Notes
Introduction
1 For a full discussion of First World War alternative history literature, see Stephen Badsey, ‘If It Had Happened Otherwise: First World War Exceptionalism in Counterfactual History’, in Jessica Meyer (ed.), British Popular Culture and the First World War (London: Brill, 2008), pp. 351–68.
2 Peter G. Tsouras, Disaster at Stalingrad: An Alternate History (London: Frontline, 2013). Peters uses the word ‘alternative’, which is a more accurate word than alternate. Unfortunately, ‘alternate’ was first used colloquially and then simply stuck, another triumph for the teaching of English usage.
As we have marched down one of history’s roads that was not taken and into an alternate history of events, that history requires references in the form of endnotes that reflect its own literature – the memoirs, histories, and other accounts that it would have generated. These have been added to the real references. The use of these alternate reality notes, of course, creates a risk for the unwary reader who may make strenuous efforts to acquire a new and fascinating source. To avoid frustrating and futile searches the alternate notes are indicated with an asterisk (*) before the number.
Peter G. Tsouras,
Lieutenant Colonel,
United States Army Reserve (ret.)
Alexandria, Virginia
Spencer Jones, PhD
Stourbridge, West Midlands
Northcliffe’s reasoning, detailed in his letter of 16 November 1917, reflected his consistent vision that he felt most useful to Britain’s war effort by maintaining his freedom to criticise the government.88 Northcliffe’s pronouncement forced Lloyd George’s hand, and it is difficult not to view the decision to appoint Northcliffe’s brother, Lord Rothermere, to the post as a further effort to appease the owner of the Mail. Even without a ministerial position, Northcliffe and his publications brought pressure to bear on the British government, pressure that played no small part in ensuring that, by the close of the war, Britain possessed the most sophisticated air defence system the world had ever seen. As Ferris notes, this model became the foundation for all air defence systems that followed.89
Chapter 1
1 Daniel Allen Butler, The Burden of Guilt: How Germany Shattered the Last Days of Peace, Summer 1914 (Havertown: Casemate Publishers, 2010), p. 188.
2 Sean McMeekin, July 1914: Countdown to War (New York: Basic Books, 2013), p. 309.
3 *First Lieutenant Dwight D. Eisenhower, Mobilisation Plans of the Great Powers in the Late European War (Fort Leveanworth: Command & General Staff College Press, 1935), p. 77.
4 Barbara Tuchman, The Guns of August (New York: Macmillan Co., 1962), p. 79.
5 *Oberst Sigurd von Ilsemann, Aufzeichnungen des letzten Flügeladjutanten (Frankurt: Goertz von Berlichingen & Soehne, 1929), p. 32.
6 Butler, The Burden of Guilt, p. 139.
7 Ibid.
8 Ian Senior, Home Before the Leaves Fall: A New History of the German Invasion of 1914 (Oxford: Osprey Publishing, 2012), p. 37.
9 Annika Mombauer, Helmuth von Moltke and the Origins of the First World War (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001), p. 50, cited in Senior, Home Before the Leaves Fall, p. 37.
10 Mombauer, Helmuth von Moltke, p. 52, cited in Senior, Home Before the Leaves Fall, p. 38.
11 Mombauer, Helmuth von Moltke, p. 56, cited in Senior, Home Before the Leaves Fall, p. 38.
12 McMeekin, July 1914, p. 307.
13 Ibid., pp. 289, 317. The French forces in North Africa had already been ordered to France on the Tuesday of that week, 28 July 1914.
14 *Hans Wilhelm von Essbach, Aufzeichnung Tirpitz (Munich: Webber und Söhne, 1991), p. 177.
15 Karl Kautsky, Count Max Montgelas and Walter Schücking (eds), Deutsche Dokumente zum Kreigsausbruch, vol. 3 (Berlin: General Staff, 1919), document 562, p. 62.
16 McMeekin, July 1914, p. 342.
17 *Major General Sir Frederick Maurice, The Indispenable Man: Captain Sigurd von Ilsemann (London: Charing Cross Publishers Ltd, 1932), p. 211.
18 Tuchman, The Guns of August, p. 79.
19 Christopher Clark, The Sleepwalkers: How Europe Went to War in 1914 (New York: HarperCollins, 2013), p. 531.
20 Ibid.
21 *Henry Wilson Smith, Italian Diplomacy in the Period of the Alliance System (New York: Empire State Press, 1955), pp. 290–2. There was more than one ‘wink–wink–nod–nod’ employed at this time. The Italians were loath to honour their agreement with Germany and so informed France. They managed to vacillate until the war ended.
22 W. Bruce Lincoln, Passage Through Armageddon: The Russians in War and Revolution (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994) p. 88.
23 Ibid., p. 77.
24 *Quentin Roosevelt, The Great Peacemaker: Theodore Roosevelt at Dumbarton Oaks and The Hague (New York: Hamilton Publishers, 1928), pp. 399–404.
25 *Aleksandr V. Dragomirov, Imperial Savior: The Life of Piotr Stolypin (London: Blackfriars Ltd, 1932), pp. 355–7.
26 *Alger Hiss, Bolshevism: A Forgotten Footnote in History, State Department Monographs in History Series (Washington, DC: Foreign Service Press, 1944), p. 339.
Chapter 2
1 Graeme Chamley Wynne (trans.), Ypres 1914: An Official Account Published by Order of the German General Staff (London: Constable & Co., 1919), p. 11.
2 Spencer Jones, From Boer War to World War: Tactical Reform of the British Army 1902–1914 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2012), pp. 92–4.
3 Jack Sheldon, The German Army at Ypres 1914 (Barnsley: Pen & Sword, 2010), p. 262.
4 James Edmonds, Official History of the Great War: Military Operations France and Belgium 1914, vol. 2 (London: Macmillan, 1925), p. 304.
5 Intelligence Section of the General Staff, American Expeditionary Forces, Histories of Two Hundred and Fifty-One Divisions of the German Army which Participated in the War 1914–1918 (London: London Stamp Exchange, 1920), pp. 48–52.
6 The force was known to the British as Army Group Fabeck. In total it consisted of six divisions and over seven hundred artillery pieces.
7 *Max von Fabeck, The Victory at Ypres (Berlin: Herzog Press, 1918), p. 81.
8 John Lucy, There’s a Devil in the Drum (London: Faber & Faber, 1938), p. 220.
9 G. Valentine Williams, ‘First Ypres 1914: The Turning of the Tide’, in John Buchan (ed.), The Long Road to Victory (London: Thomas Nelson & Sons, 1920), p. 18.
10 Lucy, Devil in the Drum, p. 221.
11 *Cyril Falls, The Tragedy at Gheluvelt (London: E. Arnold, 1933), p. 112.
12 Edmonds, Official History, vol. 2, p. 317.
13 John Terraine, The Ordeal of Victory (Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1963), p. 121.
14 *Andrew Thorne, Simply Splendid: The Life of Charles FitzClarence VC (London: Cartwright & Son, 1924), p. 305.
15 Spencer Jones (ed.), Stemming the Tide: Officers and Leadership in the British Expeditionary Force 1914 (Solihull: Helion, 2013), p. 254.
16 Ibid., p. 255.
17 Edmonds, Official History, vol. 2, p. 318.
18 A.H. Farrar-Hockley, Death of an Army (London: Arthur Baker, 1967) p. 165.
19 John French, 1914 (London: Constable & Co., 1919). pp. 252–3.
20 *Fabeck, Victory¸ p. 206.
21 The National Archives, WO 33/713, John French to Lord Kitchener, 30 August and 31 August 1914.
22 *Victor Huguet, The British Betrayal: A French Indictment (London: Cassell, 1927), pp. 175–87.
23 Phillip Gibbs, ‘Battle of Dixmude’, Western Australian, 27 October 1914.
Chapter 3
1 For many of the details of Kitchener’s thinking and planning at this time, see the vivid account by his long-serving senior ADC, *Frank Maxwell, Twenty Years a Brat (Edinburgh: Blackwells, 1922).
2 For Kitchener’s spy network and its exploits see *Sidney Reilly, Dust and Ashes: A Life in Espionage (New York: Citizen Cain Press, 1930) pp. 201–62, and of course *T. E. Lawrence, The Last Pillar of Wisdom (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1926).
3 6th (Poona) Division, like the 11th Indian Division and the 12th Indian Division, was an infantry division of the Indian Army, structured in 1914, like all such divisions of the Indian Army under British rule with three infantry brigades each of three Indian battalions with British officers, and one British Army battalion, plus artillery and additional troops who might be either Indian or British.
4 Quoted in James Barr, A Line in the Sand: Britain, France and the Struggle that Shaped the Middle East (London: Simon and Schuster, 2011), p. 15.
5 Quoted in George H. Cassar, Kitchener’s War: British Strategy from 1914 to 1916 (Washington, DC: Brassey’s, 2004)’, p. 50.
6 The ‘Curragh Mutiny’ of April 1914 was a real event as described, but any explanation (assuming one is even possible) is outside the scope of this narrative; see Ian F. W. Beckett, The Army and the Curragh Incident 1914 (London: Bodley Head, 1986).
7 For the British Army reforms under R. B. Haldane (later Lord Haldane) as Secretary of State for War, 1906–12 that created the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) and the Territorial Force (unofficially known as the Territorial Army, which became its official name in 1922) see Edward M. Spiers, Haldane: An Army Reformer (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1980). The BEF was composed of six infantry divisions and a cavalry division, and was Britain’s field army, capable of deploying to Europe or almost anywhere else in the world. The Territorial Force was a reformed part-time volunteer militia intended chiefly for home defence but which in 1914 was asked to volunteer for overseas service.
8 *Paramjit Singh, The Sikhs in the Great War, trans. Martin Wright (Delhi: Congress Press, 1922), p. 31.
9 Quoted in John Terraine, The First World War 1914–18 (London: Papermac, 1984), p. 60.
10 Marshal Paul von Hindenburg, Out of My Life (London: Cassell, 1920), p. 294.
11 Quoted in Hindenburg, Out of My Life, p. 294.
12 See Yigal Sheffy, British Military Intelligence in the Palestine Campaign 1914– 1918 (London: Frank Cass, 1998), pp. 23–6.
13 *Quoted in Captain E. V. Kinross, From HMS Doris to HMS Torrin: My Service in Both World Wars (London: Jonathan Cape, 1945) p. 81.
14 This account is based on C. F. Aspinall-Oglander, Military Operations: Gallipoli Volume 1: History of the Great War based on Official Documents (London: HMSO, 1929), p. 53.
15 Gary Sheffield and John Bourne (eds), Douglas Haig: War Diaries and Letters 1914–1918 (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2005), p. 170.
16 Captain Harold Clayton, 1st Lancashire Fusiliers, quoted in Peter Hart, Gallipoli (London: Profile, 2011), p. 135.
17 General Sir Ian Hamilton, Gallipoli Diary Volume 1 (London: Dodo Press, 2010), p. 159.
18 The infantry divisions were 52nd (Lowland) Division, 53rd (Welsh) Division and 54th (East Anglian) Division from the Territorial Force, plus 10th (Irish) Division, 11th (Northern) Division and 13th (Western) Division from the K-1 contingent of the New Army.
19 Letter from Charles Repington to Andrew Bonar Law, reproduced in J. A. Morris (ed.), The Letters of Lieutenant Colonel Charles à Court Repington (London: Sutton, 1999), p. 244.
20 Quoted in David R. Woodward, Hell in the Holy Land: World War I in the Middle East (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 2006), p. 195.
21 Hamilton, Gallipoli Diary Volume 1, p. 161; ironically Hamilton was Scots, and Kitchener had been born in Ireland, but the use of ‘England’ in this way was usual for the time.
22 Hindenburg, Out of My Life, p. 295.
23 See Stephen Badsey, ‘If It Had Happened Otherwise: First World War Exceptionalism in Counterfactual History’, in Jessica Meyer (ed.), British Popular Culture and the First World War (London: Brill, 2008), pp. 351–68.
Chapter 4
1 G. W. Prothero, Anatolia (London: H.M. Stationery Office, 1920). Phocaea was located in the vilayet (province) of Smyrna, named after its administrative centre. It was located in the south-west of Asia Minor including the ancient Lydia, Ionia, Caria, and western Lycia. It was described by the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica as the ‘richest and most productive province of Asiatic Turkey’. At the beginning of the twentieth century it reportedly had an area of 45,000 square kilometres (17,370 square miles). As of 1920, the vilayet had an ‘exceptionally large’ Christian population. The city of Smyrna was a vibrant cosmopolitan city and the commercial centre of the Ottoman Empire. Smyrna’s largest population was half Greek, some 120,000 by 1920, but it also included c.80,000 Muslims, 20,000 Armenians and a sizeable Sephardic Jewish population. Yet the Greeks ran the economy. They owned 322 of the 391 factories in the city.
2 George Horton, The Blight of Asia (New York: Bobbs-Merrill, 1926), Chapter 6, available online at www.hri.org/docs/Horton/hb-6.html, accessed 10 October 2013.
3 Emre Erol, ‘A Multidimensional Analysis of the Events in Eski Foça (Παλαιά Φώκαια) on the Period of Summer 1914’, available online at http://ceb.revues.org/911, accessed 10 October 2013.
4 Dilys Powell, The Villa Ariadne (Pleasantville, NY: Arkadine Press, 2001), pp. 53, 58. Although this encounter between Venizelos and Evans is fictitious, the two men did know each other. Venizelos on a number of occasions showed respectful deference to Evans, who certainly believed, as one Cretan put it, ‘After all he made Crete what it is now.’
5 Thessaloniki was founded by Cassander of Macedon in 310 bc. It has been known by various derivative names such as Salonica from the Greek colloquial Saloniki, the Slavic Soloun, and the Turkish Salonik.
6 ‘The Origins of the Ottomans’, available online at http://home.comcast.net/~glennwatson550/worksheets/ottomans.html, accessed 10 October 2013. The first line refers to ‘The City’, by which the Greeks always meant Constantinople. With the coming of the Turkish Republic the name was changed to Istanbul, a seeming Turkish name. However, the origin of that name was simply the contraction of the Greek phrase eis stin bolin – ‘to the city!’
7 Jon van der Kiste, Kings of the Hellenes: The Greek Kings 1863–1974 (Stroud: Sutton Publishing Ltd, 1999), p. 89.
8 *Petros Zolintakis, King Constantine I of the Hellenes, the New Nikephoros (London: Charing Cross Publishers Ltd, 1936), pp. 178–9.
9 Van der Kiste, Kings of the Hellenes, p. 89.
10 Prince Nicholas of Greece, My Fifty Years (New York: Hutchinson, 1926), pp. 259–60.
11 Herbert Adams Gibbons, Venizelos (Boston: Houghton-Mifflin Co., 1920), p. 221.
12 Van der Kiste, Kings of the Hellenes, p. 92. The Virgin Mary is referred to in Greek as the Panayia, or ‘All-Holy’.
13 *Spyridon Zacharopolous, A Prophecy Fulfilled (New York: Hutchinson Publishers, 1925), p. 88. The Virgin Mary had always been acknowledged as the patroness and special protector of Byzantine Constantinople.
14 Edward J. Erickson, Gallipoli and the Middle East 1914–1918: From the Dardanelles to Mesopotamia (London: Amber Books, 2008), pp. 51–5.
15 Eastern Thrace was at that time the only remaining European possession of the Ottoman Empire. Most of it had been lost to the Bulgarians in the First Balkan War but was recovered by the Turks in the Second Balkan War. Small as it is, it is modern Turkey’s anchor in Europe today.
16 First Army (Ottoman Empire) structure, available online at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Army_(Ottoman_Empire)#Order_of_Battle.2C_Late_April_1915, accessed 13 October 2013.
17 *Robert Graves, Lawrence of Thrace (London: Blackfriars Publishers Ltd, 1925), p. 39. After the war Lawrence became fast friends with both the famous poet Graves as well as an unknown army officer, Basil Liddell Hart. Their correspondence has become famous.
18 *Richard Meinertzhagen, Thracian Diary (London: Roxbury Books Ltd, 1933) p. 22. Meinertzhagen’s family was of German origin which earned him no end of scrutiny by guards examining his identification. He had been the intelligence officer on the disastrous Tanga expedition in German East Africa in 1914 and then been seconded to the British force assembling in Egypt.
19 *William Goddard, ‘Planning for the Eastern Thrace Campaign,’ Royal Military Journal XX (March 1942), pp. 89–91.
20 C. R. Ballard, Kitchener (New York: Dodd, Meade & Co., 1930), p. 272.
21 Gibbons, Venizelos, pp. 228–9.
22 Nigel Thomas and Dusan Babac, Armies of the Balkans 1914–18 (Oxford: Osprey Publishing, 2001), p. 23.
23 Ibid.
24 Hellenic Army General Staff, Army History Directorate, A History of the Hellenic Army 1821–1997 (Athens: Army History Directorate, 1999), pp. 126–9.
25 Erickson, Gallipoli and the Middle East, pp. 62–3.
26 Dimitri Pentzopoulos, The Balkan Exchange of Minorities and its Impact on Greece (New York: C. Hurst & Co., 2002). pp. 31–2.
27 *T. E. Lawrence, In the Steps of Constantine the Great (London: Trafalgar Press Ltd, 1928), p. 92. Before arriving in Constantinople, Lawrence had paid a visit to Athens, where he was briefed on conditions in Gallipoli and Eastern Thrace. He was also given contacts with Greek agents in Constantinople and Eastern Thrace.
28 *Theodoros Kolokotronis, Aera! The Greek Army in the Thracian Campaign of 1915 (Athens: Acropolis Publishers, 1976), p. 72.
29 Edward Erickson, Ordered to Die: A History of the Ottoman Army in the First World War (Westport, CT: Greenwood Publishing, 2001), p. xv.
30 Historium, available online at http://historum.com/war-military-history/31183-bad-assed-battle-cries-history-5.html, accessed 14 October 2013. ‘The Greek army battle cry is “Aera!”, i.e. “[sweep them away like the] wind!”.’
31 *Meinertzhagen, Thracian Diary, p. 232.
32 *Captain Meinertzhagen was to win the Victoria Cross for the carnage he inflicted that day, all by hand.
33 *Ian Hamilton, The Campaign in Thrace (London: Greenhill Books, 1993), p. 242. Greenhill carved an important niche in reissuing primary military works that had gone out of print such as Hamilton’s important but largely forgotten memoir. Hamilton had remained under a cloud for what was perceived as his failure to stop the Greeks from seizing Constantinople. However, his deployment of his British forces northwards trapped the retreating Turkish 1st Army against the oncoming Bulgarians. The Australians and New Zealanders would fondly remember the subsequent pleasant summer of occupation in Thrace.
34 *Arnold Toynbee, The Turkish Question in Great Greece (New York: Hutchinson Publishers, 1924), p. 387. Toynbee rightly pointed out that the collapse of the Ottoman Empire generated the rise of a new Turkish nationalism that has proved a constant threat to Greek possessions in Asia Minor.
35 *Seraphim Zacharopoulos, The Re-Hellinization of Constantinople (London: Blakeny Press Ltd, 1928), p. 233. One result of the fall of Constantinople was the migration of large numbers of diaspora Greeks from the Russian shores of the Black Sea to the city. That and the departure of large numbers of Turks, gave the city a clear Greek majority.
36 It is thought that the majority of this number of Greeks had already fled in the face of massacres.
37 Winston S. Churchill, The World Crisis: The Aftermath, 1929, p. 379, cited in Michael Llewellyn Smith, Ionian Vision: Greece in Asia Minor 1919–1922 (New York: St Martin’s Press, 1975), p. xi.
Chapter 5
1 In the years leading to the third Punic War (149–146 bc) in which Rome destroyed Carthage, the Roman statesman, Cato the Elder, frequently ended his speeches in the Senate even when they had nothing to do with foreign policy, with the sentence, ‘Carthago delenda est’ (‘Carthage must be destroyed’).
2 The Civil War song ‘Marching Through Georgia’ was sung by Union troops under General William T. Sherman as they burned a swathe through Georgia sixty miles wide, from Atlanta to the sea, in 1864.
3 Stuart Creighton Miller, Benevolent Assimilation: The American Conquest of the Philippines 1899–1903 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1982), pp. 234–5.
4 http://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Talk:Otto_von_Bismarck, accessed 14 November 2013. He also said, a ‘special Providence watches over children, drunkards, and the United States’, Harper’s New Monthly Magazine, December 1856.
5 ‘Letter from Theodore Roosevelt to Sir Edward Grey,’ available online at http://wwi.lib.byu.edu/index.php/Letter_from_Theodore_Roosevelt_to_Sir_Edward_Grey, accessed 13 June 2014.
6 S. L. A. Marshall, World War I (New York: American Heritage Press, 1971), p. 271. *See also Edward M. House, He Kept Us Out of War: An Alternate History of the Presidency of Woodrow Wilson (New York: Simpson & Sons, 2009), p. 22. This popular alternate history speculates on the twentieth century without American intervention in the Great War, particularly how the neutrality of a fictitious Wilson administration, elected twice in 1912 and 1916, allowed the victory of the Central Powers in 1918 and the subsequent naval war between the United States and Germany, 1928–9.
7 H. W. Brands, TR: The Last Romantic (New York: Basic Books, 1997), p. 43.
8 B. H. Liddell Hart, The Real War 1914 to 1918 (Boston: Little, Brown, & Co., 1930), p. 313.
9 Peter G. Tsouras (ed.), Warriors’ Words: A Quotation Book (London: Arms & Armour Press, 1992), p. 184.
10 *Joseph McPherson, Roosevelt and Military Preparedness (New York: Warner & Bros, 1922), pp. 89–92.
11 Laurence Stallings, The Doughboys: The Story of the AEF (New York: Harper & Row, 1961), p. 30.
12 Brands, TR: The Last Romantic, p. 521.
13 *James Weathers, Franklin Roosevelt in the Great War (New York: Black, Hutton & Co., 1948), p. 44. Franklin Roosevelt’s role as Assistant Secretary of the Army led to a permanent identification with that service. During his own presidency, the Chief of Naval Operations was at pains to remind the president not to refer to the army as us and the navy as them. See also James MacGregor Burns, Roosevelt: The Soldier of Freedom: 1940–1945, Francis Parkman Prize Edition (New York: History Book Club, 2006), p. 349.
14 John J. Pershing, My Experiences in the Great War (New York: Frederick A. Stokes, 1931), vol. 1, p. 48.
15 John S. D. Eisenhower, Yanks: The Epic Story of the American Army in World War I (New York: The Free Press, 2001), p. 17.
16 *John Winthrop, ‘Theodore Roosevelt as War President’, American Historical Review (March 1943), p. 38. Roosevelt actually cribbed these lines from one of Funston’s staff officers who accompanied him to the ceremony – Colonel Charles E. Stanton, a nephew of Lincoln’s Secretary of War, Edwin Stanton.
17 *Oscar E. Steinhaus, Der Kaiser im Krieg und Frieden (Frankurt: Bettelman & Söhne, 1923), p. 246.
18 C. R. Ballard, Kitchener (New York: Dodd, Mead & Co., 1930), p. 327.
19 David Burg, Almanac of World War I (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 2010), p. 120.
20 Leonard G. Shurtleff, ‘The Doughboy’s Rifle: It Wasn’t Necessarily a Springfield’, The Doughboy Center, The Story of the American Expeditionary Forces, www.worldwar1.com/dbc/dbrifle.htm, accessed 10 November 2013.
21 Thomas Dodson Stamps and Vincent Joseph Esposito, Short Military History of World War I (West Point, NY: United States Military Academy, 1950), pp. 163–4.
22 Winston S. Churchill, The World Crisis 1916–1918, Part I (London: Thornton Butterworth Ltd, 1927), p. 87.
23 John Keegan, The First World War (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1999), p. 279.
24 *Dwight D. Eisenhower, American Arms Production in the Great War, Leavenworth Monograph Series (Fort. Leavenworth, KS: US Army Command and General Staff College, 1935), p. 34. Production did in fact spike during the summer of 1916. Still it would be a minuscule rate compared to the production of the America Enfield when it was expected to go into full production in the later part of 1916.
25 *Jonathan T. Miller, American Hero: MacArthur of the 42nd Division (Boston: Houghton, Mifflin Co., 1922), p. 110.
26 Stamps and Esposito, Short Military History of World War I, p. 164.
27 Ibid., p. 165.
28 Alistair Horne, The Price of Glory: Verdun 1916 (New York: Harper Colophon Books, 1967), pp. 109–16.
29 *Louis Davout, France’s Crown of Thorns: The Battle of Verdun (New York: William Morrow and Co., 1935), p. 97. In this richly imagined alternate history, the point of departure is the delayed American entry into the war in 1917 and Falkenhayn’s pursuit of his original idea of launching a battle of attrition to kill so many Frenchmen that the morale of France would collapse.
30 *George C. Marshall, Verdun: America’s Greatest Battle (Garden City: Doubleday, Doran & Co., 1919), pp. 280–2.
31 *Miller, American Hero, p. 291. MacArthur was awarded the Medal of Honor which President Roosevelt presented to his mother at a ceremony at West Point where a new cadet barracks was named after him.
32 *Winston S. Churchill, Spring of Victory: 1916 (London: John Murray, 1920), pp. 322–5. As commander of the 6th Royal Scots Fusiliers at the time, his eyewitness accounts of the breakthrough and pursuit of the German armies captured the heady excitement of victory.
33 Horne, Price of Glory, pp. 120–1.
Chapter 6
1 V. E. Tarrant, Jutland: The German Perspective (London: Brockhampton Press, 1999), p. 11.
2 Ibid., p. 18.
3 Andrew Gordon, The Rules of the Game: Jutland and British Naval Command (London: John Murray, 1996), p. 505.
4 *Philip Weir, Feed the Guns: The Reform of British Naval Gunnery 1905–1914 (London: Oaken Press, 2012) p. 145.
5 Gordon, Rules of the Game, p. 506.
6 Keith Yates, Flawed Victory: Jutland 1916 (Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 2000), p. 30.
7 Norman Friedman, Naval Firepower: Battleship Guns and Gunnery in the Dreadnought Era (Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 2008), pp. 103–4.
8 Paul G. Halpern, A Naval History of World War I (Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 1994), pp. 36–7.
9 *Weir, Feed the Guns, p. 150.
10 Gordon, Rules of the Game, p. 108.
11 Ibid., p. 108.
12 Ibid., p. 109.
13 Ibid., p. 110.
14 Ibid., p. 115.
15 Tarrant, Jutland: German Perspective, p. 88.
16 Ibid., p. 107.
17 Gordon, Rules of the Game, p. 411.
18 *R. B. Cartwright, Beatty and Jellicoe: A Dynamic Partnership (London: Castle Press, 2001).
19 Gordon, Rules of the Game, p. 419.
20 Ibid., p. 32.
21 Winston Churchill, The World Crisis 1911–1918 (London: Odhams Press, 1931), vol. 2, p. 1015.
22 Gordon, Rules of the Game, p. 441.
23 Ibid.
24 Ibid., p. 450.
25 Ibid.
26 Ibid., p. 452.
27 Tarrant, Jutland: German Perspective, p. 133.
28 Scheer’s thought processes at this moment remain the subject of much debate. See Gordon, Rules of the Game, p. 458.
29 Ibid., p. 459.
30 Ibid. Literally, an ‘absolute sausage boiler!’
31 Tarrant, Jutland: German Perspective, p. 37.
32 Gordon, Rules of the Game, p. 461.
33 Halpern, Naval History, p. 331.
34 Ibid.
35 *Mark Randleman, Naval Statistics of the Great War (London: Hodder, 1937), pp. 212–15.
36 *C. D. Stoneman, Raiders! British Operations in German Coastal Waters 1916– 1918 (London: Castle Press, 2007), pp. 45–56.
37 Halpern, Naval History, pp. 206–17.
38 *Jonathan Myles, The Kaiser’s Court (London: E. Arnold, 1956).
39 *Owen Prytherch, Red Fleet: The Mutiny at Wilhelmshaven 1917 (Cardiff: Triumvirate Press, 2009).
40 John Campbell, Jutland: An Analysis of the Fighting (London: Conway, 1999), p. 222.
Chapter 7
1 The Russian prime minister was shot during festivities to mark the centenary of the liberation of Russia’s serfs on 14 September 1911: www.historytoday.com/richard-cavendish/pyotr-stolypin-assassinated-kiev, accessed 4 October 2013. Bogrov’s motivations to this day remain murky. He was playing a double role as both a revolutionary and an agent of the Okrana. His motive as a Jew could have been revenge for Stolypin’s support as interior minister of the Jewish pogroms of 1903. As a revolutionary he would have seen Stolypin’s reforms as a prime threat to any hope for the violent overthrow of the monarchy. As an Okrana agent he could have been acting for the conservative elements in the government who had detested his reforms. Since Stolypin was no longer prime minister at the time of the attempt on his life, the latter motive seemed to have been overtaken by his departure from office.
2 Winston S. Churchill, The World Crisis 1916–1918, Part I (London: Thornton Butterworth Ltd, 1927), pp. 84–5.
3 *Aleksei P. Apraxin, The Life of Pyotr Stolypin (St Petersburg: Imperial Russia Press, 1933), p. 192.
4 ‘Orthodox in the District: Living the Ancient Faith in the Nation’s Capital’, http://ryanphunter.wordpress.com/tag/tsarina-alexandra-romanova, accessed 28 September 2013.
5 Timothy C. Dowling, The Brusilov Offensive (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2008), pp. 50, 54.
6 Norman Stone, The Eastern Front 1914–1917 (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1975), p. 228
7 The Semyenovsky Guards Regiment was established by Peter the Great and had precedence over all other regiments in the Russian Army except for the Preobreshensky Guards, which was also established by Peter. It was a very prestigious regiment.
8 *Mikhail N. Tukhachevsky, My Adventures in the World War (London: Blackfriars Press Ltd, 1944), p. 118. Tukhachevsky and Denikin formed one of the great, though brief, command teams of the war. Their bond was so close that the young officer married Denikin’s daughter. He wrote his memoirs of the World War just before his retirement as Chief of Staff of the Imperial Russian Army in 1945.
9 Stone, Eastern Front, p. 234.
10 G. Rothenburg, The Army of Franz Joseph (West Lafayette: Purdue University Press) p. 83.
11 Dowling, Brusilov Offensive, pp. 53–4.
12 Ibid., pp. 64–5.
13 http://landships.activeboard.com/t49402890/brusilov-offensive-armoredcar-oob, accessed 2 October 2013.
14 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belgian_Expeditionary_Corps_in_Russia; www.philatelicdatabase.com/postal-history/wwi-belgium-armoured-cardivision-in-russia; www.wio.ru/tank/for-rus.htm; http://landships.activeboard.com/t5106674/armoured-car-of-the-russian-army-1914-1917, accessed 2 October 2013.
15 Dowling, Brusilov Offensive, pp. 43, 65, 71. Dowling provides the only orderof- battle table available for the South-Western Front. He states that the Russians had fifteen cavalry divisions, but his own order of battle lists only ten. Elsewhere the description of divisions and corps in the text often does not follow the order of battle. The author of this chapter has attempted to make what sense was possible from these contradictions.
16 Stone, Eastern Front, p. 249.
17 *Vladimir I. Golitsyn, Diary of an Assault Soldier, War Studies Autobiography Studies No. 39 (Fort Levenworth: Command & General Staff College, 1933), p. 99.
18 Stone, Eastern Front, p. 250.
19 *Major George S. Patton, US Army (ret), Lightning War: The Russian Development of Deep Operations in the Great War (Fort Knox: U.S. Armor School Press, 1945), p. 286.
20 Stone, Eastern Front, p. 250.
21 *Simon B. Forrester, With the Armored Cars in Russia (London: Charing Cross Publishers Ltd, 1926), p. 311.
22 *Friedrich von Boettecher, The Peace of Zurich and the New European Order (New York: Empire State Books, 1928), pp. 322–4. All the Western Slav, Italian, and Romanian minorities were lost to the rump of the Austro- Hungarian Empire, making it a more cohesive state. The only colony that German retained in Africa was Deutsche Ost Afrika, because of its gallant and successful defence by General Paul Lettow-Vorbeck.
Chapter 8
1 National Army Museum, 5201-33-18, Rawlinson Papers, Rawlinson to Wigram 27/2/1916; also quoted in Robin Prior and Trevor Wilson, Command on the Western Front: The Military Career of Sir Henry Rawlinson 1914–1918 (London: Blackwell, 1992) p. 139.
2 Gary Sheffield and John Bourne, Douglas Haig: War Diaries and Letters 1914– 1918 (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2005), 29 March 1916, p. 183.
3 The National Archives (TNA), WO 158/233/7, Plan for Offensive by Fourth Army, 3 April 1916; see also William Philpott, Bloody Victory (London: Little, Brown, 2009).
4 TNA, WO 158/233/7, 5 April 1916, p. 184.
5 Churchill College, Cambridge, Rawlinson Diary RWLN 1/5, 4 April 1916; also quoted in Prior and Wilson, Command on the Western Front, p. 141.
6 General Staff, Field Service Regulations Part I: Operations (London: HMSO, 1909), p. 23.
7 Sheffield and Bourne, Douglas Haig: War Diaries, 4 May 1916, p. 185; 25 May 1916, p. 187.
8 Brigadier General James Edmonds, Military Operations: France and Belgium 1916, vol. 1 Appendices (London: Imperial War Museum/Battery Press, 1993 or 1932), Appendix 18: Fourth Army Tactical Notes, pp. 131–47.
9 Quoted in Philpott, Bloody Victory, p. 174; Gary Sheffield, The Somme (London: Cassell, 2003), p. 57.
10 *TNA, WO 95/2375, 32nd Division CRA, 24/6/16–30/6/16 (although not the exact phrasing, similar sentiments can be found in this file).
11 Christopher Duffy, Through German Eyes: The British and the Somme 1916 (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2006), pp. 124–7.
12 Cyril Falls, The History of the 36th (Ulster) Division (London: Constable, 1922), p. 56.
13 *David Lloyd George, War Memoirs (London: Odhams Press, 1933), p. 607.
14 Captain von Hentig, quoted in Edmonds, Military Operations: France and Belgium 1916, vol.1, p. 494.
15 *Basil Lidell Hart, The Real War (London: Cassell, 1930), p. 331
Chapter 9
1 Horace Smith-Dorrien, Memories of Forty Eight Years’ Service (London: J. Murray, 1925), p. 154.
2 J. P. Harris, Men, Ideas and Tanks (Manchester: University of Manchester Press, 1995), pp. 1–7.
3 Major G. H. J. Rooke, ‘Shielded Infantry and the Decisive Frontal Attack’, Journal of the Royal United Service Institute, 58(1), pp. 771–83.
4 John Glanfield, The Devil’s Chariots (Stroud: Sutton Publishing, 2001), pp. 266–7.
5 Spencer Jones, From Boer War to World War (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2012), p. 123.
6 *The National Archives, WO 426/86/11, ‘Study of a New Form of Tracked Transporter ’.
7 The Irish Home Rule Bill was due to come into force in 1914 despite the fierce opposition of the paramilitary Ulster Volunteers. Fearing a civil war in Ireland, the British government considered using the military to suppress the Ulstermen. News that the army might be used against British citizens prompted a miniature mutiny with several officers refusing to obey the order and others choosing to resign. The government backed down but the incident led to a reshuffle of command in the army.
8 Ernest D. Swinton, Eyewitness (London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1932), pp. 31–2.
9 Harris, Ideas and Tanks, p. 16.
10 Ibid., pp. 16–17.
11 *Henry Wilson, Curragh Chaos: A Personal Memoir (London: E. Arnold, 1920), p. 331.
12 Gary Sheffield, The Chief: Douglas Haig and the British Army (London: Aurum Press, 2011) p. 371.
13 *Basil Liddell Hart, The Great Tank War (London: J. Murray, 1931), pp. 45–50.
14 *Lancelot de Mole, Tanks: The Memoirs of a Pioneer (London: Harman, 1929), p. 14.
15 *Tank Museum Archives, ‘Report on Test of Armoured Land Cruiser Prototype’.
16 Swinton, Eyewitness, p. 196.
17 Christy Campbell, Band of Brigands: The Extraordinary Story of the First Men in Tanks (London: Harper, 2008), p. 104.
18 *Smith-Dorrien had replaced Sir John French after French fell seriously ill with pneumonia.
19 Winston S. Churchill, The World Crisis 1911–1918 (London: Odhams Press, 1931), vol. 2, p. 1220.
20 Campbell, Band of Brigands, p. 225.
21 *Andrew Southall, British Tank Production in the First World War (London: Magic Press, 2010), p. 11.
22 J. P. Harris, Douglas Haig and the First World War (Cambridge: University of Cambridge Press, 2008), p. 302.
23 British heavy tanks came in two types: ‘males’ were armed with a 6-pounder gun in each side sponson and ‘females’ replaced the two 6-pounders with four heavy machine guns.
24 Campbell, Band of Brigands, p. 185.
25 Ibid., p. 330.
26 Ibid., p. 187.
27 Ibid., p. 191.
28 Glanfield, Devil’s Chariots, p. 215.
29 Campbell, Band of Brigands, p. 308.
30 Ibid., p. 294.
31 Ibid., p. 304.
32 *J. F. C. Fuller, The Thousand Tank Army (London: E. Arnold, 1928), pp. 75– 88.
33 Peter Hart, 1918: A Very British Victory (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2008), p. 449.
34 Ibid., p. 325.
35 Heinz Guderian, Achtung-Panzer (London: Cassell, 1999 reprint), p. 81.
36 Hart, 1918, p. 345.
37 Ibid., p. 346.
38 Guderian, Achtung-Panzer, pp. 81–2.
39 Campbell, Band of Brigands, p. 332.
40 Alexander Watson, Enduring the Great War (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008) pp. 167–8.
Chapter 10
1 The author is extremely grateful to the editors, Dr Spencer Jones and Lieutenant Colonel (Ret’d) Peter Tsouras, for their helpful criticism on an early draft of this chapter.
2 *Lord Northcliffe’s victory address, a full transcript of which appeared in The Times, 3 February 1918.
3 *Ibid.
4 *The Times, 14 September 1918; *Daily Mail, 14 September 1918.
5 On Northcliffe, see J. Lee Thompson, Politicians, the Press, and Propaganda: Lord Northcliffe and the Great War, 1914–1919 (Kent, OH: Kent State University Press, 1999); J. Lee Thompson, Press Baron in Politics, 1865–1922 (London: John Murray, 2000); R. Pound and G. Harmsworth, Northcliffe (London: Cassell, 1959).
6 Lee Thompson, Politicians, p. 2.
7 J. McEwen, ‘The National Press during the First World War: Ownership and Circulation,’ Journal of Contemporary History, 17:3 (July 1982), p. 472.
8 Ibid, p. 468; C. Seymore-Ure, ‘Northcliffe’s Legacy’, in P. Caterall, C. Seymore- Ure and A. Smith (eds), Northcliffe’s Legacy: Aspects of the British Popular Press, 1896–1996 (London: Macmillan, 2000), p. 10. Only the Daily Mirror, originally established by Northcliffe, sold more copies.
9 Lord Beaverbrook, Men and Power, 1917–1918 (London: Hutchinson, 1956), p. xxii.
10 The British Library (BL), St Pancras, London, Northcliffe Additional Manuscripts (NAM).
11 S. Koss, The Rise and Fall of the Political Press in Britain, Volume II: The Twentieth Century (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1984), pp. 253–4.
12 See BL, NAM, 62206: Correspondence with H. Fyfe (Correspondent for the Daily Mail), ff. 114–16. Letter, Northcliffe to Fyfe, 11 May 1915.
13 Koss, Rise and Fall, p. 117.
14 Lee Thompson, Politicians, p. 2.
15 T. Clarke, My Northcliffe Diary (New York: Cosmopolitan Book Corporation, 1931), pp. 52–4.
16 A. J. Morris, The Scaremongers: The Advocacy of War and Rearmament, 1896– 1914 (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1984), p. 70.
17 Daily Mail, 31 July 1914.
18 Clarke, My Northcliffe Diary, p. 3.
19 ‘The New Daily Mail Prizes’, Flight, 14:5 (5 April 1913), p. 393.
20 Pound and Harmsworth, Northcliffe, pp. 300–1; L. Owen, The Real Lord Northcliffe: Some Personal Recollections of a Private Secretary (London: Cassell, 1922), p. 24. More generally, see A. Gollin, No Longer an Island: Britain and the Wright Brothers, 1902–1909 (London: Heinemann, 1984).
21 Pound and Harmsworth, Northcliffe, pp. 353–4.
22 A. Gollin, ‘A Flawed Strategy: Early British Air Defence Arrangements’, in R. J. Adams (ed.), The Great War, 1914–1918: Essays on the Military, Political and Social History of the First World War (London: Macmillan, 1990), pp. 31–7.
23 J. Pugh, ‘The Conceptual Origins of the Control of the Air: British Military and Naval Aviation, 1911–1918’ (PhD thesis, University of Birmingham, 2012), chapters 2, 3, and 6.
24 The National Archives (TNA), Air Ministry File (AIR) 1/2314/22/6: Memo, Churchill to Cabinet, Air Defence, 22 October 1914.
25 Daily Mail, 27 August 1914.
26 Daily Mail, 20 January 1915. See also H. A. Jones, The War in the Air: Being the Story of the Part Played in the Great War by the Royal Air Force, Volume III (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1931), pp. 90–1.
27 Daily Mail, 21 January 1915.
28 On air defence during this period, see J. Ferris, ‘Airbandit: C3I and Strategic Air Defence during the First Battle of Britain, 1915–18’, M. Dockrill and D. French (eds), Strategy and Intelligence: British Policy During the First World War (London: Hambledon Press, 1996); C. Cole and E. F. Cheesman, The Air Defence of Great Britain, 1914–1918 (London: Putnam, 1984).
29 A. J. Marder, Fear God and Dread Nought: The Correspondence of Admiral of the Fleet Lord Fisher of Kilverstone, Volume III: Restoration, Abdication, and Last Years, 1914–1920 (London: Jonathan Cape, 1959), p. 124. Letter Fisher to Churchill, 4 January 1915.
30 Jones, War in the Air, Vol. III, p. 103.
31 Ibid., pp. 121–2.
32 Daily Mail, 22 October 1915.
33 Ibid.
34 Daily Mail, 15 October 1915.
35 Jones, War in the Air, Vol. III, pp. 153–7.
36 Daily Mail, 7 and 11 February 1916.
37 Daily Mail, 11 February 1916. See also Daily Mail, 8 February 1916.
38 Jones, War in the Air, Vol. III, pp. 135–44.
39 Ibid., pp. 146–7.
40 Daily Mail, 2 February 1916.
41 Owen, The Real Lord Northcliffe, pp. 46–7.
42 Lord Northcliffe, Speech to House of Lords, 23 May 1916, Hansard Parliamentary Debates, 5th series, vol. XXII, May 1916, cols 124–6.
43 Lord Northcliffe, At the War (London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1917), p. 46.
44 Lee Thompson, Politicians, pp. 112–16.
45 Pound and Harmsworth, Northcliffe, pp. 508–9. For Northcliffe’s recollection of the event, see BL, NAM, 61260, Correspondence with P. Sassoon, Secretary to Sir Douglas Haig, ff. 45–8. Letter, Northcliffe to Sassoon, 18 October 1916.
46 S. F. Wise, Canadian Airmen in the First World War: The Official History of the Royal Canadian Air Force, Volume I (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1980), pp. 239–42.
47 For example, see Daily Mail, 25 September 1916.
48 Daily Mail, 29 November 1916.
49 For example, see Daily Mail, 3, 9, and 13 April 1917.
50 T. Davis Biddle, Rhetoric and Reality: The Evolution of British and American Ideas about Strategic Bombing, 1914–1945 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2002), p. 30.
51 For contemporary intelligence reports of these raids, see TNA, AIR 1/2319/223/30/14 – ‘Air Raids, 1917, Report IA, 25 May–13 June. Intelligence Section, GHQ, HF, Sep 1917; TNA, AIR 1/2319/223/30/15 – ‘Air Raids, 1917, Report II, July. For the reaction of the Mail, see the editions of 28 May, 14, 15, 18 June, and 8 July 1917.
52 P. Panayi, ‘Anti-German Riots in London during the First World War,’ German History, 7:2 (August 1989), pp. 200–1.
53 Davis Biddle, Rhetoric and Reality, pp. 32–3.
54 H. A. Jones, The War in the Air: Being the Story of the Part Played in the Great War by the Royal Air Force (WIA), Volume V (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1935), pp. 29–32.
55 Jones, WIA, Vol. V, p. 32.
56 C. Lewis, Sagittarius Rising (London: Greenhill, 2007), p. 187.
57 For War Cabinet discussions of these raids, see TNA, Cabinet Papers (CAB) 23/3 – War Cabinet Minutes, 7 July 1917.
58 Daily Mail, 8 July 1917.
59 B. Holman, ‘The Next War in the Air: Civilian Fears of Strategic Bombardment in Britain, 1908–1941’ (PhD thesis, University of Melbourne, 2009), pp. 270–2.
60 TNA, CAB 23/3 – War Cabinet Minutes, 7 July 1917.
61 The second, and most far-reaching, Smuts report can be found in TNA, CAB 24/22 – G.T. 1658 – ‘Committee on Air Organisation and Home Defence against Air Raids. Second Report’, 17 August 1917. The first Smuts report, which dealt exclusively with improving the provision of localised air defence, can be found in TNA, CAB 24/20 – G.T.1451, ‘Committee on Air Organisation and Home Defence against Air Raids. First Report’, 19 July 1917.
62 TNA, CAB 23/4 – War Cabinet Minutes, 2 Oct 1917.
63 Ibid.
64 Ibid.
65 Daily Mail, 3 October 1917.
66 *Daily Mail, 3 October 1917.
67 *TNA, Home Office Papers (HO) 38/7 – Home Office Report into the Murder of Mr David Lloyd George, 7 December 1917.
68 H. Du Parcq, Life of David Lloyd George, Volume II (London: Caxton, 1912), pp. 292–3.
69 *TNA, HO 38/7.
70 *Ibid.
71 *Daily Mail, 4 October 1917.
72 *Ibid.
73 *The Times, 5, 6, and 7 October 1917; Daily Mail, 5, 6, 7, and 8 October 1917.
74 *The Times, 11 October 1917; Daily Mail, 11 October 1917.
75 *Parliamentary Archives, Private Papers of Andrew Bonar Law, Appointments Diary, September–November 1917.
76 *P. O’Boyle, The Life of Lord Stamfordham (Birmingham: Monkey Tree Publishing, 2011), p. 183.
77 *Government statement, copy printed in The Times, 13 October 1917.
78 *The Times, 16 October 1917.
79 *The Times, 13, 14, 15, and 17 October 1917; Daily Mail, 13, 14, 15, 16, and 17 October 1917.
80 E. B. Ashmore, Air Defence (London: Longmans, Green & Co., 1929).
81 *A. Boyle, Bomber Trenchard: The Life and Legacy of Sir Hugh Trenchard (London: Collins, 1952), p. 38.
82 For statistics of German air raids during the First World War, see H. A. Jones, The War in the Air: Being the Story of the part played in the Great War by the Royal Air Force, Appendices (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1937), p. 164: ‘Appendix XLIV – Summary Statistics of German Air Raids on Great Britain, 1914–1918’.
83 TNA, AIR 41/15 – Air Historical Branch Narrative, The Air Defence of Great Britain, Vol. II: The Battle of Britain. See Appendix 17: ‘German Estimate of Tonnage (Metric) Dropped in Attacks on London, September, 1940’. The example cited is the daylight raid of 7 September 1940.
84 Ferris, ‘Airbandit’, p. 23.
85 It was not until August 1918 that the Mail was prepared to declare that Britain’s air defences were ‘ready for the enemy’. Daily Mail, 7 August 1918.
86 The Times and Daily Mail, 16 November 1917.
87 For a not so subtle example, see Daily Mail, 3 February 1916.
88 The Times and Daily Mail, 16 November 1917.
89 Ferris, ‘Airbandit’, p. 56.