Abramson, A., 41
acoustics: ape speech and, 134–36; Bell Telephone Laboratories and, 134, 136; fundamental frequency (F) and, 39, 81, 192, 200; gender recognition and, 199–202; Haskins Laboratories and, 134–35; music and, 14, 38, 77, 81, 93, 148, 154, 173, 201; pitch and, 39, 81, 135, 192, 200–201; quantal vowels and, 137–38 (see also speech); Sound Spectrograph and, 41, 134–35; supralaryngeal vocal tract (SVT) and, 200
adaptation: adult lactose tolerance and, 68–69, 166; archaeology and, 88; brain design and, 2–3, 25; changes in ecosystems and, 73; evolution and, 74–75, 78; exaptation and, 76; extreme altitudes and, 70–71, 166; language and, 72–73, 90–91; preadaptation and, 76
Adapted Mind, The: Evolutionary Psychology and the Generation of Culture (Cosmides and Toobey), 158
Adeylott, J., 84
Africa, 67, 69–70, 87, 114, 122, 147, 150–53, 156–57
Altmann, J., 161
Altmann, S., 161
American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), 100, 103
American Sign Language (ASL), 91, 123, 176–77
Amnesty International (AI), 180
Amunts, K. A., 16
anatomy: ape vocalization and, 133–36; brain size and, 2, 11, 83–88, 113, 118; neuroimaging studies and, 11–18; speech and, 131f, 134–43; swallowing and, 64, 79, 129–32, 144–46; as window on brain, 129. See also specific structure
anterior cingulate cortex (ACC): archaeology and, 129; attention and, 9, 35–36; basal ganglia and, 80; brain damage and, 35–36; brain design and, 35–36; brain mechanisms and, 9, 22; cognition and, 9, 22, 129; evolution and, 79–80; fossils and, 79–80, 129; functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and, 80; Harris and, 22; initial role of, 9; laryngeal phonation and, 35–36, lesions and, 79; mice and, 80; positron emission tomography (PET) scans and, 80
anterior insula, 9
apes: basal ganglia and, 95; brain mechanisms and, 2–3, 19, 23; brain size and, 83, 86; digestion and, 65, 130; evolution and, 83, 86, 191; mirror-test and, 198; neural circuits and, 98; sexual dimorphism and, 201; sign language and, 23, 123; simple tools and, 124; speech and, 95, 133–36, 138, 140; tongue of, 129–30. See also chimpanzees
aphasia: brain damage and, 98–99; Broca’s area and, 29–30, 32, 40, 45, 189; cognition and, 29–30, 32, 40, 76, 98–99, 189; cognitive flexibility and, 32; language and, 29–30, 32, 40, 76, 98–99, 189; lesions and, 99; motor control and, 76; sequencing errors and, 40; Wernicke’s area and, 29–30, 189
Aplysia californica, 21
archaeology: Acheulian tools and, 126–27; adaptation and, 88; anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) and, 129; artifacts and, 121–24, 151, 153–54; brain size and, 2; cognitive studies and, 2, 122–23, 139, 143, 147, 152; Cro-Magnon and, 145, 153; fashion and, 147–52; fossils and, 114 (see also fossils); Homo erectus and, 86, 126; Homo habilis and, 86, 122, 125, 128; Homo sapiens and, 2, 153; Leakeys and, 124–25; Levalloisian technique and, 127–28; Neanderthals and, xi, 113–20, 138–40, 144–47, 152–55, 190; Oldowan tools and, 125–28; Paleolithic Era and, 126, 128, 145–47, 153–54; slow change and, 126–29; static periods and, 124–25; survival and, 121, 129; transcription factors and, 121, 155
arithmetic, 51, 54, 106, 163, 206–7
Arnett, J., 182
art: fashion and, 147–52; gene for, 156–57
artifacts, 121–24, 151, 153–54
Art Instinct, The (Dutton), 156–58
ASPM gene, 113
associative learning, 20–22, 55–59, 109–12, 164, 190, 203
Australopithecus afarensis, 86
Aztecs, 188
Baboon Mothers and Infants (Altman), 161
backbone and transcriptional factors, 107
Baddeley, A. D., 50
Bantu, 70
Barney, H. L., 136
basal ganglia: anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) and, 80; apes and, 95; automatization and, 55, 58–59; birds and, 116–17; brain damage and, 44, 98; caudate nucleus and, 33f, 34, 41, 46, 52–54, 57–58, 95, 105–8, 112; circuits not domain specific, 53–55, 76–77; circuit uniqueness and, 95–99; cognition and, 98, 105; cognitive flexibility and, 53, 105–6; cortical-basal ganglia circuits and, 22, 28–37, 32–36, 41, 44–58, 76, 94, 99–100, 105; disinhibition and, 48–49; dopamine and, 37, 57; emotion and, 94; engine of human creativity and, 99; event-related potentials (ERPs) and, 15; executive control and, 85; FOXP2human gene and, 19, 106–7, 110, 112, 115; GABA and, 57; grooming patterns and, 173; information and, 190; KE family and, 80, 106, 110; language and, 28; learning and, 55–59, 110, 146–47, 203; lesions and, 41, 55, 80, 98, 105; levodopa and, 37, 49; local operations and, 36–37, 44, 94, 110, 190; matrisomes and, 55–59; mechanisms of, 9, 15, 22–23; Monchi group and, 51–53, 94–95; monkeys and, 95; morals and, 183–84; motor control and, 44–46, 55–59, 76–78, 105–6, 110, 112, 183–84, 189; oxygen depletion and, 36, 45–49, 69, 105; Parkinson disease and, 49, 53, 105; as pleasure center, 22; posterior cortex and, 105; preadaptation, cognition, and language, 76–77; prefrontal cortex and, 22–23, 49, 51, 53–54, 85, 94, 99, 111, 183–84, 189–90; putamen and, 33f, 34, 41, 46, 52–54, 57, 95, 105–8; as sequencing engine, 37; speech and, 37, 41, 44; striatum and, 33f, 41, 57; unpredictability and, 99–100, 189–90
Basket, F., 122
Battle of Culloden, 198
Beagle (ship), 61, 73, 122, 128
Bear, M. F., 20
behavior, x; altruistic, 3, 185–86, 194; animal, 148, 168, 173, 190, 194, 196; brain design and, 26–27, 34–36, 48; brain mechanisms and, 2–5, 13, 19–24; brain size and, 118; cheater-detectors and, 158–59; Chomsky on, 163, 165, 167–68, 171–73; conditioned reflex and, 20; developmental, 191–92; entrenched genes and, 191–92; evolution and, 61, 68, 71, 76, 78; fashion and, 147–49; FOXP2 gene and, 107, 112–14; gender and, 199–202; gestures and, 42, 99, 104, 140, 177, 191, 200; human, 2, 5, 22–27, 68, 71, 76, 114, 147, 149, 158–59, 166, 172–73, 187–88, 190–93, 200–201; IN and OUT groups, 195, 197; KE family and, 107; language and, 163, 165–68, 171–73, 205; morals and, 197 (see also morals); natural selection and, 146, 193–94; phrenology and, 6–8; rational conduct and, 22; selfish gene theory and, 3, 185–86, 194; shyness and, 192–93; stress and, 181, 192–93; theory of mind and, 198; WEIRDO, 160, 182–85, 198, 202. See also culture
Behavioral and Brain Sciences journal, 160–61, 182
Bell Telephone Laboratories, 134, 136
Benson, D. F., 30
biological bases of unpredictability and creativity, 11, 76–77, 107–20, 189–90
birds: basal ganglia and, 116–17; brains of, 117, 168; Darwin and, 197; ducks, 91, 168–69, 177; evolution and, 61, 64, 78, 197; Foxp2 animal gene and, 116–17, 203; FOXP2human gene and, 108, 112; gender and, 201; neural circuits of, 116–17, 203; pigeons, 64, 206; starlings, 174; vocalizations of, 116–17, 135, 174; Zebra finches, 116–17, 203
Birkbeck College, 84
Blair, R.J.R., 10
blood oxygen level depletion (BOLD) signal, 13
Boehm, C., 195
Book of the Five Rings, The (Musashi), 56
Boston Language Development Conference, 100
Boston University, 174
Botticelli, S., 144
Bouhuys, A., 70
Bowerman, M., 169
brain damage: anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) and, 35–36; aphasia and, 98–99; basal ganglia and, 44, 98; brain design and, 27–36, 47; Broca studies and, 27; CM (patient) and, 41–42, 44, 47, 80; comas and, 34, 41, 98; language and, 98; lesions and, 99 (see also lesions); mechanism effects and, 16, 18; motor control and, 76; Parkinson disease and, 99; speech and, 98; strokes and, 27–29, 34–35, 97; Tan (patient) and, 27–28
brain design: adaptation and, 2–3, 25; anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) and, 35–36; axons and, 18–20, 120; basal ganglia and, 28–37, 41, 44–58; behavior and, 26–27, 34–36, 48; brain damage and, 27–36, 47; caudate nucleus and, 33f, 34, 41, 46, 52–54, 57–58; cognition and, 31–37, 41–59; cortical-basal ganglia-cortical circuits and, 32–36; dendrites and, 18–20, 36, 111, 120; emotion and, 32–33, 35f, 36–37, 54; executive control and, 44, 49–54; fissures and, 10, 11f; functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and, 27, 36, 51–55, 58–59; hemispheres of, 10, 16, 97; hippocampus and, 54; information and, 27, 33f, 34–36, 50–53; learning and, 37–38, 41, 51–52, 55–59; local operations and, 30, 32, 36–37, 44, 51–57; mathematics and, 25–27, 59; memory and, 42, 50–54, 57; modular theory and, 54, 76, 164, 208; monkeys and, 50, 58; motor control and, 32, 35f, 36–37, 40, 44–45; neural circuits and, 28–36, 45, 49, 51, 53–55; positron emission tomography (PET) scans and, 27, 36, 51, 53–54; prefrontal cortex and, 35–36, 41–55, 58; putamen and, 33f, 34, 41, 46, 53–54, 57; speech and, 27–32, 35, 37–47, 55, 58–59; survival and, 30–31, 48–49, 61, 63; thalamus and, 30, 33f, 34–36, 52, 55
brain mechanisms, 208; amygdala and, 9–10; anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) and, 9, 22; assembly lines and, 5–6; behavior and, 2–5, 13, 19–24; computational architecture of, 3; cortical malleability and, 18; emotion and, 9, 22; evolutionary psychology and, 2–3, 5, 24; functional architecture and, 4; hippocampus and, 23; information and, 8, 14–15, 18–19, 23; limited understanding of, ix–x; local operations and, x, 4, 21–22, 30, 32, 36–37, 44, 51–57, 77, 94, 100, 110, 190; mathematics and, 5–8; memory and, 8, 19–23; modular theory and, x, 3–7, 54, 76, 164, 208; monkeys and, 16; motor control and, 3, 5, 9, 21–23; neural circuits and, 3–4, 9, 14, 21–23, 190; neuroimaging and, 11–18; phrenology and, 6–8, 22; plasticity and, 18; positron emission tomography (PET) scans and, 12–14; prefrontal cortex and, 8–10, 11f, 16, 17f; religion and, 3, 8–9, 22; speech and, 5, 14, 18, 23–24; supercharged, 82–83, 112–18, 120; synapses and, 18–21
brain size, 2, 84; apes and, 83, 86; ASPM gene and, 113; chimpanzees and, 11, 85; Darwin and, 86–87; increasing of, 86–88, 113, 118; Neanderthals and, 152; struggle for existence and, 87
breast cancer, ix
Broadbent, D. E., 139
Broca’s area: aphasia and, 29–30, 32, 40, 45, 189; basal ganglia and, 9, 15, 22–23; entrenched genes and, 191–93; fossils and, 26; language and, 26–32, 189; morals and, 30; neural circuits and, 107; striatum and, 107
Brodmann’s areas (BAs), 16–18, 28
Bronowski, J., 90
Brooks, A. S., 150
Brown University, 31
Buckner, R., 89
Burling, R., 169
Button, J., 122
Cabela’s, 157
Calvin, W., 87
cancer, ix
Candide (Voltaire), 75
cardiovascular disease, 203
Cartesian Linguistics (Chomsky), 170
caudate nucleus: brain design and, 33f, 34, 41, 46, 52–54, 57–58; FOXP2 gene and, 106–8, 112; KE family and, 106–8; lesions and, 46, 105; Monchi group and, 95
Cavness, B., 133
Chagall, M., 148
Chatelperronian culture, 153–54
Chimpanzee Politics: Power and Sex among Apes (de Waal), 195–96
chimpanzees, 131f, 161; alpha-male status and, 195–96; American Sign Language (ASL) and, 123, 177; as baseline, 123–24; behavior and, 148; brain size and, 2, 11, 85; calls of, 134–36; Chimpanzee Sequencing and Analysis Consortium and, 109; cognition and, 195–96; cost-benefit analysis and, 195–96; creativity and, 147–48; Darwin and, x; fission-fusion society and, 194; food and, 194, 198; FOXP2human gene and, 152; Frido, 196; gender and, 201; genes shared with humans, 107; genetics and, ix, 24, 82–83, 85–86, 91, 95–96, 99–100, 107, 109–10, 113–15, 117–18, 190, 194–95; Gombe, 124, 194, 196, 198; groupings of, 194–97; human superiority over, 30, 95–96; hunting parties and, 198; Kanzi, 123; Leakeys and, 124–25; learning and, 127, 161; mirror-test and, 198; morals and, 194–98; neural circuits and, 76–80, 95–96; prefrontal cortex and, 85; reading and, 95–96; sex and, 160; simple tools and, 124–25, 147–48, 195; speech and, 95, 134–36; supercharged brains and, 82; syntax and, 123; tutoring and, 127; warfare and, 195–96; Washoe, 91, 123, 177; Wilkie, 196
Chimpanzees of Gombe, The (Goodall), 124
Chinese, 71–73, 143, 164–65, 167, 204
Chomsky, C., 169
Chomsky, N.: behavior and, 163, 165, 167–68, 171–73; bird brains and, 168; creationist linguistics and, 162–66; Darwin and, 164–66; determinism and, x–xi; Everett paper and, 205–6; evolutionary psychology and, 2, 5, 59, 65–67, 71–72, 92, 96, 102–3, 127, 162–77, 185, 205–6, 208; Faculty of Language (FL) and, 96, 164, 167, 172–73, 175, 178, 208; jargon of, 171–72; language organ and, 65–67, 71–72, 92, 96, 102–3, 127, 162–78, 205–8; Levalloisian technique and, 127; natural selection is meaningless, 164–66; number faculty and, 206–7; poverty of the stimulus and, 169–70; recursion and, 172–76, 205–6; selfish gene theory and, 185; speech and, 169–70, 172, 174; syntax and, 59, 65–67, 102; transformational rules and, 170–71; Universal Grammar and, 67, 71–72, 96, 162–69, 172; word concepts and, 92
Christianity, 180, 207; altruism and, 186; Bible and, 67, 198; Golden Rule and, 198–99; Harris and, 8–10
climate change, 87
CM (patient), 41–42, 44, 47, 80
cognition: anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) and, 9, 22, 129; aphasia and, 29–30, 32, 40, 76, 98–99, 189; archaeological studies and, 2, 122–23, 139, 143, 147, 152; basal ganglia and, 98, 105; biological bases of unpredictability and, 189–93; brain design and, 31–37, 41–59; brain size and, 2, 11, 83–88, 113, 118; chimpanzee mobs and, 195–96; comprehension and, 5, 23, 28–32, 44, 47, 50–51, 54–55, 58–59, 76, 96, 98, 102–6, 123; cost-benefit analysis and, 195–96; creativity and, 118 (see also creativity); culture and, 203–4; domain-general, 184; encephalization quotient (EQ) and, 86; evolution and, 76–78; executive control and, 23, 44, 49–54, 85, 95, 105, 107, 183–84, 189; flexibility and, 2–3, 22–24, 32, 42–47, 50–53, 95, 99, 105–6, 111, 190, 196, 208; Foxp2 animal gene and, 117; FOXP2human gene and, 108–12, 115, 119; genius and, 7, 113; gestures and, 42, 99, 104, 140, 177, 191, 200; higher, 85; highly accelerated regions (HARs) and, 113; inflexibility and, 42, 45, 48; innovation and, xi, 3, 23–24, 151–52, 155; Institute for Child Health (ICH) and, 104; KE family and, 101–10; language and, 15, 31 (see also language); learning and, 22 (see also learning); lesions and, 98 (see also lesions); levodopa and, 37, 49, 55; memory and, 8, 95 (see also memory); morals and, 197–98; motor control and, 5, 44–45, 76–77, 108 (see also motor control); negative feedback and, 52; neural circuits and, x (see also neural circuits); number faculty and, 206–7; Odd-Man-Out (OMO) test and, 42–44, 47, 104–5; oxygen depletion and, 36, 45–49, 69, 105; prefrontal cortex and, 85, 94–95; syntax and, 5, 44, 51, 56, 58–59, 65, 72, 100, 103–6, 123, 169–70, 174, 178; vision and, 18, 21, 74, 101; von Humboldt opus and, 204; Wechsler Intelligence tests and, 104–6; Wisconsin Card Sorting Test and, 47, 51, 54, 104
computational efficiency, 100
computed tomography (CT) scans, 11, 29, 97, 122
conditioned reflex, 20
Conference on the Origins and Evolution of Language and Speech, 165–66
Conrad, J., 90
Coop, G., 115
Cooper, L. N., 20
Cortés, H., 188
Cortés, M., 188
cortex: 11, cortical-basal ganglia circuits and, 22, 32–36, 52–55, 76, 94, 99–100, 105, 110–11, 115, 146, 203; cortical-basal ganglia circuits and, 22, 32–36, 52–55, 76, 94, 99–100, 105, 110–11, 115, 146, 183, 203; cortical-striatal-cortical circuits and, 108. See also specific structure
cortical malleability, 18
Cosmides, L., 158
creationist linguistics, 162–66
creativity, 189; basal ganglia and, 99–100; chimpanzees and, 147–48; fashion and, 147–52; Indian ingenuity and, 1, 25; information and, 89; innovation and, xi, 1, 3, 23–25, 151–52, 155; religion and, 150. See also unpredictability
Crelin, E. S., 77–78, 135–40, 144, 199
culture, 3; as agent of genetic change, 68–71, 202–5; artifacts and, 121–24, 151, 153–54; Aztec, 188; Chatelperronian, 153–54; cognition and, 203–4; dialects and, 71, 136, 143, 171, 200–201; Eskimo (Inuit), 204–5; evolutionary psychology and, 158–61, 165–66, 179–87; fission-fusion society and, 194; genetic variation and, 193; gestures and, 200–201; Golden Rule and, 198–99; honor killing and, 179; IN and OUT groups, 195, 197; intellectual attainments of, 204; Jewish, 181, 198; language and, 71, 203–8 (see also language); Mayan, 184–85; morals and, 24, 107, 160, 179–85, 193–99, 202; natural selection and, 67–71; Neanderthals and, xi, 113–20, 138–40, 144–47, 152–55, 190; Piraha, 173, 175–76, 205–7; thought and, 203–5; unpredictability and, 191; variation and, 179; Vikings and, 24, 179–80, 197; WEIRDOs and, 160, 182–85, 198, 202
Cummings, J. L., 34, 49, 80, 111
Current Anthropology (Everett), 205–6
Curtiss S., 117
Darlington, R., 83
Darwin, C.: apes and, 191; Beagle voyage and, 61, 73, 122, 128; birds and, 197; brain size and, 86–87; changing structural roles and, 2; chimpanzees and, x; Chomsky and, 164–66; criticism of, 60, 75–76; DNA and, x, 60; emotion and, 191; finch studies of, 61, 70; fossils and, 61–62, 64; lungfish and, 73–74; Malthus and, 63; natural selection and, ix, 61–72 (see also natural selection); Neanderthals and, 114–16; On the Origin of Species and, 60, 64, 73, 129–30, 165, 197; religion and, 185; Royal Medal of, 64; struggle for existence and, 63, 68, 79, 87, 109, 115, 142, 153, 186, 193, 196–97; survival and, 68–70, 73, 87, 109, 116; tongues and, 129–30; transmutation and, 61, 186, 191; variation and, x–xi, 63–64, 70, 73, 115, 165
Darwin, E., 61
DaSent, G. W., 179
David, king of Israel, 198
Dawkins, R., 2; religion and, 185–86; selfish gene theory and, 3, 65, 178, 185–88, 194
DeLong, M. R., 34
Democritus, 90
dendrites, 18–20, 36, 111, 120
Denisovans, 114–16, 119–20, 152, 190
de Onate, J., 188
d’Errico, F., 151
determinism, x–xi, 159, 161, 188
developmental psychology, 191–93
de Villiers, J., 174
dialects, 71, 136, 143, 171, 200–201
Dietrich, G. L., 157
diffusion tensor imaging (DTI), 14, 21, 32, 35, 95, 98
diseases, 157; Alzheimer’s dementia, 42, 89; aphasia, 29–30, 32, 40; autism, 113, 120; brainstem damage and, 97; breast cancer, ix; cardiovascular, 203; clean water and, 62; Darwin on, 116; endemic, 182; life expectancy and, 62; Parkinson, 32–37, 40–51, 55, 57, 76, 80, 98–99, 105, 112–13, 189; pestilence and, 63; plant, 194; resistance to, 71, 152; schizophrenia, 113
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid): ancestry and, 82; Darwin and, x, 60; Foxp2 animal gene and, 107–8, 110, 114, 116–17, 203; FOXP2human gene and, 80, 100–115, 117, 119–21, 138, 151–52, 190, 202; genetics and, x, 60, 82, 107–10, 115, 120, 202; genotyping uses and, 82; information and, x, 60, 82, 107–10, 115, 120, 202; paternity tests and, 82; RNA and, 107–8; transcription factors and, 107–8
dogs, 2, 20, 23, 99, 129–30, 140, 148, 157, 191
Dolma, Lhakpa, 31
domain-general networks, 184
dopamine, 36–37, 41, 53–54, 57, 111
Ebner, F. F., 20
ecosystems, 61–62, 68–70, 73, 161, 202, 208
Edinburgh University, 167
electroencephalography (EEG), 27
emotion: basal ganglia and, 94; brain design and, 32–33, 35f, 36–37, 54; brain mechanisms and, 9, 22; Darwin and, 191; evolution and, 76, 191; gestures and, 191; moral faculty and, 178; selfish gene theory and, 178
encephalization quotient (EQ), 86
English, 90, 128, 158, 191; Americans and, 166–67, 201; brain design and, 40–41; brain mechanisms and, 5, 8–9; changes in, 100; dialects and, 136; Eskimos (Inuits) and, 204–5; evolution and, 66–67, 71–73, 76, 78; Kanzi and, 123; KE family and, 101–10, 202; phonemes and, 141; syllable time and, 143; Universal Grammar and, 100–101, 164–67, 170–74; Yaghans and, 122
epiglottis, 132
Erikson, D., 199
Escape from Hunger and Premature Death, 1700–2010, The (Fogel), 62
esophagus, 130
Essay on the Principle of Population, An (Malthus), 62–63
Essay on the Shaking Palsy, An (Parkinson), 37
Evans, N., 175
event-related potentials (ERPs), 14–15
Everett, D., 173, 175–76, 205–7
evolution, ix; adaptation and, 74–75, 78; Africa and, 67, 69–70, 87, 114, 122, 147, 150–53, 156–57; anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) and, 79–80; apes and, 83, 86, 191; Australopithecus afarensis and, 86; behavior and, 61, 68, 71, 76, 78; birds and, 61, 64, 78; brain design and, 2; brain size and, 2, 11, 83–88, 113, 118; changing structural roles and, 2; chimpanzees and, 2; cognition and, 76–78; Denisovans and, 114–16, 119–20, 152, 190; emotion and, 76, 191; fossils and, 61–62, 64, 67, 125; FOXP2human gene and, 107–9, 121; genetics and, x–xi, 63–64, 70, 73, 100–101, 115; geography and, 70–71; Homo erectus and, 86, 126; Homo habilis and, 86, 122, 125, 128; Homo sapiens and, 2, 153; information and, 64, 66, 72; isolating mechanisms and, 71; knowledge of language and, 65–67, 71–72, 163, 171 (see also language); learning and, 66, 69, 71; lungfish and, 73–74; motor control and, 76–80; mutations and, 23, 61, 68, 70, 72, 108–9, 115, 151, 158, 182, 186, 191; Neanderthals and, xi, 113–20, 138–40, 144–47, 152–55, 190; nonbelief in, 60; On the Origin of Species and, 60, 64, 73, 129–30, 165, 197; proximate logic of, 2; religion and, 60; selective sweeps and, 68, 70, 72, 109, 115, 151, 158, 182; slow change and, 126–29; speech and, 66, 80, 147, 158, 165; struggle for existence and, 63, 68, 79, 87, 109, 115, 142, 153, 186, 193, 196–97; survival and, 61, 63, 68–70, 73, 87, 109, 116; tongue and, 129–30; transcription factors and, 107–9; transmutation and, 61, 186, 191; unpredictability and, 190–93; utility of cars and, 117–18; variation and, x–xi, 63–64, 70, 73, 115, 159, 165; vision and, 74; wings and, 75–76
evolutionary biology: aggression versus cooperation, 194–97; shrugging and Darwin, 190; shyness and, 190–93
evolutionary psychology: art and, 156–57; brain mechanisms and, 2–3, 5, 24; cheater-detectors and, 158–59; Chomsky and, 2, 5, 59, 65–67, 71–72, 92, 96, 102–3, 127, 162–77, 185, 205–6, 208; creationist linguistics and, 162–66; culture and, 158–61, 165–66, 179–87; Dawkins and, 2, 65, 185–86; Dutton and, 158; Faculty of Language (FL) and, 96, 164, 167, 172–73, 175, 178, 208; gene game and, 65, 191, 207–8; Harris and, 2, 8–10, 22, 177; Hauser and, 2, 65, 172–73, 177–80, 183–85, 205, 208; innate knowledge and, 58, 66, 71–72, 91–92, 102, 156–57, 162–73, 178, 184, 188, 191, 206–8; Kagan studies and, 192; language and, 3, 96, 156, 158–59, 162–78, 185, 188, 208; modular theory and, 5–7, 25, 208; morality gene and, xi, 3, 24, 65, 177–85, 207–8; Pinker and, 2, 4–5, 92, 100–101, 103–4, 156–58, 177; selfish gene theory and, 3, 30, 65, 178, 185–88, 194; sex and, 159–61; Universal Grammars and, 162–69, 172, 208; unpredictability and, 2–3, 191; variation and, 64; Washoe and, 91; WEIRDO culture and, 160, 182–85
Evolution of Language, The (Fitch), 96, 140
Evolution of the Human Head, The (Lieberman), 86, 130
executive control: brain design and, 44, 49–54; cognition and, 23, 37, 49–55, 85, 95, 105, 107, 183–84, 189; levodopa and, 37, 49, 55; memory and, 50–54; Parkinson disease and, 49–53
Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals, The (Darwin), 191
Faculty of Language (FL), 96, 164, 167, 172–73, 175, 178, 208
Faculty of Driving parody, 162–63
Faith Instinct, The (Wade), 159
fashion: early signs of, 150–51; as index of creativity, 147–52
Fedorenko, E., 58
Finlay, B., 83
Fisher, S., 107
Fitch, T. W., 96, 140, 173, 201–2, 205
Flowers, K. A., 42
Fogel, R., 62
food, 87, 171; agricultural production and, 63; chimpanzees and, 194, 198; choking and, 23, 130–32, 146; digestion and, ix, 65, 68, 130, 166; epiglottis and, 132; evolution and, 61–65, 68–70, 150, 152–53; famine and, 63, 193, 202–3; green revolution and, 194; Malthusian population growth and, 62–63; milk, ix, 68, 130, 166; natural selection and, 68–69; as reward, 50, 58; swallowing and, 64, 79, 129–32, 144–46; tongues and, 130–32; working memory and, 50
formant frequency, 39, 133, 136–40, 142–43, 145, 200–202
fossils: anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) and, 79–80, 129; Broca’s area and, 26; Cro-Magnon, 145; Darwin and, 61–62, 64; evolution and, 61–62, 64, 67, 125; Homo habilis and, 125; Leakeys and, 124–25; Mammuts and, 88; Neanderthals and, 114, 116, 139, 145–46; Oldowan tools and, 125–28; Paleolithic, 145; Shanidar 2, 146; Skhul V, 145–46; supralaryngeal vocal tract (SVT) and, 144–47
Foster, M., 196
Fouts, R., 91
Foxp2 animal gene: birds and, 116–17, 203; cognition and, 117; mice and, 108; transcription factors and, 107–8, 110, 114, 116–17, 203
FOXP2human gene: associative learning and, 190; basal ganglia and, 19, 110, 115; behavior and, 107, 112–14; birds and, 108, 112; caudate nucleus and, 106–8, 112; chimpanzees and, 152; cognition and, 108–12, 115, 119; evolution and, 107–9, 121; fashion and, 151; Geschwind and, 112; globus pallidus and, 106–7; information transfer and, 109, 111–12; KE family and, 80, 106–10, 202; language and, 100–109; learning and, 111–12; mice and, 109–12; Neanderthals and, 114–15, 119–20, 152; neural circuits and, 100–120; Parkinson disease and, 112; putamen and, 106–7; speech and, 104–5, 109, 120, 138; synaptic modification and, 111; thalamus and, 108, 111; transcription factors and, 80, 100–115, 117, 119–21, 138, 151–52, 190, 202; uncertainties concerning human form, 113–15, 120
François-Brousseau, F.-E., 53
Frederici, A., 15
Freud, S., 207
Frido, 196
Friedman, J., 51
frontal cortex, 85
Frontal Lobes, The (Stuss and Benson), 30
functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI): anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) and, 80; brain design and, 27, 36, 51–55, 58–59; brain mechanisms and, 12–15, 18; KE family and, 107; language and, 88–90, 165; Moral Sense Test and, 183; neuroimaging and, 12–15, 18, 27, 36, 51–55, 58–59, 80, 88–90, 107, 165, 177, 183; religion and, 177
fundamental frequency (F), 39, 81, 192, 200
GABA, 57
Gay, T., 143
gender: acoustics and, 199–202; birds and, 201; chimpanzees and, 201; formant frequency and, 200–202; Hamann study and, 9–10; pitch and, 200–201; survival and, 201
Genesis, Bible book of, 67
genetically modified organisms (GMOs), ix, 109–12, 115
genetics: ancestry and, 82; art and, 156–57; cheater-detectors and, 158–59; chimpanzees and, ix, 24, 82–83, 85–86, 91, 95–96, 99–100, 109–10, 113–15, 117–18, 190, 194–95; computational efficiency and, 100; culture and, 202–5; determinism and, x–xi, 159, 161, 188; diversity and, 193–94, 204; DNA and, x, 60, 82, 107–10, 115, 120, 202; entrenched genes and, 191–93; evolutionary biology and, 190–93; evolutionary psychology and, 2–3, 159–61 (see also evolutionary psychology); Foxp2 animal gene and, 107–8, 110, 114, 116–17, 203; FOXP2human gene and, 80, 100–115, 117, 119–21, 138, 151–52, 190, 202; highly accelerated regions of human genome, 113; IN and OUT groups, 195, 197; innate knowledge and, 58, 66, 71–72, 91–92, 102, 156–57, 162–73, 178, 184, 188, 191, 206–8; monkeys and, 193; mutations and, 23, 61, 68, 70, 72, 108–9, 115, 151, 158, 182, 186, 191; Neanderthals and, 113; nineteenth-century models of, x; research advances in, ix–x, 99–100; RNA and, 107–8; selective sweeps and, 68, 70, 72, 109, 115, 151, 158, 182; sex and, 159–61; shyness and, 192–93; social environment studies and, 202–3; speech and, 113; variation and, x–xi, 63–64, 70, 73, 100–101, 115, 193–97
George, king of England, 198–99
gestures, 42, 99, 104, 140, 177, 191, 200
Getty Foundation, 31
Gibbons, A., 119
Global Crop Diversity Trust, 194
globus pallidus, 33f, 34–36, 55, 106
Goffman, L., 169
Gombe Stream National Park, 124, 194, 196, 198
Gonzalez, A., 22
Greene, J. D., 184
green revolution, 194
Gross, M., 103
Grossman, M. S., 51
Gulliver’s Travels (Swift), 75, 91–92
hallucinations, 48
Hamann, S., 9
harems, 161
Harlow, 49
Harvard University, 89, 119, 183–85, 192
Hasbro Children’s Hospital, 105
Haskins Laboratories, 134–35, 141–43
Hauser, M. D.: evolutionary psychology and, 2, 65, 172–73, 177–80, 183–85, 205, 208; Faculty of Language and, 178; morality gene and, 65, 177–80; Universal Moral Grammar and, 178–79, 183–84, 208
Hebrew Bible, 198
Heimlich maneuver, 132
Hemings, B., 187
Hemings, J., 187
Henshilwood, C. S., 151
Herculano-Houzel, S., 83
Heyder, K. B., 23
highly accelerated regions of genome (HARs), 113
Hiiemae, K. M., 145
Hillel, 198
hippocampus: Alzheimer’s dementia and, 89; brain design and, 54; brain mechanisms and, 23; language and, 89; maternal grooming and, 202; memory and, 83–84, 88–89; mice and, 84; size of, 84–85
Hiroshima, 198
History of the Conquest of Mexico (Prescott), 187–88
Hitch, 50
Holy Trinity, 175
Homo habilis, 86, 122, 125, 128
honor killing, 179
How the Mind Works (Pinker), 4
humans: adaptability of, 2; brain size and, 2, 11, 83–88, 113, 118; choking and, 23, 130–32, 146; creativity and, 1–2 (see also creativity); digestion and, 65; FOXP2human gene and, 100–120 (see also FOXP2human gene); Golden Rule and, 198–99; Homo sapiens and, 2, 153; information storage and, 2 (see also information); larynx and, 38–39, 81, 96–98, 130–33, 136, 144–46, 192, 200; migration and, 88; neck and, 23, 132–33, 144–47; quantal vowels and, 137–38; skulls and, 6–8, 15, 26–27, 33f, 130, 132, 139, 144–45; speech and, 23–24, 37–39 (see also speech); superiority over chimpanzees, 30, 95–96; theory of mind and, 198; tongue and, 129–46; unique neural circuits of, 93–99; unpredictability of, 2 (see also unpredictability)
Hunnicutt, C. W., 157
imitation: brain design and, 23–24, 37, 59; evolution and, 69; learning and, 23–24, 37, 59, 69, 96, 116, 135, 148–55, 164; lack of in Neanderthals 152–53
India, 1, 69, 89, 155, 191, 193–94
information, 2; basal ganglia and, 190; brain design and, 27, 33f, 34–36, 50–53; brain mechanisms and, 8, 14–15, 18–19, 23; brain size and, 83–88, 113, 118; Chomsky on, 103; comprehension and, 5, 23, 28–32, 44, 47, 50–51, 54–55, 58–59, 76, 96, 98, 102–6, 123; cortical-basal ganglia circuits and, 22, 52–55, 76, 94, 99–100, 105, 110–11, 115, 146, 203; creativity and, 89; data transmission rate and, 39; DNA and, x, 60, 82, 107–10, 115, 120, 202; evolution and, 64, 66, 72; Foxp2 animal gene and, 107–8, 110, 114, 116–17, 203; FOXP2human gene and, 80, 100–115, 117, 119–21, 138, 151–52, 190, 202; gestures and, 42, 99, 104, 140, 177, 191, 200; GMO mice and, 109–10; innate, 58, 66, 71–72, 91–92, 102, 156–57, 162–73, 168, 178, 184, 188, 191, 206–8; Internet and, 141; Kegl’s errors and, 176; learning and, 190 (see also learning); medicine and, 171; negative, 169–70; neural circuits and, 120 (see also neural circuits); pop neuroscience and, 8–11; prefrontal cortex and, 94–95; RNA and, 107–8; semantic, 103; speech and, 39, 140–43 (see also speech); supercharged brains and, 82–83, 112–18, 120; supralaryngeal vocal tract (SVT) and, 146; syllable rate and, 143; synapses and, 18–21, 111, 119–20; syntax and, 5, 44, 51, 56, 58–59, 65, 72, 100, 103–6, 123, 169–70, 174, 178; thalamus and, 34; transfer of, 19, 33f, 95, 109–12, 119, 141, 190; Universal Grammars (UGs) and, 67, 71–72, 96, 100–104, 162–69, 172; unpredictability and, 190–91; vision and, 18, 21, 74, 101
innate knowledge: arithmetic and, 206–7; art and, 156–7; cheater-detectors and, 158–9; language and, 58 (see also Chomsky, N.); sexual mores and, 159–61; words and concepts, 92
innovation, xi, 3, 23–24, 151–52, 155
“In Praise of Tedius Anatomy” (Devlin and Poldark), 15
Institute for Child Health (ICH), 102, 104, 106
intelligence quotient (IQ), 105
Into Thin Air (Krakauer), 48
isolating mechanisms, 71
Iwatsubo, T., 97
Jellinger, K., 98
Jeong, J. H., 105
Jerison, H. J., 86
Johanson, D., 86
Johnson, M., 103
Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 135
Journal of Zoology, 202
Jung, C., 207
Kandel, E. R., 21
Kanzi, 123
Karr, J.-B. A., 92
KE family: basal ganglia and, 80; caudate nucleus and, 106–8; cognition and, 101–10; FOXP2human gene and, 80, 106–10, 202; functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and, 107; language and, 101–10, 202; learning and, 110; putamen and, 106–8; speech and, 104–5, 109; syntax deficits of, 103–6
Khmer Rouge, 184
Klatt, D., 135
knowledge of language, 65–67, 71–72, 163, 171
Konopka, G., 112
Kosslyn, S. M., 89
Kourtzi, Z., 89
Krakauer, J., 48
Krause, J., 114
Kuhl, P., 146
Kuoppamaki, M., 105
Labov, W., 171
Ladefoged, P., 139
Lai, C. S., 108
Lai, S. J., 104
Lamarck, J.-B., 61
language: adaptation and, 90–91; Americans and, 166–67, 201; aphasia and, 29–30, 32, 40, 76, 98–99, 189; basal ganglia and, 28; behavior and, 163, 165–68, 171–73, 205; brain damage and, 98; Broca’s area and, 26–32, 189; Broca-Wernicke theory and, 27–30; Chinese and, 71–73, 143, 164–65, 167, 204; Chomsky and, 65–67, 71–72, 92, 96, 102–3, 127, 162–77, 205–8; comprehension and, 5, 23, 28–32, 44, 47, 50–51, 54–55, 58–59, 76, 96, 98, 102–6, 123; Conference on the Origins and Evolution of Language and Speech and, 165–66; consonants and, 38–41, 45, 72, 80, 98, 105, 133, 135, 138, 142, 158; creationist linguistics and, 162–66; English, 5, 8–9, 40–41, 66–67, 71–73, 76, 78, 90, 100–104, 122–23, 128, 136, 141, 143, 158, 164, 166–74, 191, 201, 204–5; Eskimos (Inuits) and, 204–5; evolution and, 158–59; evolutionary psychology and, 3, 156, 158–59, 162–78, 185, 188; Faculty of Language (FL) and, 96, 164, 167, 172–73, 175, 178, 208; formant frequency and, 39, 133, 136–40, 142–43, 145, 200–202; FOXP2human gene and, 100–109; French, 158–59, 164, 169, 191; functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and, 88–90, 165; German, 158, 164–65, 169, 204; Geschwind paper and, 29; Gold’s theorem and, 169–70; Gopnick studies and, 100–106; hippocampus and, 89; imitation and, 152–55; innateness and, 58, 66, 71–72, 91–92, 102, 156–57, 162–73, 178, 184, 188, 191, 206–8; KE family and, 101–10, 202; knowledge of, 65–67, 71–72, 163, 171; learning and, 66–67, 71–72, 89–92, 100–101, 122, 128, 148, 163–64, 168–69, 171, 207; Linguistic Relativity and, 204–5; memory and, 105, 143, 156–57; modular theory and, 164; My Fair Lady and, 40; native, 71–72, 100–101, 165, 169, 204; neuroimaging and, 89–90; Nicaraguan Sign Language (NSL), 176–77; nineteenth-century models and, x; Optimality Theory (OT) and, 71–72, 167; Oxford English Dictionary and, 90–91; oxygen depletion and, 36, 45–49, 69, 105; Parkinson disease and, 105–6; phonetics and, 5, 40, 54, 71, 136, 141–43, 146; phrenology and, 6, 27–30, 164; Pinker and, 5; Piraha, 173, 175–76, 205–7; positron emission tomography (PET) scans and, 88, 98, 107; poverty of the stimulus and, 169–70; prefrontal cortex and, 94; quantal vowels and, 137–40, 144–47; recursion and, 172–76, 201, 205–6; Sapir-Whorf hypothesis and, 203–5; sign, 23, 91, 102, 123, 127, 140, 148, 176–77; Sound Spectrograph and, 41, 134; supralaryngeal vocal tract (SVT) and, 39–41, 133–40, 144–47, 200; syllables and, 27, 54, 66, 72, 101, 105, 142–43, 167; syntax and, 5, 44, 51, 56, 58–59, 65, 72, 77–78, 100, 103–6, 123, 143, 169–70, 174, 178; thought and, 203–5; as tool, 205–7; transcription factors and, 107, 117; transformational rules and, 170–71; Tseltal, 184–85; Universal Grammars (UGs) and, 67 (see also Universal Grammars (UGs)); variation and, 171, 179; voice onset time (VOT) and, 41–42; von Humboldt opus and, 204; vowels and, 38–39, 72, 105, 131f, 133, 135–47, 200; Wernicke’s area and, 26–32, 189; word concepts and, 89–92; worldview and, 203–4
Language Instinct, The (Pinker), 104, 156
Language: The Cultural Tool (Everett), 206
Lartet, E., 87
laryngeal phonation, 27, 35, 42, 98
larynx: animal, 201–2; cricoid cartilage of, 144–45; human, 38–39, 81, 96–98, 130–33, 136, 144–46, 192, 200; Neanderthals and, 144–46; speech and, 27, 35, 38–39, 42, 81, 96–98, 130–33, 136, 144–46, 192, 200–202; swallowing and, 130–32, 144–46; tongue and, 130–33, 136, 144–46. See also supralaryngeal vocal tract (SVT)
Lashley, K., 78
learning: animal, 23, 82–83, 112, 116–17, 123, 148, 161, 169, 174, 177, 203; associative, 20–22, 55–59, 109–12, 164, 190, 203; automatization and, 55, 58–59; autopsies and, 16, 28–29, 46, 97; basal ganglia and, 55–59, 110, 146–47, 203; brain design and, 37–38, 41, 51–52, 55–59; brain size and, 2, 11, 83–88, 113, 118; chimpanzees and, 127, 161; cognitive flexibility and, 2–3, 22–24, 32, 42–47, 50–53, 95, 99, 105–6, 111, 190, 196, 208; comprehension and, 5, 23, 28–32, 44, 47, 50–51, 54–55, 58–59, 76, 96, 98, 102–6, 123; conditioned reflex and, 20; cortical-basal ganglia circuits and, 22, 52–55, 76, 94, 99–100, 105, 110–11, 115, 146, 203; evolution and, 66, 69, 71; executive control and, 23, 44, 49–54, 85, 95, 105, 107, 183–84, 189; FOXP2human gene and, 111–12, 190; genius and, 7, 113; imitative, 23–24, 37, 59, 69, 96, 116, 135, 148–55, 164; innate, 162, 166, 169, 206–7; innovation and, xi, 3, 23–24, 151–52, 155; KE family and, 110; language and, 65–67, 71–72, 89–92, 100–101, 122, 128, 148, 163–64, 168, 169, 171, 207; local operations and, x; mathematics and, 206–7; matrisomes and, 55–59; motor skills and, 56–57, 95, 111, 138, 146–47; Neanderthals and, 152–55; neuroimaging and, 89–90; neurons and, 18–20; Parkinson disease and, 37; procedural, 106; religion and, 198; reward-based, 56–59; speech and, 96, 99, 101, 106, 116–17; syntax and, 56, 174, 178 (see also syntax)
lesions: anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) and, 79; aphasia and, 99; basal ganglia and, 41, 55, 76, 80, 98, 105; caudate nucleus and, 105; globus pallidus and, 55; motor skills and, 55; putamen and, 105; thalamus and, 55
Levalloisian technique, 127–28
Levelt, W.J.M., 5
Levinson, S., 175
Lichtheim, 28
Lieberman, D., 86, 130, 132–33, 153
Lieberman, M., 55–56, 82, 134, 149, 179
Lieberman, P., ix–xi, 45–46, 80, 135, 138–40, 143–44, 146, 165, 192
Liegeois, F., 107
life expectancy, 62
Lindblom, B., 138
Lisker, L., 41
local operations: basal ganglia and, 36–37, 44, 94, 110, 190; behavioral observations and, x; brain mechanisms and, x, 4, 21–22, 30, 32, 36–37, 44, 51–57, 77, 94, 100, 110, 190; computational efficiency and, 100; cortical-basal ganglia-cortical circuits and, 32, 36; design and, 30, 32, 36–37, 44, 51–57; evolution and, 77; functional architecture and, 4; neuroimaging and, 190
Locke, J., 91
Logothetis, N. K., 13
Lord Jim (Conrad), 90
Lubker, J., 143
Lucy, 86
MacNeilage, P., 138
mad genius stereotype and HAR genes, 113
Madoff, B., 158
magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), 3, 11–12, 14–18, 28, 31–32, 41, 46, 55, 85, 106
Maguire, E. A., 84
Mahajan, P. V., 144
Mahakala, 60
Malinche, 188
Mammuts, 88
Marin, O., 22
Marsden, D., 45, 55–56, 78, 94, 99
Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT): Chinese language studies and, 73; Chomsky and, 78, 103, 170–72; electrical engineering and, 77; Fedorenko and, 58; Kegl and, 176; Lieberman and, 73, 77, 143; Stevens and, 135–37; Sur and, 18
Mateer, C. J., 55
mathematics, x; arithmetic, 51, 54, 106, 163, 206–7; brain design and, 25–27, 59; brain mechanisms and, 5–8; Bronowski and, 90; domain-specific organ for, 118; Gold’s theorem and, 169–70; Leibnitz and, 75; number faculty and, 206–7; Universal Driving Grammar and, 163
Matthew, Bible book of, 198
Max Planck Institute, 15, 99, 109, 112
Mayflower (ship), 151
Mazo, M., 82
McBrearty, S., 150
McGill University, 100
McNeill, D., 191
Melchner, L. von, 18
memory: Alzheimer’s dementia and, 42, 89; brain design and, 42, 50–54, 57; brain mechanisms and, 8, 19–23; cognitive flexibility and, 95; enhanced, 83; executive control and, 23, 44, 49–54, 85, 95, 105, 107, 183–84, 189; hippocampus and, 83–84, 88–89; implicit, 84; language and, 105, 143, 156–57; long-term, 83; moral faculty and, 178; prefrontal cortex and, 83, 85, 88; short-term, 23, 50, 85; smart phones and, 143; traces and, 19–20, 57, 84–85, 89; verbal, 105; visual, 190; working, 50–54, 83, 85, 95, 105, 189
mice, 9; anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) and, 80; Foxp2 animal gene and, 108, 110; FOXP2human gene and, 109–12; GMO, 109–12, 115; hippocampus and, 84; Mouse Genome Sequencing Consortium and, 108; spinal column of, 108
Michaels, S. B., 192
Mifune, T., 56
migrations, 67, 69, 73, 82, 87–88, 122, 147, 151, 203
“Minimal Recursion: Exploring the Prospects” (Chomsky), 175–76
Minster, Y., 122
mirror-test, 198
mitochondrial RNA (mRNA), 107–8
Moctezuma, 188
modular theory, x, 3–4, 76; art instinct and, 208; brain design and, 54, 164, 208; evolutionary psychology and, 5–7, 25, 208; language and, 164; phrenology and, 7, 22; workstations and, 5–6
mollusks, 21
Monchi, O., 23, 51–53, 94–95, 106, 112
monkeys, 159, 198; basal ganglia and, 95; brain design and, 50, 58; brain mechanisms and, 16; formant frequency and, 136; Hauser data and, 183; shyness and, 193; unpredictability and, 193; working memory and, 50
monogamy genes, xi
Moore, L. G., 69
morality gene: Broca’s area and, 30; cultural evolution and, 24; evolutionary psychology and, xi, 3, 24, 65, 177–85, 207–8; natural selection and, 65
Moral Minds (Hauser), 177–78, 183
morals: altruism and, 3, 185–86, 194; basal ganglia and, 183–84; Broca’s area and, 30; chimpanzees and, 194–98; Christianity and, 8–10, 180, 186, 207; culture and, 24, 107, 160, 179–85, 193, 197–99, 202; disembowelment and, 198–99; emotion and, 178; ethics and, 24, 97, 178; evolutionary psychology and, xi, 3, 24, 65, 177–85, 207–8; genocide and, 180–82; Golden Rule and, 198–99; Hauser and, 65, 177–80, 184; honor killing and, 179; IN and OUT groups, 195, 197; Japanese Imperial Army during World War II and, 197–98; Khmer Rouge and, 184; memory and, 178; natural selection and, 65; Nazis and, 180–82, 193, 197; neuroimaging and, 51; nuclear bombs and, 198; phrenology and, 6–8, 25–27; rape and, 125–27, 184, 197; religion and, 1, 8–10, 177, 180, 186, 207; selfish gene theory and, 185–88; toy experiments and, 182–84; Universal Moral Grammar and, 178–79, 183–84, 208; Vikings and, 24, 179–80, 197; WEIRDOs and, 160, 182–85, 198, 202
Mormons, 161
Moses, 175
motor control, x; activation patterns and, 89; aphasia and, 76; associative learning and, 110–12; automatization and, 55, 58–59; basal ganglia and, 44–46, 55–59, 76–78, 105–6, 110, 112, 183–84, 189; brain damage and, 76; brain design and, 32, 35f, 36–37, 40, 44–45; brain mechanisms and, 3, 5, 9, 21–23; coded instructions and, 3; cognition and, 44–45, 76–77, 108; cognitive flexibility and, 44–45; cortical-striatal-cortical circuits and, 107–8; evolution and, 76–80; executive control and, 23, 44, 49–54, 85, 95, 105, 107, 183–84, 189; gestures and, 42, 99, 104, 140, 177, 191, 200; human frontal cortex and, 85; language and, 89–92 (see also language); learning and, 95, 111, 138, 146–47; neural circuits and, 3, 97; oxygen depletion and, 36, 45–49, 69, 105; paleocortex and, 79; Pinker and, 5; posterior dorsal cortex and, 94; prefrontal cortex and, 94; speech and, 37–39, 98, 112, 134, 138, 189 (see also speech); syntax of, 77–80; thalamus and, 55, 108; walking and, 37, 77–78, 118, 154, 173
motor cortex, x, 41, 55–59, 98–99
Mount Everest, 36, 45–49, 69, 105
MPTP neurotoxin, 57
music, 14, 38, 77, 81, 93, 148, 154, 173, 201
mutations: genetics and, 23, 61, 68, 70, 72, 108–9, 115, 151, 158, 182, 186, 191; selective sweeps and, 68, 70, 72, 109, 115, 151, 158, 182
My Fair Lady (film), 40
“Myth of Language Universals, The” (Evans and Levinson), 175
Nagasaki, 198
National Institutes of Health (NIH), 193
Natsopoulos, D., 51
natural selection, ix; behavior and, 146, 193–94; Chomskian theory and why Chinese descent would preclude acquiring English, 164–66; continual selection on humans, 67–71; culture and, 67–71; food and, 68–69; Malthus and, 63; morals and, 65; neural circuits and, 146; selective sweeps and, 68, 70, 72, 109, 115, 151, 158, 182; selfish gene theory and, 3, 30, 65, 178, 185–88, 194; struggle for existence and, 63, 68, 79, 87, 109, 115, 142, 153, 186, 193, 196–97; tenuousness of life and, 61–65; Universal Grammars (UGs) and, 71–72; variation and, x–xi, 63–64, 70, 73
Nature journal, 82, 106, 159, 161, 174
Nature Neuroscience journal, 9
Neanderthals: brain size and, 152; Darwin and, 114–16; Denisovans and, 114–16, 119–20, 152, 190; evolution and, xi, 113–20, 138–40, 144–47, 152–55, 190; FOXP2human gene and, 114–15, 119–20, 152; genetics and, 113; imitation and, 152–55; larynx and, 144–46; learning and, 152–55; semi-supercharged brains and, 113–16; skulls of, 113, 152; speech and, 138–40, 144–47; supralaryngeal vocal tract (SVT) and, 139–40
negative feedback, 52
Negus, V. E., 136
Nepal, 30–31, 46, 65, 69, 149–50, 191
neural circuits: apes and, 98; basal ganglia and, 94 (see also basal ganglia); birds and, 116–17, 203; brain damage and, 28 (see also brain damage); brain design and, 28–36, 45, 49, 51, 53–55; brain mechanisms and, 3–4, 9, 14, 21–23, 190; Broca’s area and, 107; chimpanzees and, 95–96; cognitive flexibility and, 2–3, 22–24, 32, 42–47, 50–53, 95, 99, 105–6, 111, 190, 196, 208; cortex and, 21–23; cortical-basal ganglia, 22, 32–36, 52–55, 76, 94, 99–100, 105, 110–11, 115, 146, 183, 203; cortical-striatal-cortical, 33f, 52, 107–8; domain-general, 184; domain specificity and, 53–55; evolution and, 76–80; fashion and, 149; FOXP2human gene and, 100–120; information and, 85, 120; language and, 164 (see also language); motor control and, 3 (see also motor control); Nauta-Gygax procedure and, 96–97; oxygen depletion and, 36, 45–49, 69, 105; Parkinson disease and, 189; speech and, 96–99; striatum and, 107–8; supercharged, 82–83, 112–18, 120; tracer studies and, 34–35, 95–96, 99, 190; transcription factors and, 112–13, 118; unique human, 95–99; unpredictability and creativity and, 189–90; working memory and, 83
“Neural Correlates of Religious and Nonreligious Belief, The” (Harris), 8
“neural engine” of unpredictability and creativity, 99–120
neuroimaging: anatomy and, 11–18; baseline and, 14; computed tomography (CT) scans and, 11, 29, 97, 122; cytoarchitectural reconstruction methods and, 16–18; data issues in, 15–18; diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) and, 14, 21, 32, 35, 95, 98; electroencephalography (EEG) and, 27; event-related potentials (ERPs) and, 14–15; functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and, 12–15, 18, 27, 36, 51–55, 58–59, 80, 88–90, 107, 165, 177, 183; learning words and, 89–90; localization issues and, 15–18; local operations and, 190; magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and, 3, 11–12, 14–18, 28, 31–32, 41, 46, 55, 85, 106; Monchi study and, 51–53; morals and, 51; phrenology and, 8, 27; positron emission tomography (PET) scans and, 12–14, 27, 36, 51, 53–54, 80, 88, 98, 107; reductionism and, 51–52; region of interest (ROI) and, 14; tracer studies and, 34–35, 95–96, 99, 190; Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST) and, 51–52
neurons: axons and, 18–20, 120; Brodmann and, 16; dendrites and, 18–20, 36, 111, 120; learning and, 18–20; synapses and, 18–21, 111, 119–20
Nicaraguan Sign Language (NSL), 176–77
Njal’s Saga, The Story of Burnt Njal, 179
nonverbal modes of thinking, 92–93
“Nothing in Biology Makes Sense Except in the Light of Evolution” (Dobzhansky), 76
“Not Necessarily a Wing” (Gould), 75–76
nuclear bombs, 198
Obeso, J., 45, 55–56, 78, 94, 99
Odd-Man-Out (OMO) test, 42–44, 47, 104–5
Ojemann, G. A., 55
On Language: The Diversity of Human Language-Structure and Its Influence on the Mental Development of Mankind (von Humboldt), 204
“On the Failure of Generative Grammar” (Gross), 103
On the Origin of Species (Darwin), 60, 64, 73, 129–30, 165, 197
“On the Speech of Neanderthal Man” (Lieberman and Crelin), 139–40
Optimality Theory (OT), 71–72, 167, 172
O’Toole, A. J., 89
Oxford English Dictionary, 90–91
Oxford University, 107
Pal, D. K., 113
paleocortex, 79
Paleolithic era, 126, 128, 145–47, 153–54
Paquin, C., 79
Parkinson, J., 37
Parkinson disease, 76, 189; basal ganglia and, 49, 53, 105; brain damage and, 99; brain design and, 33–47, 55; cognitive flexibility and, 42–45; dopamine and, 57; executive control and, 49–53; FOXP2human gene and, 112; hypophonation and, 80, 98; language and, 105–6; learning and, 37; levodopa and, 37, 49, 55; Odd-Man-Out (OMO) test and, 42–44, 47, 104–5; oxygen depletion and, 46; speech and, 113
Patel, A. D., 14
pestilence, 63
Petrides, M., 94
phonetics, 5, 40, 54, 71, 136, 141–43, 146
phrenology: brain mechanisms and, 6–8, 22; Broca-Wernicke language theory and, 27–30; death of, 8, 25; language and, 6, 27–30, 164; mathematics and, 6; modern guise of, 8–10; modular theory and, 7, 22; morals and, 6–8, 25–27; neophrenology and, 25–27; neuroimaging and, 27; Spurzsheim and, 7–8
Pickett, E. R., 40, 44, 47, 80, 98, 105
Pinker, S.: art gene and, 156–57; evolutionary psychology and, 2, 4–5, 92, 100–101, 103–4, 156–58, 177; How the Mind Works and, 4; The Language Instinct and, 104; Universal Grammars (UGs) and, 100–101, 103–4; word concepts and, 92
Piraha people, 173, 175–76, 205–7
pitch, 39, 81, 135, 192, 200–201
Podos, J., 61
Polich, L., 176
Poolesville Animal Center, 193
Popul Vuh, 67
positron emission tomography (PET) scans: anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) and, 80; brain design and, 27, 36, 51, 53–54; brain mechanisms and, 12–14; language and, 88, 98, 107
posterior cortex, 11f, 94, 105
Postle, B. R., 8, 23, 51, 83, 85
poverty of the stimulus, 169–70
preadaptation: ACC and laryngeal control, 80; Darwin and, 3, 73–76, exaptation and, 75–76; human tongue and, 129–40; motor control to cognition and, 76–78
prefrontal cortex: basal ganglia and, 22–23, 49, 51, 53–54, 85, 94, 99, 111, 183–84, 189–90; brain design and, 35–36, 41–55, 58; brain mechanisms and, 8–10, 11f, 16, 17f; Brodmann areas and, 94; chimpanzees and, 85; cognition and, 85, 94–95; dorsolateral, 10, 11f, 17f, 35–36, 52–54, 94, 190; feedback and, 52; higher cognition and, 85; information and, 94–95; memory and, 83, 85, 88; Monchi group and, 94–95; motor control and, 94; orbofrontal, 10, 11f, 36, 49; size of human, 85; thalamus and, 52; uniqueness of human, 93–99; ventrolateral, 8, 10, 11f, 17f, 36, 52–54, 94–95, 190; ventromedial, 8–9
Preuss, T., 113
Primeval Kinship (Chapais), 160
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the US (PNAS), 106
Prospect Park Zoo, 134
Providence Journal-Bulletin, 78–79
Provost, J. S., 53
Ptak, S., 115
putamen: brain design and, 33f, 34, 41, 46, 53–54, 57; KE family and, 106–8; lesions and, 46, 105; Monchi group and, 95
Pygmalion (Shaw), 40
quantal vowels, 137–40, 144–47
“Reading Aloud” (NPR), 133
Redtail Reborn (documentary), 48
region of interest (ROI), 14
Reimers-Kipping, S., 110
religion, ix; altruism and, 186; belief and, 175, 177, 184; Bible and, 67, 198; brain mechanisms and, 3, 8–9, 22; Christianity and, 8–10, 180, 186, 198–99, 207; creativity and, 150; Darwin and, 185; Dawkins and, 185–86; evolution and, 60; functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and, 177; Golden Rule and, 198–99; Harris and, 8–10; learning and, 198; morals and, 1, 8–10, 177, 180, 186, 207; Mormons and, 161; selfish gene theory and, 185–86, 188; Torah and, 198
Rhode Island School of Design, 148
Riel-Salvatore, J., 154
Rissman, J., 9
Robbin, R., 50
Robertson, C., 42
Robertson, R. L., 105
Royal Society, 64
Rumbaugh, D., 123
Sachs, J., 199
Salk Institute, 120
Sanes, J. N., 56
Savage-Rumbaugh, S., 123
Schick, K., 125
schizophrenia, 113
Schulz, G. M., 98
Science Magazine, 119
Sciences of Language, The (Chomsky), 166
Scott, R. B., 55
selective sweep, 68, 70, 72, 109, 115, 151, 158, 182
Selfish Gene, The (Dawkins), 185
selfish gene theory: altruism and, 3, 185–86, 194; behavior and, 3, 185–86, 194; Chomsky and, 185; Dawkins and, 3, 65, 178, 185–88, 194; emotion and, 178; evolutionary psychology and, 3, 30, 65, 178, 185–88, 194; morals and, 185–88; religion and, 185–86, 188; survival and, 186–87
Sesame Street (TV show), 192
sex: chimpanzees and, 160; erotica and, 9–10; evolutionary psychology and, 159–61; Hamann study and, 9–10; harems and, 161; Mormons and, 161; sexual dimorphism and, 201
Shaw, G. B., 40
Shu, W., 108
Shultz, S., 159
sign language, 23, 91, 102, 123, 127, 140, 148, 176–77
Simonson, T. S., 70
Skinner, 207
skulls: animal, 87; human, 6–8, 15, 26–27, 33f, 130, 132, 139, 144–45, 184; Neanderthal, 113, 152
Slocombe, K., 148
Smeets, W. J., 22
Smith, A., 169
Sound Spectrograph, 41, 134–35
“Spandrels of San Marco and the Panglossian Program, The” (Gould and Lewontin), 74–75
speech: acoustics and, 199–202; anatomy and, 131f, 134–43; ape vocalizations and, 95, 133–36, 138, 140; aphasia and, 29–30, 32, 40, 76, 98–99, 189; basal ganglia and, 37, 41, 44; bird vocalizations and, 116–17, 135, 174; brain damage and, 98; brain design and, 27–32, 35, 37–47, 55, 58–59; brain mechanisms and, 5, 14, 18, 23–24; breathing and, 81; Broca’s area and, 29, 40; chimpanzee calls and, 134–36; Chomsky and, 65–67, 169–70, 172, 174; CM (patient) and, 41–42, 44, 47, 80; complexity of, 37–39; comprehension and, 5, 23, 28–32, 44, 47, 50–51, 54–55, 58–59, 76, 96, 98, 102–6, 123; consonants and, 38–41, 45, 72, 80, 98, 105, 133, 135, 138, 142, 158; cricoid cartilage and, 144–45; dialects and, 71, 136, 143, 171, 200–201; evolution and, 66, 80, 147, 158, 165; filtering characteristics and, 39; formant frequency and, 39, 133, 136–40, 142–43, 145, 200–202; FOXP2human gene and, 104–5, 109, 120, 138; fundamental frequency (F) and, 39, 81, 192, 200; gender and, 199–202; genetics and, 101–2, 113; Gopnick study and, 101–4; Horning study and, 170; hypophonation and, 80, 98; infant vocal tract and, 131f; KE family and, 101–10, 202; larynx and, 27, 35, 38–39, 42, 81, 96–98, 130–33, 136, 144–46, 192, 200–202; learning and, 96, 99, 101, 106, 116–17; melody of, 27, 35; memory and, 105; modular theory and, 5; music and, 14; My Fair Lady and, 40; Neanderthals and, 138–40, 144–47; neural circuits and, 96–99; Optimality Theory and, 172; Parkinson disease and, 113; phonetics and, 5, 40, 54, 71, 136, 141–43, 146; Pickett study and, 44, 47, 80, 98, 105; production of, 37–39; quantal vowels and, 137–40, 144–47; rapid data transmission rate and, 39, 140–43; recognition on smart phones and computers; respiratory control and, 134; Sound Spectrograph and, 41, 134; specialness of, 140–43; species-specific circuits and, 96; stop consonants and, 40–41, 45, 142; supralaryngeal vocal tract (SVT) and, 39–41, 133–40, 144–47, 200; syllables and, 27, 54, 66, 72, 101, 105, 142–43, 167; syntax and, 5, 44, 51, 56, 58–59, 65, 72, 100, 103–6, 123, 174, 178; synthesizers and, 123; Tan (Leborgne) and, 27–28; tongue and, 23–24, 39–42, 96, 98, 104, 129–46; Universal Grammars (UGs) and, 67, 71–72, 162–69, 172; unpredictability and, 189; voice onset time (VOT) and, 41–42; voice pitch and, 39, 81, 135, 192, 200–201; vowels and, 38–39, 72, 105, 131f, 133, 135–47, 200
Spoor, F., 125
Spurzsheim, J., 7
starlings, 174
Stephan, H., 85
stop consonants, 40–41, 45, 142
striatum: basal ganglia and, 33f, 41, 57; Broca’s area and, 107; cortical-striatal-cortical circuits and, 33f, 52, 107–8
Strick, P. L., 34
struggle for existence, 63, 68, 79, 87, 109, 115, 142, 153, 186, 193, 196–97
Stuss, D. T., 30
subthalamic nucleus, 53
Suomi, S., 193
supercharged neural circuits, 112–17
superdogs, 99
supralaryngeal vocal tract (SVT): acoustics and, 200; brain design and, 39–41; filtering characteristics and, 39; formant frequency and, 200–202; fossils and, 144–47; fundamental frequency and, 200; Neanderthals and, 139–40; speech and, 39–41, 133–40, 144–47, 200; stop consonants and, 40–41, 45, 142; tongue and, 139–40
Sur, M., 18
survival: archaeology and, 121, 129; brain design and, 30–31, 48–49; brain mechanisms and, 23; Darwin and, 61, 63, 68–70, 73, 87, 109, 116; evolution and, 61, 63, 68–70, 73, 87, 109, 116; gender and, 201; natural selection and, 166; Neanderthals and, 116; religion and, 150; selective sweep and, 68; selfish gene theory and, 186–87; soft brain tissue and, 79, 129; struggle for existence and, 109
swallowing, 64, 79, 129–32, 144–46
Swaminath, P. V., 46
syllables, 27, 54, 66, 72, 101, 105, 142–43, 167
Symbolic Species, The (Deacon), 85, 96
synapses: action potential and, 19; brain mechanisms and, 18–21; conditioned reflex and, 20; FOXP2human and other genes that enhance plasticity, 107, 111–13, 117–20, modification of, 20–21; plasticity and, 111, 119–20; weight of, 19
Syntactic Structures (Chomsky), 102, 170–71
syntax: animals and, 173; chimpanzees and, 123; Chomsky and, 59, 65–67, 102, 170–71; Gold’s theorem and, 169–70; information and, 5, 44, 51, 56, 58–59, 65, 72, 100, 103–6, 123, 169–70, 174, 178; KE family and, 103–6; language and, 5, 44, 51, 56, 58–59, 65, 72, 77–78, 100, 103–6, 123, 174, 178; motor control and, 77–80; Pinker and, 5; Universal Grammars (UGs) and, 100–104
Takemoto, H., 136
Talairach, J., 15
tale of rock, rabbit, and granddaughter, 167–68
talking while breathing, 81
Taunton, M., 157
Ten Commandments, 175
Tennyson, Alfred Lord, 63
Terao, S.-I., 97
thalamus: brain design and, 30, 33f, 34–36, 52, 55; FOXP2human gene and, 108, 111; information and, 34; lesions and, 55; motor skills and, 55, 108; prefrontal cortex and, 52
theory of mind, 198
Tibet, 1, 30–31, 46, 60, 69–70, 149, 164, 169, 175, 182
time course for learning language, 169–70
Tolosa Cortes Moctezuma, I., 188
tongue: anatomical inferences from, 129–46; animal, 129–30, 135–36; digestion and, 130; eating and, 130–32; evolution and, 129–30; growth of, 132–33; human, 129–33; larynx and, 130–33, 136, 144–46; speech and, 23–24, 39–42, 96, 98, 104, 129–33, 135–46; steel dentures and, 65; supralaryngeal vocal tract (SVT) and, 139–40; swallowing and, 130–32, 144–46
Toobey, J., 158
Torah, 198
Toth, N., 125
Tournoux, P., 15
tracer studies, 34–35, 95–96, 99, 190
transcription factors: archaeological studies and, 121, 155; DNA and, 107–8; evolution and, 107–9; Foxp2 animal gene and, 107–8, 110, 114, 116–17, 203; FOXP2human gene and, 80, 100–115 (see also FOXP2human gene); language and, 117; supercharged neural circuits and, 112–13, 118, 190
Trinkhaus, E., 146
Truby, H. L., 136
True History of the Conquest of New Spain, The (Díaz del Castillo), 187–88
Tyson, E., 83
UNESCO, 158
Universal Grammars (UGs): Chomsky and, 67, 71–72, 96, 162–69, 172; creationist linguistics and, 162–66; of Driving (UGDs), 162–63; English and, 100–101, 164–67, 170–74; evolutionary psychology and, 162–69, 172, 208; language and, 67, 71–72, 96, 100–104, 162–69, 172; natural selection and, 164–66; Pinker and, 100–101, 103–4; syntax and, 100–104; as un-falsifiable belief, 174–75
Universal Moral Grammar, 178–79, 183–84, 208
University of California at Los Angeles (UCLA), 109–10, 112
University of Connecticut, 134, 199
unpredictability, 2; basal ganglia and, 99–100, 189–90; biological bases of, 189–93; cortical-basal ganglia circuits and, 99–100; culture and, 191; evolution and, 190–93; evolutionary psychology and, 2–3, 191; information and, 190–91; monkeys and, 193; neural circuits and, 189–90; speech and, 189
unstable human-specific genes that enhance cognition, 113
vacuum tubes, 77
variation: cross-cultural, 179; evolution and, x–xi, 63–64, 70, 73, 115, 159, 165; genetics and, x–xi, 63–64, 70, 73, 100–101, 115, 193–94; language and, 171, 179; putative absence in Chomsky’s Universal Grammar, 164, 171
Virgin Birth, 60
vision: cortical malleability and, 18; diffusion tensor studies and, 21; evolution and, 74; working memory and, 189
voice pitch, 39, 81, 135, 192, 200–201
Voltaire, 75
von Humboldt, A., 204
von Humboldt, W., 204
walking, 37, 77–78, 118, 154, 173
Wangdi, N., 31
Washington, G., 198
Waters, E. T., 21
Watkins, K. E., 104
Wayles, J., 187
Wechsler Intelligence tests, 104–6
WEIRDO (Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, Democracies) culture, 160, 182–85, 198, 202
Wernicke, K., 28
Wernicke’s area: aphasia and, 189; language and, 26–32, 189
WGBH, 133
What Darwin Got Wrong (Fodor and Piatelli-Palmarini), 75–76
White, S. A., 117
Wilkie, 196
Wilson, B., 135
Wisconsin Card Sorting Test, 47, 51, 54, 104
working memory, 50–54, 83, 85, 95, 105, 189
Wrangham, R., 195
Wynne-Edwards, V. C., 186
Yaghans, 122
Yale University, 135, 138, 199
Yi, X., 70
Yojimbo (Japanese film), 55–56
Zhang, J., 202