Types of Deserts and How They Form
Desert Characteristics
Desert Terrains, Environment, and Hazards 263
Terrain
Environmental Factors
Precautions
Desert Hazards
How to Carry a Pack
Basic Travel Techniques
Terrain Issues
Hazards
Car Travel
Survival Tips
Understanding UV, SPF, and UPF
Shirts and Pants
Parka and Rain Pants
Boots
Socks
Gloves
Headgear
Eye Protection
Skin Protection
Survival Tips
Location
Distinguishing Characteristics
Average Temperature
Average Precipitation
Life Forms
Problems for the Survivor
Travel in Tropical and Jungle Areas 268
Tropical Weather
Jungle Types
Travel Through Jungle Areas
Immediate Considerations
Mountain Terrain and Hazards 270
Mountain Terrain
Mountain Hazards
Mountain Walking Techniques 272
Basic Principals
Techniques
Safety Considerations
Climbing Fundamentals
Use of Holds
Holds and Grips
Static Motion and Dynamic Motion
Cross-Through Move
One-Arm Lock-off
Second Generation or “Bumping”
Gaston
Laybacking
Underclinging
More Moves
Crack Technique
Completing Boulder Problems
Falling and Spotting
Snow Climates
Ice Climates
Snow Metamorphosis
Dry Snow Versus Wet Snow
Snow Composition
Snow Characteristics
Effects of Snow and Terrain on Individual Movement
Ice Ax
Snow Shovel
Mountaineering Poles
Probe
Avalanche Transceiver
Avalung
Clinometer
Altimeter
Heat Loss
Materials
COLDER Acronym
Parka and Rain Pants
Boots
Socks
Gaiters
Hand Coverings
Headgear
Eye Protection
Zippers
Skin Protection
How to Load Your Pack
Basic Travel Techniques
Terrain Issues
Movement Over Snow and Ice 290
Movement over Snow
Movement over Ice
Using an Ice Ax to Self-Belay
Use of Ice Ax and Crampons 291
Glissading
Traveling on Snowshoes
Choosing Cross-Country Skis 299
Selecting Cross-Country Skis, Boots, Bindings, and Poles
Sled
Waxing and Caring for Skis 300
General
Snow and Its Effects on Wax
Proper Selection and Application of Waxes
Care of Ski Equipment
Flat and Rolling Terrain
Uphill Terrain
Downhill Terrain
Breaking Trail
Skiing with a Pack
Skiing with a Sled
Crossing Frozen Water
Basic Principles of Cold-Weather Survival 305
Travel
Avalanche Types
Avalanche Triggers
Identifying Avalanche Hazards
United States Avalanche Danger Descriptors
Route Selection
Avalanche Necessities
Surviving an Avalanche
Avalanche Rescue
Survival Tips
Rivers and Streams
Rapids Rafts
Flotation Devices
Other Water Obstacles
Vegetation Obstacles
“Leave No Trace” Back-Country Travel 314
Guidelines
Planning
Travel
Back-Country Courtesy
Knives, Packs, and Other Back-Country Travel Gear 315
Backpack
Knives
Backpacking Stove
Headlamp
Cooking Pots
Greg Davenport
Illustrations by Steven Davenport and Ken Davenport
Deserts present a survivor with a myriad of problems, including water shortages, intense heat, wide temperature ranges, sparse vegetation, sandstorms, and surface soil that is potentially irritating to the skin. There are some twenty deserts around the world, covering about 15 percent of the total land surface. Understanding the various types of deserts will help you overcome the multitude of problems each can present.
Most deserts get less than 10 inches (25 centimeters) of rainfall a year and/or have a very high rate of evaporation. What little rain there is does not come throughout the year, but usually occurs in big bursts and at irregular intervals. In some instances, dry intervals extend over several years. The desert surface is often so dry that, even during hard downpours, the water runs off and evaporates before soaking into the ground.
Most deserts lie in high-pressure zones where limited cloud cover makes the earth’s surface vulnerable to the sun’s radiation. As a result of constant sun exposure, the area heats up quickly, creating high temperatures. These high temperatures cause surface water to evaporate quickly. In areas with strong winds, the rate of evaporation is greatly increased.
Deserts are classified by their location and weather pattern. There are high-pressure deserts, rain-shadow deserts, continental deserts, and cool coastal deserts.
High-pressure deserts occur at the polar regions and between 20 and 30 degrees latitude on both sides of the equator. These deserts are located in areas of high atmospheric pressure where ongoing weather patterns cause dry air to descend. As the dry air descends, it warms up and absorbs much of the moisture in the area.
HIGH-PRESSURE DESERTS IN THE POLAR REGIONS
People often don’t think of the polar regions as having deserts because of the cold temperatures. But there are polar areas with an annual precipitation of less than 10 inches a year that qualify as deserts. A polar desert rarely has temperatures over 50 degrees F and often has day and night temperature changes that cross over the freezing point of water.
HIGH-PRESSURE DESERTS BETWEEN 20 AND 30 DEGREES LATITUDE
High-pressure deserts located between 20 and 30 degrees latitude north or south of the equator are hot as a result of the wind’s weather pattern and their proximity to the equator. These deserts have been known to reach temperatures as high as 130 degrees F. Most of the world’s deserts, including the Arabian Desert and the Sahara Desert, are located in this area.
Rain-shadow deserts occur as a result of a mountain range’s effects on the prevailing winds. As wind travels over a mountain range, it cools and dumps its moisture in the form of rain or snow. As it descends to lower elevations on the other side of the mountain range, the wind becomes very dry and warm. Unless moisture is provided in some other form, a rain-shadow desert will form on the protected side of the mountain range as a result. Rain-shadow deserts include the Patagonian Desert, created by the Andes, and the Great Basin Desert, created by the Cascade Range.
Rain-shadow desert.
A rain-shadow desert forms when air loses its moisture as it travels over a mountain range.
Continental deserts occur in the centers of large continents. As inland winds travel from the sea over land, they lose moisture in the form of rain, and by the time they reach the center of a large continent, they are very dry. Continental deserts include portions of the Australian Desert and the Gobi Desert.
Cool coastal deserts are the result of the cold ocean currents that parallel the western coastline near the Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn. At these locations, the cold ocean current touches a warm landmass, and as a result, almost no moisture is transferred from the ocean’s cold water to the air that flows over the adjoining coastline. The descending air mass, which is already dry, becomes even drier. These deserts are some of the driest in the world. Cool coastal deserts include the Atacama Desert of South America and Mexico’s Baja Desert.
Approximately 20 percent of the world’s deserts are covered in sand that often resembles unmoving ocean waves. Half of all deserts are gravel plains—extensive areas of level or rolling, treeless country created by the wind’s removal of ground soil, leaving only loose pebbles and cobbles. The remaining desert terrains include scattered barren mountain ranges; rocky plateaus, often seen as steep-walled canyons; and salt marshes, flat desolate areas with large salt deposits.
Gobi Desert.
Deserts may be both hot and cold and may or may not have seasonal rainfall. However, most deserts have large temperature swings between day and night as a result of low humidity and clear skies. In addition, desert winds increase the already prevalent dryness in the atmosphere.
Little plant life is found in deserts due to the hostile environment created by the lack of water and temperature extremes. Plants that survive do so through drought escaping, rapidly reproducing when rain arrives; drought resistance, storing water in their stems and leaves; drought enduring, efficiently absorbing what little water they receive; or obtaining water from sources other than precipitation. As an adaption to the sun’s unrelenting heat, many desert plants have small leaves oriented in a near vertical position. To avoid being consumed by herbivores, most desert plants have thorns, spines, and chemical compounds such as tannins and resins.
A wide assortment of wildlife can be found in deserts. In order to survive, most creatures avoid the temperature extremes. Most small game animals live in burrows during the day and come out at night, and some remain dormant during the rainless seasons. Larger game animals are often active during the day but routinely seek shade during the hottest hours. Most desert creatures have learned to compensate for the lack of water by developing the ability to meet this need from the food they metabolize.
—From Surviving the Deser
U.S. Army
Most arid areas have several types of terrain. The five basic desert terrain types are—
• Mountainous (High Altitude).
• Rocky plateau.
• Sand dunes.
• Salt marshes.
• Broken, dissected terrain (“gebel” or “wadi”).
Desert terrain makes movement difficult and demanding. Land navigation will be extremely difficult as there may be very few landmarks. Cover and concealment may be very limited; therefore, the threat of exposure to the enemy remains constant.
Scattered ranges or areas of barren hills or mountains separated by dry, flat basins characterize mountain deserts. High ground may rise gradually or abruptly from flat areas to several thousand meters above sea level. Most of the infrequent rainfall occurs on high ground and runs off rapidly in the form of flash floods. These floodwaters erode deep gullies and ravines and deposit sand and gravel around the edges of the basins. Water rapidly evaporates, leaving the land as barren as before, although there may be short-lived vegetation. If enough water enters the basin to compensate for the rate of evaporation, shallow lakes may develop, such as the Great Salt Lake in Utah, or the Dead Sea. Most of these lakes have a high salt content.
Rocky plateau deserts have relatively slight relief interspersed with extensive flat areas with quantities of solid or broken rock at or near the surface. There may be steep-walled, eroded valleys, known as wadis in the Middle East and arroyos or canyons in the United States and Mexico. Although their flat bottoms may be superficially attractive as assembly areas, the narrower valleys can be extremely dangerous to men and material due to flash flooding after rains. The Golan Heights is an example of a rocky plateau desert.
Sandy or dune deserts are extensive flat areas covered with sand or gravel. “Flat” is a relative term, as some areas may contain sand dunes that are over 300 meters high and 16 to 24 kilometers long. Trafficability in such terrain will depend on the windward or leeward slope of the dunes and the texture of the sand. Other areas, however, may be flat for 3,000 meters and more. Plant life may vary from none to scrub over 2 meters high. Examples of this type of desert include the edges of the Sahara, the empty quarter of the Arabian Desert, areas of California and New Mexico, and the Kalahari in South Africa.
Salt marshes are flat, desolate areas, sometimes studded with clumps of grass but devoid of other vegetation. They occur in arid areas where rainwater has collected, evaporated, and left large deposits of alkali salts and water with a high salt concentration. The water is so salty it is undrinkable. A crust that may be 2.5 to 30 centimeters thick forms over the saltwater.
In arid areas there are salt marshes hundreds of kilometers square. These areas usually support many insects, most of which bite. Avoid salt marshes. This type of terrain is highly corrosive to boots, clothing, and skin. A good example is the Shat-el-Arab waterway along the Iran-Iraq border.
All arid areas contain broken or highly dissected terrain. Rainstorms that erode soft sand and carve out canyons form this terrain. A wadi may range from 3 meters wide and 2 meters deep to several hundred meters wide and deep. The direction is takes varies as much as its width and depth. It twists and turns and forms a mazelike pattern. A wadi will give you good cover and concealment, but do not try to move through it because it is very difficult terrain to negotiate.
Surviving and evading the enemy in an arid area depends on what you know and how prepared you are for the environmental conditions you will face. Determine what equipment you will need, the tactics you will use, and the environment’s impact on them and you.
In a desert area there are seven environmental factors that you must consider—
• Low rainfall.
• Intense sunlight and heat.
• Wide temperature range.
• Sparse vegetation.
• High mineral content near ground surface.
• Sandstorms.
• Mirages.
Low rainfall is the most obvious environmental factor in an arid area. Some desert areas receive less than 10 centimeters of rain annually, and this rain comes in brief torrents that quickly run off the ground surface. You cannot survive long without water in high desert temperatures. In a desert survival situation, you must first consider “How much water do I have?” and “Where are other water sources?”
TYPES OF HEAT GAIN
Intense sunlight and heat are present in all arid areas. Air temperature can rise as high as 60 degrees C (140 degrees F) during the day. Heat gain results from direct sunlight, hot blowing winds, reflective heat (the sun’s rays bouncing off the sand), and conductive heat from direct contact with the desert sand and rock.
The temperature of desert sand and rock averages 16 to 22 degrees C (30 to 40 degrees F) more than that of the air. For instance, when the air temperature is 43 degrees C (110 degrees F), the sand temperature may be 60 degrees C (140 degrees F).
Intense sunlight and heat increase the body’s need for water. To conserve your body fluids and energy, you will need a shelter to reduce your exposure to the heat of the day. Travel at night to lessen your use of water.
Radios and sensitive items of equipment exposed to direct intense sunlight will malfunction.
Temperatures in arid areas may get as high as 55 degrees C (131 degrees F)during the day and as low as 10 degrees C (50 degrees F) during the night. The drop in temperature at night occurs rapidly and will chill a person who lacks warm clothing and is unable to move about. The cool evenings and nights are the best times to work or travel. If your plan is to rest at night, you will find a wool sweater, long underwear, and a wool stocking cap extremely helpful.
Vegetation is sparse in arid areas. You will therefore have trouble finding shelter and camouflaging your movements. During daylight hours large areas of terrain are visible and easily controlled by a small opposing force.
If traveling in hostile territory, follow the principles of desert camouflage—
• Hide or seek shelter in dry washes (wadis) with thicker growths of vegetation and cover from oblique observation.
• Use the shadows cast from brush, rocks, or outcroppings. The temperature in shaded areas will be 11 to 17 degrees C cooler than the air temperature.
• Cover objects that will reflect the light from the sun.
Before moving, survey the area for sites that provide cover and concealment. You will have trouble estimating distance. The emptiness of desert terrain causes most people to underestimate distance by a factor of three: What appears to be 1 kilometer away is really 3 kilometers away.
All arid regions have areas where the surface soil has a high mineral content (borax, salt, alkali, and lime). Material in contact with this soil wears out quickly, and water in these areas is extremely hard and undrinkable. Wetting your uniform in such water to cool off may cause a skin rash. The Great Salt Lake area in Utah is an example of this type of mineral-laden water and soil. There is little or no plant life; therefore, shelter is hard to find. Avoid these areas if possible.
Sandstorms (sand-laden winds) occur frequently in most deserts. The “Seistan” desert wind in Iran and Afghanistan blows constantly for up to 120 days. Within Saudi Arabia, winds average 3.2 to 4.8 kilometers per hour (kph) and can reach 112 to 128 kph in early afternoon. Expect major sandstorms and dust storms at least once a week.
The greatest danger is getting lost in a swirling wall of sand. Wear goggles and cover your mouth and nose with cloth. If natural shelter is unavailable, mark your direction of travel, lie down, and sit out the storm.
Dust and wind-blown sand interfere with radio transmissions. Therefore, be ready to use other means for signaling, such as pyrotechnics, signal mirrors, or marker panels, if available.
Mirages are optical phenomena caused by the refraction of light through heated air rising from a sandy or stony surface. They occur in the interior of the desert about 10 kilometers from the coast. They make objects that are 1.5 kilometers or more away appear to move.
This mirage effect makes it difficult for you to identify an object from a distance. It also blurs distant range contours so much that you feel surrounded by a sheet of water from which elevations stand out as “islands.”
The mirage effect makes it hard for a person to identify targets, estimate range, and see objects clearly. However, if you can get to high ground (3 meters or more above the desert floor), you can get above the superheated air close to the ground and overcome the mirage effect. Mirages make land navigation difficult because they obscure natural features. You can survey the area at dawn, dusk, or by moonlight when there is little likelihood of mirage.
Light levels in desert areas are more intense than in other geographic areas. Moonlit nights are usually crystal clear, winds die down, haze and glare disappear, and visibility is excellent.
You can see lights, red flashlights, and blackout lights at great distances. Sound carries very far.
Conversely, during nights with little moonlight, visibility is extremely poor. Traveling is extremely hazardous. You must avoid getting lost, falling into ravines, or stumbling into enemy positions. Movement during such a night is practical only if you have a compass and have spent the day in a shelter, resting, observing and memorizing the terrain, and selecting your route.
In a desert survival and evasion situation, it is unlikely that you will have a medic or medical supplies with you to treat heat injuries. Therefore, take extra care to avoid heat injuries. Rest during the day. Work during the cool evenings and nights. Use a buddy system to watch for heat injury, and observe the following guidelines:
• Make sure you tell someone where you are going and when you will return.
• Watch for signs of heat injury. If someone complains of tiredness or wanders away from the group, he may be a heat casualty.
• Drink water at least once an hour.
• Get in the shade when resting; do not lie directly on the ground.
• Do not take off your shirt and work during the day.
• Check the color of your urine. A light color means you are drinking enough water, a dark color means you need to drink more.
There are several hazards unique to desert survival. These include insects, snakes, thorned plants and cacti, contaminated water, sunburn, eye irritation, and climatic stress.
Insects of almost every type abound in the desert. Man, as a source of water and food, attracts lice, mites, wasps, and flies. They are extremely unpleasant and may carry diseases. Old buildings, ruins, and caves are favorite habitats of spiders, scorpions, centipedes, lice, and mites. These areas provide protection from the elements and also attract other wildlife. Therefore, take extra care when staying in these areas. Wear gloves at all times in the desert. Do not place your hands anywhere without first looking to see what is there. Visually inspect an area before sitting or lying down. When you get up, shake out and inspect your boots and clothing.
All desert areas have snakes. They inhabit ruins, native villages, garbage dumps, caves, and natural rock outcroppings that offer shade. Never go barefoot or walk through these areas without carefully inspecting them for snakes. Pay attention to where you place your feet and hands. Most snakebites result from stepping on or handling snakes. Avoid them. Once you see a snake, give it a wide berth.
—From Survival (Field Manual 21-76)
Greg Davenport
Illustrations by Steven Davenport and Ken Davenport
Before heading into the desert, leave an itinerary with someone you can trust. Set up check-in times when you will let him or her know you are OK. This insurance is key to a short survival stay versus a lone one. If you don’t check in, this person can let rescuers know your intended route of travel and initiate a search long before you’d otherwise be missed.
In a desert, limit the amount of travel you do in a survival situation. Leave an area only when it no longer meets your needs, rescue doesn’t appear imminent, and you know where you are and have navigational skills. Travel in the desert increases your exposure to aridity and heat, and thus your need for water. To minimize the effects of the desert climate, follow these simple rules:
1. Travel during the cooler hours. Restduring the day in a shaded area, and travel in the early morning and late afternoon. Avoid travel in temperatures over 100 degrees F.
2. Decrease exposure. Wear proper desert clothing. Cover your body, including your arms and legs, and wear a hat that shades your head and neck. Use sunscreen on exposed areas to prevent sunburn.
3. Ensure adequate water. Before departing, drink enough water to ensure that you are well hydrated. So that you stay hydrated during travel in hot desert conditions, carry enough water to drink 1 quart per hour. Also make sure water sources are on your intended route of travel. If not, adjust your course so that they are.
The type of pack you carry will depend on personal preference, buy in a hot desert climate, an external frame pack is usually preferable because the frame allows air to flow between the pack and your back. To carry a pack on trail, organize your gear so that the heavier items are on top and close to your back. This method places most of the pack’s weight on your hips, making it easier to carry. For off-trail travel, organize the pack so that the heavy items are close to the back, from the pack’s top to its bottom. With this method, most of the pack’s weight is carried by your shoulders and back, allowing you better balance. Pack your larger survival items in the pack so that they can be easily accessed, and carry a smaller survival kit on your person.
If traveling in a team, the person breaking trail is working harder than anyone else, and this job needs to be traded off at regular intervals among the members of a team. The leader should set a pace distance and speed that are comfortable for all team members.
When in scree (small rocks or sand), kick-stepping will make your ascent much easier. Using the weight of your leg, swing the toe of your boot into the rocks, creating a step that supports at least the ball of your foot if going straight up, or at least half of your foot if traversing. When going uphill, lean forward until your body is perpendicular to the earth’s natural surface—not that of the hill.
Kick-stepping.
Plunge-stepping is similar to kick-steeping, except that you are going downhill and kicking your heels rather than your toes into the slope. Slightly bend the knees, and lean backward until your body is perpendicular to the ground at the base of the hill—not the hill’s slope.
Plunge-stepping.
Traversing, or diagonal climbing, is a quick and easy method for getting up or down a hill. When traversing a hill, it may be necessary to slightly shorten your strides as the grade changes. The same technique can be used to descend a hill.
Traversing.
When walking uphill, use a rest step, which is done by locking the knee with each step. This process takes the weight off the muscle, allowing it to rest, and places it on the skeletal system. For best results, you’ll need to take a short pause with each step.
When traveling in mountainous terrain, try to stay high on the ridgeline as much as you can. It’s better to travel a little farther than to deal with the constant up-and-down travel associated with frequent elevation changes.
Some deserts have a rock floor that is either extremely firm or on occasion soft and brittle. The biggest problem with a firm, rocky desert surface is that it can be hard on your feet and ankles. Constant awareness is necessary to avoid a twist or break that can turn a nice hike into a survival situation.
Although it might be tempting to climb a rocky desert peak, be careful. Often people start to climb up a rock only to discover that it is too difficult to reach the top. At this point, most people try to downclimb, and many are surprised to find that the route down is much more difficult than it was going up. If the down-climb becomes too hard, you may slip and get hurt or become stranded on the rock.
A canyon can be like a maze, and unless you have good navigational skills, it’s easy to get lost. Before entering a canyon, make sure you can get back out. Do your research. Avoid canyons during peak flash flood seasons. A flash flood in a canyon has the same potential as an avalanche for sweeping you away and taking your life.
If you need to cross a small creek, loosen your pack’s shoulder straps and undo your waistband so you can quickly remove the pack if you fall in. Cross the stream in a shallow area by way of a diagonal downstream route. For added stability, use a long walking staff for support. You can also decrease the current’s impact on your legs by placing the stick on the upstream side of your position to form a V with you in its center.
Lava beds create unending areas of uneven, hard-to-negotiate terrain. These areas are often filled with obstacles that you cannot go around and that require you to move from one elevated rock to another. Make sure of your footing with each move before you transfer your weight, and always be ready to move on to another location should the one you’re on become unstable.
Sand dunes form as a result of the wind’s movement off the sand. It is far easier to hike on the windward side of a slope, where the sand is packed and more stable. On the leeward side, the sand is soft, and it requires far greater work to get from one point to another.
Dry lakebeds are often hard, crusty surfaces that are devoid of visible landmarks. Navigation through these areas should be avoided unless other options are not available. If you do travel through a dry lake, keep an adequate pace count—it may be the only way you’ll be able to identify your current location.
Deserts are known to have temperature extremes, with hot days and cold nights. Travel during midday is not advised; limit your travel to the morning and evening hours.
Sandstorms are a common occurrence in most deserts, and it will be impossible to travel during these times. The potential for eye injury and skin irritation make it important to find or establish a shelter until the storm subsides. In addition, when a storm is present, it doesn’t take much for the sand to ruin exposed electronic devices. Take the time to protect them from exposure.
Avoid dry riverbeds, canyons, and other depressions during the flash flood season. A flash flood has the same life-threatening potential as an avalanche and can easily sweep you up and carry you away. In fact, these floods have been known to originate from up to 100 miles upriver, catching travelers unaware in an area where the sun is shining.
A mirage is an optical illusion that is often seen in the desert or on a hot road. It occurs when alternate layers of hot and cool air distort light, creating the appearance of a sheet of water where none exists. Mirages make it difficult to identify land features during the day. If mirages are occurring, it may be best to triangulate and plan your routes of travel at dawn or dusk or during moonlight hours.
You can travel great distances in a vehicle. The opportunity to do this allows you to see a vast array of desert beauty, but it also takes you farther away from civilization. If you break down, you may be so far from town that your survival odds will greatly depend on what you brought with you and how well you understand the area you are in. Because desert climates are not user-friendly, it’s best to leave the driving to someone experienced in such regions. If, however, you decide to do it yourself, leave an itinerary with a friend with specific check-in times and directions on what to do if you don’t check in, and observe the following guidelines:
1. Use a vehicle you know has had proper maintenance and is capable of handling the terrain you intend to travel into. Personally check all the fluid levels before you depart, and take along extra just in case.
2. Have the electrical system and battery checked before departing, and carry a spare battery or jump-start battery in addition to jumper cables.
3. Your vehicle’s tires should be wide enough to float on sand and have an aggressive tread for adequate traction.
4. Since you have the space, carry at least 5 gallons of water for each person on board, and an additional large survival kit beyond what you might have in your backpack.
5. Before traveling on a rocky desert, make sure your vehicle has enough clearance to handle the terrain.
6. It’s best not to drive on a sandy desert, as it’s easy to bog down and get stuck. If you must, put your vehicle in four-wheel-drive and let some air out of the tires to increase surface contact. Avoid speed fluctuations and hard turns.
7. Avoid driving on silt and dry lakes unless you have no other option. Silt often has a false floor that won’t be able to handle the weight of your vehicle. Dry lakes often have areas with false floors or that are too damp to support your vehicle. In either instance, the vehicle is likely to break through or bog down and get stuck. If you have to cross, take the time to get out of the vehicle and survey the situation. Look for an area where the ground appears solid and is more apt to handle your vehicle’s weight.
8. Water crossings should be surveyed before you begin. Make sure the ground is hard enough to support your vehicle and the water is not too deep. In addition, look the selected route over carefully to ensure that your vehicle has enough clearance.
9. If your vehicle breaks down, stay with it. It’s the best signal you have and provides a multi tude of items that you can use to improvise to meet your various needs.
Limit your travel to morning and evening hours. During the day, it’s too hot and you increase your odds of developing a heat injury. During the night, your vision becomes impaired and it may be hard to avoid the creatures that are out looking for a tasty meal.
If you’re in a survival situation and rescue doesn’t appear imminent, the area you’re in doesn’t meet your needs, and you have solid navigational skills, you may elect to travel out to safety. If you do, leave a note for potential rescuers giving your time of departure, route, and intended destination. In addition, mark your trail by tying flags to branches or other landmarks and/or breaking branches.
Before planning a weeklong trip into the desert, become familiar with the area by taking short trips that pose little risk. Become accustomed to its hazards and the climate’s effects on you. Also take the time to talk with the local authorities about water sources, terrain hazards, flood potential, and dangerous creatures and humans.
—From Surviving the Desert
Greg Davenport
Illustrations by Steven Davenport and Ken Davenport
It is estimated that over one million Americans will develop skin cancer each year. Considering these statistics, it is hard to imagine why an individual would travel into a desert without protection from the sun. Desert hikers can receive direct sun exposure to their heads, necks, arms, and legs. Some believe their clothing will protect them and dress in long-sleeved shifts and full pants and wear broad-rimmed hats. However, unless this clothing is able to block at least 93 percent of the sun’s ultraviolet (UV) rays, damage will still occur. Your clothing’s ability to block out UV radiation is based on its construction (knit or woven), color, and fiber count, and whether it is wet or dry. Knit fabrics tend to provide better protection than woven; dark colors are thought to provide five times more protection than white; clothes with high fiber count have better protection; and wet clothes tend to lose their ability to block UV penetration. A tightly woven cotton shirt blocks out approximately 86 percent of the sun’s harmful UV rays and even less when wet. Polyester, on the other hand, has been shown to provide two to three times more UV protection than other fabrics of equal quality.
In recent years, the clothing industry has recognized the need for UV protective fabrics and has designed clothes that protect wearers from harmful solar radiation. These clothes will become as commonplace as Gore-Tex has for wet environments. Most of these clothes are variations of nylon and work by reflecting or absorbing the UV rays. When absorbed, the UV is transmitted across the fiber and released externally as heat. Solar Weave is an example of this type of fabric and provides 97 to 99 percent UV protection.
Since many fabrics will list their sun protection factor (SPF) or ultraviolet protection factor (UPF) instead of their UV protection, you will need to understand how they relate to one another. SPF relates to the degree to which a sun cream or lotion provides protection for the skin against the sun. The rating describes how much longer you can stay in the sun before your skin starts to burn. In other words, a rating of SPF 10 means you can stay in the sun 10 times longer with the sunscreen on than without it. SPF rating was developed for lotion and accounts for its evaporation, but this rating shouldn’t be used to establish clothing’s protection value. However, it often is. For optimal results, clothes need 93 percent UV protection, which equates to an SPF rating of approximately 15. A UV rating of 95 is equivalent to an SPF of 20; a UV rating of 97 is equivalent to an SPF of 33; and a UV rating of 99 is equivalent to an SPF of 100.
Ultraviolet protection factor (UPF) details how much UV radiation passes through a garment. A fabric with a UPF rating of 30 allows 1/30 of the sun’s UV radiation to pass through. There are three categories of UPF protection:
When selecting shirts and pants for hot climates, you must consider the sun’s effects. In addition to heat injuries, long-term sun exposure increases your chance of skin cancer. Wearing sun-protective clothing is one way to reduce these risks. Garments made with sun-protective fabrics have an ultraviolet protection factor (UPF) rating that designates how much ultraviolet (UV) radiation the fabric absorbs.
These ratings are based on a new garment that is dry and not worn too tight. Over time, older garments will lose some protective qualities due to repeated washings and basic wear and tear. Although darker colors provide better UV protection, a balance between this factor and how much heat is absorbed into the fabric must be considered. Clothes that are light-colored, such as off-white, tan, or khaki, tend to absorb less heat and are probably better for this environment.
SHIRT
In hot climates, I often wear a lightweight, long-sleeved, well-ventilated nylon shirt with a UPF of 30 or more. Button tabs secure the sleeves when they’re rolled up. In addition, shirts with a vented back help keep you extra cool. Nylon shirts dry quickly and provide better wind protection than polyester shirts. They are excellent option for desert travel. These shirts can be worn alone or over a lightweight loose-fitting polyester shirt.
Dressing for the desert.
PANTS
Look for the same qualities in pants as in a shirt. The ideal design is made from lightweight nylon, provides UV protection, has good ventilation, and can easily convert to shorts. Cargo pockets add the ability to store emergency survival gear; any pants you buy should include this option. Pants with a drawcord at the cuff help keep critters and dirt away from your skin. Nylon pants are fast drying and provide better wind protection than most alternatives. They are an excellent option for desert travel.
Although rain probably won’t be a problem in the desert, wind will, so a lightweight parka and rain pants are essential. They are available in nylon with a polyurethane coating, breathable waterproof coating, or breathable laminated waterproof membrane (Gore-Tex). Some parkas come with an insulating liner that can be zipped inside. In hot climates choose a parka shell that is lightweight yet durable. Look for the following criteria when choosing a parka and rain pants:
APPROPRIATE SIZE
These garments should be big enough that you can comfortably add wicking and insulating layers underneath without compromising your movement. The parka’s lower end should extend beyond your hips to keep wind and moisture away from the top of your pants.
DUAL SEPARATING ZIPPERS
Zippers should separate at both ends.
VENTILATION ADJUSTMENT
Parkas should have openings for ventilation in front, at your waist, under your arms, and at your wrist. For rain pants, the openings should be located in the front and along the outside of the lower legs, extending to about mid-calf, making it easier to put on or remove your boots. For females, pants are available with a zipper that extends down and around the crotch. The added benefit is obvious. These openings can be adjusted with zippers, Velcro, or drawstrings.
SEALED SEAMS
Seams should be taped or well bonded so that moisture will not penetrate through the clothing.
ACCESSIBLE POCKETS
What good is a pocket if you can’t get to it? In addition, the openings should have protective rain baffles. Rain baffles will help keep blowing sand from damaging zippers or entering pockets.
BRIMMED HOOD
The brim will help protect you from the sun and, if it does rain, will channel moisture away from your eyes and face.
Sandals are not appropriate footwear for desert hikes. You need a pair of sturdy boots to provide support and protect your feet. For hot climates, lightweight leather/fabric boots are best. These are popular fair-weather boots, as they are lighter and dry faster than all-leather boots. The Danner Desert Acadia is a great boot for desert wear. It has an 8-inch upper made from leather and 1,000-denier Cordura that provides good ankle support and circulation, a liner that promotes rapid drying, and a Vibram outsole and rubber/polyurethane midsole that provide enough stability for any desert terrain. If you buy new boots, break them in before your trip.
Your boots will protect you better if you keep them clean. Wash off dirt and debris using a mild soap that won’t damage leather.
Socks need to provide adequate insulation, reduce friction, and wick and absorb moisture away from the skin. Socks most often are made of wool, polyester, nylon, or an acrylic material. Wool tends to dry more slowly than the other materials but is still a great option. Cotton should be avoided, as it loses its insulating qualities when wet. For best results, wear two pairs of socks. The inner sock (often made of polyester or silk) wicks the moisture away from the foot; the outer sock (often a wool or synthetic blend material) provides the insulation that protects your feet. Keep your feet dry, and change your socks at least once a day. If any hot spots develop on your feet, immediately apply moleskin to prevent blisters from forming.
Gloves provide hand protection and decrease radiant heat loss from the hands. The type you need depends on your activity. I often take a pair of lightweight fingerless fleece gloves, which protect me during most activities and keep my hands warm during cold desert nights.
When traveling in the hot desert sun, it’s essential to protect your head, face, and neck from harmful UV rays and sunburn. Headgear should be worn at all times during the day. A hat or headdress also will reduce radiant heat loss on cold desert nights. If you are working during cold nights and begin to overheat, remove your headgear only when other options, such as slowing down and adjusting your clothing layers, have not cooled you down enough. Neck-draping Sahara hats, wide-brimmed bush hats, and Arab head cloths are three great options.
SAHARA HAT
The Sahara hat has a wide forward bill that provides UPF sun protection and shades the eyes and face, as well as a rear cape that shields the neck and creates a dead air space that helps keep you cooler. The ideal Sahara hat has a moisture-wicking headband that keeps sweat out of your eyes and a nylon strap that allows you to adjust the hat to a proper fit. This hat style is ideal for use in a desert climate.
WIDE-BRIMMED BUSH HAT
A bush hat for the desert should be lightweight and durable while providing high UPF sun protection from the sun’s harmful rays. It should repel moisture, dry quickly, and have a wide brim that shades the face and neck. A moisture-wicking headband will keep sweat out of your eyes, crown grommets will help increase air circulation, and a chinstrap will keep you from losing your hat to a sudden gust of wind. These hats are often made of nylon or a similar material.
Wide-brimmed bush hat.
ARAB-STYLE HEADDRESS
A turban headdress usually consists of a long scarf of linen or silk wound around the head and neck. The kaffiyeh is similar but is draped over the head. To make a kaffiyeh, take a rectangular piece of cloth, fold it diagonally, and then drape it over your head. The cloth is fastened to the head by an exterior headband.
Goggles or sunglasses with side shields that filter out UV wavelengths from the sunlight and reflections off bright sand are a must for travel in desert environments. It doesn’t take long for the sun’s reflection off the ground to burn the eyes, and once this occurs, you will have several days of eye pain along with light sensitivity, tearing, and a foreign body sensation. Since the symptoms of the burn usually don’t show up for four to six hours after exposure, your eyes can get burned without your even realizing it’s happening. Once a burn occurs, you need to get out of the light, remove contacts if wearing them, and cover both eyes with a sterile dressing until the light sensitivity subsides. If pain medication is available, you’ll probably need to use it. Once healed, protect your eyes to prevent another burn. If no goggles or sunglasses are available, improvise by covering the eyes with either a man-made or natural material with a narrow horizontal slit cut for each eye.
Improvised eye protection.
In a hot desert environment, ultraviolet radiation from above and reflected off the ground can be very intense and can cause painful and potentially debilitating sunburn. The best way to avoid this problem is to wear loose-fitting clothes that provide adequate UV protection. For skin that cannot be covered, use sunscreen or sun-block. Sunscreens work by absorbing the UV radiation and are available with various sun protection factor (SPF) ratings, which indicate how much longer than normal you can be exposed to UV radiation before burning. Sunblock reflects the UV radiation and is most often used for sensitive areas where intense exposure might occur, like the ears and nose. You need to constantly reapply these products throughout the day, as their effectiveness is lost over time and due to sweating.
Avoid midday sun. In hot deserts, the harmful effects of the midday sun far outweigh any benefits of working during that time. Most survival essentials can be met during dawn and dusk. At these times the temperature are cooler and you’re less apt to develop a heat-related injury. During the heat of the day, find a cool place to rest.
—From Surviving the Desert
Greg Davenport
Most tropical rain forests are between 23.5 degrees north latitude and 23.5 degrees south latitude in South and Central America, Asia, Africa, and Australia. The largest rain forest is located in the Amazon River basin in Brazil and neighboring countries of South America. Other rain forests can be found in Asia (examples include Borneo, Republic of the Philippines, New Guinea, and Northern Australia) and Africa (along the Atlantic coast and the Congo River Basin). Small temperate rain forests exist in the northern and southern hemispheres. An example of this type of rain forest can be found in the Olympic Peninsula of Washington state, where rainfall and humidity are high and the winters are mild.
Rain forests typically have an abundance of lush vegetation, high temperatures, and excessive rainfall. Although only 7 percent of the earth is covered by rain forests, 50 percent or more of the earth’s animal and plant life exist there. The vegetation can be from three to five stories with an upper canopy of trees ranging from 150 to 180 feet high. The density of the underlying layers depends upon how much sun penetrates the upper canopy. The more sun that gets through, the greater the density.
Temperatures are greater than 64.5 degrees F with a monthly average of close to 80 degrees F. The actual temperature in a rain forest depends on its distance from the equator and its altitude (rain forests are rarely seen above 3,000 feet).
Rainfall is greater than 80 inches per year and exceeds annual evaporation. As a general rule, at least four inches of rain falls each month. There are no true dry seasons.
Rain forests have more plants and animals than any of the other world habitats. The rain forest’s understory and midstory plants often have large leaves, allowing them to catch as much sunlight as possible. The upper-story plants have smaller leaves that spread out so that they touch plants around them, creating a canopy. Plants on the forest floor feed themselves by collecting falling debris or trapping animals and insects in their leaves. Almost 90 percent of the rain forest animal species are insects, and of these, most are beetles. In fact, one rain forest tree can host up to 150 species of beetles. The rain forest has an abundance of various mammals that can be found on the ground and in the trees. Most are nocturnal, choosing to sleep during the hot days. Almost half the rain forest mammals are bats. Ground dwellers of the rain forest include gorillas, elephants, tapirs, rodents, and wild pigs.
Insects, steep terrain, extreme moisture, and difficulty finding an appropriate signaling site.
—From Wilderness Survival
U.S. Army
High temperatures, heavy rainfall, and oppressive humidity characterize equatorial and subtropical regions, except at high altitudes. At low altitude, temperature variation is seldom less than 10 degrees C and is often more than 35 degrees C. At altitudes over 1,500 meters, ice often forms at night. The rain has a cooling effect, but when it stops, the temperatures soars.
Rainfall is heavy, often with thunder and lightning. Sudden rain beats on the tree canopy, turning trickles into raging torrents and causing rivers to rise. Just as suddenly, the rain stops. Violent storms may occur, usually toward the end of the summer months.
Hurricanes, cyclones, and typhoons develop over the sea and rush inland, causing tidal waves and devastation ashore. In choosing campsites, make sure you are above any potential flooding. Prevailing winds vary between winter and summer. The dry season has rain once a day and the monsoon has continuous rain. In Southeast Asia, winds from the Indian Ocean bring the monsoon, but it is dry when the wind blows from the landmass of China.
Tropical day and night are of equal length. Darkness falls quickly and daybreak is just as sudden.
There is no standard jungle. The tropical area may be any of the following:
• Rain forests.
• Secondary jungles.
• Semievergreen seasonal and monsoon forests.
• Savannas.
• Saltwater swamps.
• Freshwater swamps.
The climate varies little in rain forests. You find these forests across the equator in the Amazon and Congo basins, parts of Indonesia, and several Pacific islands. Up to 3.5 meters of rain fall evenly throughout the year. Temperatures range from about 32 degrees C in the day to 21 degrees C at night.
There are five layers of vegetation in this jungle. Where untouched by man, jungle trees rise from buttress roots to heights of 60 meters. Below them, smaller trees produce a canopy so thick that little light reaches the jungle floor. Seedlings struggle beneath them to reach light, and masses of vines and lianas twine up to the sun. Ferns, mosses, and herbaceous plants push through a thick carpet of leaves, and a great variety of fungi grow on leaves and fallen tree trunks.
Because of the lack of light on the jungle floor, there is little under-growth to hamper movement, but dense growth limits visibility to about 50 meters. You can easily lose your sense of direction in this jungle, and it is extremely hard for aircraft to see you.
Secondary jungle is very similar to rain forest. Prolific growth, where sunlight penetrates to the jungle floor, typifies this type of forest. Such growth happens mainly along river banks, on jungle fringes, and where man has cleared rain forest. When abandoned, tangled masses of vegetation quickly reclaim these cultivated areas. You can often find cultivated food plants among this vegetation.
The characteristics of the American and African semievergreen seasonal forests correspond with those of the Asian monsoon forests. These characteristics are—
Five layers of tropical rain forest vegetation.
• Their trees fall into two stories of tree strata. Those in the upper story average 18 to 24 meters; those in the lower story average 7 to 13 meters.
• The diameter of the trees averages 0.5 meter.
• Their leaves fall during a seasonal drought.
Except for the sago, nipa, and coconut palms, the same edible plants grow in these areas as in the tropical rain forests.
You find these forests in portions of Columbia and Venezuela and the Amazon basin in South America; in portions of southeast coastal Kenya, Tanzania, and Mozambique in Africa; in Northeastern India, much of Burma, Thailand, Indochina, Java, and parts of other Indonesian islands in Asia.
The chief characteristics of tropical scrub and thorn forests are—
• There is a definite dry season.
• Trees are leafless during the dry season.
• The ground is bare except for a few tufted plants in bunches; grasses are uncommon.
• Plants with thorns predominate.
• Fires occur frequently.
You find tropical scrub and thorn forests on the west coast of Mexico, Yucatan peninsula, Venezuela, Brazil; on the northwest coast and central parts of Africa; and in Asia, in Turkestan and India.
Within the tropical scrub and thorn forest areas, you will find it hard to obtain food plants during the dry season. During the rainy season, plants are considerably more abundant.
General characteristics of the savanna are—
• It is found within the tropical zones in South America and Africa.
• It looks like a broad, grassy meadow, with trees spaced at wide intervals.
• It frequently has red soil.
• It grows scattered trees that usually appear stunted and gnarled like apple trees. Palms also occur on savannas.
You find savannas in parts of Venezuela, Brazil, and the Guianas in South America. In Africa, you find them in the southern Sahara (north-central Cameroon and Gabon and southern Sudan), Benin, Togo, most of Nigeria, northeastern Zaire, northern Uganda, western Kenya, part of Malawi, part of Tanzania, southern Zimbabwe, Mozambique, and western Madagascar.
Saltwater swamps are common in coastal areas subject to tidal flooding. Mangrove trees thrive in these swamps. Mangrove trees can reach heights of 12 meters, and their tangled roots are an obstacle to movement. Visibility in this type of swamp is poor, and movement is extremely difficult. Sometimes, streams that you can raft form channels, but you usually must travel on foot through this swamp.
You find saltwater swamps in West Africa, Madagascar, Malaysia, the Pacific islands, Central and South America, and at the mouth of the Ganges River in India. The swamps at the mouths of the Orinoco and Amazon rivers and rivers of Guyana consist of mud and trees that offer little shade. Tides in saltwater swamps can vary as much as 12 meters.
Everything in a saltwater swamp may appear hostile to you, from leeches and insects to crocodiles and caimans. Avoid the dangerous animals in this swamp.
Avoid this swamp altogether if you can. If there are water channels through it, you may be able to use a raft to escape.
You find freshwater swamps in low-lying inland areas. Their characteristics are masses of thorny undergrowth, reeds, grasses, and occasional short palms that reduce visibility and make travel difficult. There are often islands that dot these swamps, allowing you to get out of the water. Wildlife is abundant in these swamps.
With practice, movement through thick undergrowth and jungle can be done efficiently. Always wear long sleeves to avoid cuts and scratches.
To move easily, you must develop “jungle eye,” that is, you should not concentrate on the pattern of bushes and trees to your immediate front. You must focus on the jungle further out and find natural breaks in the foliage. Look through the jungle, not at it. Stop and stoop down occasionally to look along the jungle floor. This action may reveal game trails that you can follow.
Stay alert and move slowly and steadily through dense forest or jungle. Stop periodically to listen and take your bearings. Use a machete to cut through dense vegetation, but do not cut unnecessarily or you will quickly wear yourself out. If using a machete, stroke upward when cutting vines to reduce noise because sound carries long distances in the jungle. Use a stick to part the vegetation. Using a stick will also help dislodge biting ants, spiders, or snakes. Do not grasp at brush or vines when climbing slopes; they may have irritating spines or sharp thorns.
Many jungle and forest animals follow game trails. These trails wind and cross, but frequently lead to water or clearings. Use these trails if they lead in your desired direction of travel.
In many countries, electric and telephone lines run for miles through sparsely inhabited areas. Usually, the right-of-way is clear enough to allow easy travel. When traveling along these lines, be careful as you approach transformer and relay stations. In enemy territory, they may be guarded.
• Pinpoint your initial location as accurately as possible to determine a general line of travel to safety. If you do not have a compass, use a field-expedient direction finding method.
• Take stock of water supplies and equipment.
• Move in one direction, but not necessarily in a straight line. Avoid obstacles. In enemy territory, take advantage of natural cover and concealment.
• Move smoothly through the jungle. Do not blunder through it since you will get many cuts and scratches. Turn your shoulders, shift your hips, bend your body, and shorten or lengthen your stride as necessary to slide between the undergrowth.
There is less likelihood of your rescue from beneath a dense jungle canopy than in other survival situations. You will probably have to travel to reach safety.
If you are the victim of an aircraft crash, the most important items to take with you from the crash site are a machete, a compass, a first aid kit, and a parachute or other material for use as mosquito netting and shelter.
Take shelter from tropical rain, sun, and insects. Malaria-carrying mosquitoes and other insects are immediate dangers, so protect yourself against bites.
Do not leave the crash area without carefully blazing or marking your route. Use you compass. Know what direction you are taking.
In the tropics, even the smallest scratch can quickly become dangerously infected. Promptly treat any wound, no matter how minor.
—From Survival (Field Manual 21-76)
U.S. Army
Mountains are land forms that rise more than 500 meters above the surrounding plain and are characterized by steep slopes. Slopes commonly range from 4 to 45 degrees. Cliffs and precipices may be vertical or overhanging. Mountains may consist of an isolated peak, single ridges, glaciers, snowfields, compartments, or complex ranges extending for long distances and obstructing movement. Mountains usually favor the defense; however, attacks can succeed by using detailed planning, rehearsals, surprise, and well-led troops.
All mountains are made up of rocks and all rocks of minerals (compounds that cannot be broken down except by chemical action). Of the approximately 2,000 known minerals, seven rock-forming minerals make up most of the earth’s crust: quartz and feldspar make up granite and sandstone; olivene and pyroxene give basalt its dark color; and amphibole and biotite (mica) are the black crystalline specks in granitic rocks. Except for calcite, found in limestone, they all contain silicon and are often referred to as silicates.
Different types of rock and different slopes present different hazards. The following paragraphs discuss the characteristics and hazards of the different rocks and slopes.
Granite. Granite produces fewer rockfalls, but jagged edges make pulling rope and raising equipment more difficult. Granite is abrasive and increases the danger of ropes or accessory cords being cut. Climbers must beware of large loose boulders. After a rain, granite dries quickly. Most climbing holds are found in cracks. Face climbing can be found, however, it cannot be protected.
Chalk and Limestone. Chalk and limestone are slippery when wet. Limestone is usually solid; however, conglomerate type stones may be loose. Limestone has pockets, face climbing, and cracks.
Slate and Gneiss. Slate and gneiss can be firm and or brittle in the same area (red coloring indicates brittle areas). Rockfall danger is high, and small rocks may break off when pulled or when pitons are emplaced.
Sandstone. Sandstone is usually soft causing handholds and footholds to break away under pressure. Chocks placed in sandstone may or may not hold. Sandstone should be allowed to dry for a couple of days after a rain before climbing on it—wet sandstone is extremely soft. Most climbs follow a crack. Face climbing is possible, but any outward pull will break off handholds and footholds, and it is usually difficult to protect.
Grassy Slopes. Penetrating roots and increased frost cracking cause a continuous loosening process. Grassy slopes are slippery after rain, new snow, and dew. After long, dry spells clumps of the slope tend to break away. Weight should be distributed evenly; for example, use flat hand push holds instead of finger pull holds.
Firm Spring Snow (Firn Snow). Stopping a slide on small, leftover snow patches in late spring can be difficult. Routes should be planned to avoid these dangers. Self-arrest should be practiced before encountering this situation. Beginning climbers should be secured with rope when climbing on this type surface. Climbers can glissade down firn snow if necessary. Firn snow is easier to ascend than walking up scree or talus.
Talus. Talus is rocks that are larger than a dinner plate, but smaller than boulders. They can be used as stepping-stones to ascend or descend a slope. However, if a talus rock slips away it can produce more injury than scree because of its size.
Scree. Scree is small rocks that are from pebble size to dinner plate size. Running down scree is an effective method of descending in a hurry. One can run at full stride without worry—the whole scree field is moving with you. Climbers must beware of larger rocks that may be solidly planted under the scree. Ascending scree is a tedious task. The scree does not provide a solid platform and will only slide under foot. If possible, avoid scree when ascending.
In North America the Yosemite Decimal System (YDS) is used to rate the difficulty of routes in mountainous terrain. The YDS classes are:
• Class 1—Hiking trail.
• Class 2—Off-trail scramble.
• Class 3—Climbing, use of ropes for beginners (moderate scrambling).
• Class 4—Belayed climbing. (This is moderate to difficult scrambling, which may have some exposure.)
• Class 5—Free climbing. (This class requires climbers to be roped up, belay and emplace intermediate protection.)
Class 5 is further subdivided into the following classifications:
Class 5.0–5.4—Little difficulty. This is the simplest form of free climbing. Hands are necessary to support balance. This is sometimes referred to as advanced rock scrambling.
Class 5.5—Moderate difficulty. Three points of contact are necessary.
Class 5.6—Medium difficulty. The climber can experience vertical position or overhangs where good grips can require moderate levels of energy expenditure.
Class 5.7—Great difficulty. Considerable climbing experience is necessary. Longer stretches of climbing requiring several points of intermediate protection. Higher levels of energy expenditure will be experienced.
Class 5.8—Very great difficulty. Increasing amount of intermediate protection is the rule. High physical conditioning, climbing technique, and experience required.
Class 5.9—Extremely great difficulty. Requires well above average ability and excellent condition. Exposed positions, often combined with small belay points. Passages of the difficult sections can often be accomplished under good conditions. Often combined with aid climbing (A0-A4).
Class 5.10—Extraordinary difficulty. Climb only with improved equipment and intense training. Besides acrobatic climbing technique, mastery of refined security technique is indispensable. Often combined with aid climbing (A0-A4).
Class 5.11–5.14—Greater increases of difficulty, requiring more climbing ability, experience, and energy expenditure. Only talented and dedicated climbers reach this level.
Additional classifications include the following.
1. Classes are further divided into a, b, c, and d categories starting from 5.10 to 5.14 (for example, 5.10d).
2. Classes are also further divided from 5.9 and below with +/= categories (for example, 5.8+).
3. All class 5 climbs can also be designated with “R” or “X”, which indicates a run-out on a climb. This means that placement of inter mediate protection is not possible on portions of the route. (For example, in a classification of 5.8R, the “R” indicates periods of run-out where, if a fall was experienced, ground fall would occur.) Always check the local guidebook to find specific designation for your area.
4. All class 5 climbs can also be designated with “stars.” These refer to the popularity of the climb to the local area. Climbs are represented by a single “star” up to five “stars;” a five-star climb is a classic climb and is usually aesthetically pleasing.
Aid climb difficulty classification includes:
A0—“French-free.” This technique involves using a piece of gear to make progress; for example, clipping a sling into a bolt or piece of protection and then pulling up on it or stepping up in the sling. Usually only needed to get past one or two more difficult moves on advanced free climbs.
A1—Easy aid. The placement of protection is straight forward and reliable. There is usually no high risk of any piece of protection pulling out. This technique requires etriers and is fast and simple.
A2—Moderate aid. The placement of protection is generally straight forward, but placement can be awkward and strenuous. Usually A2 involves one or two moves that are difficult with good protection placement below and above the difficult moves. No serious fall danger.
A3—Hard aid. This technique requires testing your protection. It involves several awkward and strenuous moves in a row. Generally solid placements which will hold a fall and are found within a full rope length. However, long fall potential does exist, with falls of 40 to 60 feet and intermediate protection on the awkward placements failing. These falls, however, are usually clean and with no serious bodily harm.
A4—Serious aid. This technique requires lots of training and practice. More like walking on eggs so none of them break. Leads will usually take extended amounts of time which cause the lead climber to doubt and worry about each placement. Protection placed will usually only hold a climber’s weight and falls can be as long as two-thirds the rope length.
A5—Extreme aid. All protection is sketchy at best. Usually no protection placed on the entire route can be trusted to stop a fall.
A6—Extremely severe aid. Continuous A5 climbing with A5 belay stations. If the leader falls, the whole rope team will probably experience ground fall.
Aid climbing classes are also further divided into +/- categories, such as A3+ or A3-, which would simply refer to easy or hard.
Grade ratings (commitment grades) inform the climber of the approximate time a climber trained to the level of the climb will take to complete the route.
• I—Several hours.
• II—Half of a day.
• III—About three-fourths of a day.
• IV—Long hard day (usually not less than 5.7).
• V—1½ to 2 ½ days (usually not less than 5.8).
• VI—Greater than 2 days.
Hazards can be termed natural (caused by natural occurrence), man-made (caused by an individual, such as lack of preparation, carelessness, improper diet, equipment misuse), or as a combination (human trigger). There are two kinds of hazards while in the mountains—subjective and objective. Combinations of objective and subjective hazards are referred to as cumulative hazards.
Subjective hazards are created by humans; for example, choice of route, companions, overexertion, dehydration, climbing above one’s ability, and poor judgment.
Falling. Falling can be caused by carelessness, over-fatigue, heavy equipment, bad weather, overestimating ability, a hold breaking away, or other reasons.
Equipment. Ropes are not total security; they can be cut on a sharp edge or break due to poor maintenance, age, or excessive use. You should always pack emergency and bivouac equipment even if the weather situation, tour, or a short climb is seemingly low of dangers.
Objective hazards are caused by the mountain and weather and cannot be influenced by man; for example, storms, rockfalls, icefalls, lightning, and so on.
Altitude. At high altitudes (especially over 6,500 feet), endurance and concentration is reduced. Cut down on smoking and alcohol. Sleep well, acclimatize slowly, stay hydrated, and be aware of signs and symptoms of high-altitude illnesses. Storms can form quickly and lightning can be severe.
Visibility. Fog, rain, darkness, and or blowing snow can lead to disorientation. Take note of your exact position and plan your route to safety before visibility decreases. Cold combined with fog can cause a thin sheet of ice to form on rocks (verglas). Whiteout conditions can be extremely dangerous. If you must move under these conditions, it is best to rope up. Have the point man move to the end of the rope. The second man will use the first man as an aiming point with the compass. Use a route sketch and march table. If the tactical situation does not require it, plan route so as not to get caught by darkness.
Gullies. Rock, snow, and debris are channeled down gullies. If ice is in the gully, climbing at night may be better because the warming of the sun will loosen stones and cause rockfalls.
Rockfall. Blocks and scree at the base of a climb can indicate recurring rockfall. Light colored spots on the wall may indicate impact chips of falling rock. Spring melt or warming by the sun of the rock/ice/snow causes rockfall.
Avalanches. Avalanches are caused by the weight of the snow overloading the slope. (Refer to page 306 for more detailed information on avalanches.)
Hanging Glaciers and Seracs. Avoid, if at all possible, hanging glaciers and seracs. They will fall without warning regardless of the time of day or time of year. One cubic meter of glacier ice weighs 910 kilograms (about 2,000 pounds). If you must cross these danger areas, do so quickly and keep an interval between each person.
Crevasses. Crevasses are formed when a glacier flows over a slope and makes a bend, or when a glacier separates from the rock walls that enclose it. A slope of only two to three degrees is enough to form a crevasse. As this slope increases from 25 to 30 degrees, hazardous icefalls can be formed. Likewise, as a glacier makes a bend, it is likely that crevasses will form at the outside of the bend. Therefore, the safest route on a glacier would be to the inside of bends, and away from steep slopes and icefalls. Extreme care must be taken when moving off of or onto the glacier because of the moat that is most likely to be present.
—From Military Mountaineering (Field Manual 3–97.61)
U.S. Army
Up scree or talus, through boulder fields or steep wooded mountainsides, over snow or grass-covered slopes, the basic principles of mountain walking remain the same.
The soldier’s weight is centered directly over the feet at all times. He places his foot flat on the ground to obtain as much (boot) soleground contact as possible. Then, he places his foot on the uphill side of grass tussocks, small talus and other level spots to avoid twisting the ankle and straining the Achilles tendon. He straightens the knee after each step to allow for rest between steps, and takes moderate steps at a steady pace. An angle of ascent or descent that is too steep is avoided, and any indentations in the slope are used to advantage. …
Downhill walking uses less energy than uphill but is much harder on the body. Stepping down can hammer the full bodyweight onto the feet and legs. Blisters and blackened toenails, knee damage, and back pain may follow. To avoid these problems the soldier should start by tightening bootlaces to ensure a snug fit (also keep toenails trimmed). A ski pole, ice ax, or walking stick will help take some of the load and give additional stability. Keep a moderate pace and walk with knees flexed to absorb shock.
Side hill travel on any surface should be avoided whenever possible. Weighted down with a rucksack, the soldier is vulnerable to twisted ankles, back injury, and loss of balance. If side hill travel is necessary, try to switchback periodically, and use any lower angle flat areas such as rocks, animal trails, and the ground above grass or brush clumps to level off the route.
Mountain walking techniques can be divided according to the general formation, surface, and ground cover such as walking on hard ground, on snow slopes and grassy slopes, through thick brush, and on scree and talus slopes.
Hard Ground. Hard ground is firmly compacted, rocky soil that does not give way under the weight of a soldier’s step. It is most commonly found under mature forest canopy, in low brush or heather, and areas where animals have beaten out multiple trails.
When ascending, employ the rest step to rest the leg muscles. Steep slopes can be traversed rather than climbed straight up. To turn at the end of each traverse, the soldier should step off in the new direction with the uphill foot. This prevents crossing the feet and possible loss of balance. While traversing, the full sole-to-ground principle is accomplished by rolling the ankle downhill on each step. For small stretches the herringbone step may be used—ascending straight up a slope with toes pointed out. A normal progression, as the slope steepens, would be from walking straight up, to a herringbone step, and then to a traverse on the steeper areas.
Descending is best done by walking straight down the slope without traversing. The soldier keeps his back straight and bends at the knees to absorb the shock of each step. Body weight is kept directly over the feet and the full boot sole is placed on the ground with each step. Walking with a slight forward lean and with the feet in a normal position make the descent easier.
Snow Slopes. Snow-covered terrain can be encountered throughout the year above 1,500 meters in many mountainous areas. Talus and brush may be covered by hardened snowfields, streams make crossable with snowbridges. The techniques for ascending and descending moderate snow slopes are similar to walking on hard ground with some exceptions.
Diagonal Traverse Technique. The diagonal traverse is the most efficient means to ascend snow. In conjunction with the ice ax it provides balance and safety for the soldier. This technique is a two-step sequence. The soldier performs a basic rest step, placing the leading (uphill) foot above and in front of the trailing (downhill) food, and weighting the trail leg. This is the in-balance position. The ice ax, held in the uphill hand, is placed in the snow above and to the front. The soldier shifts his weight to the leading (uphill) leg and brings the unweighted trail (downhill) foot ahead of the uphill foot. He shifts weight to the forward (downhill) leg and then moves the uphill foot up and places it out ahead of the trail foot, returning to the in-balance position. At this point the ax is moved forward in preparation for the next step.
Step Kicking. Step kicking is a basic technique used when crampons are not worn. It is best used on moderate slopes when the snow is soft enough to leave clear footprints. On softer snow the soldier swings his foot into the snow, allowing the leg’s weight and momentum to carve the step. Fully laden soldiers will need to kick steps, which take half of the boot. The steps should be angled slightly into the slope for added security. Succeeding climbers will follow directly in the steps of the trailbreaker, each one improving the step as he ascends. Harder snow requires more effort to kick steps, and they will not be as secure. The soldier may need to slice the step with the side of his boot and use the diagonal technique to ascend.
Descending Snow. If the snow is soft and the slope gentle, simply walk straight down. Harder snow or steeper slopes call for the plunge step, which must be done in a positive, aggressive manner. The soldier faces out, steps off, and plants his foot solidly, driving the heel into the snow while keeping his leg straight. He shifts his weight to the new foot plant and continues down with the other foot. On steeper terrain it may be necessary to squat on the weighted leg when setting the plunge step. The upper body should be kept erect or canted slightly forward.
Tips on Snow Travel. The following are tips for traveling on snow.
Often the best descent is on a different route than the ascent. When looking for a firmer travel surface, watch for dirty snow—this absorbs more heat and thus hardens faster than clean snow.
In the Northern Hemisphere, slopes with southern and western exposures set up earlier in the season and quicker after storms, but are more prone to avalanches in the spring. These slopes generally provide firm surfaces while northern and eastern exposures remain uncon-solidated.
Travel late at night or early in the morning is best if daytime temperatures are above freezing and the sun heats the slopes. The night’s cold hardens the snow surface.
Avoid walking on snow next to logs, trees, and rocks as the subsurface snow has melted away creating hidden traps.
Grassy Slopes. Grassy slopes are usually composed of small tussocks of growth rather than one continuous field.
When ascending, step on the upper side of each hummock or tussock, where the ground is more level.
When descending a grassy slope, the traverse technique should be used because of the uneven nature of the ground. A climber can easily build up too much speed and fall if a direct descent is tried. The hop-skip step can be useful on this type of slope. In this technique, the lower leg takes all of the weight, and the upper leg is used only for balance. When traversing, the climber’s uphill foot points in the direction of travel. The downhill foot points about 45 degrees off the direction of travel (downhill). This maintains maximum sole contact and prevents possible downhill ankle roll-out.
Note: Wet grass can be extremely slippery; the soldier must be aware of ground cover conditions.
Thick Brush. For the military mountaineer, brush is both a help and a hindrance. Brush-filled gullies can provide routes and rally points concealed from observation; on the other hand steep brushy terrain is hazardous to negotiate. Cliffs and steep ravines are hidden traps, and blow downs and thickets can obstruct travel as much as manmade obstacles. When brush must be negotiated take the most direct route across the obstacle; look for downed timber to use as raised paths through the obstacle; or create a tunnel through the obstacle by prying the brush apart, standing on lower branches and using upper limbs for support.
Scree Slopes. Slopes composed of the smallest rocks are called scree slopes. Scree varies in size from the smallest gravel to about the size of a man’s fist.
Ascending scree slopes is difficult and tiring and should be avoided, if possible. All principles of ascending hard ground and snow apply, but each step is carefully chosen so that the foot does not slide down when weighted. This is done by kicking in with the toe of the upper foot (similar to step-kicking in snow) so that a step is formed in the loose scree. After determining that the step is stable, weight is transferred to the upper leg, the soldier then steps up and repeats the process with the lower foot.
The best method for descending scree slopes is to come straight down the slope using a short shuffling step with the knees bent, back straight, feet pointed downhill, and heels dug in. When several climbers descend a scree slope together, they should be as close together as possible (one behind the other at single arm interval) to prevent injury from dislodged rocks. Avoid running down scree as this can cause a loss of control. When the bottom of the slope (or run out zone) cannot be seen, use caution because drop-offs may be encountered.
Scree slopes can be traversed using the ice ax as a third point of contact. Always keep the ax on the uphill side. When the herringbone or diagonal method is used to ascend scree, the ax can be used placing both hands on the top and driving the spike into the scree slope above the climber. The climber uses the ax for balance as he moves up to it, and then repeats the process.
Talus Slopes. Talus slopes are composed of rocks larger than a man’s fist. When walking in talus, ascending or descending, climbers should always step on the uphill side of rocks and stay alert for movement underfoot. Disturbing unstable talus can cause rockslides. Climbers must stay in close columns while walking through talus so that dislodged rocks do not reach dangerous speeds before reaching lower soldiers. To prevent rock fall injuries, avoid traversing below other climbers. All other basics of mountain walking apply.
The mountain walking techniques presented here are designed to reduce the hazards of rock fall and loss of control leading to a fall. Carelessness can cause the failure of the best-planned missions.
Whenever a rock is kicked loose, the warning, “Rock!” is shouted immediately. Personnel near the bottom of the cliff immediately lean into the cliff to reduce their exposure, and do not look up. Personnel more than 3 meters away from the bottom of the cliff may look up to determine where the rock is heading and seek cover behind an obstacle. Lacking cover, personnel should anticipate which way the rock is falling and move out of its path to the left or right.
If a soldier slips or stumbles on sloping terrain (hard ground, grass, snow, or scree) he must immediately self-arrest, digging into the slope with hands, elbows, knees and toes. If he falls backwards and rolls over he must immediately try to turn over onto his stomach with his legs downhill and self-arrest with hands and toes.
When traveling through steep terrain, soldiers should be trained in the use of the ice ax for self-arrest. The ax can be used to arrest a fall on solid ground, grass and scree as well as snow. It may also be used a third point of contact on difficult terrain. If not in use the ice ax is carried in or on the rucksack with its head down and secured.
—From Military Mountaineering (Field Manual 3-97.61)
U.S. Army
A steep rock face is a terrain feature that can be avoided most of the time through prior planning and good route selection.
Sometimes steep rock cannot be avoided. Climbing relatively short sections of steep rock (one or two pitches) may prove quicker and safer than using alternate routes.
A variety of refined techniques are used to climb different types of rock formations. The foundation for all of these styles is the art of climbing. Climbing technique stresses climbing with the weight centered over the feet, using the hands primarily for balance. It can be thought of as a combination of the balanced movement required to walk a tightrope and the technique used to ascend a ladder. No mountaineering equipment is required; however, the climbing technique is also used in roped climbing.
The experienced climber has learned to climb with the “eyes.” Even before getting on the rock, the climber studies all possible routes, or “lines,” to the top looking for cracks, ledges, nubbins, and other irregularities in the rock that will be used for footholds and handholds, taking note of any larger ledges or benches for resting places. When picking the line, he mentally climbs the route, rehearsing the step-by-step sequence of movements that will be required to do the climb, ensuring himself that the route has an adequate number of holds and the difficulty of the climb will be well within the limit of his ability.
Spotting is a technique used to add a level of safety to climbing without a rope. A second man stands below and just outside of the climbers fall path and helps (spots) the climber to land safely if he should fall. Spotting is only applicable if the climber is not going above the spotters head on the rock. Beyond that height a roped climbing should be conducted. If an individual climbs beyond the effective range of the spotter(s), he has climbed TOO HIGH for his own safety. The duties of the spotter are to help prevent the falling climber from impacting the head and or spine, help the climber land feet first, and reduce the impact of a fall.
Climbing involves linking together a series of movements based on foot and hand placement, weight shift, and movement. When this series of movements is combined correctly, a smooth climbing technique results. This technique reduces excess force on the limbs, helping to minimize fatigue. The basic principle is based on the five body parts described here.
Five Body Parts. The five body parts used for climbing are the right hand, left hand, right foot, left foot, and body (trunk). The basic principle to achieve smooth climbing is to move only one of the five body parts at a time. The trunk is not moved in conjunction with a foot or in conjunction with a hand, a hand is not moved in conjunction with a foot, and so on. Following this simple technique forces both legs to do all the lifting simultaneously.
Stance or Body Position. Body position is probably the single most important element to good technique. A relaxed, comfortable stance is essential. The body should be in a near vertical or erect stance with the weight centered over the feet. Leaning in towards the rock will cause the feet to push outward, away from the rock, resulting in a loss of friction between the boot sole and rock surface. The legs are straight and the heels are kept low to reduce fatigue. Bent legs and tense muscles tire quickly. If strained for too long, tense muscles may vibrate uncontrollably. This vibration, known as “Elvis-ing” or “sewing-machine leg” can be cured by straightening the leg, lowering the heel, or moving on to a more restful position. The hands are used to maintain balance. Keeping the hands between waist and shoulder level will reduce arm fatigue.
Whenever possible, three points of contact are maintained with the rock. Proper positioning of the hips and shoulders is critical. When using two footholds and one handhold, the hips and shoulders should be centered over both feet. In most cases, as the climbing progresses, the body is resting on one foot with two handholds for balance. The hips and shoulders must be centered over the support foot to maintain balance, allowing the “free” foot to maneuver.
The angle or steepness of the rock also determines how far away from the rock the hips and shoulders should be. On low-angle slopes, the hips are moved out away from the rock to keep the body in balance with the weight over the feet. The shoulders can be moved closer to the rock to reach handholds. On steep rock, the hips are pushed closer to the rock. The shoulders are moved away from the rock by arching the back. The body is still in balance over the feet and the eyes can see where the hands need to go. Sometimes, when footholds are small, the hips are moved back to increase friction between the foot and the rock. This is normally done on quick, intermediate holds. It should be avoided in the rest position as it places more weight on the arms and hands. When weight must be placed on handholds, the arms should be kept straight to reduce fatigue. Again, flexed muscles tire quickly:
Climbing Sequence. The steps defined below provide a complete sequence of events to move the entire body on the rock. These are the basic steps to follow for a smooth climbing technique. Performing these steps in this exact order will not always be necessary because the nature of the route will dictate the availability of hand and foot placements. The basic steps are weight, shift, and movement (movement being either the foot, hand, or body).
During this movement, the trunk should be completely balanced in position and the removed hand should have no effect no stability.
Now the entire body is in a new position and ready to start the process again. Following these steps will prevent lifting with the hands and arms, which are used to maintain stance and balance. If both legs are bent, leg extension can be performed as soon as one foot has been moved. Hand movements can be delayed until numerous foot movements have been made, which not only creates shorter lifts with the legs, but may allow a better choice for the next hand movements because the reach will have increased.
Many climbers will move more than one body part at a time, usually resulting in lifting the body with one leg or one leg and both arms. This type of lifting is inefficient, requiring one leg to perform the work of two or using the arms to lift the body. Proper climbing technique is lifting the body with the legs, not the arms, because the legs are much stronger.
When the angle of the rock increases, these movements become more critical. Holding or pulling the body into the rock with the arms and hands may be necessary as the angle increases (this is still not lifting with the arms). Many climbing routes have angles greater than ninety degrees (overhanging) and the arms are used to support partial body weight. The same technique applies even at those angles.
The climber should avoid moving on the knees and elbows. Other than being uncomfortable, even painful, to rest on, these bony portions of the limbs offer little friction and “feel” on the rock.
The following safety precautions should be observed when rock climbing.
When ascending a seldom or never traveled route, you may encounter precariously perched rocks. If the rock will endanger your second, it may be possible to remove it from the route and trundle it, tossing it down. This is extremely dangerous to climbers below and should not be attempted unless you are absolutely sure no men are below. If you are not sure that the flight path is clear, do not do it. Never dislodge loose rocks carelessly. Should a rock become loose accidentally, immediately shout the warning “ROCK” to alert climbers below. Upon hearing the warning, personnel should seek immediate cover behind any rock bulges or overhangs available, or flatten themselves against the rock to minimize exposure.
Should a climber fall, he should do his utmost to maintain control and not panic. If on a low-angle climb, he may be able to arrest his own fall by staying in contact with the rock, grasping for any possible hold available. He should shout the warning “FALLING” to alert personnel below.
When climbing close to the ground and without a rope, a spotter can be used to safety. The duties of the spotter are to ensure the falling climber does not impact the head or spine, and to reduce the impact of a fall.
Avoid climbing directly above or below other climbers (with the exception of spotters). When personnel must climb at the same time, following the same line, a fixed rope should be installed.
Avoid climbing with gloves on because of the decreased “feel” for the rock. The use of gloves in the training environment is especially discouraged, while their use in the mountains is often mandatory when it is cold. A thin polypropylene or wool glove is best for rock climbing, although heavier cotton or leather work gloves are often used for belaying.
Be extremely careful when climbing on wet or moss-covered rock; friction on holds is greatly reduced.
Avoid grasping small vegetation for handholds; the root systems can be shallow and will usually not support much weight.
Besides observing the standard safety precautions, the climber can avoid catastrophe by climbing with a wide margin of safety. The margin of safety is a protective buffer the climber places between himself and potential climbing hazards. Both subjective (personnel-related) and objective (environmental) hazards must be considered when applying the margin of safety….
When climbing, the climber increases his margin of safety by selecting routes that are well within the limit of his ability. When leading a group of climbers, he selects a route well within the ability of the weakest member.
When the rock is wet, or when climbing in other adverse weather conditions, the climber’s ability is reduced and routes are selected accordingly. When the climbing becomes difficult or exposed, the climber knows to use the protection of the climbing rope and belays. A lead climber increases his margin of safety by placing protection along the route to limit the length of a potential fall.
The climber should check each hold before use. This may simply be a quick, visual inspection if he knows the rock to be solid. When in doubt, he should grab and tug on the hold to test it for soundness BEFORE depending on it. Sometimes, a hold that appears weak can actually be solid as long as minimal force is applied to it, or the force is applied in a direction that strengthens it. A loose nubbin might not be strong enough to support the climber’s weight, but it may serve as an adequate handhold. Be especially careful when climbing on weathered, sedimentary-type rock.
“Climb with the feet and use the hands for balance” is extremely important to remember. In the early learning stages of climbing, most individuals will rely heavily on the arms, forgetting to use the feet properly. It is true that solid handholds and a firm grip are needed in some combination techniques; however, even the most strenuous techniques require good footwork and a quick return to a balanced position over one or both feet. Failure to climb any route, easy or difficult, is usually the result of poor footwork.
The beginning climber will have a natural tendency to look up for handholds. Try to keep the hands low and train your eyes to look down for footholds. Even the smallest irregularity in the rock can support the climber once the foot is positioned properly and weight is committed to it.
The foot remains on the rock as a result of friction. Maximum friction is obtained from a correct stance over a properly positioned foot. The following describes a few ways the foot can be positioned on the rock to maximize friction.
Maximum Sole Contact. The principle of using full sole contact, as in mountain walking, also applies in climbing. Maximum friction is obtained by placing as much of the boot sole on the rock as possible. Also, the leg muscles can relax the most when the entire foot is placed on the rock.
Smooth, low-angled rock (slab) and rock containing large “bucket” holds and ledges are typical formations where the entire boot sole should be used.
On some large holds, like bucket holds that extend deep into the rock, the entire foot cannot be used. The climber may not be able to achieve a balanced position if the foot is stuck too far underneath a bulge in the rock. In this case, placing only part of the foot on the hold may allow the climber to achieve a balanced stance. The key is to use as much of the boot sole as possible. Remember to keep the heels low to reduce strain on the lower leg muscles.
Edging. The edging technique is used where horizontal crack systems and other irregularities in the rock form small, well-defined ledges. The edge of the boot sole is placed on the ledge for the foothold. Usually, the inside edge of the boot or the edge area around the toes is used. Whenever possible, turn the foot sideways and use the entire inside edge of the boot. Again, more sole contact equals more friction and the legs can rest more when the heel is on the rock.
On smaller holds, edging with the front of the boot, or toe, may be used. Use of the toe is most tiring because the heel is off the rock and the toes support the climber’s weight. Remember to keep the heel low to reduce fatigue. Curling and stiffening the toes in the boot increases support on the hold. A stronger position is usually obtained on small ledges by turning the foot at about a 45-degree angle, using the strength of the big toe and the ball of the foot.
Effective edging on small ledges requires stiff-soled footwear. The stiffer the sole, the better the edging capability….
Smearing. When footholds are too small to use a good edging technique, the ball of the foot can be “smeared” over the hold. The smearing technique requires the boot to adhere to the rock by deformation of the sole and by friction. Rock climbing shoes are specifically designed to maximize friction for smearing; some athletic shoes also work well. … Rounded, down-sloping ledges and low-angled slab rock often require good smearing technique.
Effective smearing requires maximum friction between the foot and the rock. Cover as much of the hold as possible with the ball of the foot. Keeping the heel low will not only reduce muscle strain, but will increase the amount of surface contact between the foot and the rock.
Sometimes flexing the ankles and knees slightly will place the climber’s weight more directly over the ball of the foot and increase friction; however, this is more tiring and should only be used for quick, intermediate holds. The leg should be kept straight whenever possible.
Jamming. The jamming technique works on the same principal as chock placement. The foot is set into a crack in such a way that it “jams” into place, resisting a downward pull. The jamming technique is a specialized skill used to climb vertical or near vertical cracks when no other holds are available on the rock face. The technique is not limited to just wedging the feet; fingers, hands, arms, even the entire leg or body are all used in the jamming technique, depending on the size of the crack. Jam holds are described in this text to broaden the range of climbing skills. Jamming holds can be used in a crack while other hand/foot holds are used on the face of the rock. Many cracks will have facial features, such as edges, pockets, and so on, inside and within reach. Always look or feel for easier to use features.
The foot can be jammed in a crack in different ways. It can be inserted above a constriction and set into the narrow portion, or it can be placed in the crack and turned, like a camming device, until it locks in place tight enough to support the climber’s weight. Aside from these two basic ideas, the possibilities are endless. The toes, ball of the foot, or the entire foot can be used. Try to use as much of the foot as possible for maximum surface contact. Some positions are more tiring, and even more painful on the foot, than others. Practice jamming the foot in various ways to see what offers the most secure, restful position.
Some foot jams may be difficult to remove once weight has been committed to them, especially if a stiffer sole boot is used. The foot is less likely to get stuck when it is twisted or “cammed” into position. When removing the boot from a crack, reverse the way it was placed to prevent further constriction.
The hands can be placed on the rock in many ways. Exactly how and where to position the hands and arms depends on what holds are available, and what configuration will best support the current stance as well as the movement to the next stance. Selecting handholds between waist and shoulder level helps in different ways. Circulation in the arms and hands is best when the arms are kept low. Secondly, the climber has less tendency to “hang” on his arms when the handholds are at shoulder level and below. Both of these contribute to a relaxed stance and reduce fatigue in the hands and arms.
As the individual climbs, he continually repositions his hands and arms to keep the body in balance, with the weight centered over the feet. On lower-angled rock, he may simply need to place the hands up against the rock and extend the arm to maintain balance; just like using an ice ax as a third point of contact in mountain walking. Sometimes, he will be able to push directly down on a large hold with the palm of the hand. More often through, he will need to “grip” the rock in some fashion and then push or pull against the hold to maintain balance.
As stated earlier, the beginner will undoubtedly place too much weight on the hands and arms. If we think of ourselves climbing a ladder, our body weight is on our legs. Our hands grip, and our arms pull on each rung only enough to maintain our balance and footing on the ladder. Ideally, this is the amount of grip and pull that should be used in climbing. Of course, as the size and availability of holds decreases, and the steepness of the rock approaches the vertical, the grip must be stronger and more weight might be placed on the arms and handholds for brief moments. The key is to move quickly from the smaller, intermediate holds to the larger holds where the weight can be placed back on the feet allowing the hands and arms to relax. The following describes some of the basic handholds and how the hand can be positioned to maximize grip on smaller holds.
Push Holds. Push holds rely on the friction created when the hand is pushed against the rock. Most often a climber will use a push hold by applying “downward pressure” on a ledge or nubbin. This is fine, and works well; however, the climber should not limit his use of push holds to the application of down pressure. Pushing sideways, and on occasion, even upward on less obvious holds can prove quite secure. Push holds often work best when used in combination with other holds. Pushing in opposite directions and “push-pull” combinations are excellent techniques.
An effective push hold does not necessarily require the use of the entire hand. On smaller holds, the side of the palm, the fingers, or the thumb may be all that is needed to support the stance. Some holds may not feel secure when the hand is initially placed on them. The hold may improve or weaken during the movement. The key is to try and select a hold that will improve as the climber moves past it.
Most push holds do not require much grip; however, friction might be increased by taking advantage of any rough surfaces or irregularities in the rock. Sometimes the strength of the hold can be increased by squeezing, or “pinching,” the rock between the thumb and fingers (see paragraph on pinch holds).
Pull Holds. Pull holds, also called “cling holds,” which are grasped and pulled upon, are probably the most widely used holds in climbing. Grip plays more of a role in a pull hold, and, therefore, it normally feels more secure to the climber than a push hold. Because of this increased feeling of security, pull holds are often overworked. These are the holds the climber has a tendency to hang from. Most pull holds do not require great strength, just good technique. Avoid the “death grip” syndrome by climbing with the feet.
Like push holds, pressure on a pull hold can be applied straight down, sideways, or upward. Again, these are the holds the climber tends to stretch and reach for, creating an unbalanced stance. Remember to try and keep the hands between waist and shoulder level, making use of intermediate holds instead of reaching for those above the head.
Pulling sideways on vertical cracks can be very secure. There is less tendency to hang from “side-clings” and the hands naturally remain lower. The thumb can often push against one side of the crack, in opposition to the pull by the fingers, creating a stronger hold. Both hands can also be placed in the same crack, with the hands pulling in opposite directions. The number of possible combinations is limited only by the imagination and experience of the climber.
Friction and strength of a pull hold can be increased by the way the hand grips the rock. Normally, the grip is stronger when the fingers are closed together; however, sometimes more friction is obtained by spreading the fingers apart and placing them between irregularities on the rock surface. On small holds, grip can often be improved by bending the fingers upward, forcing the palm of the hand to push against the rock. This helps to hold the finger tips in place and reduces muscle strain in the hand. Keeping the forearm up against the rock also allows the arm and hand muscles to relax more.
Another technique that helps to strengthen a cling hold for a downward pull is to press the thumb against the side of the index finger, or place it on top of the index finger and press down. This hand configuration, known as a “ring grip,” works well on smaller holds.
Pinch Holds. Sometimes a small nubbin or protrusion in the rock can be “squeezed” between the thumb and fingers. This technique is called a pinch hold. Friction is applied by increasing the grip on the rock. Pinch holds are often overlooked by the novice climber because they feel insecure at first and cannot be relied upon to support much body weight. If the climber has his weight over his feet properly, the pinch hold will work well in providing balance. The pinch hold can also be used as a gripping technique for push holds and pull holds.
Jam Holds. Like foot jams, the fingers and hands can be wedged or cammed into a crack so they resist a downward or outward pull. Jamming with the fingers and hands can be painful and may cause minor cuts and abrasions to tender skin. Cotton tape can be used to protect the fingertips, knuckles, and the back of the hand; however, prolonged jamming technique requiring hand taping should be avoided. Tape also adds friction to the hand in jammed position.
The hand can be placed in a crack a number of ways. Sometimes an open hand can be inserted and wedged into a narrower portion of the crack. Other times a clenched fist will provide the necessary grip. Friction can be created by applying cross pressure between the fingers and the back of the hand. Another technique for vertical cracks is to place the hand in the crack with the thumb pointed either up or down. The hand is then clenched as much as possible. When the arm is straightened, it will twist the hand and tend to cam it into place. This combination of clenching and camming usually produces the most friction, and the most secure hand jam in vertical cracks.
In smaller cracks, only the fingers will fit. Use as many fingers as the crack will allow. The fingers can sometimes be stacked in some configuration to increase friction. The thumb is usually kept outside the crack in finger jams and pressed against the rock to increase friction or create cross pressure. In vertical cracks it is best to insert the fingers with the thumb pointing down to make use of the natural camming action of the fingers that occurs when the arm is twisted towards a normal position.
Jamming technique for large cracks, or “off widths,” requiring the use of arm, leg, and body jams, is another technique. To jam or cam an arm, leg, or body into an off width, the principle is the same as for fingers, hands, or feet—you are making the jammed appendage “fatter” by folding or twisting it inside the crack. For off widths, you may place your entire arm inside the crack with the arm folded and the palm pointing outward. The leg can be used, from the calf to the thigh, and flexed to fit the crack. Routes requiring this type of climbing should be avoided as the equipment normally used for protection might not be large enough to protect larger cracks and openings. However, sometimes a narrower section may be deeper in the crack allowing the use of “normal” size protection.
The positions and holds previously discussed are the basics and the ones most common to climbing. From these fundamentals, numerous combination techniques are possible. As the climber gains experience, he will learn more ways to position the hands, feet, and body in relation to the holds available; however, he should always strive to climb with his weight on his feet from a balanced stance.
Sometimes, even on an easy route, the climber may come upon a section of the rock that defies the basic principles of climbing. Short of turning back, the only alternative is to figure out some combination technique that will work. Many of these type problems require the hands and feet to work in opposition to one another. Most will place more weight on the hands and arms than is desirable, and some will put the climber in an “out of balance” position. To make the move, the climber may have to “break the rules” momentarily. This is not a problem and is done quite frequently by experienced climbers. The key to using these type of combination techniques is to plan and execute them deliberately, without lunging or groping for holds, yet quickly, before the hands, arms, or other body parts tire. Still, most of these maneuvers require good technique more than great strength, though a certain degree of hand and arm strength certainly helps.
Combination possibilities are endless. The following is a brief description of some of the more common techniques.
Change Step. The change step, or hop step, can be used when the climber needs to change position of the feet. It is commonly used when traversing to avoid crossing the feet, which might put the climber in an awkward position. To prevent an off balance situation, two solid handholds should be used. The climber simply places his weight on his handholds while he repositions the feet. He often does this with a quick “hop,” replacing the lead foot with the trail foot on the same hold. Keeping the forearms against the rock during the maneuver takes some of the strain off the hands, while at the same time strengthening the grip on the holds.
Mantling. Mantling is a technique that can be used when the distance between the holds increases and there are no immediate places to move the hands or feet. It does require a ledge (mantle) or projection in the rock that the climber can press straight down upon.
When the ledge is above head height, mantling begins with pull holds, usually “hooking” both hands over the ledge. The climber pulls himself up until his head is above the hands, where the pull holds become push holds. He elevates himself until the arms are straight and he can lock the elbows to relax the muscles. Rotating the hands inward during the transition to push holds helps to place the palms more securely on the ledge. Once the arms are locked, a foot can be raised and placed on the ledge. The climber may have to remove one hand to make room for the foot. Mantling can be fairly strenuous; however, most individuals should be able to support their weight, momentarily, on one arm if they keep it straight and locked. With the foot on the ledge, weight can be taken off the arms and the climber can grasp the holds that were previously out of reach. Once balanced over the foot, he can stand up on the ledge and plan his next move.
Pure mantling uses arm strength to raise the body; however, the climber can often smear the balls of the feet against the rock and “walk” the feet up during the maneuver to take some of the weight off the arms. Sometimes edges will be available for short steps in the process.
Undercling. An “undercling” is a classic example of handholds and footholds working in opposition. It is commonly used in places where the rock projects outward, forming a bulge or small overhang. Underclings can be used in the tops of buckets, also. The hands are placed “palms-up” underneath the bulge, applying an upward pull. Increasing this upward pull creates a counterforce, or body tension, which applies more weight and friction to the footholds. The arms and legs should be kept as straight as possible to reduce fatigue. The climber can often lean back slightly in the undercling position, enabling him to see above the overhang better and search for the next hold.
Lieback. The “lieback” is another good example of the hands working in opposition to the feet. The technique is often used in a vertical or diagonal crack separating two rock faces that come together at, more or less, a right angle (commonly referred to as a dihedral). The crack edge closest to the body is used for handholds while the feet are pressed against the other edge. The climber bends at the waist, putting the body into an L-shaped position. Leaning away from the crack on two pull holds, body tension creates friction between the feet and the hands. The feet must be kept relatively high to maintain weight, creating maximum friction between the sole and the rock surface. Either full sole contact or the smearing technique can be used, whichever seems to produce the most friction.
The climber ascends a dihedral by alternately shuffling the hands and feet upward. The lieback technique can be extremely tiring, especially when the dihedral is near vertical. If the hands and arms tire out before completing the sequence, the climber will likely fall. The arms should be kept straight throughout the entire maneuver so the climber’s weight is pulling against bones and ligaments, rather than muscle. The legs should be straightened whenever possible.
Placing protection in a lieback is especially tiring. Look for edges or pockets for the feet in the crack or on the face for a better position to place protection from, or for a rest position. Often, a lieback can be avoided with closer examination of the available face features. The lieback can be used alternately with the jamming technique, or vice versa, for variation or to get past a section of crack with difficult or nonexistent jam possibilities. The lieback can sometimes be used as a face maneuver.
Stemming. When the feet work in opposition from a relatively wide stance, the maneuver is known as stemming. The stemming technique can sometimes be used on faces, as well as in a dihedral in the absence of solid handholds for the lieback.
The classic example of stemming is when used in combination with two opposing push holds in wide, parallel cracks, known as chimneys. Chimneys are cracks in which the walls are at least 1 foot apart and just big enough to squeeze the body into. Friction is created by pushing outward with the hands and feet on each side of the crack. The climber ascends the chimney by alternately moving the hands and feet up the crack. Applying pressure with the back and bottom is usually necessary in wider chimneys. Usually, full sole contact of the shoes will provide the most friction, although smearing may work best in some instances. Chimneys that do not allow a full stemming position can be negotiated using the arms, legs, or body as an integral contact point. This technique will often feel more secure since there is more body to rock contact.
The climber can sometimes rest by placing both feet on the same side of the crack, forcing the body against the opposing wall. The feet must be kept relatively high up under the body so the force is directed sideways against the walls of the crack. The arms should be straightened with the elbows locked whenever possible to reduce muscle strain. The climber must ensure that the crack does not widen beyond the climbable width before committing to the maneuver. Remember to look for face features inside chimneys for more security in the climb.
Routes requiring this type of climbing should be avoided as the equipment normally used for protection might not be large enough to protect chimneys. However, face features, or a much narrower crack in one or both corners, may sometimes be found deeper in the chimney allowing the use of normal size protection.
Slab Technique. A slab is a relatively smooth, low-angled rock formation that requires a slightly modified climbing technique. Since slab rock normally contains few, if any holds, the technique requires maximum friction and perfect balance over the feet.
On lower-angled slab, the climber can often stand erect and climb using full sole contact and other mountain walking techniques. On steeper slab, the climber will need to apply good smearing technique. Often, maximum friction cannot be attained on steeper slab from an erect stance. The climber will have to flex the ankles and knees so his weight is placed more directly over the balls of the feet. He may then have to bend at the waist to place the hands on the rock, while keeping the hips over his feet.
The climber must pay attention to any changes in slope angle and adjust his body accordingly. Even the slightest change in the position of the hips over the feet can mean the difference between a good grip or a quick slip. The climber should also take advantage of any rough surfaces, or other irregularities in the rock he can place his hands or feet on, to increase friction.
Down Climbing. Descending steep rock is normally performed using a roped method; however, the climber may at some point be required to down climb a route. Even if climbing ropes and related equipment are on hand, down climbing easier terrain is often quicker than taking the time to rig a rappel point. Also, a climber might find himself confronted with difficulties part way up a route that exceed his climbing ability, or the abilities of others to follow. Whatever the case may be, climbing is a skill well worth practicing.
On easier terrain, the climber can face outward, away from the rock, enabling him to see the route better and descend quickly. As the steepness and difficulty increase, he can often turn sideways, still having a good view of the descent route, but being better able to use the hands and feet on the holds available. On the steepest terrain, the climber will have to face the rock and down climb using good climbing techniques.
Down climbing is usually more difficult than ascending a given route. Some holds will be less visible when down climbing, and slips are more likely to occur. The climber must often lean well away from the rock to look for holds and plan his movements. More weight is placed on the arms and handholds at times to accomplish this, as well as to help lower the climber to the next foothold. Hands should be moved to holds as low as waist level to give the climber more range of movement with each step. If the handholds are too high, he may have trouble reaching the next foothold. The climber must be careful not to overextend himself, forcing a release of his handholds before reaching the next foothold.
Descending slab formations can be especially tricky. The generally lower angle of slab rock may give the climber a false sense of security, and a tendency to move too quickly. Down climbing must be slow and deliberate, as in ascending, to maintain perfect balance and weight distribution over the feet. On lower-angle slab the climber may be able to stand more or less erect, facing outward or sideways, and descend using good flat foot technique. The climber should avoid the tendency to move faster, which can lead to uncontrollable speed.
On steeper slab, the climber will normally face the rock and down climb, using the same smearing technique as for ascending. An alternate method for descending slab is to face away from the rock in a “crab” position. Weight is still concentrated over the feet, but may be shifted partly onto the hands to increase overall friction. The climber is able to maintain full sole contact with the rock and see the entire descent route. Allowing the buttocks to “drag behind” on the rock will decrease the actual weight on the footholds, reducing friction, and leading to the likelihood of a slip. Facing the rock, and down-climbing with good smearing technique, is usually best on steeper slab.
—From Military Mountaineering (Field Manual 3-97.61)
Bobbi Bensman
Photographs by Jim Surette
[Editor’s note: Bouldering is the sport of rock climbing on large boulders or low cliffs.]
Crimping. This is the basic way boulderers grab the rock. To crimp, take a hold with your fingers close together and bent at the first knuckle. It’s a simple but effective technique that will let you hang on to some of the worst holds on the planet—incut flakes, microthin edges, even near slopers. Sometimes you can even find a groove or a little nubbin on a sloper that you hold onto by crimping.
You’ll hold on better if you can get as many of your fingers on the hold as possible. Wrap your thumb over your index finger for a firmer grip. This also distributes the weight more evenly and places less stress on the other finger joints. The pinky will want to come off the rock when you crimp; at least it always does for me. It’s important to keep as many fingers as you can on that crimp.
The crimp is an essential grip, but it requires a lot of arm and hand strength to use it effectively. Crimping also stresses the tiny tendons in the hand, putting them at great risk of injury. Crimping properly reduces your chances of getting hurt.
Crimping.
Pinch Grip. The pinch grip is a favorite of mine; I use it all the time. It’s used when the only way to grip a hold is to pinch or squeeze it with your fingers or hands. To pinch properly, place four fingers on one side of the hold and the thumb on the other side—then squeeze as hard as you can. Like crimping, pinching requires strength that takes time to develop. Pinching sounds simple, but it does require practice to master and use effectively. Once you can do it right, you’ll use pinching all the time. Pinch-gripping is a good way to protect an injured tendon; it’s easier on the tendons than crimping and pocket pulling are.
Pinch grip.
Open-handed Grip. The open-handed grip is less stressful than the pinch grip, since it spreads the weight over more of the skeletal system of the hand. Open-handed grips can be completely open—with the fingers held straight, the fingertips not gripping anything at all—to near pinch grips. Open grips work great when the holds are giant, rounded, and slopey. Using a completely open grip is known as palming; the hand is flat and the entire palm is placed directly on the rock. Palming works because of the friction between the rock and the skin of the palm. Moving the hand even a little breaks the friction, and the hand starts to slide—so don’t move it.
Open-handed grip.
A side note: When you’re concentrating on your grip, don’t become so focused that you forget to keep your torso strong and tucked in. The grip will be more effective if you keep up your energy from the sternum to just below the hips. When I climb, I think of that part of my body as a steel cable and try to keep it tight, especially when I take open-handed grips and pinches. Even with your feet on big, comfortable jugs, you need body tension to hold you in. The more powerful your abdominal area is, the easier it will be to keep yourself on the rock . . . Good grips and tension in the torso will bring you much bouldering success. I promise.
There are two basic ways the boulderer can move over vertical space: static motion and dynamic motion. Beginning boulderers tend to move statically almost all the time. The body freezes, a hand or foot moves to another hold, the body moves, locks off, then the hand or foot reaches again, and so on. Beginners usually concentrate on maintaining three points of contact with the rock while moving the fourth point, which is very deliberate and controlled and feels relatively safe. Experienced boulderers, too, fall back on using three-point contact climbing—especially when they are gripped out of their gourds—because it enables them to down-climb from a perilous position to safety, which is almost impossible to do using dynamic moves.
After beginners start to feel comfortable, they’ll appreciate how dramatically dynamic movement can extend their range. “Dynos” are a way to reach holds that seem to be just beyond the climber’s grasp. To do a dyno, the climber sinks slightly, then pushes off with the legs and whichever hand has the current hold, before reaching for the new hold with the other hand. The dyno’s energy comes from the strength of the leg muscles.
You simply have to master dynamic movement to be a good boulderer (I admit it: dynos are one of my longtime weaknesses). Dynos are the only way to reach handholds that are far apart—beyond the reach of the climber who’s trying to maintain three points of contact. They also can get you out of sticky situations: Let’s say you just can’t hold a locked-off position and at the same time reach up and feel for the next hold. And to make things worse, your present hold is shaky and you’re starting to lose it. You spot a killer jug a few feet above you. It’s definitely farther than you can reach, so you use momentum, jump up, and snag it! That’s a dyno—an all-or-nothing move, a belief move. If you miss it, you hit the crash pad (but hey, life goes on).
Women sometimes shy away from doing dynamic moves. I’ve heard many say they’re afraid because they feel they are too short. But it’s shorter climbers—men and women—who can benefit the most from dynamic movement. It definitely should be a part of every climber’s repertoire.
Dynos are also the key to making a big move from a solid hold. Say you have one supersolid hold and the next one is four feet above you and there’s nothing but smooth rock in between. The only way to reach the hold is to do a gigantic jump: You need to make a dyno. A big part of doing dynos properly is sensing the best time to throw your hand up and snag the hold. You’ll get the most height gain if you grab the hold at the absolute peak of the jump, the instant before you change direction, which is known as the “dead point.” Just before gravity starts to pull you back down, latch the hold. It takes lots of practice to be able to sense the dead point. Believe in yourself; you can do it.
There are different types of dynos. The one described above is a single-handed dyno. A double dyno is when you lunge upward and reach with both hands—all four of your limbs come off the wall at once. A well-done double dyno is an unbelievable move. You are airborne, moving upward, and at the very top of the flight, just before you start to drop down to the earth, you snag the hold with both hands.
The key to a good dyno is to get your feet in the proper position before you start your lunge. You want a firm, predictable push from the rock, so you need a solid base. It’s important to experiment with foot placement. Sometimes you’ll want your feet placed on lower holds, sometimes on higher ones. Don’t fall prey to tunnel vision and look for the same type of foothold every time you set up for a dyno. Be creative and try everything. Every dynamic situation is different, and your footholds will need to be, too.
Indoor climbing gyms are great places to practice dynos. You can make up your own lunges and try them again and again until they’re perfect. Start slow and build up your confidence and skills with smaller moves until you feel ready to try bigger lunges. I kid you not, once you get hooked on bouldering, you’ll find that many of the world’s greatest problems require lunges.
A dyno is a dramatic move that will improve your climbing skills enormously once you master it. But doing a dyno isn’t always the best choice. You must carefully assess the risks involved to help you decide whether to dyno or not. If the only consequence of failure is a short drop on to a crash pad, you’ll probably conclude that you have nothing to lose and go for it. On the other hand, if you are bouldering high above sharp, hard rocks, you might decide that the best choice is to not dyno and statically down-climb your way to safety.
The dead point (not the same dead point mentioned before) is a mini-dyno. In a true dyno, one or both feet come off the wall or rock. Usually in a dead point, the holds you are moving off of are poor and the hold you are moving to is just within reach, but you have to thrutch a bit in a dynamic manner to get there. When you dead point, your feet stay on the rock, but you’re really using a dynamic motion to get to the next hold.
Good boulderers can dyno to and from a variety of grips—pinch grips, crimps, open-handed grips—and from laybacks and underclings (described on pages 275 and 276). Versatility is an important part of the sport.
The cross-through move is the basic way boulderers move across the rock. Boulderers traverse—move vertically across the face of the rock—a lot more than conventional rock climbers do. In fact, sideways movement dominates some boulder problems. To cross-through, you grab a handhold with the hand farthest away from the hold—if you’re moving to the right, you reach with your left hand, which puts your body in the correct position for the next move; it’s really a set-up for the next sequence.
To imagine a climber moving across the rock using cross-through moves, picture six handholds between points A and B, going from left to right. One way the climber could tackle the sequence is to start with both hands matched on the first hold, move the right hand to hold #2, then the left to hold #2, then move the right hand to hold #3, then the left to hold #3, and so on all the way to hold #6. This adds up to ten hand movements—not the most efficient path.
But if the climber starts with both hands matched on hold #1, moves the right hand to #2, then crosses the left hand over to #3, the right hand over to #4, crosses the left hand over to hold #5, and ends with the right hand on #6, she’s completed the sequence in only five hand movements. This efficient movement makes a big difference: five hand movements are way less fatiguing than ten.
Crossing through is a “hip” thing—each time you cross through you must keep your hip as close to the wall as possible. For example, reach far with your left arm across your body, keeping your left hip close to the wall, left foot in a backstep position. As soon as you gain the left hold, pivot your body to the exact opposite position. You don’t want to “barn door” away from the wall, so once the hold is gained, be ready to find a hold for the back-stepping right foot and then roll the shoulders through. Voila! To me, a well-done cross-through move feels very much like telemark skiing: pretty and precise, with no wasted energy.
The one-arm lock-off stabilizes one handhold while freeing the other hand to make a static movement. Say you have a hold with each hand. With the hand you want to lock off, pull down hard and far. Keep your body as close to the rock as possible, so your locked-off hand is close to and at the same height as your shoulder. You’re now in a better position to move than if you were half bent. Also, keeping the locked-off hand close to the shoulder takes advantage of your upper back muscles, which are stronger than your arm muscles.
One-arm lock-off.
Sometimes doing a lock-off and moving statically is more energy-efficient than throwing a dyno. Climbers who shy away from dynos are usually lock-off masters, and vice versa, but it’s best to be great at both, so work to master the technique that’s weaker.
You have a solid right handhold and a good potential handhold (#1) in the distance. You decide it’s best to reach for #1 with your left hand so you’ll be in the proper position for the next sequence. Then you notice an intermediate handhold (#2) a teeny bit lower than the first one you saw. You see that #2 can help you gain #1, so in one smooth, quick, continuous motion you snag #2 with your left hand and then use your momentum to gain #1 with the same hand. That’s the quick double-hand move called bumping, which seems like a real ‘90s fad, but is actually something boulderers have done for a long time.
The Gaston is a move that helps you make use of even the tiniest holds the rock might offer, especially vertical handholds, or flakes. To picture how you do a Gaston, imagine you have a five-inch-long vertical handhold. To make use of it you must place all of your fingers on it and push it away from your body in the direction of the next hold. Sometimes, if the hold is tiny, you can only get bits of your fingers on it. I use the Gaston a lot, even though it’s a strenuous move that really puts my arm and shoulder muscles to work.
(Why’s it called a Gaston? It’s named after Frenchman Gaston Rebuffat, a climber, author, and film maker who was a pioneer of many modern climbing techniques.)
All boulderers depend on laybacking, especially when they’re faced with sloping or vertical holds. It’s tiring but energy efficient—a fundamental move all good boulderers have to master. I think of laybacking as kind of like climbing a palm tree, if you can imagine that. To layback properly, grab the lip of a crack, then bring your feet up and push straight into the rock. Pull with your arms and push with your feet to create opposing pressure against opposite sides of a crack. You need to find a comfortable middle position for your feet: too high and your arms won’t be able to hold, too low and your feet will slip out. Move one limb at a time. Don’t try big moves during a layback. Shuffle.
Laybacking.
Underclinging is how you take an upside-down hold, one that faces the earth. Grab it with your palms facing skyward, fingers on one side, thumb on the other. You can undercling an edge, crimp, or sloper, but to do it effectively you’ll need strong arm muscles. You’ll know instantly if a climber does a lot of under-clinging: they’ll have bulging biceps.
Like in laybacking, the feet play an important role in underclinging. You want good footholds that offer a firm foundation. When you undercling, the less there is to stand on, the higher your feet need to be—this enables you to get more weight on your feet. To practice moving sideways on an undercling, shuffle one hand and one foot at a time.
MANTELING
Boulderers seem to forget that the fundamental move of manteling can often come in handy, especially when they find themselves on a severely sloping ramp or shelf—no edge, no grip, no nothing in sight—just below the top of a problem. You’re up high, you’ve come far, you’ve got one more move to make; how do you finish?
You gotta mantel. Place both hands flat on the rock, wrists out, fingers pointing in. Pull yourself up so your chest is even with the top of the boulder, then lock off with one arm and place the heel of the other hand on the ledge, fingertips pointing inward toward the other hand. Cock the elbow of the arm not locked off up into a vertical position, as though you were going to support your weight with that arm. Do the same with the other arm—both elbows are now pointing to the sky. Push down until both arms are straight, then bring one foot up to support your weight. Press up to a standing position—staying balanced—and you’ve done it.
You can mantel nice edges, too, and you don’t have to mantel with both arms. If one hand is on a solid crimp and the other is on a nice edge that’s a little too low to help you reach the next hold, turn your fingers inward and mantel the hold.
The figure-four reach is not real common, but it can be effective in certain situations. It’s a wild, long static move that can get you up as high as a dyno can. Say you have both hands on a jug and you want to get your left hand on a hold that’s fairly far away. Lift the left foot and thread it between your hands, putting the foot then the leg over your right wrist; turn and twist until your crotch is resting on your right wrist. Now pull yourself into an upright position—the handhold that seemed so distant is now reachable.
The figure-four requires you to pull hard, so you definitely need to start with as friendly a hold as you can find. Even so, sharp edges cutting into your skin is a price you might have to pay to make the move. If you do it, beware of any sudden wrist pain; the figure-four puts tons of stress there.
FOOTWORK
Footwork is often overlooked, but it’s absolutely critical in bouldering. Some people think bouldering is strictly an upper-body sport. They’re wrong. Masterful footwork and smart body positioning can make up for a lack of upper-body strength and allow climbers to do some amazing things on the rock. You don’t have to be a superstar or a honed mama to be a great boulderer. Of course, it does help to have it all. But—for crying out loud—who does have it all?
Good footwork takes time to develop. Too often boulderers just slap their feet on the rock and then shuffle around looking for a solid hold. When they do this, they usually find the worst one. To learn good footwork, boulderers have to improve what I call their “eye-to-foot coordination.” Here’s how: Make sure you always place your feet on the best part of every foothold. Watch yourself do it. Take your time. Consciously look for and use the best part of each and every foothold. On real and artificial holds, look for tiny pits or slopes.
It’s important to think “feet first.” Establishing solid foot placements before making a move helps take pressure off the upper body. Flow up the rock like a stream of water, moving along the path of least resistance. Take advantage of everything you can. Let your lower body carry the weight whenever possible; leg muscles, especially the quads, are always stronger than biceps or pecs, no matter how many push-ups you do.
Smearing. Smearing is the footwork technique beginners are most familiar with. To smear, you put as much footsole rubber on the rock as possible to create friction that allows you to grip. Smooth slopes without edges require you to smear like crazy. To do it properly, place your foot on the part of the rock that slopes the least. Spread your weight solidly and evenly over the entire sole of your foot. If you push hard enough and keep your torso tense, you can get a good hold even on overhangs and vertical rock.
Smearing.
Smearing is a belief move—you have to trust your technique. Sometimes your feet will sketch right off the rock and you’ll be outta there. Experiment to build confidence. Also, try different kinds of boots with sticky rubber. Boots with soft or no mid-soles work best—slip last boots instead of board last boots.
Edging. Another basic foot technique is edging—butting the edge of your boot onto a mini rock ledge. Although you’ll usually edge with the inside part of your foot, an inch or two from the toe, you can use all of the edges of your sticky rubber sole or rand. Carefully place the inside edge of your boot on even the smallest of features—you’ll be surprised at how easily you can stand on them.
Edging.
You’ll use smearing and edging on steep rock, but you’ll also need to use some fancier footwork.
Backstepping. Backstepping, long popular in France, is an effective way to extend your vertical reach. It involves butting the outside edge of your boot into nubbins or vertical edges while keeping your hip as close to the wall as possible. If you’re reaching up with your hip against the wall, you’ll get a lot more extension than if you face the wall straight on. Try it, you’ll see.
So often climbers focus on using only the inside edges of their boots, which always puts their body in a straight-on position. Backstepping adds variety to the climber’s repertoire, but, to be honest, it’s not always efficient, especially if the next handhold is far away.
In a straight-arm position, the climber will have to do one heck of a lock-off to gain that hold, which uses up a lot of energy. Try backstepping and using straight arms and rolling your hips to gain that hold instead.
Drop-Knee. A more intense version of the backstep—to do a drop-knee, put your foot on a vertical edge and then pivot, moving the inside part of your knee away from the rock, far enough so that your hip is against the wall and your knee is facing earthward. The drop-knee is especially useful on overhanging rock to hold your body into the wall and give you height.
Foot Dynos. When you’re struggling with one strong foothold and two precarious handholds, maybe a pinch grip and a two-finger thin pocket undercling, your next best move might be to throw a foot up into the next hold: a foot dyno.
Step-Throughs. Crossing through with your feet (a step-through) just like you cross through with your hands is a great technique for traverses. I know its’ tempting to match on every hold of a traverse, but step-throughs allow you to eliminate moves and save your energy. Efficiency is the name of the game. (You’ll also look good doing it.)
Heel-Hooking. Heel-hooking—using your foot as a kind of third hand or claw—is another great technique for traverses. To heel-hook, raise your foot over your head and hook the heel of your boot over or behind any feature that looks like it will hold your weight. (Your hamstrings have to be well stretched to try this move.) Heel-hooking takes weight off your upper body, letting you cop a quick rest on the rock.
Heel-hooking.
Remember that if you heel-hook in slippers, they tend to pull off; boots offer more support. Remember, too, that heel-hooking can be dangerous to your health. Don’t forget to turn your heel-hook into a “toe-on” foot placement as you stand up to avoid damaging your inner knee, and to gain more height.
A similar technique, toe-hooking, is especially useful on overhanging rock. To toe-hook, use the toe of your boot the same way you would use your fingers in an upward pull. If you can hold this position and find something to push against, you are “push-pulling” or bicycling—one foot is pulling toward your body while the other pushes away. This technique, too, takes weight off your upper body, saving energy you may need later.
High Stepping. High stepping offers a good way to get some quick vertical height gain. Step up high and plant the inside edge of your boot or your toe, then put all your weight on that foot. Flagging the opposite foot out as you make a high step can help you stay balanced.
Warning: this move can be hazardous to your health! Many climbers, including me, have torn the medial meniscus, the soft cartilage surrounding the knee joint, while high stepping. Pain is the unmistakable warning sign that proceeding is a bad idea. If you feel even a slight twinge while high stepping, retreat and use another technique, a back-step or a drop-knee.
Knee-Barring. A knee bar is a jam that works well if the spacing of the rock is just right. To knee-bar, put your toe or foot on one hold and your knee up against an opposing corner, roof, or bulge. Flexing the calf muscle or pushing against the knee takes weight off your upper body; if the knee bar is good enough, it can provide a no-hands rest. Even if the knee bar is a little shaky, it can still be useful for taking some weight off (a knee scum), which can let you make a quick shake out or a move forward.
Remember, knee bars can be extremely painful, especially if the rock is sharp. Wear long pants or kneepads to help protect your legs. Pull the pad up above the kneecap and use it as a thigh pad. I sometimes sew sticky La Sportiva rubber on my kneepad, which not only adds cushioning, but also makes me feel as if I stick better in the jam. I’ve seen Chris Knuth climb while wearing cut-off Levis for this effect. Whatever works.
Flagging. Your body will tend to want to flag a leg out as a natural way to stay balanced during a move. Say you are rocking onto one foot in a high step. Flagging the opposite leg out behind creates proper balance by forcing your center of gravity downward. Flagging your leg inside does likewise.
There are quite a few footwork techniques and body positions that will help you tackle just about any bouldering problem you’ll face. Learn and master them all and you’ll have a full bag of tricks to take to the rock.
Boulderers often encounter all kinds of cracks they can grip with the hands or the feet. They must know how to climb them. Free Climbing with John Bachar, another book in this series, offers a detailed look at crack-climbing techniques, including finger locks, finger stacking, and all types of jams.
Onsight flashing is, to me, the purest form of climbing. The onsight flash is when you approach a boulder problem knowing absolutely nothing about how to solve it except what you can learn from studying the holds you can see, then, with no other knowledge of the hand- or foothold sequences, you do the route, start to finish, without falling. To me, the onsight flash is the ultimate—a beautiful thing, pure and free, just you and the rock.
In most cases, boulder problems are short enough and close enough to the ground that you can see every hold, especially if you follow the trail of chalk left by other climbers. While you’re standing on the ground, you might be able to picture yourself moving from hold to hold, positioning your feet and body to solve the sequence in its entirety. If you can do this, you’ll know exactly what you want to do before you jump on the boulder. As you climb, take note if what you planned to do really worked, or how you had to change the plan once you were on the rock. Learn from your mistakes.
If you do a boulder problem knowing the right moves in advance—if another climber has told you that the fourth move is a dyno with the left hand, for example, or if you’ve watched another climber send the problem—then that would be a flash. Not an onsight, but definitely a good effort.
Red-pointing a route is when you link all the moves from start to finish without falling. You might have already tried to onsight the problem, or maybe even flash it, and failed. So you went back to the drawing board, rehearsed all the necessary moves, and got to know the rock. Then you solved it—a red point.
I love red-pointing because it gives me an ongoing project to work on. I can wake up in the morning and have a mission, a problem I can focus on, confident that I’ll succeed. That’s the versatility of bouldering: it offers an in-the-moment workout or a work in progress.
Sometimes it takes a couple of tries to send a boulder problem; it might take years, or you might never get it right. I’ve flashed, onsighted, and red-pointed boulder problems all over the world, but there are plenty of problems still waiting for me to solve—in the Fontainebleau, Hueco Tanks, the Buttermilks. Some days you can’t climb a thing, and you might have to wait weeks, months, or even years until you return to a particularly nagging problem. Stick with it. Believe me, it’ll be worth the wait.
More and more climbers are into beta-flashing, which I must admit kind of bugs me. Beta-flashing is when a climber completes a problem by following the instructions of people on the ground who tell you the moves: right hand to sloper, left to dime edge, and so on. The problem with this for me is that not all climbers are alike. What works for one climber might not work for another. There’s usually more than one way to send a problem. You have to do what works best for you.
Bouldering by yourself can be a blast, but it’s safer, more productive, and usually more fun to go with other people, especially if you’re just starting out. Bouldering with others offers a more relaxed atmosphere in which you’ll probably feel more comfortable pushing yourself and testing your limits. I think climbers should use as many spotters as it takes to ensure safety. Those who don’t want to use a spotter because they think it shows weakness might be hurting their chances of success; they might not push themselves as hard as they would if they had a spotter. Spotters allow you to relax, concentrate on the climb, and push yourself harder without worrying about falling and getting hurt.
Flagging outside.
How to Fall. Falling is a part of bouldering, so falling properly is something every boulderer needs to know. Even if you have a dozen spotters, you must take responsibility for your own safety. You must always know how high off the ground you are and exactly where the safe landings are. When you are on lead or top rope, you can fall without much consequence, but when you’re bouldering, you must be able to jump off the rock and know how to land correctly. Try to land on both feet, keeping your balance. Bend your knees and sag into the landing so your knees aren’t jolted on impact. Stay in control. Don’t flail your arms; you might smack your spotter in the face.
Falling properly demands that you know where your body parts are in space, which takes practice. Learn to fall slowly, just as you would any other climbing skill. Do a single move and take a fall close to the ground. Add another move, and another, and before you know it you’re up high enough that a poor landing could do some damage. After your next move, you’re up even higher, which can be intimidating. Learning to fall under control will give you the confidence to go on.
How to Spot. The spotter should always have both arms up and both feet solidly on the ground. He should always be moving to where he thinks the climber will land if he comes off the rock. Spotters don’t necessarily have to camp out directly below the climber; if the climber is leaning left while doing a hard move, the spotter must move left of the climber’s body while keeping an eye on his head. When the climber is close to the ground, the spotter should keep his hands close to the climber’s head, preventing it from hitting the rock or the ground if a fall occurs. The spotter should shift his focus to the climber’s waist as the climber goes higher; if the climber falls, the waist is where the spotter should try to catch—it’s the climber’s center of gravity. Even if the spotter misses, he should be able to cushion the fall and help the climber land on his feet.
If you can’t catch a falling climber by the waist, try latching under the armpits. This can be a bit disgusting if the climber is wearing a tank top, but a brief, unpleasant experience is a small price to pay for saving a life or preventing an injury.
The number-one rule of spotting: Spotters must absolutely stay one hundred percent focused, even if some hottie walks by. Remember: a good spotter focuses exclusively on the climber—catching them if they fall, but otherwise not touching them.
—From Bouldering with Bobbi Bensman
Greg Davenport
The interior continental areas of the two great landmasses of North America and Eurasia that lie between 35 and 70 degrees north latitude constitute the snow climates. The pole side usually meets with the tundra climate, and the southern side with a temperate forest. Vegetation is similar to that found in the temperate climates. The inland animals are migratory yet obtainable. Most shorelines are scraped free of vegetation and animals by winter ice. The larger game animals, such as caribou, reindeer, goats, and musk oxen migrate in these climates. Small animals, such as snowshoe hares, mice, lemmings, and ground squirrels, are prominent. Many birds breed in snow climates. There are two basic kinds of snow climates: continental subarctic and humid continental.
These are regions of vast extremes. Temperatures can have large swings, from—100 degrees F to 110 degrees F, and may fluctuate up to 50 degrees in several hours. These climates are most often seen in Alaska to Labrador and Scandinavia to Siberia. They are cold, snowy forest climates most of the year, with short summers. Winter is the dominant season.
These regions are generally located between 35 and 60 degrees north latitude, in the central and eastern parts of continents of the middle latitudes. Seasonal contrasts are strong, and the weather is highly variable. In North America, this climate extends from New England westward beyond the Great Lakes region, into the Great Plains and the prairie provinces of Canada. Summers are cooler and shorter than in other temperate zones. A high percentage of precipitation is snow.
In both of these types of snow climates, there are seasonal extremes of daylight and darkness. Long nights and minimal sun exposure are common and present a problem for a survivor.
The terrain of an ice climate varies greatly. Most of the landmass is composed of tundra. In its true form, the tundra is treeless. Vast, rugged mountain ranges are found in the area and rise several thousand feet above the surrounding areas. Steep terrain, snow and ice fields, glaciers, and very high wind conditions make this a very desolate place. Continental glaciers, such as the ice caps covering Greenland and the Antarctic continent, are large expanses of windswept ice moving slowly toward the sea. Animal life is poor in species but rich in numbers. Commonly, large animals, birds, and fish can be found. In the Antarctic, however, animals are virtually nonexistent. Most common are seals and penguins, along with seabirds. There are three kinds of ice climates: marine subarctic, tundra, and ice cap.
This climate is found between 50 and 60 degrees north latitude and 45 and 60 degrees south latitude on the windward coasts, on islands, and over wide expanses of ocean in the Bering Sea and North Atlantic, touching points of Greenland, Iceland, and Norway. In the Southern Hemisphere, the climate is found on small land-masses. These regions typically have persistent cloudy skies, strong winds, and high rainfall.
This climate is found north of 55 degrees north latitude and south of 50 degrees south latitude. The average temperature is below 50 degrees F. Proximity to the ocean and persistent cloud cover keep summer air temperatures down, despite abundant solar energy at this latitude near the summer solstice. There are several types of tundra.
Shrub tundra. Shrubs, herbs, and mosses occur in this zone.
Wooded tundra. Subarctic wooded areas include a variety of tree species.
Bogs. Bogs are characterized by large peat moss mounds.
There are three vast regions of ice on the earth: Greenland, the Antarctic continental ice caps, and the larger area of floating sea ice in the Arctic Ocean.
—From Surviving Cold Weather
Buck Tilton and John Gookin
Familiarity with snow is essential for safe and disciplined winter camping. When the temperature drops below freezing and water vapor condenses into crystals, snow falls. What we call snowflakes are more accurately described as crystals that form around tiny, solid particles in the air, such as dust or salt. As condensed water vapor falls, it encounters a variety of air temperatures, air currents, and humidity levels, and these factors determine what kind of crystals form. Cold, still air usually produces feathery plates or “stellars” the lightest and driest snow, falling with infinite grace and beauty. As the mercury rises, the snow becomes harder, forming needles, columns, dendrites, and, irregular clumps. When the air warms to near freezing, the snow crystals may form into sleet (balls of snow with a hard shell and a soggy center) or hail (solid ice balls that can strike the earth—and winter campers—with ruinous force).
Technically, rime is not snow at all but rather ice that forms from the freezing of supercooled liquid when it contacts a subfreezing surface. When wind and humidity are particularly high, rime ice may appear as little “flags” that point into the direction of the prevailing wind. At other times, rime ice takes on a wispy look, resembling “snow feathers.”
One way to think about snow is to distinguish between snow crystals falling or recently fallen from the sky and those on or in the ground that have been altered by a variety of forces and conditions. In winter, each storm lays down a layer of snow. The accumulated layers, known collectively as the snowpack, meet the atmosphere at a boundary called the snow surface, and they meet the earth at the ground surface.
Snowpacks are prone to constant structural change over time, a process called metamorphosis. Metamorphosis alters the form and structure of snow crystals from the moment they land on earth until they are completely melted. Snow metamorphosis is controlled primarily by temperature, happening quickly near freezing and stopping almost altogether below minus 40 degrees F. Pressure and proximity to the warm ground also participate in metamorphosis, causing snow deep in the snowpack to change faster than snow near the surface. Snow on the surface may change rapidly in response to wind, sun, and other factors. These changes in the snow surface—from powder to ice to slush—make backcountry endeavors both fun and challenging.
Layers within the snowpack may be relatively weak (not well-bonded) or strong (well-bonded). When there is a consistent temperature gradient throughout the snowpack (1 degree C [33.8 degrees F] per 10 cm), the crystals, whatever their original forms, consolidate into a well-bonded mass. This is called rounded or equilibrium snow, and the crystals are often just called rounds. A strongly cohesive layer of snow can be cut neatly into blocks for an igloo or shaped creatively into a snow cave or kitchen countertop.
When the temperature gradient within the snow cover is greater, water vapor tends to migrate from the warmer snow close to the ground toward the colder snow at the surface. Under these conditions, entirely new snow crystals, called facets, are formed. Facets tend to crumble in your hand, and are often found by protruding bushes or near the ground in early-season snowpacks. They are common at high altitude, where the snow surface grows colder and a greater gradient is created between surface and ground. Higher elevations also tend to be windier and to avalanche more often, both of which keep the snow thinner and the gradient greater.
Depth hoar (a type of facet) is created early in the season after the first winter storm, usually when temperatures are cold the sky is clear. It is fragile, collapses easily, and is very noncohesive, constituting a weak layer that is prone to avalanche. You’re dealing with depth hoar if you dig into the snowpack and, right before you reach the ground, hit a layer of snow that crumbles at your touch. Depth hoar is most dangerous in the early months of the season; as the snowpack deepens and the pressure on it increases, the danger lessens.
Surface hoar is created on top of the snowpack on nights that are humid, cold, and clear. It is recognizable by its feathery appearance. When buried in a snowpack, it becomes a dangerously thin middle layer that is susceptible to avalanche.
Just as there may be strong or weak bonds within a given layer, entire layers may bond well or poorly to adjoining layers. If two layers are poorly bonded, or if a strongly bonded layer sits atop a weakly bonded one, there is the potential for a slab avalanche.
When snow melts and then refreezes, it forms and icy layer that may become a slippery, sliding surface for snow deposited in later storms. This is referred to as melt-freeze metamorphosis. If the melt phase is long enough for water to percolate down through the snow to the ground, a lubricating layer can cover an entire mountainside—a potentially dangerous condition for mountain travelers.
Wind, the greatest mechanical mover of snow, is a powerful change agent. When snow is moved by wind—or by human shoveling or stomping—and is then allowed to set, it hardens through a process called sintering, in which the snow crystals bond firmly together. Old, wind-hammered snow may be thousands of times harder than fresh, powder snow. Sintered snow forms an extraordinarily cohesive layer, one you can walk on without sinking in, and it cuts very nicely into blocks for snow shelters.
Snowpacks developing on slopes undergo another type of mechanical deformation. This deformation occurs because of snow’s elasticity (the ability to stretch and return to its original shape) and viscosity (the resistance to free flow) and the force of gravity. Snow tends to flow, or “bend,” downhill, a movement called creep. Snow also tends to slide downhill along a slope, a movement called glide. As with metamorphosis, creep and glide are affected by temperature. Snow has minimum viscosity near the freezing point, but as the temperature drops, viscosity increases, and creep and glide slow down. Creep and glide explain some of the marvelous shapes snow can assume.
The water content of snow is closely related to temperature, and both will impact how easily you can travel through snow-covered terrain. Very dry snow may hold as little as 5% liquid, while wet snow may contain up to 25%. Snow falling at temperatures near the freezing point can weigh three times as much as snow falling at colder temperatures, because it has a much higher water content.
Dry snow (powder) is generally better for traveling, until its depth reaches the point where you are struggling to make headway. After a heavy snowfall of light powder, it may take a day or two for the snow to consolidate enough to keep you on top with skis. It may be spring before it is firm enough to support your weight without skis.
Wet snow not only gets you wet but also adds considerably to your traveling difficulty. Wet snow sticks to skis, crampons, and sometimes boots. Since wet snow falls when the air is relatively warm, it is also difficult to keep from overheating when you are huffing along under a pack. Maritime areas typically receive wet snow, and inland (or “continental”) areas receive much drier snow, but early-winter snowfalls in any region can be wet.
One advantage of wet snow is that its frozen surface can often easily be crossed if you travel at night, after the temperature drops, or early in the morning, before the sun softens the surface. When the snow softens, however, you may end up postholing—breaking through the surface up to you knees or higher. If the sunny surface won’t support you, try staying in the shade, where the cold lingers longer. If you must posthole, keep your weight on your back leg, step halfway into your next footfall, and wait for the snow to firm up. If postholing overwhelms you, try crawling.
—From NOLS Winter Camping
U.S. Army
Snowflakes are formed from water vapor, at or below 32°F., without passing through the liquid water state. Newly fallen snow undergoes many alternations on the ground. As the snowmass on the ground packs and becomes denser, the snowflakes consolidate and the entrapped air is expelled. These changes are caused by effects of temperature, humidity, sunlight and wind.
Temperature. In general, the lower the temperature, the drier the snow and the less consolidation. As the temperature rises, the snow tends to compact more readily. Temperatures above freezing cause wet snow conditions. Lowered night temperatures may refreeze wet snow and form an icy crust on the surface.
Sunlight. In the springtime, sunlight may melt the surface of the snow even though the air temperature is below freezing. When this occurs, dry powder snow is generally found in shaded areas and wet snow in sunlight areas. Movement from sunlit areas into shaded areas is difficult because the wet snow will freeze to skis and snowshoes. After sunset, however, wet snow usually refreezes and the ease of movement improves.
Wind. Wind packs snow solidly. Wind-packed snow may become so hard that skiing or even walking on it makes no appreciable impression on its surface. Warm wind followed by freezing temperatures may create an icy, unbreakable crust on the snow. Under such conditions, skiing and snowshoeing are very difficult. Another effect of wind is that of drifting the snow. The higher the wind velocity and the lighter the snow, the greater the tendency to drift. All troop movement is greatly affected by drifting snow and wind, the effect depending on the relative direction and velocity. In addition, as the wind, increases, the effect of extreme cold (windchill effect) on the body may slow down or temporarily stop movement, possibly requiring troops to take shelter. The snowdrifts created by wind usually make the snow surface wavy, slowing down movement, especially in darkness.
The characteristics of snow which are of greatest interest to the soldier are—
a. Carrying Capacity. Generally, when the snow is packed hard, carrying capacity is greater and movement is easier. Although the carrying capacity of ice crust may be excellent, movement generally is difficult because of its slippery surface.
b. Sliding Characteristics. All-important to the skier are the sliding characteristics of snow. They vary greatly in different types of snow and temperature variations and materially increase or decrease the movement of the skier, according to the conditions that exist.
c. Holding Capacity. The holding capacity of snow is its ability to act upon ski wax in such a way that backslapping of the skis is prevented without impairing the forward sliding capability. Holding capacity changes greatly with different types of snow, making it necessary to have a variety of ski waxes available.
…Snow cover, together with the freezing of waterways and swampy areas, changes the terrain noticeably. Generally, the snow covers minor irregularities of the ground. Many obstacles such as rocks, ditches, and fences are eliminated or reduced. Lakes, streams, and muskeg, impassable during the summer, often afford the best routes of travel in the winter when they are frozen and snow-covered. During breakup periods this advantage is reduced, since the snow becomes slushy and the carrying capacity is poor. Even so, skiing or snowshoeing, although slow, is often the only practical way to move during this period. The drop in temperature at night will still freeze the snow surface, creating a good route for a skier or snowshoer during the night and early morning.
The effects of snow and terrain on individual movement vary in different areas.
(1) The arctic tundra and vast subarctic plateaus are similar. They are characterized by large plains and gently rolling terrain with scant vegetation where rocky ridges, scattered rock outcroppings, riverbanks, and scrubby brush still create obstacles to individual movement, when encountered. The shallow snow cover normally found in these areas, as a rule, is firmly packed by wind action and will usually support a man on foot. When the snow has not been wind packed and is still soft, mobility will be increased by the use of skis or snowshoes.
(2) Forested areas include vast coniferous forests, dense brush, swamps, and numerous lakes and rivers. Skiing and snowshoeing are relatively easy on frozen, snow-covered rivers, lakes, and swamps. In wooded areas concealment is best, but movement is hampered by vegetation and soft snow, therefore, greater skill is required in skiing to avoid trees and other obstacles. These disadvantages are reduced by careful selection of the best routes and following proper trailbreaking procedures. Woods retard the melting of snow in spring often allowing skiing after the open fields are clear of snow. In autumn, the situation is reversed; the deeper snow is generally found in the open fields allowing skiing earlier than in wooded areas.
(3) Mountains present special problems. Their varied and steep terrain place additional demands upon the skill of a skier and make movement on snowshoes or skis very difficult. Slopes which are easy to negotiate in summer often become difficult and dangerous to cross in winter because of deep snow cover which is prone to avalanche. Large drifts and snow cornices present other obstacles and dangers. Snow cover on glaciers obscures crevasses and makes their crossing hazardous.
—From Basic Cold Weather Manual (Field Manual 31-76)
Greg Davenport
Illustrations by Steven A. Davenport
When traveling into a cold-weather environment, the type of gear you carry can either help or hamper your efforts. Take the time to choose tools that will make your travel and stay more comfortable.
An ice ax can be used as an anchor for climbing, as a self-belay, to help you self-arrest when sliding down a snow slope (glissading), and to help steady you while climbing by providing a third point of contact. The proper size of an ice ax depends on your body size and the ax’s intended use. To size an ice ax, hold its head in one hand, with your fingers draped down the side of the shaft. While standing up straight, let your arm hang free so that the ice ax shaft is pointing toward the ground. From this position, use the following guidelines:
Ice ax.
For basic climbing (general use)
The ax tip should be just shy of touching the ground.
For intermediate climbing (high-angle use)
The ax tip should be 2 to 4 inches (5 to 10 centimeters) shy of the ground.
For snowshoeing
The ax tip should extend 2 to 4 inches (5 to 10 centimeters) beyond the ground.
A snow shovel can be used to evaluate avalanche hazards, dig out an avalanche victim, or help build a snow shelter. The ideal snow shovel is small and light enough to carry, yet big and strong enough to perform the needed task. A 20- to 24-inch-long aluminum shovel that has a removable D-shaped handle and one-foot-square blade is a good all-purpose design. A snow or ice saw is often used with a snow shovel, especially when snow blocks are needed for shelter walls. In a pinch, I have used my snow-shoes to shovel snow. Should you do this, however, be careful not to break a snowshoe!
Mountaineering poles help you maintain your balance when carrying a heavy pack and assist you in getting up should you fall. Unlike ski poles, most mountaineering poles have adjustable telescoping features that allow them to do multiple tasks, adjusting for uphill, downhill, and traversing pole lengths. In addition, when not in use, they can collapse down for easy storage. When using a pole, adjust its length so that when your elbow is bent, your forearm is slightly less than perpendicular to your body, with the hand higher than the elbow. If you are evaluating this length in a store, place the handle side down and grasp the pole below its basket, since the length is based on the pointed tip being inserted into the snow up to the basket.
A probe is an essential item when traveling into terrain where the chance for avalanche conditions is present. Probes should be lightweight, strong, and quickly assembled. Most probes run from 8 to 10 feet and can be broken down into 16- to 18-inch lengths for ease of carrying. Aluminum is the most common material, as it is lightweight and inexpensive. In a pinch, a mountaineering pole can be used.
An avalanche transceiver is an electronic device that, when used properly, helps searchers find a victim who has been buried in an avalanche. When traveling in avalanche hazard areas, each member of the team should carry a transceiver, or beacon. The newer transceivers are digital with dual antennas, digital and analog, which has made them far more efficient. The Barryvox digital transceiver (RED 457) has an integrated microprocessor, digital technology, a simple pushbutton menu, and an easy-to-follow digital display that displays the direction and distance to your subject.
PIEPS avalanche transceiver.
The AvaLung is an innovative idea that should become standard gear for anyone traveling into avalanche country. It is a filtration system designed to help an avalanche victim breathe by drawing air directly from the snow-pack through a mouthpiece attached to the apparatus. Exhaled carbon dioxide is directed out an exhaust tube, ensuring that you receive a fresh air supply and preventing the formation of an oxygen-depriving ice layer in front of your face. To be effective, the mouthpiece must be quickly inserted into your mouth before debris restricts your movement.
A clinometer helps you determine avalanche hazards by measuring the slope of a hillside. Avalanches most often occur on slopes of 30 to 45 degrees, but they sometimes start on slopes as gentle as 25 degrees or as steep as 60 degrees. Recognizing a slope angle is key to identifying a slope’s avalanche potential. The clinometer is simply a protractor with a plumb bob attached. While the plumb bob is hanging free, you hold the base parallel to the hillside. The number where the plumb bob line crosses the protractor is your slope angle.
Clinometer.
A digital altimeter can provide information about your elevation that, when used along with a map and the terrain, can help you pinpoint your location. Since an altimeter reading is based on air pressure, like a barometer, it is affected by changes in weather. With this in mind, you’ll need to set its elevation from a known point when you start, and again on a regular basis as you reach new known points.
—From Surviving Cold Weather