210. White, “On Cross Breeding Sheep,” 157.

211. Ibid.

212. Ibid.

213. Ibid.

214. Ibid.

215. Holford, New Zealand’s Own Breed, 2.

216. “District Reports: Palmerston North,” New Zealand Farmer 12, no. 11 (November 1892): 458.

217. Holford, New Zealand’s Own Breed, 4.

218. Ibid., 3.

219. Ramsay, “World’s Frozen Meat Trade,” 5.

220. Holford, Contribution to the Sheep World, 11.

221. Holford, New Zealand’s Own Breed, 17.

Chapter Five

1. “Hereford Cattle,” Maitland Mercury & Hunter River General Advertiser, 3 October 1885, 21.

2. “Hereford Cattle,” Livestock Journal and Fancier’s Gazette 2 (12 November 1875): 689.

3. Rogers, Beef and Liberty; Shapin, “You Are What You Eat.”

4. “Hereford Cattle,” Maitland Mercury, 1885, 21.

5. T. S., “On the Choice and Management of Dairy Stock, with a Few Observations on the Best Methods of Rearing Calves,” Agricultural Magazine, or, Farmers’ Monthly Journal 3 (July 1808): 7.

6. Weston, “General Remarks on the Shew of Fat Cattle in Smithfield,” Commercial and Agricultural Magazine 5, no. 29 (December 1801): 383.

7. T. S., “Choice and Management of Dairy Stock,” 7.

8. “British Breeds of Cattle,” Livestock Journal 21 (22 May 1885): 495.

9. Ibid.

10. “Hereford Cattle,” Livestock Journal, 1875, 689.

11. “Hereford Cattle,” Maitland Mercury, 1885, 21.

12. “Hereford Cattle,” Brisbane Courier, 13 December 1882, 3.

13. “Hereford Cattle,” Maitland Mercury, 1885, 21.

14. “Hereford Cattle,” Livestock Journal, 1875, 689.

15. Duckham’s essay “A Lecture on the History, Progress, and Comparative Merits of the Hereford Breed of Cattle” was first delivered at the Royal Agricultural College at Cirencester, 4 December 1863. In 1869, he had it reprinted in volume 6 of Eyton’s Herd Book of Hereford Cattle. The bulk of it made its way into the Tasmanian weekly, The Mercury, in 1872, by way of The Field, a major British publication concerned with sporting and agricultural pursuits. The full text of the lecture was also included in the first volume of the New Zealand Herd Book in 1886. See Duckham, “History, Progress, and Comparative Merits”; “The Hereford Breed of Cattle,” Mercury, 3 May 1872, 3; New Zealand Herd Book.

16. “Hereford Cattle,” Livestock Journal, 1875, 689.

17. “Herefords in Westmeath,” Livestock Journal 2 (3 September 1875): 450.

18. Ibid. In an interesting conflation of the practitioner and his subject—not unlike that observed by Rebecca Cassidy among contemporary thoroughbred horse breeders—commentators often attributed a breeder’s skill to heredity. The son of another prominent Hereford breeder, William Tudge, was said to have “inherited his father’s taste for fine cattle,” and in the Ashburner family, the production of several good breeders of Shorthorns occasioned the Livestock Journal to remark that, in that family, “the taste for Shorthorns is thus hereditary.” Cosmo, “Among the Herefords: Mr. Tudge’s Herd at Leinthall,” Livestock Journal 21 (1 May 1885): 424; “Shorthorns for California,” Livestock Journal 2 (29 October 1875): 642; Cassidy, Sport of Kings.

19. R. W. Reynall, quoted in Duckham, “History, Progress, and Comparative Merits,” 27.

20. Reynall, quoted ibid.

21. Samuel Gilliland, quoted ibid., 26.

22. “Hereford Cattle,” Maitland Mercury, 1885, 21.

23. Ibid.

24. Mr. Lumsden, quoted in Duckham, “History, Progress, and Comparative Merits,” 26.

25. Ibid., 22.

26. John Murrison, quoted ibid, 25–26.

27. James Mappower, quoted ibid, 23.

28. Youatt, Cattle, 32.

29. “Hereford Cattle,” Maitland Mercury, 1885, 21.

30. Ibid.

31. Duckham, “Breeding and Management,” 3. Paper originally given at the Breconshire Chamber of Agriculture, 2 January 1869.

32. J. R., “Foreign and Irish Live Stock and Disease,” Livestock Journal 2 (11 June 1875): 187.

33. “Imported Cattle and Disease,” Livestock Journal 2 (27 August 1875): 424.

34. Ibid.

35. J. R., “Foreign and Irish Live Stock and Disease,” 187.

36. Collins, “Rural and Agricultural Change,” 111; Collins, “Food Supplies and Food Policy,” 35. Ireland occupied an uneasy position in the trade and was only inconsistently considered a “foreign” source of meat.

37. Ibid.

38. Perren, Meat Trade in Britain, 153. Consumption of foreign sheep meat stood at 45 percent in the same year.

39. Ibid., 114.

40. Ibid., 131. The United States surpassed European imports with 204,467 to 182,572 live cattle in 1880, fell as low as 80,023 to 261,055 in 1882, rose again to surpass European imports in 1885 with 206,350 to 164,936, and remained ahead of Europe for the rest of the century. Ibid., 131, 164.

41. “Hereford Cattle,” South Australian Register, 14 December 1877, 3. Environmental historians have examined the significance of the development of this industry for American industry, and its ecological consequences. See, in particular, Cronon, Nature’s Metropolis; White, Railroaded.

42. Grundy, “Hereford Bull,” 72. The Quarterly Review noted in 1887 that during the North American ranching boom of the early 1880s, many “British ‘tenderfeet’ were induced to invest a great deal of capital in the business,” and according to Don Worcester, the Prairie Cattle Company of West Texas was “the mother of the British companies,” and “partly responsible for triggering Britons’ hasty and incautious investment in ranching ventures in the late 1870s and 1880s.” “Our Meat Supply,” Quarterly Review, July 1887, 49; Worcester, Texas Longhorn, 57.

43. “English Stock in Kansas,” Livestock Journal 2 (19 November 1875): 713.

44. Ibid.

45. Steam transport first brought the prairies into the productive orbit of American metropoles—New York, Chicago, and others. Their extension to London was both coeval with and dependent on this development. Belich examines the global dimensions of these developments in detail. See Cronon, Nature’s Metropolis; White, Railroaded; Belich, Replenishing the Earth.

46. “English Stock in Kansas,” 688.

47. W. H. Sotham, “Colonial Agriculture,” Farmer’s Magazine 55 (January 1879): 21.

48. To contemporary American observers, transforming prairies into pasture promised profit, but the cost of this endeavor, as any number of environmental historians have shown, was irrevocable ecological and social change. See especially Isenberg, Destruction of the Bison, and Jacoby, Crimes against Nature, for the more immediate ecological consequences in the nineteenth century. For some of the long-term ecological consequences of converting the prairies to farm and pasture land, see Worster, Dust Bowl. Terry G. Jordan sees in the transition to cattle ranching, a romanticized way of life being instituted at the expense of Native Americans. Jordan, North American Cattle-Ranching Frontiers, 7.

49. Cronon’s analysis of the processes and consequences of the commercialization of agriculture in the American West and Midwest is the most comprehensive; Jordan’s analysis of cattle ranching the most detailed by region. See Cronon, Nature’s Metropolis; Jordan, North American Cattle-Ranching Frontiers.

50. The favorable rates on North Atlantic freight, as well as the ease of finding cargo for the return trip to Montreal or New York, had a material influence on the development of the meat trade between North America and Great Britain. See Harley, “Steers Afloat.”

51. Perren, Meat Trade in Britain, 114.

52. Ibid.

53. “London Dead Meat Market,” Livestock Journal 21 (6 February 1885): 130.

54. Ibid.

55. Ibid.

56. By 1890, U.S. chilled imports stood at 1.7 million hundredweights, while live imports had risen to 384,639. Perren, Meat Trade in Britain, 116, 170, 164.

57. “Wyoming Cattle,” Livestock Journal 21 (13 February 1885): 147.

58. Peter King, “Genetic Diversity of Traditional British Breeds of Beef Cattle,” Ark 21, no. 1 (Spring 1996): 27.

59. Ramsay, “World’s Frozen and Chilled Meat Trade,” 5.

60. “Wyoming Cattle,” 147.

61. Ibid.

62. “Imported Beef and Mutton,” Chambers’s Journal, 21 April 1877, 254.

63. Perren, Meat Trade in Britain, 115.

64. Not even slaughtering and chilling prior to shipment entirely eliminated the risks of the voyage. Contemporary observation suggested that “the meat from animals slaughtered on their arrival in Liverpool is better than the dead meat imported from America, because the dead meat has suffered inevitable injury from being knocked about during its transport across the sea.” “American Meat,” Saturday Review, 13 December 1881, 812.

65. Derry, Bred for Perfection, 34.

66. Grundy, “Hereford Bull,” 87.

67. Joan Grundy remarks that ranges were “stocked … at a phenomenal rate” in the 1880s. Ibid., 73.

68. MacDonald, Food from the Far West, 268.

69. Grundy, “Hereford Bull,” 73.

70. “The American Cattle and Dead Meat Industry,” Livestock Journal 21 (30 January 1885): 102. For the history of livestock animals in colonial America, see Virginia Anderson, Creatures of Empire.

71. Sotham, “Colonial Agriculture,” 21.

72. “American Cattle and Dead Meat,” 102; Worcester, Texas Longhorn; Jordan, North American Cattle-Ranching Frontiers.

73. MacDonald, Food from the Far West, 268. Even Worcester concedes that the “old-time Longhorns” were “not the most handsome of bovines.” Worcester, Texas Longhorn, 4.

74. MacDonald, Food from the Far West, 268.

75. Sotham, “Colonial Agriculture,” 21.

76. “Wyoming Cattle,” 147.

77. MacDonald, Food from Far West, 268–69.

78. “Wyoming Cattle,” 147.

79. Ibid.

80. “Imported Beef and Mutton,” 254.

81. Perren, Meat Trade in Britain, 160.

82. “Wyoming Cattle,” 147.

83. “The American Cattle and Dead Meat Industry,” Livestock Journal, 102.

84. “Stock for Nova Scotia,” quoted from the St. John Daily Telegraph in Livestock Journal 2 (19 November 1875): 718.

85. Worcester, Texas Longhorn, 65. Shorthorns and Herefords were introduced to the United States in the 1820s, Aberdeen-Angus cattle in the 1860s. Shorthorns “made the earliest headway with rapid expansion in the eastern states between 1866 and 1878.” Grundy, “Hereford Bull,” 74.

86. Derry, Ontario’s Cattle Kingdom.

87. The entire number of cattle sold at auction in the United States in the year 1884 was approximately 7,500, 4,383 of which were Shorthorns and only 314 of which were Herefords (although that was up from 112 the year before). “Herd Intelligence,” Livestock Journal 21 (23 January 1885): 81.

88. “Cattle of the Various Breeds as Beef Producers,” Farmer’s Magazine 55 (February 1879): 99.

89. Ibid.

90. Grundy, “Hereford Bull,” 74. Worcester recounts the story of an early effort to import “blooded stock” to Texas, in which a cattleman had two cows and a bull of the Shorthorn breed hauled in wagons from the port of New Orleans. Another rancher was said to have remarked on the occasion that “a man has no business with cows that can’t light out and walk from New Orleans.” Worcester, Texas Longhorn, 62.

91. Jordan, North American Cattle-Ranching Frontiers, 7–10.

92. “Remarks and Observations on Different Sorts of Cattle,” Agricultural Magazine 7 (November 1810): 325.

93. Sotham, “Colonial Agriculture,” 21.

94. Ibid.

95. “Hereford Cattle,” Brisbane Courier, 1882, 3.

96. Belich, Replenishing the Earth.

97. “Hereford Cattle,” Livestock Journal (1875): 689.

98. J. Edwards, quoted in Duckham, “History, Progress, and Comparative Merits,” 29.

99. F. W. Stone, quoted ibid., 28.

100. “Among the Herefords: Current Notes,” Livestock Journal 21 (8 May 1885): 446; “Hereford Cattle,” Livestock Journal (1875): 689.

101. Grundy, “Hereford Bull,” 76.

102. Derry, Bred for Perfection, 34; Jordan, North American Cattle-Ranching Frontiers, 201; Grundy, “Hereford Bull,” 72.

103. “Hereford Cattle,” South Australian Register, 1877, 3; “Hereford Cattle in America,” Maitland Mercury, 26 May 1883, 6.

104. A. B., “The Hereford Cattle Trade in America,” Livestock Journal 21 (30 January 1885): 101.

105. “Cattle as Beef Producers,” 99.

106. Jordan, North American Cattle-Ranching Frontiers, 274.

107. Ibid., 9.

108. Grundy, “Hereford Bull,” 71.

109. Worcester, Texas Longhorn, 64.

110. Ritvo, “Possessing Mother Nature,” 417.

111. Even a quarter-bred Hereford bull color-marked its offspring. Grundy, “Hereford Bull,” 70, 75.

112. “Hereford Cattle,” South Australian Register, 1877, 3.

113. “Hereford Cattle,” Capricornian, 2 January 1892, 11.

114. Ibid.

115. Note that this perception ran counter to the majority of nineteenth-century opinion about the Shorthorn’s temperament, which was held elsewhere to be unusually placid.

116. “Hereford Cattle,” Capricornian, 1892, 11; Beardmore, quoted in “Hereford Cattle,” Brisbane Courier, 1882, 3.

117. Edwyn Arkwright to John Hungerford Arkwright, 20 July 1885, Herefordshire Archive and Records Centre (hereafter, HARC), A63/IV/21/3.

118. E. Arkwright to J. H. Arkwright, 18 February 1884. HARC, A63/IV/21/3.

119. Ibid., 20 July 1885, HRAC, A63/IV/21/3.

120. Ibid., 13 March 1889, HARC, A63/IV/21/3.

121. Ibid., 13 March 1889; and 18 February 1884.

122. “Various Notes,” Farmer’s Magazine 57 (February 1881): 116.

123. Worcester, Texas Longhorn, 67.

124. “Cattle as Beef Producers,” 99.

125. Pearce, County of Berkshire, 46.

126. “Hereford Cattle,” Brisbane Courier, 1882, 3.

127. Ibid.

128. Ibid.

129. A. B., “Hereford Cattle Trade in America,” Livestock Journal (1885): 105.

130. Grundy, “Hereford Bull,” 76. By T. L. Miller’s count in the year 1883, already by the month of July, more than 1,000 Herefords had been “bot [sic] for the American trade.” T. L. Miller to J. H. Arkwright, 19 July 1883, HARC A63/IV/42/31.

131. Four extant ledgers covering the period 1890–1953 are still available at the head office of the Hereford Cattle Society in the city of Hereford.

132. Export Ledger 1890–1901, Hereford Cattle Society.

133. “Hereford Cattle in America,” Maitland Mercury, 1883, 6.

134. “The Hereford Cattle Outlook,” Launceston Examiner (Tasmania), 6 April 1881, 2.

135. The same was true of the “grading up” system in Canada. See Derry, Ontario’s Cattle Kingdom.

136. Worcester, Texas Longhorn, 68.

137. Ibid., 57, 68. Goodnight’s operation was one of the biggest in the American West, and even his acquisition of a relatively paltry forty “thoroughbred … imported” Hereford bulls was news in Great Britain. “Herd Intelligence: Herefords,” Livestock Journal 21 (2 April 1885): 330.

138. “Hereford Cattle,” Maitland Mercury, 1885, 21.

139. Ibid.

140. This represents the lion’s share of the 495 total cattle exported to South America in this period, the largest single proportion after the 283 unspecified South American destinations. Hereford Cattle Society, Export Ledger 1890–1901; Grundy, “Hereford Bull,” 80–81; “Hereford Cattle in America,” Maitland Mercury, 1883, 6; “Hereford Cattle,” Maitland Mercury, 1885, 21.

141. Grundy, “Hereford Bull,” 76, 86.

142. Joseph Russell Bailey to John Hungerford Arkwright, 20 May 1884, HARC, A63/IV/42/33.

143. Sotham, “Colonial Agriculture,” 21.

144. Ibid.

145. Ibid.

146. “Dispersion of Mr. Knight’s Herd at Leinthall,” Livestock Journal 21 (1 May 1885): 425.

147. Cosmo, “Among the Herefords: The Field Herd,” Livestock Journal 21 (15 May 1885): 471.

148. Ibid.

149. Ibid.

150. Ibid.

151. Unnamed correspondent, quoted ibid.

152. “British Breeds of Cattle,” 495.

153. Hereford Herd Book Society, Herd Book of Hereford, 10:viii.

154. Eyton, Herd Book of Hereford Cattle, 1:iii.

155. Hereford Herd Book Society, Herd Book of Hereford, 10:vii.

156. Ibid.

157. American Hereford Record, 1.

158. Ibid.

159. Ibid. The tendency in the British Herd Book to “give only the dam’s name and the name and number of her sire, and after carrying these dams back for three or four generations, omit the name of the dam” was criticized in the preface to the first volume of the American Hereford Record, despite the fact that this was in keeping with the Herd Book’s own rules for entry. At the same time, the editors stipulated that “the lack of further information is no discredit to the pedigree,” which seemed to negate the very basis of their own complaint. Ibid.

160. T. L. Miller to J. H. Arkwright, 21 July 1883, HARC, A63/IV/42/31.

161. Hereford Herd Book Society, Herd Book of Hereford, 10:viii.

162. T. L. Miller to S. W. Urwick, n.d. 1883, HARC, A63/IV/42/31.

163. Miller to Arkwright, 21 July 1883.

164. American Hereford Record, 1.

165. Miller to Urwick, n.d. 1883.

166. Ibid.

167. Ibid.

168. T. L. Miller to J. H. Arkwright, 25 July 1883, HARC, A63/IV/42/31.

169. Bailey to J. H. Arkwright, 1883, HARC, A63/IV/42/31.

170. Ibid.

171. Ibid.

172. Hereford Herd Book Society, Herd Book of Hereford, 10:viii.

173. J. R. Bailey to J. H. Arkwright, 26 May 1881, HARC, A61/IV/42/26. The “stain of blood” in the United States was in fact carried to 1/32 in the case of African American heritage.

174. This kind of comparison, of course, has a very specific history and politics in nineteenth-century America, and was a characteristic of American slavery. See Johnson, Soul by Soul. More generally, see Ritvo, Platypus and the Mermaid.

175. Grundy, “Hereford Bull,” 79.

176. Ibid., 81. Grundy notes that the Hereford’s color-marking ability was as significant in accounting for its popularity in twentieth-century Britain’s artificial insemination industry as it had been on the nineteenth-century New World range. Ibid., 83. For the growing popularity of the Hereford breed in postwar Britain, see also Cincinnatus, “Farming Notes: Breed-preference Changes,” Country Life, 130 (6 July 1961): 43; Simba, “Farming Notes: Breeding for Beef,” Country Life, 131 (8 March 1962): 555.

177. Ritvo, “Possessing Mother Nature.”

Conclusion

1. “Origin and Distribution of the Sheep,” New Zealand Farmer, 12, no. 6 (June 1892): 237. Reprinted from the Agricultural Gazette.

2. Ibid.

3. Contemporary archeozoology supports this proposition. See Juliet Clutton-Brock, Natural History of Domesticated Mammals, 74.

4. “Origins and Distribution,” 237.

5. Ibid.

6. “Livestock Committee’s Report,” New Zealand Farmer 11, no. 11 (November 1891): 461.

7. Halifax, “Foreword,” 5.

8. P. G. Craigie, “Twenty Years’ Change in Our Foreign Meat Supplies.” Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of England 23, 2nd ser. (1887): 465.

9. Abigail Woods explores some of the impetus to breed livestock for higher yields in “Breeding Cows, Maximising Milk.” See also Sayer, “Animal Machines.”

10. “Native Breeds—New Rare Breeds Classification,” Ark 24, no. 2 (Summer 1996): 55.

11. Ibid.; Peter King, “Genetic Diversity of Traditional British Breeds of Beef Cattle,” Ark 21, no. 1 (Spring 1996): 27.

12. “Native Breeds,” 55.

13. King, “Traditional British Breeds,” 27. The first breed to have an established herd book was the Shorthorn, in 1822. The Herd Book of Hereford Cattle was established in 1846. Coates, Short-Horned Herd-Book; Eyton, Herd Book of Hereford Cattle.

14. King, “Traditional British Breeds,” 27.

15. Ibid.

16. Low, On the Domestic Animals of the British Islands, 116.

17. King, “Traditional British Breeds,” 27.

18. Youatt, Complete Grazier, 10. See also chapter 1.

19. King, “Traditional British Breeds,” 27.

20. Ibid.

21. Ibid.

22. Ibid.

23. In June 1960, John Cumber wrote in Country Life magazine that for “possibly a century or more, Britain has been known as the stud farm of the world and British breeds of livestock have been, if not the only ones in the world, certainly the foremost.” John Cumber, “Future Trends in Livestock Breeding,” Country Life, 77 (30 June 1960): 1484.

24. “Native Breeds,” 55.

25. Ibid.

26. Peter King erroneously dates this introduction to 1968 (King, “Traditional British Breeds,” 27). The question of importing Charolais bulls to Great Britain was a matter of controversy, the risk of disease at least as worrying as the potential for introgression in British beef breeds like the Hereford, Aberdeen-Angus, or Red Poll. Thirty bulls were purchased in October of 1961 at an average cost of £560, and by March 1962 the Milk Marketing Board had made the semen of sixteen available to interested farmers. See Cincinnatus, “Farming Notes: The Charollais Project,” Country Life 80 (26 October 1961): 1027; Cincinnatus, “Farming Notes: Charollais Challenge,” Country Life 131 (15 March 1962): 619. Also “Charollais Bulls,” Country Life 78 (15 September 1960): 538; Cincinnatus, “Farming Notes: The Charollais Controversy,” Country Life 78 (22 December 1960): 1569; Cincinnatus, “Farming Notes: The Charollais Bull Test,” Country Life 79 (18 May 1961): 1175; Cincinnatus, “Farming Notes: Charollais Bulls,” Country Life 80 (27 July 1961): 213; Cincinnatus, “Farming Notes: No Charollais for Scotland?,” Country Life 80 (9 November 1961): 1159; and Cincinnatus, “Farming Notes: Charollais Bulls,” Country Life 80 (28 December 1961): 1645.

27. In 1960, Country Life magazine reported that there seemed “to be a perfect mania these days to look abroad for foreign breeds of livestock to import.” “Farming Notes: Interest in Pietrain Pigs,” Country Life 77 (9 June 1960): 1341.

28. Edward Hart, “The Traditional Hereford,” Ark 27, no. 2 (Summer 1999): 64; Peter Symonds, quoted in “Traditional Hereford Breeders Get Together,” Ark 24, no. 3 (Autumn 1996): 64.

29. The Hereford Cattle Society began distinguishing “traditional” entries to the Herd Book of Hereford Cattle in the 1995 volume. Les Cook, one of the first breeders active in the preservation of “Traditional” Herefords, remembers “calling them something like ‘pure English’ ” in the 1970s and 1980s—not, he is quick to point out, “with a desire to put anyone else’s cattle down, it’s just I knew the type of pedigree I was looking for.” Interview with Les Cook, 4 January 2010.

30. Ritvo, “Race, Breed, and Myths of Origin.”

31. The United Kingdom’s 1908 livestock census “demonstrated the overwhelming numerical superiority of the dual-purpose Shorthorn.” The breed constituted 64 percent of the national herd, estimated at 4.5 million cattle. Grundy, “Hereford Bull,” 80.

32. Interview with Les Cook, 4 January 2010; “Llandinabo Farms Home Page,” https://web.archive.org/web/20110830095004/http://www.llandinabofarms.co.uk/home.asp; “Traditional Hereford Beef,” https://web.archive.org/web/20120328111549/http://www.traditionalherefords.org/hereford_beef.html. Emphasis original.

33. Ibid.

34. The controversy over imported Canadian Herefords was only slightly later than several waves of postcolonial human immigration to Great Britain, and if the commentary surrounding the “Traditional” Hereford was less explicit than Bailey’s remarks in the 1880s, the implied parallels between human and animal were no less salient.

35. “Naval and Submarine Exhibit,” British Trade Journal, 1 May 1882. Derbyshire Records Office, D1333 Z/Z 2.

36. Brown, Sheep Farming, 29.

37. Belich, Replenishing the Earth, 437–51.

38. “Sir Alfred Haslam, KT., J.P.: A Sketch of His Career,” in The Queen’s State Visit to Derby May 21st, 1891, 144. DRO, D1333 Z/Z 8.

39. Ibid.

40. Stokes, “Contesting Resources,” esp. 48.

41. The degree to which British imperialism can be said to have been reciprocal is a subject of historiographical debate. For an overview, see Andrew S. Thompson, Empire Strikes Back?. For other facets, such as domestic consumption, identity, and popular culture, see Catherine Hall, Civilising Subjects; MacKenzie, Imperialism and Popular Culture; Hall and Rose, At Home with the Empire; Wilson, New Imperial History.

42. For post–World War II British immigration, particularly from the colonies and former colonies, see Holmes, John Bull’s Island, esp. chap. 5; Hansen, Citizenship and Immigration; Karatani, Defining British Citizenship; Ryan and Webster, Gendering Migration.

43. For some of the cultural effects of colonial and postcolonial immigration, see Sauerberg, Intercultural Voices; and Dawson, Mongrel Nation.

44. Duckham, “History, Progress, and Comparative Merits,” 10. Paper originally given at the Royal Agricultural College at Cirencester, 4 December 1863.

45. J. C. Hindson, “Questions on Trust Policy,” Ark 1 (December 1974): 18.