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Dictionary of scripture and ethics / Joel B. Green, general editor ; Jacqueline E. Lapsley, Rebekah Miles, and Allen Verhey, associate editors. p. cm.

1. Ethics in the Bible—Dictionaries. 2. Christian ethics—Biblical teaching—Dictionaries. I. Green, Joel B., 1956—

Unless otherwise indicated, Scripture quotations are from the New Revised Standard Version of the Bible, copyright © 1989, by the Division of Christian Education of the National Council of the Churches of Christ in the United States of America. Used by permission. All rights reserved.

Scripture quotations labeled NAB are from the New American Bible with Revised New Testament © 1986, 1970 Confraternity of Christian Doctrine, Washington, DC, and are used by permission of the copyright owner. All rights reserved. No part of the New American Bible may be reproduced in any form without permission in writing from the copyright owner.

Scripture quotations labeled NEB are from The New English Bible. Copyright © 1961, 1970, 1989 by The Delegates of Oxford University Press and The Syndics of the Cambridge University Press. Reprinted by permission.

Scripture quotations labeled NIV are from the HOLY BIBLE, NEW INTERNATIONAL VERSION®. NIV®. Copyright © 1973, 1978, 1984 by Biblica, Inc.™ Used by permission of Zondervan. All rights reserved worldwide. www.zondervan.com

Scripture quotations labeled NLT are from the Holy Bible, New Living Translation, copyright © 1996, 2004, 2007 by Tyndale House Foundation. Used by permission of Tyndale House Publishers, Inc., Carol Stream, Illinois 60188. All rights reserved.

Scripture quotations labeled RSV are from the Revised Standard Version of the Bible, copyright 1952 [2nd edition, 1971] by the Division of Christian Education of the National Council of the Churches of Christ in the United States of America. Used by permission. All rights reserved.

Scripture quotations labeled TNIV are from the Holy Bible, Today’s New International Version®. TNIV®. Copyright © 2001, 2005 by Biblica, Inc.™ Used by permission of Zondervan. All rights reserved worldwide. www.zondervan.com

Adam, A. K. M. PhD, Duke University. Lecturer in New Testament, University of Glasgow. Information Technology

Adam, Margaret B. PhD candidate, Duke University. Visiting Assistant Professor of Theology, Loyola University Maryland. Compassion

Adams, Samuel L. PhD, Yale University. Assistant Professor of Biblical Studies, Union Presbyterian Seminary. Sirach; Wisdom of Solomon

Adeney, Frances. PhD, Graduate Theological Union. William A. Benfield Jr. Professor of Evangelism and Global Mission, Louisville Presbyterian Theological Seminary. Comparative Religious Ethics

Arnold, Bill T. PhD, Hebrew Union College—Jewish Institute of Religion. Paul S. Amos Professor of Old Testament Interpretation, Asbury Theological Seminary. Divination and Magic

Baker, Mark D. PhD, Duke University. Associate Professor of Mission and Theology, Mennonite Brethren Biblical Seminary. Atonement

Baker, William R. PhD, University of Aberdeen. Professor of New Testament, Cincinnati Christian University Graduate School. Slander

Bandstra, Barry. PhD, Yale University. Professor of Religion, Hope College. Concubinage

Banks, Robert. PhD, Cambridge University. Associate of the Centre for the Study of the History and Experience of Christianity, Macquarie University. Time, Use of

Bashaw, Jennifer Garcia. PhD candidate, Fuller Theological Seminary. Martyrdom; Persecution

Beach-Verhey, Timothy A. PhD, Emory University. Pastor, Faison Presbyterian Church. Covenantal Ethics; Law, Uses of; Responsibility; Self-Denial; Vocation

Beaton, Richard. PhD, University of Cambridge. Principal of De Pree Leadership Center, Associate Professor of New Testament, Fuller Theological Seminary. Leadership, Leadership Ethics

Berquist, Jon L. PhD, Vanderbilt University. Executive Editor for Biblical Studies, Westminster John Knox Press. Incarnation

Biddle, Mark E. DTheol, University of Zurich. Russell T. Cherry Professor of Old Testament, Baptist Theological Seminary at Richmond. Sin

Birch, Bruce C. PhD, Yale University. Professor of Old Testament, Emeritus, Wesley Theological Seminary. Justice; 1-2 Samuel; Scripture in Ethics: Methodological Issues

Blanchard, Kathryn D. PhD, Duke University. Assistant Professor of Religious Studies, Alma College. Family Planning; Jealousy and Envy; Welfare State

Bock, Darrell L. PhD, University of Aberdeen. Research Professor of New Testament Studies and Professor of Spiritual Development and Culture, Dallas Theological Seminary. Blasphemy

Boda, Mark J. PhD, Cambridge University. Professor of Old Testament, McMaster Divinity College. Professor, Faculty of Theology, McMaster University. Haggai; Zechariah

Boer, Theo A. PhD, Utrecht University. Associate of Ethics Institute, Utrecht University; Associate Professor of Ethics, Protestant Theological University, Utrecht. Euthanasia

Boyd, Greg. PhD, Princeton Theological Seminary. Senior Pastor, Woodland Hills Church, St. Paul. Evil; Powers and Principalities

Bratton, Susan Power. PhD, Cornell University; PhD, University of Texas at Dallas. Chair of Environmental Science, Professor of Environmental Studies, Baylor University. Population Policy and Control

Brawley, Robert L. PhD, Princeton Theological Seminary. Professor of New Testament Emeritus, McCormick Theological Seminary. Acts; John; Luke; Mark; Matthew

Bretzke, James T., SJ. STD, Pontifical Gregorian University, Rome. Professor of Moral Theology, Boston College School of Theology and Ministry. Casuistry; Natural Law; Roman Catholic Moral Theology

Brower, Kent. PhD, The University of Manchester. Senior Research Fellow and Vice-Principal, Naza-rene Theological College. Holiness; Legalism; Righteousness

Brown, Nicholas Read. PhD candidate, Fuller Theological Seminary. Visiting Professor, Loyola Mary-mount University. Sodomy

Brown, William P. PhD, Emory University. Professor of Old Testament, Columbia Theological Seminary. Creation, Biblical Accounts of

Brownlee, Jay. Service User Representative, Scottish Personality Disorder Network. Self-Harm

Bruckner, James K. PhD, Luther Seminary. Professor of Old Testament, North Park Theological Seminary. Health

Burridge, Richard A. PhD, University of Nottingham. Professor, King’s College London. Apartheid; Discrimination

Carnahan, Kevin. PhD, Southern Methodist University. Assistant Professor of Religion and Philosophy, Central Methodist University. Deterrence, Nuclear; Military Service; Pluralism; Political Ethics

Carroll R. (Rodas), M. Daniel. PhD, University of Sheffield. Distinguished Professor of Old Testament, Denver Seminary. Adjunct Professor, Seminario Teologico Centroamericano, Guatemala. Aliens, Immigration, and Refugees; Amos; Micah; Old Testament Ethics

Carvalho, Corrine. PhD, Yale University. Professor of Theology, University of St. Thomas. Sanctuary

Cates, Diana Fritz. PhD, Brown University. Associate Professor of Religious Studies and Ethics, The University of Iowa. Vice

Chapman, Stephen B. PhD, Yale University. Associate Professor of Old Testament, Duke Divinity School. Ban, The; Deuteronomistic History; Holy War

Charry, Ellen T. PhD, Temple University. Margaret W. Harmon Professor of Historical and Systematic Theology, Princeton Theological Seminary. Happiness; Supersessionism

Cherian, Jacob. PhD, Princeton Theological Seminary. Vice President and Dean, Southern Asia Bible College. Tithe, Tithing

Cheung, Luke Leuk. PhD, St. Andrews University, St. Mary’s College. Dean, China Graduate School of Theology. Fidelity; Integrity; Temptation

Childs, J ames M., Jr. PhD, Lutheran School of Theology at Chicago. Edward C. Fendt Professor of Systematic Theology, Trinity Lutheran Seminary. Greed

Chilton, Bruce. PhD, St. John’s College, Cambridge University. Bernard Iddings Bell Professor of Religion, Bard College. Kingdom of God

Clapper, Gregory S. PhD, Emory University. Professor of Religion and Philosophy, The University of Indianapolis. Affections

Clifton-Soderstrom, Michelle. PhD, Loyola University Chicago. Assistant Professor of Theology and Ethics, North Park Theological Seminary. Discipline

Cochran, Elizabeth Agnew. PhD, University of Notre Dame. Assistant Professor of Theology, Duquesne University. Disability and Handicap; Dishonesty; Honesty; Lust; Sloth; Utilitarianism

Cohick, Lynn H. PhD, University of Pennsylvania. Associate Professor of New Testament, Wheaton College. Headship

Conley, Aaron. PhD candidate, Illiff School of Theology and University of Denver. MDiv, Truett Theological Seminary. Restitution

Cook, E. David. PhD, University of Edinburgh. Holmes Professor of Faith and Learning, Wheaton College. Institution(s); Reproductive Technologies; Resource Allocation

Corcoran, Kevin. PhD, Purdue University. Associate Professor of Philosophy. Monism, Anthropological; Self

Cosgrove, Charles H. PhD, Princeton Theological Seminary. Professor of N ew Testament Studies and Christian Ethics, Northern Seminary. Libertinism; Moral Formation; New Testament Ethics; Scripture in Ethics: A History

Couey, J. Blake. PhD, Princeton Theological Seminary. Visiting Assistant Professor, Gustavus Adolphus College. Revenge

Creegan, Nicola Hoggard. PhD, Drew University. Senior Lecturer, School of Theology, Laidlaw College. Gender; Women, Status of

De La Torre, Miguel A. PhD, Temple University. Professor of Social Ethics, Iliff School of Theology. Conscientization; Liberationist Ethics; Praxis

deSilva, David A. PhD, Emory University. Trustees’ Distinguished Professor of New Testament and Greek, Ashland Theological Seminary. Circumcision; Clean and Unclean; Deuterocanonical/Apoc-ryphal Books; Hebrews

Dillon, Dana L. PhD, Duke University. Assistant Professor of Theology, Providence College. Dissent; Intention

Dobbs-Allsopp, Chip. PhD, Johns Hopkins University. Associate Professor of Old Testament, Princeton Theological Seminary. Lamentations; Poetic Discourse and Ethics; Song of Songs

Donahue, John R., SJ. PhD, University of Chicago. Research Professor in Theology, Loyola University, Maryland. Parables, Use of in Ethics

Douglas, Mark. PhD, The University of Virginia. Associate Professor of Christian Ethics, Columbia Theological Seminary. Anxiety; Ends and Means; Force, Use of; Imperialism; Media, Ethical Issues of; Security; Tyranny; Violence; War

Downs, David J. PhD, Princeton Theological Seminary. Assistant Professor of New Testament Studies, Fuller Theological Seminary. 2 Corinthians; Hedonism; Materialism; 1-2 Timothy; Titus; Vices and Virtues, Lists of; Wealth

Driggers, Brent. PhD, Princeton Theological Seminary. Associate Professor of New Testament, Lutheran Theological Southern Seminary. Freedom

Dryden, J. de Waal. PhD, Cambridge University. Associate Professor of Biblical Studies, Covenant College. Jude; 1 Peter; 2 Peter

Dufault-Hunter, Erin. PhD, University of Southern California. Assistant Professor of Christian Ethics, Fuller Theological Seminary. Individualism; Orphans; Pornography; Sex and Sexuality; Sexual Ethics; Sociology of Religion; Spousal Abuse

Duff, Nancy J. PhD, Union Theological Seminary, New York City. Stephen Colwell Associate Professor of Christian Ethics, Princeton Theological Seminary. Alcohol; Just Wage; Singleness

Duggan, Michael W. PhD, The Catholic University of America. Associate Professor of Theology and Religious Studies, St. Mary’s University College. Ezra; Nehemiah

Eddy, Paul R. PhD, Marquette University. Professor of Biblical and Theological Studies, Bethel University. Evil

Edgar, Brian G. PhD, Deakin University. Professor of Theological Studies, Asbury Theological Seminary. Play; Worldliness

Edgar, David Hutchinson. PhD, Trinity College, Dublin. Chester Beatty Library, Dublin. Desire; James

Finger, Reta Halteman. PhD, Northwestern University. Assistant Professor of New Testament, Messiah College. Widows

Finger, Thomas. PhD, Claremont Graduate University. Scholar in Residence, Bethany Theological Seminary. Eschatology and Ethics

Freund, Richard. PhD, Jewish Theological Seminary. Director of the Maurice Greenberg Center for Judaic Studies, University of Harford. Collective Responsibility

Furnish, Victor Paul. PhD, Yale University. University Distinguished Professor Emeritus of New Testament, Southern Methodist University. Galatians; Philemon; Philippians; Romans

Goldingay, John. DD, Archbishop of Canterbury at Lambeth; PhD, University of Nottingham. David Allan Hubbard Professor of Old Testament, Fuller Theological Seminary. Loans

Gorman, Michael J. PhD, Princeton Theological Seminary. Dean and Professor of Sacred Scripture, The Ecumenical Institute of Theology, St. Mary’s Seminary and University. Abortion; Cruciformity

Green, Barbara. PhD, University of California at Berkeley and Graduate Theological Union. Professor of Biblical Studies, Dominican School of Philosophy and Theology, Graduate Theological Union. Jonah

Green, Joel B. PhD, University of Aberdeen. Professor of New Testament Interpretation, Associate Dean for the Center for Advanced Theological Studies, Fuller Theological Seminary. Almsgiving; Antichrist; Collection for the Saints; Healthcare Systems in Scripture; Hypocrisy; Koinonia; Loans; Repentance

Greenman, Jeffrey P. PhD, University of Virginia. Associate Dean of Biblical and Theological Studies, Professor of Christian Ethics, Wheaton College. Cardinal Virtues; Courage; Prudence; Seven Deadly Sins

Greenway, William. PhD, Princeton Theological Seminary. Associate Professor of Philosophical Theology, Austin Presbyterian Theological Seminary. Animals

Grigg, Viv. PhD, Auckland University. International Director, Urban Leadership Foundation. Urbanization

Gupta, Nijay K. PhD, University of Durham. Instructor of Biblical Studies, Seattle Pacific University. Neighbor, Neighbor Love; World

Gushee, David P. PhD, Union Theological Seminary, New York. Distinguished Professor of Christian Ethics, Mercer University. Baptist Ethics; Cruelty; Human Rights; Meekness; Omission, Sins of; Polygamy; Torture

Gutenson, Charles E. PhD, Southern Methodist University. Chief Operating Officer, Sojourners. Pacifism; Trinity

Hall, Amy Laura. PhD, Yale University. Associate Professor of Christian Ethics, Duke Divinity School. Agape; Parenthood, Parenting

Haloviak, Kendra Jo. PhD, The Graduate Theological Union at Berkeley. Assistant Professor of New Testament Studies, La Sierra University. Revelation, Book of

Harrington, Daniel J. PhD, Harvard University. Professor of New Testament, Boston College School of Theology and Ministry. Additions to Daniel; Additions to Esther; Baruch; Judith; Letter of Jeremiah

Hartin, Patrick J. DTh (Ethics), DTh (New Testament), University of South Africa. Professor of Religious Studies, Gonzaga University. Humility; Judgment

Hatch, Derek C. PhD, University of Dayton. Instructor in Religious Studies, University of Dayton. Technology

Hawk, L. Daniel. PhD, Emory University. Professor of Old Testament and Hebrew, Ashland Theological Seminary. Conquest; Joshua; Judges

Hernandez-Diaz, R. J. PhD Candidate, Iliff School of Theology and University of Denver. MA, Fuller Theological Seminary. Class Conflict; Hatred

Holt, Else K. PhD, Faculty of Theology, University of Aarhus. Associate Professor, Faculty of Theology, University of Aarhus. Jeremiah

Hoppe, Leslie J., OFM. PhD, Northwestern University. Adjunct Professor of Old Testament, Catholic Theological Union. Poverty and Poor

Horrell, David G. PhD, University of Cambridge. Professor of New Testament Studies, University of Exeter. 1 Corinthians; Ecological Ethics

Hovey, Craig. PhD, University of Cambridge. Assistant Professor of Religion, Ashland University. Blessing and Cursing; Libel; Speech Ethics

Howe, Bonnie. PhD, Graduate Theological Union. Visiting Professor of Ethics and Biblical Studies, New College, Berkeley, Graduate Theological Union. Accountability; Authority and Power

Ignatkov, Vladimir. PhD, Fuller Theological Seminary. Seminary Research Specialist, Fuller Theological Seminary. Consequentialism

Iosso, Christian. PhD, Union Theological Seminary. Coordinator for Social Witness Policy, Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.). Social Service, Social Ministry

Jefford, Clayton N. PhD, The Claremont Graduate School. Professor of Scripture, Saint Meinrad School of Theology. Apostolic Fathers; Didache

Jervis, L. Ann. ThD, Wycliffe College, University of Toronto. Professor of New Testament, Wycliffe College, University of Toronto. Suffering

Jones, Beth Felker. PhD, Duke University. Assistant Professor of Theology, Wheaton College. Body

Jones, D. Gareth. MD, University of Otago; DSC, University of Western Australia. Professor of Anatomy and Structural Biology, University of Otago. Death, Definition of

Jones, Peter L. MTS, Brite Divinity School. Adjunct Instructor of Theology, Brite Divinity School. Civil Disobedience

Kallenberg, Brad J. PhD, Fuller Theological Seminary. Associate Professor of Theology, University of Dayton. Character; Technology; Virtue Ethics

Karkkainen, Veli-Matti. DrTheolHabil, University of Helsinki. Professor of Systematic Theology, Fuller Theological Seminary. Ecumenism

Keenan, James, SJ. STL, STD, Gregorian University, Rome. Professor of Theological Ethics, Boston College. Conscience; Contrition; Double Effect, Principle of; Habit; Subsidiarity, Principle of

Kelle, Brad E. PhD, Emory University. Associate Professor of Old Testament, Point Loma Nazarene University. Hosea

Kenney, Maria. Research Student, Durham University. Continence; Food; Gluttony; Temperance

Kiel, Micah D. PhD, Princeton Theological Seminary. Assistant Professor of Theology, St. Ambrose University. Tobit

Kiesling, Chris A. PhD, Texas Tech University. Professor of Human Development and Christian Disciple-ship, Asbury Theological Seminary. Godliness; Moral Development; Right and Wrong

Kilner, John F. PhD, Harvard University. Forman Chair of Ethics and Theology, Trinity International University. Aged, Aging

Kinghorn, Kevin. DPhil, University of Oxford. Associate Professor of Philosophy, Asbury Theological Seminary. Free Will and Determinism; Moral Absolutes

Kinghorn, Warren. MD, Harvard Medical School. Consulting Associate in Psychiatry, Duke University Medical Center; ThD Student, Duke University Divinity School; Staff Psychiatrist, Durham VA Medical Center, Durham, NC. Guilt; Moral Psychology; Passions

Kirk-Duggan, Cheryl. PhD, Baylor University. Professor of Theology and Women’s Studies, Shaw University Divinity School. Abuse; Emancipation

Klein, Ralph W. ThD, Harvard Divinity School. Professor of Old Testament Emeritus, Lutheran School of Theology at Chicago. 1-2 Chronicles

Lapsley, Jacqueline E. PhD, Emory University. Associate Professor of Old Testament, Princeton Theological Seminary. Emotion; Empathy; Moral Agency; Narrative Ethics, Biblical; Priestly Literature; Ruth; Ten Commandments

Laytham, D. Brent. PhD, Duke University. Professor of Theology and Ethics, North Park University. Narrative Ethics, Contemporary

Lee, Eunny P. PhD, Princeton Theological Seminary. Assistant Professor of Old Testament, Princeton Theological Seminary. Ecclesiastes; Isaiah

LeMon, Joel M. PhD, Emory University. Assistant Professor of Old Testament, Candler School of Theology, Emory University. Psalms

Leslie, Kristen J. PhD, The Claremont School of Theology. Associate Professor in Pastoral Care and Counseling, Yale Divinity School. Sexual Abuse; Sexual Harassment

Lewis, James W. PhD, Duke University. Associate Dean, Professor of Theology and Ethics, Anderson University School of Theology. African American Ethics

Logan, J ames Samuel. PhD, Princeton Theological Seminary. Associate Professor of Religion, Associate Professor and Director of African and African American Studies, Earlham College. Prison and Prison Reform

Long, D. Stephen. PhD, Duke University. Professor of Systematic Theology, Marquette University. Cost-

Longenecker, Richard N. DD, Acadia University; DSacTh, Wycliffe College, University of Toronto; PhD, New College, University of Edinburgh. Professor Emeritus of New Testament, Wycliffe College, University of Toronto. Forgiveness; Household Codes; Reconciliation; Resurrection

Lundberg, Matthew D. PhD, Princeton Theological Seminary. Assistant Professor of Religion, Calvin College. Creation Ethics

Lustig, B. Andrew. PhD, University of Virginia. Homes Rolston III Professor of Religion and Science, Davidson College. Artificial Intelligence; Canon Law; Science and Ethics

Luzarraga, Ramon. PhD, Marquette University. Assistant Director of the Institute of Pastoral Initiatives and Faculty of the Department of Religious Studies, University of Dayton. Charity, Works of; Gambling

Lysaught, M. Therese. PhD, Duke University. Associate Professor of Theology and Assistant Department Chair, Marquette University. Confession; Infanticide; Infertility; Liturgy and Ethics; Penitence

MacDonald, Gary B. PhD candidate, Southern Methodist University. Director of Advanced Ministerial Studies, Perkins School of Theology. Deviance; Malice

Magallanes, Hugo. PhD, Drew University. Associate Professor of Christianity and Cultures, Southern Methodist University, Perkins School of Theology. Exploitation; Latino/Latina Ethics; Liberation; Oppression; Preferential Option for the Poor; Solidarity; Wesleyan Ethics

Malcolm, Lois. PhD, University of Chicago. Associate Professor of Systematic Theology, Luther Seminary. Duty

Markham, Paul N. PhD, Durham University. Adjunct Professor of Philosophical Theology, Asbury Theological Seminary. Director of WKU Alive Center for Community Partnerships, Western Kentucky University. Conversion

Marshall, Christopher. PhD, King’s College, University of London. Associate Professor of Religious Studies, Victoria University of Wellington. Capital Punishment; Crime and Criminal Justice; Justice, Restorative; Justice, Retributive; Punishment; Reward and Retribution

McCall, Robin C. PhD student, Princeton Theological Seminary. Holiness Code; Leviticus

McCann, Dennis P. PhD, University of Chicago Divinity School. Wallace M. Alston Professor of Bible and Religion, Agnes Scott College. Good, The

McCarthy, David Matzko. PhD, Duke University. Associate Professor, Mount St. Mary’s University. Norms; Truthfulness, Truth-Telling

McFee, Daniel E. PhD, Marquette University. Associate Professor of Religious Studies and Co-Director of the Evelyn Lincoln Institute for Ethics and Society, Mercyhurst College. Benevolence; Values, Value Judgments

McSwain, Larry L. STD, The Southern Baptist Theological Seminary. Associate Dean, Doctor of Ministry Degree Program; Professor of Leadership; and Watkins Christian Foundation Chair of Ministry; McAfee School of Theology, Mercer University. Baptist Ethics

Mein, Andrew. DPhil, Oxford University. Tutor in Old Testament, Westcott House, Cambridge. Ezekiel

Messer, Neil. PhD, University of Cambridge. Reader in Theology and Head of the Department of Theology and Religious Studies. University of Winchester. Selfishness

Middleton, J. Richard. PhD, Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam. Professor of Biblical Studies, Roberts Wesleyan College. Image of God

Mikoski, Gordon. PhD, Emory University. Assistant Professor of Christian Education, Princeton Theological Seminary. Practices

Miles, Rebekah. PhD, University of Chicago. Associate Professor of Ethics, Perkins School of Theology at Southern Methodist University. Children; Family; Feminist Ethics; Professional Ethics; Work

Miller, Keith Graber. PhD, Emory University. Professor of Bible and Religion, Department Chair, Goshen College. Adoption; Anabaptist Ethics

Miller, Paul D. PhD Student, School of Religion, Claremont Graduate University. Adjunct Professor of Writing, Pitzer College. Proselytism

Moore, Joy Jittaun. PhD, Brunel University/London School of Theology. Associate Dean for Black Church Studies and Church Relations, Duke University Divinity School. Race

Moreland, J. P. PhD, University of Southern California. Distinguished Professor of Philosophy, Talbot School of Theology, Biola University. Dualism, Anthropological

Mott, Stephen Charles. PhD, Harvard University. Professor of Christian Social Ethics Emeritus, Gordon-Conwell Theological Seminary. Justice, Distributive

Muck, Terry C. PhD, N orthwestern University. Dean, E. Stanley Jones School of World Mission and Evangelism, Professor of Missions and World Religions, Asbury Theological Seminary. Religious Toleration

Nation, Mark Thiessen. PhD, Fuller Theological Seminary. Professor of Theology, Eastern Mennonite Seminary. Conscientious Objection; Conscription

Ogletree, Thomas W. PhD, Vanderbilt University. Frederick Marquand Professor Emeritus of Ethics and Religious Studies, Yale University Divinity School.

Okello, Joseph B. Onyango. PhD, University of Kentucky. Visiting Assistant Professor of Philosophy of Christian Religion, Asbury Theological Seminary.

Olson, Dennis T. PhD, Yale University. Charles T. Haley Professor of Old Testament Theology, Princeton Theological Seminary. Adultery; Deuteronomy; Exodus; Genesis; Law; Murder; Numbers; Torah; Vows

O’Neil, William, SJ. PhD, Yale University. Associate Professor of Social Ethics, J esuit School of Theology, Santa Clara University. Natural Rights

Paeth, Scott. PhD, Princeton Theological Seminary. Assistant Professor of Religious Studies, DePaul University. Desertion; Teleological Theories of Ethics; Trade

Parry, Robin. PhD, University of Gloucestershire. Editorial Director, Paternoster, an imprint of Authentic Media. Prostitution

Payne, Richard. MD, Harvard Medical School. Professor of Medicine and Divinity, Duke Divinity School. Hospice

Perdue, Leo G. PhD, Vanderbilt University. Professor of Hebrew Bible, Brite Divinity School. Wisdom Literature

Phillips, Susan S. PhD, University of California Berkeley. Executive Director and Professor, New College Berkeley, Graduate Theological Union. Care, Caring

Pinches, Charles R. PhD, University of Notre Dame. Professor of Theology and Religious Studies, University of Scranton. Faith; Hope; Patience

Pohl, Christine D. PhD, Emory University. Professor of Social Ethics, Asbury Theological Seminary.

Portier-Young, Anathea. PhD, Duke University. Assistant Professor of Old Testament, Duke Divinity School. Daniel; 1 Maccabees; 2 Maccabees

Post, Stephen. PhD, University of Chicago. Professor, Director of the Center for Medical Humanities, Compassionate Care, and Bioethics, Stony Brook University. Altruism; Dementia; Sanctity of Human Life

Powell, Mark Allan. PhD, Union Theological Seminary, Virginia. Robert and Phyllis Leatherman Professor of New Testament, Trinity Lutheran Seminary. Generosity; Stewardship

Premnath, D. N. ThD, Graduate Theological Union, Berkeley. Academic Dean and Associate Professor of Hebrew Bible, St. Bernard’s School of Theology and Ministry. Habakkuk; Joel; Malachi; Nahum; Obadiah; Zephaniah

Pressler, Carolyn. PhD, Princeton Theological Seminary. Harry C. Piper Jr. Professor of Biblical Interpretation, United Theological Seminary of the Twin Cities. Equality; Incest; Virginity

Rae, Scott B. PhD, University of Southern California. Professor of Christian Ethics, Talbot School of Theology, Biola University. Dualism, Anthropological

Rasmussen, Larry L. PhD, Union Theological Seminary, New York City. Reinhold Niebuhr Professor Emeritus of Social Ethics, Union Theological Seminary, New York City. Economic Ethics

Ray, Stephen G., Jr. PhD, Yale University. Neal F. and Ila A. Fisher Professor of Theology, Garrett-Evangelical Theological Seminary. Good Works; Harm

Reed, Esther D. PhD, Dunelm, University of Durham. Associate Professor of Theological Ethics, University of Exeter. Government

Reese, Ruth Anne. PhD, University of Sheffield. Associate Professor of New Testament, Asbury Theological Seminary. 1-3 John

Reuschling, Wyndy Corbin. PhD, Drew University. Professor of Ethics and Theology, Ashland Theological Seminary. Divine Command Theories of Ethics; Egalitarianism; Evangelical Ethics; Manipulation

Roberts, J. J. M. PhD, Harvard University. W. H. Green Professor of Old Testament Literature Emeritus. Necromancy

Roels, Shirley J. PhD, Michigan State University. Professor of Management, Calvin College. Profit

Rosner, Brian. PhD, University of Cambridge. Professor of New Testament and Ethics, Moore Theological College. Idolatry

Ross, Chanon R. PhD candidate, Garrett Evangelical Theological Seminary. Goodness; Obscenity; Propaganda; Sex Discrimination; Terrorism

Rynkiewich, Michael A. PhD, University of Minnesota. Professor of Anthropology, Asbury Theological Seminary. Bribery; Colonialism and Postcolonialism; Culture; Land

Sandoval, Timothy J. PhD, Emory University. Associate Professor of Hebrew Bible, Chicago Theological Seminary. Proverbs

Schlimm, Matthew R. PhD, Duke University. Assistant Professor of Old Testament, University of Dubuque Theological Seminary. Perfection; Prisoners of War

Schuurman, Douglas J. PhD, University of Chicago. Professor of Religion, St. Olaf College. Gratitude; Moral Law

Sechrest, Love L. PhD, Duke University. Assistant Professor of New Testament, Fuller Theological Seminary. Antinomianism; Prejudice; Racism

Sedgwick, Timothy F. PhD, Vanderbilt University. Vice President and Associate Dean for Academic Affairs, Virginia Theological Seminary. Anglican Ethics and Moral Theology

Sensenig, Kent Davis. PhD candidate, Fuller Theological Seminary. Assistant Professor of Bible and Religion, Eastern Mennonite University. Resistance Movements

Seow, Choon-Leong. PhD, Harvard University. Professor of Old Testament Language and Literature, Princeton Theological Seminary. Job

Shuman, Joel James. PhD, Duke University. Associate Professor of Theology and Department Chair, King’s College. Anger; Foster Care

Sider, Ronald J. PhD, Yale University. Professor of Theology, Holistic Ministry, and Public Policy, Palmer Theological Seminary. Economic Development

Siker, Jeffrey S. Professor and Chair, Department of Theological Studies, Loyola Marymount University. Homosexuality

Siker, Judy Yates. PhD, University of North Carolina. Vice-President and Professor of New Testament and Christian Origins, San Francisco Theological Seminary. Anti-Semitism

Simpson, Gary M. ThD, Christ Seminary-Seminex. Professor of Systematic Theology and Director, Center for Missional Leadership, Luther Seminary. Fruit of the Spirit; Just-War Theory; Law and Gospel; Lutheran Ethics

Smit, Dirkie. DTh, Stellenbosch University. Professor of Systematic Theology, Stellenbosch University. Reformed Ethics

Smith, Jordan. PhD, Florida State University. Lecturer in Biblical Studies, The University of Iowa. Vice

Smith-Christopher, Daniel. DPhil, Oxford University. Professor of Theological Studies, Loyola Mary-mount University. Exile

Sours, Sarah Conrad. PhD candidate, Duke University. Visiting Instructor, Southwestern College. Asceticism; Quality of Life; Tolerance

Spencer, F. Scott. PhD, University of Durham. Professor of New Testament and Preaching, Baptist Theological Seminary at Richmond. Imitation of Jesus; Jubilee

Stackhouse, Max L. PhD, Harvard University. De Vries Professor of Theology and Public Life Emeritus, Princeton Theological Seminary. Business Ethics; Consumerism; Covenant; Democracy; Dirty Hands; Genocide; Globalization; Humanitarianism; Public Theology and Ethics; Rights; Taxation

Stassen, Glen H. PhD, Duke University. Lewis B. Smedes Professor of Christian Ethics, Fuller Theological Seminary. Beatitudes; Common Good; Just-Peacemaking Theory; Sermon on the Mount

Stratton, Lawrence M. JD, Georgetown University; PhD, Princeton Theological Seminary. Lecturer in Human Studies, Waynesburg University. Privacy

Stubbs, David L. PhD, Duke University. Associate Professor of Ethics and Theology, Western Theological Seminary. Theocracy

Sumney, Jerry L. PhD, Southern Methodist University. Professor of Biblical Studies, Lexington Theological Seminary. Colossians; Ephesians; 1-2 Thessalonians

Swartley, Willard M. PhD, Princeton Theological Seminary. Professor Emeritus of New Testament, Associated Mennonite Biblical Seminary. Mutual Aid; Peace; Sabbath; Slavery

Swinton, John. PhD, University of Aberdeen. Chair in Divinity and Religious Studies, Professor in Practical Theology and Pastoral Care, University of Aberdeen. Mental Health; Pedophilia; Self-Esteem; Self-Harm

Tarpley, Mark A. PhD, Southern Methodist University. Child Abuse; Childlessness; Justification, Moral; Orthodox Ethics

Thobaben, James R. PhD, Emory University. Professor of Church in Society, Asbury Theological Seminary. Civil Rights; Healthcare Ethics; Motive(s); Nihilism; Social Contract

Tink, Fletcher L. PhD, Fuller Theological Seminary. Executive Director, Bresee Institute for Metro-Ministries, Nazarene Theological Seminary. Conflict; Homelessness

Towner, Philip H. PhD, University of Aberdeen. Dean of The Nida Institute for Biblical Scholarship, American Bible Society. Submission and Subordination

Tran, Jonathan. PhD, Duke University. Assistant Professor of Theological Ethics, Baylor University. Humanity; Nationalism

Trimiew, Darryl. PhD, Emory University. Chair of the Department of Philosophy and Religion, Med-gar Evers College. Obligation

Trull, Joe E. ThD, Southwestern Baptist Theological Seminary. Editor, Christian Ethics Today Journal. Deception

Van Til, Kent A. PhD, Marquette University. Assistant Professor of Religion, Hope College. World Poverty, World Hunger

Veeneman, Mary M. PhD, Fordham University. Assistant Professor of Biblical and Theological Studies, N orth Park University. Death and Dying; Dependent Care

Verhey, Allen. PhD, Yale University. Professor of Theological Ethics, Duke University Divinity School. Bioethics; Ethics in Scripture; Marriage and Divorce; Suicide; Theft

Vogt, Christopher P. PhD, Boston College. Associate Professor of Moral Theology, St. J ohn’s University, New York. Ars Moriendi Tradition, Use of Scripture in

Vondergeest, Craig. PhD, Union Theological Seminary, Virginia. Assistant Professor of Religion, Presbyterian College. 1-2 Kings

Wadell, Paul J. PhD, University of Notre Dame. Professor of Religious Studies, St. Norbert College. Friendship, Friendship Ethics

Wagner, Amy Renee. PhD candidate, Loyola University Chicago. Autonomy; Confidentiality

Warner, Laceye C. PhD, Trinity College, University of Bristol. Associate Dean for Academic Formation and Programs, Associate Professor of the Practice of Evangelism and Methodist Studies, The Royce and Jane Reynolds Teaching Fellow, Duke University Divinity School. Evangelism

Weaver, Darlene Fozard. PhD, The University of Chicago. Associate Professor of Theology and Director of The Theology Institute, Villanova University. Birth Control; Celibacy; Conception; Eugenics; Procreation

Webb, Stephen H. PhD, University of Chicago Divinity School. Professor of Religion and Philosophy, Wabash College. Vegetarianism

Wenk, Matthias. PhD, Brunel University. Chair, Department of Theology and Pastor, InstitutPlus and BewegungPlus. Holy Spirit

Westmoreland-White, Michael. PhD, The Southern Baptist Theological Seminary. Outreach Coordinator, Every Church a Peace Church. Golden Rule

Wheeler, Sondra E. PhD, Yale University. Carr Professor of Christian Ethics, Wesley Theological Seminary. Discernment, Moral; Enemy, Enemy Love; Property and Possessions

Williams, Paul Spencer. MA, Oxford University. David J. Brown Professor of Marketplace Theology and Leadership, Regent College. Capitalism

Willis, Amy C. Merrill. PhD, Emory University. Assistant Professor of Religious Studies, Gonzaga University. Dead Sea Scrolls

Wilson, Jonathan R. PhD, Duke University. Pioneer McDonald Professor of Theology, Carey Theological College. Pride; Virtue(s)

Woodley, Randy S. PhD, Asbury Theological Seminary. Distinguished Adjunct Faculty, George Fox Evangelical Seminary. Reparation

Wright, John W. PhD, University of Notre Dame. Professor of Theology and Christian Scriptures, Point Loma Nazarene University. Grace; Salvation; Sanctification

Yamada, Frank. PhD, Princeton Theological Seminary. Associate Professor of Hebrew Bible and Director for the Center for Asian American Ministries, McCormick Theological Seminary. Rape; Shame

Ybarrola, Steven. PhD, Brown University. Professor of Cultural Anthropology, Asbury Theological Seminary. Cross-Cultural Ethics; Ethnic Identity, Ethnicity

Old Testament Pseudepigrapha
2 Bar.	2 Baruch (Syriac Apocalypse)
Ezek. Trag.	Ezekiel the Tragedian
L.A.B.	Liber antiquitatum biblicarum
(Pseudo-Philo)
Let. Aris.	Letter of Aristeas
Pss. Sol.	Psalms of Solomon
T. 12 Patr.	Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs
T. Ash.	Testament of Asher
T. Gad	Testament of Gad
T. Iss.	Testament of Issachar
T. Levi	Testament of Levi
T. Reu.	Testament of Reuben
T. Job	Testament of Job
Dead Sea Scroll	s
CD-A	Damascus Document^a
1QS	Rule of the Community
Rabbinic Tractates
Ber.	Berakot
Git.	Gittin
Menah.	Menahot
Ros. Has.	Ros Hassanah
Sabb.	Sabbat
Sanh.	Sanhedrin
Sebu.	Sebu ot
Yoma	Yoma (= Kippurim)
Other Rabbinic Works
Abot R. Nat.	’Abot de Rabbi Nathan
Rab.	Rabbah (+ biblical book)
Sip re	Sipre
Apostolic Fathers
Barn.	Epistle of Barnabas
1—2 Clem.	1—2 Clement
Did.	Didache
Diog.	Epistle to Diognetus
Herm. Mand.	Shepherd of Hermes, Mandate(s)
Herm. Sim.	Shepherd of Hermes, Similitude(s)
Ign. Magn.	Ignatius, To the Magnesians
Ign. Rom.	Ignatius, To the Romans
Pol. Phil.	Polycarp, To the Philippians
New Testament	Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha
Apos. Con.	Apostolic Constitutions and Canons
Papyri P.Bod.	Bodmer Papyri
Greek and Latin Works
Ambrose Hel.	De Helia et Jejunio
Vid.	De viduis
Virg.	De virginibus
Aristotle De an.	De anima
Eth. nic.	Ethica nichomachea (Nichomachean
Ethics)
Pol.	Politica

Exc. Excerpta ex Theodoto (Excerpts from

Theodotus)

Paed. Paedagogus (Christ the Educator)

Quis. div. Quis dives salvetur (Salvation of the Rich)

Diogenes Laertius

Lives Lives of Eminent Philosophers

Epictetus

Diatr. Diatribai (Dissertationes)

Gregory of Nyssa

Op. hom. De opificio hominis (On the Making of

Man)

Herodotus

Hist. Historiae (Histories)

Irenaeus

Haer. Adversus haereses

Jerome

Epist. Epistulae

Josephus

Ag. Ap. Against Apion

Ant. Jewish Antiquities

J.W. Jewish War

Justin Martyr

1 Apol. Apologia i (First Apology)

2 Apol. Apologia ii (Second Apology)

Dial. Dialogus cum Tryphone (Dialogue with

Trypho)

In epistulam Johannis ad Parthos tractatus (Tractates on the First Epistle of John)

rorty years ago, when James M. Gustafson surveyed the state of the discipline in Christian ethics, he called attention to the relation of Christian ethics and biblical studies and lamented the “paucity of material that relates the two areas in a scholarly way” (Gustafson 337). Many echoed Gustafson’s complaint, both from within Christian ethics and from within biblical studies. The complaint prompted the development of a considerable literature, as both moral theologians and biblical scholars attempted to relate Scripture and ethics “in a scholarly way.” Whatever else may be lamented about scholarly attention to the relation of Scripture and ethics, one can no longer lament a “paucity of material.”

The growth of this literature is one reason for the Dictionary of Scripture and Ethics. Students need a reference tool that will survey the literature and provide an introduction to the ethics of Scripture, to the relevance of Scripture to contemporary moral questions, and to the paths by which one might make a way from ethics to Scripture and back again. Pastors need a reference tool that will survey the relation of Scripture and ethics in a way relevant to their tasks of preaching, teaching, and counseling. And specialists in biblical studies or in Christian ethics who want to enter a conversation with the specialists in the other discipline need a reference tool that will provide an account of particular features of the other discipline that are especially relevant to the conversation between disciplines.

A second reason for compiling the Dictionary of Scripture and Ethics, however, is that for all the scholarly attention to the relation of Scripture and ethics, it remains a labyrinth. Among some, and for a variety of reasons, the study of Scripture has little, if anything, to contribute to the study of moral theology. There are biblical scholars who regard it as no part of the task of their discipline to form or inform the way Christians understand and embody Scripture. And there are Christian ethicists who regard the biblical text as at best marginally important to the ways in which Christian ethics should be undertaken. On the other hand, there are some who regard the Bible as a timeless moral code that simply needs to be repeated and obeyed today. For still others, the biblical witness may be relevant today, but the trail from ancient Scripture to contemporary moral questions is an arduous one, best left to those who are experts on that trail, to a scholarly or ecclesiastical magiste-rium. And for yet others, including many scholars, the complexities and language of one discipline or the other make a meaningful conversation difficult, if not impossible.

In some ways, reasons for the troubled relationship between the Bible and ethics are easy to understand. Straightforward attempts to follow the Bible on any number of issues have long been frustrated by changing contexts. The world of Leviticus is not the world of 1 Corinthians, and neither of these is our world. Even if the theological considerations of religious communities demand wrestling with the ramifications of these ancient texts for faith and life, it remains the case that, historically speaking, they were not written “for/to/about us.” Within the Bible itself, we find attempts to reappropriate legal texts, for example, in new settings, and these interpretive impulses continued—and continue—in all sorts of attempts to comment on, apply, and embody these writings. Indeed, a common feature of ancient Judaism was “the realization that there was no pure teaching of Revelation apart from its regeneration or clarification through an authoritative type of exegesis” (Fishbane 4). Moving outside the interpretation of biblical texts among the biblical writers themselves, the translation of the Hebrew Bible into Greek (LXX) and the development of the targumic tradition served further to codify interpretive traditions. The Qum-ran scrolls evidence a vast exegetical enterprise, with two commitments not so much juxtaposed as intertwined: to the authority of the Scriptures and to their interpretation and embodiment in the community of the faithful. The traditions of midrashim that subsequently grew up around the Scriptures similarly engaged in a dialogue with the biblical texts, extending their meaning from the past into the present, with “readers fighting to find what they must in the holy text” (Boyarin 16). That is, precisely because of the status of the biblical texts as Scripture, their immediacy to contemporary readers was a nonnegotiable presupposition; their capacity to speak on God’s behalf in the readers’ present and to be embodied in their lives was crucial.

The rise of historical criticism brought to the surface another challenge: diversity within the biblical canon. How does one present a biblical perspective on a given question when the Bible contains within its covers diverse approaches to the same issue? One answer has been a kind of harmonization that makes all of the voices speak as though they were one, in spite of the fact that no single voice in Scripture, taken on its own, could ever be heard to speak in just that way. Another answer has been to allow one voice to speak for all. In Protestant circles, the voice of choice has typically been Pauline, especially as heard in Romans. When thinking of the theology of James or John or Jude, according to this strategy, one is more likely to hear the voice of the Pauline ventriloquist than that of James, John, or Jude. A third answer has focused on the search for the coordinating center of Scripture—“covenant,” for example, or “reconciliation”—the effect of which has been to mute alternatives within the canon. A fourth has been to focus on Scripture’s metanarrative, a unity that lies in the character and activity of God that comes to expression in various but recognizably similar ways in these various texts. Fifth, many have found in the diversity of Scripture a reason to reject outright the possibility of using Scripture as a normative source in theology and ethics.

Other issues challenge us. We find in the Bible puzzling texts, some that offend both our own sensibilities and those of our forebears. What are we to make of the imprecatory psalms, for example, or apparently divinely sanctioned violence within families or among peoples, or strained rhetoric and oppressive perspectives regarding the status and role of women? These are not new questions, but have long tested the interpretive ingenuity of the Bible’s readers (Thompson). We face issues today about which texts from another time and place can hardly be expected to have anything to say, at least not in a direct way. The Dictionary of Scripture and Ethics does not pretend to resolve all of these problems but rather serves to codify the issues and to identify ways in which they are being acknowledged and addressed in contemporary discussion.

The Dictionary of Scripture and Ethics aims to provide a map that will locate and orient conversations about the relation of Scripture and ethics. With essays and contributors representative of the full array of relevant concerns, the Dictionary of Scripture and Ethics will become a useful, indeed essential, resource to which students, pastors, and scholars turn for orientation and perspective on Scripture and ethics. It may be too much to hope that this dictionary will provide a way out of the labyrinth, but it aims to provide a little light on the path. Then perhaps the confidence of the psalmist that “[God’s] word is a light to [our] path” (Ps. 119:105b) may be restored in the church.

At the outset the Dictionary of Scripture and Ethics departs from a conventional alphabetical listing of entries by providing three introductory articles. These survey, respectively, ethics within Scripture, historical perspectives on the place of Scripture in moral theology, and methodological issues concerning the relevance of Scripture to contemporary moral theology. These articles provide an orientation for the volume and for its users. Many of the items surveyed in these introductory articles will be more fully developed in other entries of the dictionary, but the introductory articles will serve to set the more particular entries in a larger context. So, for example, the introductory essay on ethics within Scripture will be developed further and sometimes challenged by the separate entries on each of the biblical books and by additional articles on genres, codes, and so forth found within Scripture. Similarly, the introductory article on historical perspectives of the role of Scripture in moral theology will be supplemented and sometimes challenged by separate entries on different communities of interpretation, on different key figures in the history of moral theology, and on the history of interpretation of some important biblical and moral topics. Finally, the issues surveyed in the introductory article on methodological questions concerning the relevance of Scripture to moral concerns will be revisited by some of the entries both on Scripture and on particular moral issues.

Among the entries located within the alphabetical listings are three different kinds of articles.

There are, first, articles on the relation of ethics and Scripture. There are articles, for example, on certain modes of moral reasoning and the ways in which those modes of moral reasoning have shaped appeals to Scripture in Christian ethics. There are articles on distinctive communities and traditions of biblical interpretation and moral reflection, highlighting the ways in which such communities and traditions shape appeals to Scripture in Christian ethics. There are entries on some important hermeneutical and methodological considerations concerning the relation of Scripture and Christian ethics.

There are, second, articles on ethics within Scripture. These entries focus on the ethics of each of the books of the Bible and on the possible significance of each book for contemporary Christian ethics. They sketch some of the moral issues explicitly addressed in the book and some of the patterns of moral reasoning displayed in the book. They supplement the introductory essay on “Ethics in Scripture,” but they are also supplemented by later articles on genres, collections, and passages found within Scripture. So, for example, one will find in addition to the entry on Matthew an entry on the Sermon on the Mount. The entry

on Exodus might be supplemented by attention to entries in the alphabetical section on Law and the Covenant. In addition to articles focused on biblical books, however, articles attending to the ethics within Scripture will focus on passages that have played a particularly significant role in Christian ethics, for example, the Jubilee, the Golden Rule, and the Love Commandment; on the relevance of particular genres within Scripture to moral reflection; and on some of the material that may, as some have argued, have provided documentary sources for the canonical books.

The third type of article within the alphabetical listings is focused on issues in Christian ethics. These issues include both classical and contemporary issues. The entries include both major “orientation” articles on topics like bioethics, ecological ethics, economic ethics, political ethics, and sexual ethics, and shorter articles focused on more particular issues, like abortion, technology, capitalism, pacifism, and marriage. Again the more narrowly focused articles will supplement the broader “orientation” articles. Some of these articles begin with attention to Scripture and move toward attention to the contemporary discussion; some begin by introducing the contemporary issues and then retrieve biblical materials; but each entry works to join Scripture and ethics.

With its introductory essays, entries on the biblical books, major “orientation” articles, and different types of entries with their bibliographies and cross-references, the Dictionary of Scripture and Ethics will be a valuable resource for all of those students, pastors, and scholars who want Scripture to form and inform their moral reflection and conversation and want their study of Scripture to be formed and informed by an interest in ethics.

Boyarin, D. Intertextuality and the Reading of Midrash. ISBL. University of Indiana Press, 1990; Fishbane, M. “Inner-biblical Exegesis: Types and Strategies of Interpretation in Ancient Israel.” Pages 3—18 in The Garments of Torah: Essays in Biblical Hermeneutics. ISBL. Indiana University Press, 1989; Gustafson, J. M. “Christian Ethics.” Pages 285—354 in Religion, ed. P. Ramsey. Prentice-Hall, 1965; Thompson, J. L. Reading the Bible with the Dead. Eerdmans, 2007.

thics may be defined as disciplined reflection concerning moral conduct and character. In Scripture, such reflection is always disciplined by convictions about God’s will and way and by commitments to be faithful to God. Biblical ethics is inalienably theological. To sunder biblical ethics from the convictions about God that surround it and sustain it is to distort it. The fundamental unity of biblical ethics is simply this: there is one God in Scripture, and it is that one God who calls forth the creative reflection and faithful response of those who would be God’s people.

That unity, however, is joined to an astonishing diversity. The Bible contains many books and more traditions, each addressed first to a particular community of God’s people facing concrete questions of conduct in specific cultural and social contexts. Its reflections on the moral life, moreover, come in diverse modes of discourse. They come sometimes in statute, sometimes in story. They come sometimes in proverb, sometimes in prophetic promises (or threats). They come sometimes in remembering the past, sometimes in envisioning the future. The one God of Scripture assures the unity of biblical ethics, but there is no simple uni-tive understanding even of that one God or of that one God’s will. To force biblical ethics into a timeless and systematic unity is to impoverish it. Still, there is but one God, to whom loyalty is due and to whom God’s people respond in all of their responses to changing moral contexts.

The one God formed a people by deliverance and covenant. The story was told in countless recitals of Israel’s faith. The God of Abraham heard their cries when they were slaves, rescued them from Pharaoh’s oppression, and made them a people with a covenant (e.g., Deut. 6:20-25; 26:59; Josh. 24:2-13). The covenant, like an ancient suzerainty treaty, acknowledged and confirmed that

God was the great king of Israel and that Israel was God’s people. (George E. Mendenhall provided the classic description of ancient treaties in relation to Torah.) And like those ancient treaties, Israel’s covenant began by identifying God as the great king and by reciting God’s kindness to Israel (e.g., Exod. 20:2). It continued with stipulations forbidding loyalty to any other god as sovereign and requiring justice and peace in the land (e.g., Exod. 20:3-17). And it ended with provisions for the periodic renewal of covenant and with assurances of God’s blessing on faithfulness to covenant and the threat of punishment for violation of the covenant (e.g., Exod. 23:22-33).

The remembered story and the covenant formed a community and its common life. And if Gerhard von Rad is right, they also provided a framework for the gathering of stories and stipulations into larger narrative and legal traditions (J, E, D, and P; various codes), and finally, for the gathering of those traditions into the Torah.

Much of the Torah (usually translated “law”) is legal material. Various collections (e.g., the Decalogue [Exod. 20:1-17; Deut. 5:6-21]; the Covenant Code [Exod. 20:22-23:19]; the Holiness Code [Lev. 17-26]; the Deuteronomic Code [Deut. 4:44-28:46]) can be identified and correlated with particular periods of Israel’s history. The later collections sometimes revised earlier legislation. It was evidently not the case that the whole law was given at once as a timeless code. Rather, the lawmakers displayed both fidelity to the earlier legal traditions and creativity with them as they responded both to new situations and to God.

Although the Torah contains no tidy distinction between ceremonial, civil, and moral laws, the traditional rubrics do identify significant functions of the legal material. As “ceremonial,” the legal materials in Torah struggled against temptations offered by foreign cults to covenant infidelity and nurtured a communal memory and commitment to covenant. As “civil,” the Torah had a fundamentally theocratic vision. In this theocratic vision, the rulers were ruled too; they were subjects, not creators, of the law. Such a conviction, by its warnings against royal despotism, had a democratizing effect. As “moral,” the statutes protected the family and its economic participation in God’s gift of the land. They protected persons and their property. They required fairness in disputes and economic transactions. And they provided for the care and protection of vulnerable members of the society, such as widows, orphans, resident aliens, and the poor.

The legal materials never escaped the story or the covenant. Set in the context of narrative and covenant, the legal traditions were construed as grateful response to God’s works and ways. Moreover, the story formed and informed the statutes. The story of the one God who heard the cries of slaves in Egypt stood behind the legal protections for the vulnerable (e.g., Exod. 22:21-23; Lev. 19:33-34).

The narratives of the Torah were morally significant in their own right. Artfully told, they rendered the work and the will of the God to whom loyalty was due. They put on display something of God’s cause and character, the cause and character to be shared by the faithful people of God. Noteworthy among such narratives were the stories of creation. They affirmed that the one God of covenant is the God of creation too. This is no tribal deity; this is the one God of the universe. In the beginning there is a narrative prohibition of idolatry as compelling as any statute; nothing that God made is god. In the beginning there is a celebration of the material world and a narrative prohibition of anything like Platonic or gnostic dualism; all that God made is good. It was, in the beginning, an orderly and peaceable world. There is a narrative invitation to a common life of gratitude for the blessings of God. When the curse fell heavy on God’s good creation, the one God would not let human sin or the curse have the last word in God’s world. God came again to covenant and to bless, blessing Abraham with the promise that in him “all the families of the earth shall be blessed” (Gen. 12:1-3). The Yahwist’s stories of the patriarchs not only trace the blessing of David’s empire to that promise but also form political dispositions to use the technical and administrative skills of empire to bless the subject nations (Gen. 18-19; 26; 30:27-28; 39-41) (see Wolff).

The one God who created the world, who rescued slaves from Pharaoh and made covenant with a people, spoke to those people through the prophets. The prophets came as messengers of the great king. They came with a particular word for a particular time, but they always reminded the people of the story and the covenant and called the people to respond faithfully.

Frequently, in resistance to unfaithfulness, they brought a word of judgment. The sum of their indictment was always the same: the people have violated the covenant (e.g., 1 Kgs. 19:10, 14; Hos. 8:1). Concretely—and the message of the prophet was always concrete—some specific idolatry or injustice was condemned as infidelity to the covenant. The infidelity of idolatry was never merely a cultic matter. The claims of Baal, for example, involved the fertility of wombs and land and an account of ownership. The prophetic announcement of God’s greater power freed the people to farm a land stripped of claims to divinity but acknowledged as God’s gift, and it required them to share the produce of that land with the poor. The infidelity of injustice was never merely a moral matter, for the one God of covenant demanded justice, and the welfare of the poor and powerless was the best index of covenant fidelity. So the prophets denounced unjust rulers, greedy merchants, corrupt judges, and the complacent rich. Their harshest criticisms, however, were aimed at those who celebrated covenant in ritual and ceremony but violated it by failing to protect the poor and powerless (e.g., Amos 5:21-24).

On the other side of God’s judgment the prophets saw and announced the good future of God. God will reign and establish both peace and justice, not only in Israel but also among the nations, and not only among the nations but also in the whole creation. That future was not contingent on human striving, but it already made claims on the present, affecting human vision and dispositions and actions. The prophets and the faithful were to be ready to suffer for the sake of God’s cause in the world.

The will and way of the one God could be known not only in the great events of liberation and covenant, not only in the oracles of the prophets, but also in the regularities of nature and experience. When the sages of Israel gave moral counsel, they seldom appealed directly to Torah or to covenant. Their advice concerning moral character and conduct was, rather, disciplined and tested by experience.

Carefully attending to nature and experience, the wise comprehended the basic principles operative in the world. To conform to these principles was at once a matter of piety, prudence, and morality. The one God who created the world has established and secured the order and stability of ordinary life. So the sage could give advice about eating and drinking, about sleeping and working, about the way to handle money and anger, about relating to friends and enemies and women and fools, about when to speak and when to be silent—in short, about almost anything that is a part of human experience.

The ethics of the sage tended to be conservative, for the experience of the community over time provided a fund of wisdom, but the immediacy of experience kept the tradition open to challenge and revision. The ethics of the sage tended to be prudential, but experience sometimes could teach that the righteous may suffer, and that there is no tidy fit between piety, prudence, and morality (Job). The ethics of the sage tended to delight both in the simple things of life, such as the love between a man and a woman (Song of Songs), and in the quest for wisdom itself. Experience itself, however, could teach that wisdom has its limits in the inscrutable (Job 28), and that the way things seem to work in the world cannot simply be identified with the ways of God (Ecclesiastes).

Wisdom reflected about conduct and character quite differently than did the Torah and the prophets, but, like “the beginning of wisdom” (Prov. 1:7; 9:10), “the end of the matter” was a reminder of covenant: “Fear God and keep his commandments; for that is the whole duty of every one” (Eccl. 12:13). The beginning and end of wisdom kept wisdom in touch with Torah, struggling to keep Torah in touch with experience, and covenant in touch with creation.

The one God of creation and covenant, of Abraham and Israel, of Moses and David, of prophet and sage raised the crucified Jesus of Nazareth from the dead. That good news was celebrated among his followers as the vindication of Jesus and his message, as the disclosure of God’s power and purpose, and as the guarantee of God’s good future. The resurrection was a cause for great joy; it was also the basis for NT ethics and its exhortations to live in memory and in hope, to see moral conduct and character in the light of Jesus’ story, and to discern a life and a common life “worthy of the gospel of Christ” (Phil. 1:27).

The resurrection was the vindication of Jesus of Nazareth as the Christ. He had come announcing that “the kingdom of God has come near” (Mark 1:15), that the coming cosmic sovereignty of God, the good future of God, was at hand. And he had made that future present; he had made its power felt already in his words of blessing and in his works of healing. He called the people to repent, to form their conduct and character in response to the good news of that coming future. He called his followers to “watch” for it and to pray for it, to welcome its presence, and to form community and character in ways that anticipated that future and responded to the ways that future was already making its power felt in him.

Such was the eschatological shape of Jesus’ ethic. He announced the future in axioms such as “Many who are first will be last, and the last will be first” (Mark 10:31; Matt. 19:30; Luke 13:30). He made that future present by his presence among the disciples “as one who serves” (Luke 22:27; cf. Matt. 20:28; Mark 10:45; John 13:2-17). And he called the people to welcome such a future and to follow him in commands such as “Whoever wants to be first must be last of all and servant of all” (Mark 9:35; cf. 10:44). To delight already in a coming kingdom in which the poor are blessed was even now to be carefree about wealth (Matt. 6:25, 31, 34; Luke 12:22) and to give generously to help the poor (Mark 10:21; Luke 12:33). To welcome even now a kingdom that belongs to children (Mark 10:14) was to welcome and to bless them (Mark 9:37). To respond faithfully to a future that was signaled by Jesus’ open conversation with women (e.g., Mark 7:24-30; John 4:1-26) was already to treat women as equals. To celebrate God’s forgiveness that made its power felt in Jesus’ fellowship with sinners (e.g., Mark 2:5; Luke 7:48) was to welcome sinners and to forgive one’s enemies.

Because Jesus announced and already unveiled the coming reign of God, he spoke “as one having authority” (Mark 1:22), not simply on the basis of the law or the tradition or the regularities of experience. And because the coming reign of God demanded a response of the whole person and not merely external observance of the law, Jesus consistently made radical demands. So Jesus’ radical demand for truthfulness replaced (and fulfilled) legal casuistry about oaths. The radical demand to forgive and to be reconciled set aside (and fulfilled) legal limitations on revenge. The demand to love even enemies put aside legal debates about the meaning of “neighbor.” His moral instructions were based neither on the precepts of law nor on the regularities of experience, but he did not discard them either; law and wisdom were qualified and fulfilled in this ethic of response to the future reign of the one God of Scripture.

This Jesus was put to death on a Roman cross, but the resurrection vindicated both Jesus and God’s own faithfulness. This one who died in solidarity with the least, with sinners and the oppressed, and with all who suffer was delivered by God. This Jesus, humble in his life, humiliated by religious and political authorities in his death, was exalted by God. When the powers of death and doom had done their damnedest, God raised up this Jesus and established forever the good future he had announced.

The Gospels used the church’s memories of Jesus’ words and deeds to tell his story faithfully and creatively. So they shaped the character and conduct of the communities that they addressed. Each Gospel provided a distinctive account both of Jesus and of the meaning of discipleship. In Mark, Jesus was the Christ as the one who suffered, and he called for a heroic discipleship. Mark’s account of the ministry of Jesus opened with the call to dis-cipleship (1:16-20). The central section of Mark’s Gospel, with its three predictions of the passion, made it clear how heroic and dangerous an adventure discipleship could be. “If any want to become my followers, let them deny themselves and take up their cross and follow me” (8:34 [and note the allusions to martyrdom in 8:35; 10:38-39]).

Hard on the heels of that saying Mark set the story of the transfiguration (9:2-8), in which a voice from heaven declared, “This is my Son, the Beloved; listen to him!” It is striking that the voice did not say, “Look at him, all dazzling white.” The voice said, “Listen to him.” Silent during the transfiguration, Jesus ordered the disciples to say nothing of what they had seen until the resurrection, and then he told them once again that he, the Son of Man, “is to go through many sufferings and be treated with contempt” (9:12). Mark proceeded to tell the story of the passion, the story of a Christ who was rejected, betrayed, denied, deserted, condemned, handed over, mocked, and crucified, but still was the Son of God, the Beloved, and finally vindicated by God. The implications are as clear as they are shocking: Jesus is the Christ not by displaying some tyrannical power, not by lording it over others, but rather by his readiness to suffer for the sake of God’s cause in the world and by his readiness to serve others humbly in self-giving love (cf. 10:42-44). And to be his disciple in this world is to share that readiness to suffer for the sake of God’s cause and that readiness to serve others humbly in self-giving love.

The call to heroic discipleship was sustained by the call to watchfulness to which it was joined (13:33-37), by the expectation that, in spite of the apparent power of religious leaders and Roman rulers, God’s good future was sure to be.

Mark’s call to watchful and heroic discipleship touched topics besides the readiness to suffer for the sake of God’s cause, and it illumined even the most mundane of them with the same freedom and daring. Discipleship was not to be reduced to obedience to any law or code. Rules about fasting (2:18-22), Sabbath observance (2:23-3:6), and the distinction between “clean” and “unclean” (7:123) belonged to the past, not to the community marked by freedom and watchfulness. The final norm was no longer the precepts of Moses, but rather the Lord and his words (8:38). In chapter 10 Mark gathered the words of Jesus concerning marriage and divorce, children, possessions, and political power. The issues were dealt with not on the basis of the law or conventional righteousness, but rather on the basis of the Lord’s words, which appealed in turn to God’s intention at creation (10:6), the coming kingdom of God (10:14-15), the cost of discipleship (10:21), and identification with Christ (10:39, 43-45). Mark’s Gospel provided no moral code, but it did nurture a moral posture at once less rigid and more demanding than any code.

Matthew’s Gospel utilized most of Mark, but by subtle changes and significant additions Matthew provided an account of Jesus as the one who fulfills the law, as the one in whom God’s covenant promises are fulfilled. And the call to discipleship became a call to a surpassing righteousness.

Matthew, in contrast to Mark, insisted that the law of Moses remained normative. Jesus came not to “abolish” the law but to “fulfill” it (Matt. 5:17). The least commandment ought still to be taught and still to be obeyed (5:18-19; 23:23). Matthew warned against “false prophets” who dismissed the law and sponsored lawlessness (7:15-27). To the controversies about Sabbath observance Matthew added legal arguments to show that Jesus did what was “lawful” (12:1-14; cf. Mark 2:23-3:6). From the controversy about ritual cleanliness Matthew omitted Mark’s interpretation that Jesus “declared all foods clean” (Mark 7:19; cf. Matt. 15:17); evidently, even kosher regulations remained normative. In Matthew’s Gospel the law held, and Jesus was its best interpreter (see also 9:9-13; 19:3-12; 22:34-40).

The law, however, was not sufficient. Matthew accused the teachers of the law of being “blind guides” (23:16, 17, 19, 24, 26). They were blind to the real will of God in the law, and their pettifogging legalism hid it. Jesus, however, made God’s will known, especially in the Sermon on the Mount. There, he called for a righteousness that “exceeds that of the scribes and Pharisees” (5:20). The Beatitudes (5:3-11) described the character traits that belong to such righteousness. The “antitheses” (5:21-47) contrasted such righteousness to mere external observance of laws that left dispositions of anger, lust, deceit, revenge, and selfishness unchanged. This was no calculating “works-righteousness”; rather, it was a self-forgetting response to Jesus’ announcement of the kingdom (4:12-25).

Matthew called the community to play a role in moral discernment and discipline. The church was charged with the task of interpreting the law, vested with the authority to “bind” and “loose” (18:18), to make legal rulings and judgments. These responsibilities for mutual admonition and communal discernment were set in the context of concern for the “little ones” (18:1-14) and forgiveness (18:21-35), and they were to be undertaken with prayer (18:19). Jesus was still among them (18:20), still calling for a surpassing righteousness.

In Luke’s Gospel, the emphasis fell on Jesus as the one “anointed . . . to bring good news to the poor” (4:18). Mary’s song, the Magnificat (1:4655), sounded the theme early on as she celebrated God’s action on behalf of the humiliated and hungry and poor. In Luke, the infant Jesus was visited by shepherds in a manger, not by magi in a house (2:8-16; cf. Matt. 2:11-12). Again and again—in the Beatitudes and woes (6:20-26), for example, and in numerous parables (e.g., 12:13-21; 14:1224; 16:19-31)—Jesus proclaimed good news to the poor and announced judgment on the anxious and ungenerous rich. Luke did not legislate in any of this; he gave no social program, but he insisted that a faithful response to this Jesus as the Christ, as the “anointed,” included care for the poor and powerless. The story of Zacchaeus (19:1-10), for example, made it clear that to welcome Jesus “gladly” was to do justice and to practice kindness. Luke’s story of the early church in Acts celebrated the friendship and the covenant fidelity that were displayed when “everything they owned was held in common” so that “there was not a needy person among them” (Acts 4:32-34; cf. 2:44-45; cf. also Deut. 15). Character and community were, and were to be, fitting to “good news to the poor.”

The “poor” included not just those in poverty, but all those who did not count for much by the world’s way of counting. The gospel was good news, for example, also for women. By additional stories and sayings (e.g., 1:28-30; 2:36-38; 4:25-27; 7:11-17; 10:38-42; 11:27-28; 13:10-17; 15:8-10; 18:1-8), Luke displayed a Jesus remarkably free from the chauvinism of patriarchal culture. He rejected the reduction of women to their reproductive and domestic roles. Women such as Mary of Bethany, who would learn from Jesus and follow him, were welcomed as equals in the circle of his disciples (10:38-42).

And the gospel was good news to “sinners” too, to those judged unworthy of God’s blessing. It was a gospel, after all, of “repentance and the forgiveness of sins” (24:47), and in a series of parables Jesus insisted that there is “joy in heaven over one sinner who repents” (15:7; cf. 15:10, 23-24). That gospel of the forgiveness of sins was to be proclaimed “to all nations” (24:47); it was to be proclaimed even to the gentiles, who surely were counted among the “sinners.” That story was told, of course, in Acts, but already early in Luke’s Gospel the devout old Simeon recognized in the infant Jesus God’s salvation “of all peoples” (2:31; cf., e.g., 3:6). The story of the gentile mission may await Acts, but already in the Gospel it was clear that to welcome this Jesus, this universal savior, was to welcome “sinners.” And already in the Gospel it was clear that a faithful response to Jesus meant relations of mutual respect and love between Jew and gentile. In the remarkable story of Jesus’ healing of the centurion’s servant (7:1-10), the centurion provided a paradigm for gentiles, not despising but loving the Jews, acknowledging that his access to God’s salvation was through the Jews; and the Jewish elders provided a model for Jews, not condemning this gentile but instead interceding on his behalf. In Acts 15, the Christian community included the gentiles without requiring that they become Jews; the church was to be an inclusive community, a welcoming community, a community of peaceable difference.

Lactantius Inst.	Divinarum institutionum libri VII (The
Divine Institutes)
Onasander Strat.	Strategikos (On the Duties of a General)
Origen Hom. Num.	Homiliae in Numeros
Princ.	De principiis (First Principles)
Philo Alleg. Interp.	Allegorical Interpretation
Embassy	On the Embassy to Gaius
Migration	On the Migration of Abraham
Moses	On the Life of Moses
QG	Questions and Answers on Genesis
Sacrifices	On the Sacrifices of Cain and Abel
Spec. Laws	On the Special Laws
Plato Resp.	Respublica (Republic)
Pliny the Elder Nat.	Naturalis historia (Natural History)
Plutarch Cato Maj.	Cato Major (Cato the Elder)
Mar.	Marius
Mor.	Moralia
Quintilian Inst.	Institutio oratoria
Seneca Ep.	Epistulae morales
Sophocles ^Aj.	Ajax
Tertullian Apol.	Apologeticus (Apology)
Idol.	De idololatria (Idolatry)
Marc.	Adversus Marcionem (Against Marcion)
Scap.	Ad Scapulam (To Scapula)
Ux.	Ad uxorem (To His Wife)
Thucydides Pel. War	The Peloponnesian War
Other Authors John Calvin Institutes	Institutes of the Christian Religion
Thomas Aquinas
Comm. John	Commentary on the Gospel of Saint John
Comm. Phil.	Commentary on Saint Paul's Letter to the
Philippians
ST	Summa theologiae
Secondary Sources
AARAS	American Academy of Religion Academy
Series
AB	Anchor Bible
ACCS	Ancient Christian Commentary on
Scripture
ACW	Ancient Christian Writers
AGJU	Arbeiten zur Geschichte des antiken
Judentums und des Urchristentums
AJB	American Journal of Bioethics

AJIL	American Journal of International Law
AJMG	American Journal of Medical Genetics
AK	Arbeiten zur Kirchengeschichte
AnBib	Analecta biblica
ANESSup	Ancient Near Eastern Studies:
Supplements
ANTC	Abingdon New Testament Commentaries
AOAT	Alter Orient und Altes Testament
AOS	American Oriental Society
AOTC	Abingdon Old Testament Commentaries
ASCE	Annual of the Society of Christian Ethics
ATANT	Abhandlungen zur Theologie des Alten
und Neuen Testaments
AThR	Anglican Theological Review
ATR	Australasian Theological Review
AUS	American University Studies
BA	Biblical Archaeology
BBR	Bulletin for Biblical Research
BDB	Brown, F., S. R. Driver, and C. A. Briggs.
A Hebrew and English Lexicon of the Old Testament. Oxford, 1907
BECNT	Baker Exegetical Commentary on the
New Testament
BETL	Bibliotheca ephemeridum theologicarum
lovaniensium
BibInt	Biblical Interpretation
BibSem	Biblical Seminar
BibW	The Biblical World
BIS	Biblical Interpretation Series
BJS	Brown Judaic Studies
BMJ	British Medical Journal
BPEJ	Business and Professional Ethics Journal
BTB	Biblical Theology Bulletin
BZAW	Beihefte zur Zeitschrift fur die
alttestamentliche Wissenschaft
BZNW	Beihefte zur Zeitschrift fur die
neutestamentliche Wissenschaft
CathM	Catholic Mind
CBET	Contributions to Biblical Exegesis and
Theology
CBQ	Catholic Biblical Quarterly
CBQMS	Catholic Biblical Quarterly Monograph
Series
CBR	Currents in Biblical Research
CC	Continental Commentaries
CEJL	Commentaries on Early Jewish Literature
CH	Church History
Chm	Churchman
ChrBio	Christian Bioethics
ChrCent	Christian Century
ChrCr	Christianity and Crisis
ChrTo	Christianity Today
CIT	Current Issues in Theology
CMQ	Catholic Medical Quarterly
ConBNT	Coniectanea biblica: New Testament
Series
ConBOT	Coniectanea biblica: Old Testament
Series
CSCD	Cambridge Studies in Christian Doctrine
CSHJ	Chicago Studies in the History of Judaism
CSIR	Cambridge Studies in Ideology and
Religion
CSP	Cambridge Studies in Philosophy

CSPB	Cambridge Studies in Philosophy and
Biology
CSR	Christian Scholar’s Review
CSRT	Cambridge Studies in Religious
Traditions
CTHP	Cambridge Texts in the History of
Philosophy
CTR	Criswell Theological Review
CurTM	Currents in Theology and Mission
EgT	Eglise et theologie
EH	Europaische Hochschulschriften
ERS	Ethnic and Racial Studies
ESCT	Edinburgh Studies in Constructive
Theology
ETL	Ephemerides theologicae lovanienses
ETMP	Ethical Theory and Moral Practice
EUS	European University Studies
EUSLR	Emory University Studies in Law and
Religion
EvQ	Evangelical Quarterly
ExAud	Ex Auditu
ExpTim	Expository Times
FAT	Forschungen zum Alten Testament
FC	Fathers of the Church
FCB	Feminist Companion to the Bible
FCNTECW	Feminist Companion to the New
Testament and Early Christian Writings
FOTL	Forms of Old Testament Literature
FRLANT	Forschungen zur Religion und Literatur
des Alten und Neuen Testaments
GAP	Guides to Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha
GBS	Guides to Biblical Scholarship
GG	God and Globalization
GT	Guides to Theology
HBM	Hebrew Bible Monographs
HBT	Horizons in Biblical Theology
HCR	Hastings Center Report
HNT	Handbuch zum Neuen Testament
HorTh	Horizons in Theology
HSM	Harvard Semitic Monographs
HTS	Harvard Theological Studies
HUT	Hermeneutische Untersuchungen zur
Theologie
IBC	Interpretation: A Bible Commentar y for
Teaching and Preaching
IBMR	International Bulletin of Missionary
Research
IFT	Introductions in Feminist Theology
IJPT	International Journal of Practical
Theology
IJSE	International Journal of Social
Economics
Int	Interpretation
IR	Introduction to Religion
IRSC	Interpretation: Resources for the Use of
Scripture in the Church
IRT	Issues in Religion and Theology
ISBL	Indiana Studies in Biblical Literature
JAAR	Journal of the American Academy of
Religion
JAMA	Journal of the American Medical
Association
JBL	Journal of Biblical Literature
JBQ	Jewish Bible Quarterly

JECS	Journal of Early Christian Studies
JES	Journal of Ecumenical Studies
JETS	Journal of the Evangelical Theological
	Society
JHP	Journal of the History of Philosophy
JHS	Journal of Hebrew Scriptures
JJS	Journal of Jewish Studies
JLR	Journal of Law and Religion
JNES	Journal of Near Eastern Studies
JPastT	Journal of Pastoral Theology
JPC	Journal of Pastoral Care
JPE	Journal of the Philosophy of Education
JPSP	Journal of Personality and Social
	Psychology
JPSTC	JPS Torah Commentary
JPT	Journal of Pentecostal Theology
JPTSup	Journal of Pentecostal Theology:
	Supplement Series
JPsyC	Journal of Psychology and Christianity
JR	Journal of Religion
JRE	Journal of Religious Ethics
JRT	Journal of Religious Thought
JSCE	Journal of the Society of Christian Ethics
JSJSup	Supplements to the Journal for the Study
	of Judaism
JSNT	Journal for the Study of the New
	Testament
JSNTSup	Journal for the Study of the New
	Testament: Supplement Series
JSOT	Journal for the Study of the Old
	Testament
JSOTSup	Journal for the Study of the Old
	Testament: Supplement Series
JSP	Journal for the Study of the
	Pseudepigrapha
JSexR	Journal of Sex Research
JTS	Journal of Theological Studies
KD	Kerygma und Dogma
LAI	Library of Ancient Israel
LBS	Library of Biblical Studies
LCC	Library of Christian Classics
LCL	Loeb Classical Library
LHBOTS	Library of Hebrew Bible/Old Testament
	Studies
LLA	Library of Liberal Arts
LNTS	Library of New Testament Studies
LPT	Library of Protestant Thought
LTE	Library of Theological Ethics
MCL	Martin Classical Lectures
MdB	Le monde de la Bible
MNTS	McMaster New Testament Studies
ModTh	Modern Theology
MQR	Mennonite Quarterly Review
MTMA	Moral Traditions and Moral Arguments
MTS	Moral Traditions Series
NAC	New American Commentary
NCamBC	New Cambridge Bible Commentary
Neot	Neotestamentica
NIBC	New International Bible Commentary
NICNT	New International Commentary on the
	New Testament
NICOT	New International Commentary on the
	Old Testament

NIGTC	New International Greek Testament
Commentary
NIVAC	NIV Application Commentary
NovT	Novum Testamentum
NovTSup	Supplements to Novum Testamentum
NPNF²	Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Series 2
NSBT	New Studies in Biblical Theology
NSCE	New Studies in Christian Ethics
NTL	New Testament Library
NTM	New Testament Monographs
NTR	New Testament Readings
NTS	New Testament Studies
NTT	New Testament Theology
NTTS	New Testament Tools and Studies
OBT	Overtures to Biblical Theology
OECS	Oxford Early Christian Studies
OSTE	Oxford Studies in Theological Ethics
OTG	Old Testament Guides
OTL	Old Testament Library
OTM	Old Testament Message
OThM	Oxford Theological Monographs
OTR	Old Testament Readings
OTS	Old Testament Studies
OtSt	Oudtestamentische Studien
PBM	Paternoster Biblical Monographs
PBTM	Paternoster Biblical and Theological
Monographs
PL	Patrologia Latina [= Patrologiae cursus
completus: Series latina]. Edited by J.-P. Migne. 217 vols. Paris, 1844-1864
PM	Philosophy and Medicine
PPA	Philosophy and Public Affairs
PR	Philosophical Review
ProEccl	Pro ecclesia
PRS	Perspectives in Religious Studies
PSB	Princeton Seminary Bulletin
QR	Quarterly Review
R&T	Religion and Theology
RA	Revealing Antiquity
RB	Revue biblique
RBS	Resources for Biblical Study
RelS	Religious Studies
RelSRev	Religious Studies Review
RevExp	Review and Expositor
RFCC	Religion in the First Christian Centuries
RFIA	Review of Faith and International
Affairs
RGRW	Religions in the Graeco-Roman World
RMT	Readings in Moral Theology
SBJT	Southern Baptist Journal of Theology
SBL	Studies in Biblical Literature
SBLAB	Society of Biblical Literature Academia
Biblica
SBLDS	Society of Biblical Literature Dissertation
Series
SBLEJL	Society of Biblical Literature Early
Judaism and Its Literature
SBLMS	Society of Biblical Literature Monograph
Series
SBLSymS	Society of Biblical Literature Symposium
Series
SBS	Stuttgarter Bibelstudien

SBT	Studies in Biblical Theology
SCE	Studies in Christian Ethics
SCJ	Sixteenth Century Journal
SEC	Studies in Early Christianity
SecCent	Second Century
SHANE	Studies in the History of the Ancient Near
East
SHBC	Smith & Helwys Bible Commentary
SHCT	Studies in the History of Christian
Thought
SHJ	Studying the Historical Jesus
SHS	Scripture and Hermeneutics Series
SJSJ	Supplements to the Journal for the Study
of Judaism
SL	Studia Liturgica
SLMAHR	Studies in the Late Middle Ages,
Humanism, and the Reformation
SMRT	Studies in Medieval and Reformation
Traditions
SNTSMS	Society for New Testament Studies
Monograph Series
SNTW	Studies in the New Testament and Its
World
SocRel	Sociology of Religion
SP	Sacra Pagina
SPS	Studies in Peace and Scripture
SRRCC	Studies in the Reformed Rites of the
Catholic Church
STI	Studies in Theological Interpretation
STR	Studies in Theology and Religion
SVTQ	St. Vladimir's Theological Quarterly
SwJT	Southwestern Journal of Theology
TCrS	Text-Critical Studies
TGl	Theologie und Glaube
THNTC	Two Horizons New Testament
Commentary
ThTo	Theology Today
TS	Theological Studies
TSNABR	Bishop Henry McNeal Turner Studies in
North American Black Religion
TTC	Theology for the Twenty-First Century
TUMSR	Trinity University Monograph Series in
Religion
TW	Theologische Wissenschaft
TynBul	Tyndale Bulletin
UBT	Understanding Biblical Themes
UCOP	University of Cambridge Oriental
Publications
UNT	Untersuchungen zum Neuen Testament
VT	Vetus Testamentum
VTSup	Supplements to Vetus Testamentum
WBC	Word Biblical Commentary
WestBC	Westminster Bible Companion
WesTJ	Wesleyan Theological Journal
WMANT	Wissenschaftliche Monographien zum
Alten und Neuen Testament
WUNT	Wissenschaftliche Untersuchungen zum
Neuen Testament
WW	Word and World