Chapter 10

Sentence structure and word order

10.1 Introduction

10.1.1 Word classes, clause elements and phrases

10.1.1.1

In Chapters 1–9 of this book we largely examine word classes and the way some words inflect and are used. In the current chapter, we look at the syntax of Norwegian, that is how words are combined into longer phrases, utterances, clauses and sentences. By way of comparison, compare the main clause sentence below, analysed first by word classes and then by clause elements:

10.1.1.2

The clause is one of the basic elements of sentence structure or syntax. It comprises clause elements as in the diagram below:

She describes Norwegian language in detail.

These clause elements consist of phrases. Phrases in turn comprise a head word alone or a head word and modifier. The structure of the clause can in this way be regarded as a hierarchy:

10.2 Phrases

10.2.1 Head words and modifiers

10.2.1.1

Phrases comprise a head word alone (H) or a head word with modifiers coming before or after the head:

Noun phrase	Verb phrase
tre jenter fra Tromsø	nesten måtte gi opp
H	H
three girls from Tromsø	almost had to give up
Adjective phrase	Adverb phrase
mye eldre enn henne	nesten aldri
H	H
much older than her	almost never
Prepositional phrase
litt innenfor muren
H
a little way inside the wall

Noun phrases may alternatively contain a pronoun as head (see also 10.2.2):

hun med det lyse håret	she with the fair hair
H

10.2.1.2

The verb phrase in a narrow sense comprises the finite verb plus optionally a verb particle or reflexive pronoun: klarnet opp, ‘cleared up’; snu seg, ‘turn around’.

10.2.1.3

The infinitive phrase comprises an infinitive (and complements): ikke å glemme passet, ‘not to forget the passport’.

10.2.1.4

The prepositional phrase consists of a preposition plus (optionally) a noun phrase:

10.2.2 Noun phrases

10.2.2.1 Determiners and attributes

The noun phrase (NP) consists either of a noun or pronoun alone (boken, ‘the book’; hun, ‘she’) as head or an NP with optional determiners (alle hans bøker om grammatikk, ‘all his books about grammar’).

1. (a) Preposed determiner:
   The NP may have several preposed determiners, including:
   • An indefinite or definite article: en ny bok, ‘a new book’; den nye boken, ‘the new book’
   • One pronoun or several, used determinatively: alle disse bøkene, ‘all these books’
   • A genitive expression: Daniels nye bok, ‘Daniel’s new book’
   • (see also the ‘sin genitive’ in 1.8.1.7)
2. (b) Preposed attribute:
   This consists of a single adjective phrase or several coordinated adjectives: en liten norsk bedrift, ‘a small Norwegian firm’.
3. (c) The order of preposed determiners and attributes is usually as in the table below
   
4. (d) Postposed attributes:
   • Unlike English, Norwegian has a possessive that usually comes after the noun: hytten min, ‘my cabin’ (see 4.4.2)
   • The ‘sin-genitive’ (1.8.1.7) comprises a possessive that follows the noun: Emma sin bil, ‘Emma’s book’
   • Adjective attribute: en bok full av slurvefeil, ‘a book full of careless errors’
   • A prepositional phrase: forfatteren av boken, ‘the author of the book’
   • An adverb: huset der borte, ‘the house over there’
   • An infinitive construction: kunsten å skrive, ‘the art of writing’
   • A subordinate clause: huset som var til salgs, ‘the house that was for sale’
   • Apposition: Jo Nesbø, norsk forfatter og musiker, er …, ‘Jo Nesbø, Norwegian writer and musician, is…

10.2.2.2 Indefinite and definite noun phrase

1. (a) Indefinite noun phrases introduce a new idea. Definite noun phrases refer back to a familiar idea:

   

2. (b) The indefinite noun phrase may consist either of a naked noun:

   Har du øl ?	Do you have any beer?
   Katter liker ikke vann.	Cats do not like water.

or one preceded by:

1. An indefinite article	en katt, a cat
   An adjective attribute	alkoholfritt øl, non-alcoholic beer
   A measurement attribute	en liter melk, a litre of milk
   A combination of these	en kilo god kaffe, a kilo of good coffee

2. (c) The definite noun phrase consists of a proper noun or a common noun with an end article:

   Dahl var forfatter.	Dahl was a writer.
   Fant du ølet ?	Did you find the beer?

The noun in the definite NP may either occur alone: katten, the cat or it may be preceded by a definite attribute expressing:

totality	alle tilskuere, all the spectators
possession	deres kolleger, their colleagues
	USAs utenriksminister, the US Secretary of State
selection	første omgang, the first round
demonstrative	dette produktet, this product
determiner	den katten, that cat; det produktet, that product

or it may be followed by:

a possessive	kollegene deres, their colleagues
a prepositional phrase	fyren i Washington, the bloke in Washington
a relative clause	boka som vi leste, the book we read

A definite noun phrase may have a complement that agrees with it (see 2.1.1):

kattene er hjemløse

the cats are homeless

Generally speaking, only definite noun phrases are duplicated (see 10.7.3.5–6):

Bilen, den har automatgir.

The car, it has an automatic gear box.

BUT:

Kaffe, det er godt.

Coffee, that’s good.

10.2.2.3 Function

For clause elements see 10.3ff below. The functions of noun (and pronoun) phrases are:

1. (a) Subject:

   Den nye bilen er grå.

   The new car is grey.

2. (b) Direct object:

   Malin kjøpte en terrengsykkel.

   Malin bought a mountainbike.

3. (c) Indirect object:

   Barna gav henne en PC til jul.

   The children gave her a computer for Christmas.

4. (d) Subject complement:

   Han er oversetter.

   He is a translator.

5. (e) Object complement:

   De kalte kattungene Tom og Jerry.

   They called the kittens Tom and Jerry.

6. (f) Part of a prepositional phrase

   huset i byen

   the house in town

10.2.3 Verb phrases

10.2.3.1 A narrow view of the verb phrase

A verb phrase consists either of a finite verb (FV, see 10.3.3.1) alone:

Barnet skriker.

The child is crying.

or of several verbs, including one finite and one or more non-finite (NFV, see 10.3.3.2) forms:

Barnet hadde skreket hele natten.	The child had cried all night.
Alle kunne ha fått det til samme pris. Everyone would have been able to get it at the same price.

or a FV (+NFV) and a verb particle, i.e. an adverb or preposition (For compound verbs, see 5.7):

Vi sender over hans brev.

We are forwarding his letter.

or a FV (+NFV) and a reflexive pronoun (For reflexive verbs see 5.5.3):

Hun måtte skynde seg.

She had to rush.

10.2.3.2 A broader view of the verb phrase

One view of the verb phrase includes elements governed by the main verb such as objects, complements and adverbials:

Finite verb	Particle	Indirect object Subject complement Potential subject	Direct object Object complement Particle	Free/Other adverbial
hengte	opp		et maleri	i hallen
satte	av		mjølkespannet	i vegkrysset
så		trett	ut	hele kvelden
utnevner	nok	Inger	til leder	neste år
hørte		sønnen	komme opp	om morgenen
kjørte	forbi		bussen	i høy fart

Translations: hung up a picture in the dining-room; set down the milk pail at the crossroads; looked tired all evening; will probably appoint Inger leader next year; heard the son get up in the morning; overtook the bus at high speed

10.2.4 Adjective phrases

10.2.4.1 Structure

The adjective phrase often consists of an adjective or participle (functioning as an adjective) as Head (H) either alone or with adverbial modifiers, primarily adverbs:

temmelig nervøs	rather nervous
H
ti meter høy	ten metres tall
H
forferdelig urettferdig	terribly unjust
H

10.2.4.2 Function

Adjective phrases function as:

1. (a) Predicative complement:

   De var glade.	They were happy.	subject comp.
   Det gjorde henne søvnig.	It made her sleepy.	object comp.

2. (b) Preposed attribute in a noun phrase:

   en ikke spesielt vellykket forfatter
   a not particularly successful writer

   det i enhver henseende perfekte hotellet
   the in every respect perfect hotel

3. (c) Adverbially, as attributes/modifiers

– in an adjective phrase:

en ekstremt mislykketforfatter

an extremely unsuccessful author

– in a clause:

Han hopper fint.

He jumps well

10.2.5 Adverb phrases

10.2.5.1 Structure

The adverb phrase may consist of an adverb (H) either alone or with adverbial modifiers. These modifiers are preposed.

ganske fort	rather quickly
H
nesten aldri	almost never
H

Temporal and spatial adverbs can form postposed attributes:

på vei ut	on the way out
konkurransen her hjemme	the competition here at home

Prepositional phrases used adverbially as modifiers may be postposed:

ute på landet	out in the country
ut fra sitt kontor	out of his office

10.2.5.2 Function

The adverb phrase functions mainly as:

1. (a) Clausal adverbial (see 10.3.6.1f.):
   1. De har aldri/ ikke/ jo/ kanskje/ ofte/ antakelig/ dessverre/ heldigvis vunnet i lotteriet.
   2. They have never/ not/ you know/ perhaps/ often/ presumably/ unfortunately/ luckily/ won the lottery.

Other adverbial (see 10.3.6.1):

Der bor Ivar.

(Lit. There lives Ivar.) That is where Ivar lives.

1. (b) Modifier to a noun phrase:
   1. Ikke bare politikerne, men også folket støtter presidenten.
   2. Not only the politicians but also the people support the president.
2. (c) Modifier in an adjective or adverb phrase:

   Hun virket veldig fornøyd.
   She seemed very pleased.

   Han kjørte veldig fort.
   He drove very fast.

10.2.6 Prepositional phrases

10.2.6.1 Structure

Prepositional phrases comprise a preposition plus – often – a prepositional complement (7.1.3.1) which is governed by the preposition and may consist of a noun phrase, infinitive phrase or subclause:

• Jenta med den fantastiske stemmen er min hustru.
  The girl with the fantastic voice is my wife.
• Vi funderer på å skrive en bok.
  We’re thinking of writing a book.
• Hun grubler over hvordan hun skal lykkes.
  She is pondering how she will succeed.

10.2.6.2 Function

1. (a) Postposed attribute to a noun phrase:

   toget mot Lillehammer
   the train to Lillehammer

2. (b) Other adverbial (10.3.6.1):

   Skuddet gikk forbi den norske målvakten.
   The shot went past the Norwegian goalkeeper.

3. (c) Clausal adverbial (10.3.6.2):

   Uten tvil er hopp vinterens beste norske gren.
   Ski jumping is without doubt Norway’s best sport this winter.

4. (d) ‘Prepositional object’

See 7.1.3.4.

• De sto og ventet på bussen.
  They stood waiting for the bus.

1. (e) Complement (10.3.5):

   I år ble han utnevnt til transportminister.
   This year he was appointed Minister of Transport.

10.3 Clause elements

The different clause elements (or ‘building blocks’) are each examined in the paragraphs that follow, whilst in 10.4 these are plotted in a scheme showing their relative order in the clause.

10.3.1 Subject

In the Norwegian clause, the subject is compulsory except in imperative clauses (Hjelp!, ‘Help!’) and certain relative clauses where it may be omitted. Its form may vary.

10.3.1.1 Form

The subject usually consists of:

1. (a) A noun phrase or pronoun:

   Sofia er min søster.	Sofia is my sister.
   Drosjen stanset utenfor.	The taxi stopped outside.
   De kom ut av butikken.	They left the shop.

2. (b) A subordinate clause:

   Om de liker meg, er tvilsomt.

   Whether they like me is doubtful.

Note – An infinitive phrase can also form the subject, see 5.3.1.6.

10.3.1.2 Position

The subject (S) is normally placed next to the finite verb (FV) in main clauses, and its position relative to the finite verb helps to indicate sentence type:

Jan spiste eplet.	S – FV = Statement	Jan ate the apple.
Spiste Jan eplet?	FV – S = Yes/no question	Did Jan eat the apple?

But notice that, when a non-subject (X) begins the clause, Norwegian usually has inverted statements, unlike English:

Hver dag spiser Jan et eple.	Every day Jan eats an apple.
X   FV   S

In some imperative clauses, an implicit or explicit second person subject comes after the verb:

Gå (du) først!

(You) go first!

10.3.2 Constructions using the formal subject

A formal subject is typically the pronoun det, ‘it’ that does not refer back to a word in the preceding text. We differentiate between four types in 10.3.2.1ff.

10.3.2.1 Type A

In some sentences, det (= ‘it’) as subject has little real meaning and by means of its position is used to indicate sentence type, i.e. statement or question. It is sometimes called a ‘place-holder subject’:

Det regner/snør/hagler.	It is raining/snowing/hailing.
Det blir mørkt snart.	It will be dark soon.
Det ringte i telefonen.	The phone rang.
Er det ikke for varmt herinne?	Isn’t it too hot in here?

This is particularly the case with verbs indicating meteorological phenomena (regne), but also applies to sensory verbs that could alternatively take a personal subject (ringe).

10.3.2.2 Type B

When the subject is postponed (moved to the right in the sentence), an anticipatory det (= ‘there’) is inserted, which is known as the formal subject (FS, Nw. formelt subjekt). The postponed subject is then known as the potential subject (PS, Nw. potensielt subjekt). Type B is used to anticipate an indefinite noun phrase, i.e. a new idea, which rarely comes at the front of the sentence:

• Det stod en politimann i forstuen.
  FS   PS
  There was a police officer standing in the hall.

Compare the following alternative, which is less likely, particularly in the spoken language:

• En politimann stod i forstuen.
  S

This construction with det is called an existential sentence (10.7.3.4, Nw. presenteringssetning), because in English it is found only with forms of the verb ‘to be’. In Norwegian, its use is more frequent, and it may be found, as above, with other intransitive verbs.

10.3.2.3 Type C

In Type C, the formal subject det (= ‘it’) anticipates an infinitive phrase or subordinate clause as potential subject:

• Det blir interessant å følge klubben.
  FS          PS
  It will be interesting to follow the club.
• Det er uvisst om noe er stjålet.
  FS      PS
  It is uncertain whether anything has been stolen.

Alternatively, the infinitive phrase or the subclause may come at the front of the sentence:

• Å følge klubben blir interessant.
  S
  Om noe er stjålet, er uvisst.

10.3.2.4 Type D

Type D is in English called the cleft sentence (Nw. utbrytning). Here the construction Det er/var X som…, ‘It was X that/who… ’ places emphasis on a particular element, and the remainder of the original clause is relegated to a subordinate clause (relative clause). The original sentence is, therefore, cleft in two:

• Base clause
  Oskar sendte Sara blomster forrige uke.
            X
  Oskar sent Sara flowers last week.
• Cleft sentence
  Det var ¹blomster som Oskar sendte Sara forrige uke.
  FS   X
  It was flowers that Oskar sent Sara last week.

Theoretically, almost any clause element may be emphasized in this way:

• Det var Oskar som…
  Det var forrige uke som…
  Det var Sara som…

10.3.3 Finite and non-finite verbs

10.3.3.1 Finite forms

The finite verb shows tense, voice or mood (cf. 5.1.1f), and its forms include:

(a) Present tense:	kjører	Politiet kjører fort.
		The police drive fast.
(b) Past tense:	kjørte	De kjørte fort.
		They drove fast.
(c) Imperative:	kjør	Kjør!
		Drive!
(d) Present (and, rarely, past) passive:	kjøres (kjørtes)	Bilen kjøres av Erik.
		The car is (was) being
		driven by Erik.
(e) Subjunctive (rare):	leve!	Leve kongen!
		Long live the King!

Note 1 – When there are several coordinated finite verbs, the subject is as a rule placed either immediately before or after the first verb:

Note 2 – If there are both finite and non-finite verbs in a clause, the finite verb is usually an auxiliary and comes first:

10.3.3.2 Non-finite forms

See also 5.2.1.1(e) – (h).

Non-finite forms include:

(a) Infinitive – without å:	kjøre	Han skal kjøre. He will drive.
– with å:	å kjøre	Hun liker å kjøre. She likes to drive.
(b) Past participle (supine):	kjørt	Han har kjørt hit. He has driven here.
(c) Infinitive passive:	kjøres	Bilen må kjøres. The car must be driven.

Note 1 – Several infinitives may occur together:

• Han sa han ikke kunne begynne å tenke på å skrive boken.
  He said that he could not begin to think about writing the book.

Note 2 – After a modal auxiliary both an infinitive and supine may be found:

De burde ha tenkt på det.

They should have thought of that.

Note 3 – The present participle in Norwegian is most often regarded as an adjective or adjectival noun, seldom as a non-finite verb form (5.2.1.1 (g), 5.3.13.)

10.3.4 Direct and indirect objects

10.3.4.1 Form of objects

1. (a) The direct object may be:
   • A noun phrase (including pronouns):

     De spiste lunsj.	They ate lunch.
     Jeg møtte ham.	I met him.

• An infinitive phrase:

  Koret begynte å synge.

  The choir began to sing.

• A phrase in direct speech:

  «Helvete, » ropte hun.

  “Hell,” she cried.

• A subordinate clause:

  Jeg vet at han er korrupt.

  I know he’s corrupt.

1. (b) Indirect objects are typically noun phrases or prepositional phrases:

   Hermine gav Harry en dult.	Hermione gave Harry a nudge.
   Harry gav blomster til Gulla.	Harry gave flowers to Ginny.

10.3.4.2 Direct and indirect objects

1. (a) Direct objects are found with transitive verbs (5.5.1.1):

   De har bygget huset selv.

   They have built the house themselves.

2. (b) Both direct objects (DO) and indirect objects (IO) are found with ditransitive verbs. The DO is usually an inanimate object affected by the action, whilst the IO is an animate being that is the recipient of the action:

   

3. (c) The order of direct and indirect objects is in most cases the same as in English although, when both objects are pronouns, the order in Norwegian is always IO – DO:

   

4. (d) If the indirect object is a prepositional phrase, the direct object precedes it:

   

10.3.4.3 Position of objects

When stressed, the object usually comes directly after the non-finite verb or verb particle:

Jeg har brent (opp) brevene.

I’ve burnt the letters.

(If there is only a finite verb, the object comes after that.)

The object may, however, begin the clause:

Brevene har jeg brent.

Lit. The letters I’ve burnt. I’ve burnt the letters.

Object clauses usually come at the end of the clause:

Karl spurte hvem som hadde brent brevene.
Karl asked who had burned the letters.

10.3.5 Complements

The predicative complement (Nw. predikativ) is found with a copular verb (Nw. kopulaverb), one that has little real content and which either describes a state, e.g. være, ‘be’; hete, ‘be called’; se … ut, ‘look’; virke, ‘seem’, or which results in a change: bli, ‘become’; nominere … til, ‘nominate’. It occupies the same position as the object.

10.3.5.1 Phrases as complements

Complements may be:

(a) A noun phrase:	Bilen er et vrak. The car is a wreck. Det er henne. It is her.
(b) An adjective phrase:	Hun er intelligent. She is intelligent.
(c) A subordinate clause:	Dette er hva det handler om. This is what it is about.
(d) A prepositional phrase:	De valgte henne til leder. They elected her leader.
(e) An infinitive construction:	Poenget er å leve livet. The point is to live your life.

10.3.5.2 Form

Predicative complements are of three kinds.

1. (a) Subject complement:

   Hun er professor.	She is a professor.
   Vann blir altfor dyrt.	Water is becoming too expensive.

2. (b) Object complement:

   Dette gjorde ham rasende.	This made him furious.
   Paret kalte gutten Shirley.	The couple called the lad Shirley.

3. (c) Free complement (Nw. fritt predikativ), which, unlike subject complements and object complements, can easily be dropped:

   Trett og sliten kom hun sent hjem.
   Exhausted she came home late.

   Som ung var Martin utadvendt.
   As a young man, Martin was extrovert.

10.3.6 Adverbials

10.3.6.1 Two types of adverbial

See also 6.2.1.3, 10.2.5.2.

Adverbials are of two types: Clausal adverbials (CA) and Other adverbials (OA):

1. (a) Clausal adverbials, often adverbs, modify the sense of the clause as a whole:

   Han sykler aldri/ofte/sjelden til arbeidet.
   He never/often/rarely cycles to work.

2. (b) Other adverbials, often prepositional phrases or subordinate clauses, denote concepts such as manner, place and time, answering the questions how? where? when? why?:

   

   Fordi Gene var så pen, undervurderte folk henne.
   Because Gene was so beautiful, people underestimated her.
   why?

10.3.6.2 Clausal adverbials

The main types of clausal adverbial are:

(a) Modal adverbs:	Det er dessverre for sent. It is unfortunately too late.
(b) Conjunctional adverbs:	Du kommer altså på søndag. You will come then on Sunday.
(c) Prepositional phrases:	Det er tross alt januar. It is after all January.
(d) Negations:	Jeg gambler ikke. I don’t gamble.

10.3.6.3 Position of adverbials

1. (a) Clausal adverbials come after the finite verb (or the subject in inverted word order) in the main clause (unless they come in the ‘F’ position), and usually before the finite verb in the subordinate clause:

   

   

Note – One may also sometimes find the same word order in a subordinate clause as in a main clause (Vi forklarte at vi hadde ikke kjørt for fort, see 10.8.5), but this is less common in writing, and it has a special nuance of meaning.

1. (b) Other adverbials usually either come at the end or at the beginning of the sentence:

   Vi hadde ikke kjørt for fort denne gangen.
   We had not driven too fast this time.

   Denne gangen hadde vi ikke kjørt for fort.
   This time we had not driven too fast.

10.4 The order of clause elements

The account of Norwegian word order in this book is based largely on a positional scheme originally developed by Paul Diderichsen for Danish, a syntactically similar language, though there are some minor differences. Diderichsen’s scheme has the great advantage of mapping the entire clause (in principle the sentence), thus indicating the relative positions of all the clause elements simultaneously. Diderichsen uses the following nomenclature for the seven positions in the clause and the three fields:

In what follows, ‘k’ has been replaced by ‘f’ (Norwegian forbinderfelt) in the subordinate clause, to accord with Norwegian practice. In the diagram below, the positions are shown for comparison with the terminology used above in 10.1–10.3. But see 10.6.3 for major exceptions regarding clausal adverbials.

10.4.1 Main clause and subordinate clause

10.4.1.1 Clause and sentence

A clause is part of a sentence that usually has a subject and finite verb (with the exception of most imperative constructions (5.4.4, 10.3.1, 10.3.3.1). A sentence comprises either a main clause alone or several coordinated main clauses, and may have one or more subordinate clauses.

10.4.1.2

1. (a) While a main clause (MC) can occur on its own, a subordinate clause (SC) usually occurs together with a main clause, forming a clause element within it:

   

2. (b) Some subordinate clauses may occur without a main clause in exclamations or wish clauses, often where something is understood:

   (Tenk) at jeg kunne ta så feil !

   That I could be so wrong!

10.4.1.3

When there are several subordinate clauses, one may form part of another, forming a hierarchy (see 9.1.3):

10.4.2 Scheme A – Order of clause elements in the main clause

10.4.2.1 Positions in Scheme A

1. (a) In the ‘F’ position we find various elements: noun phrases as subject or object, adverbials, and occasionally complements and non-finite verbs (1, 18, 21, 22). This is where the subject is usually placed when the main clause has unmarked (i.e. unemphatic) word order. The ‘F’ position rarely contains more than one element.
2. (b) In the ‘v’ position there are only finite verbs (1–23). In a normal, unabbreviated clause this is the only position that must be filled.
3. (c) The ‘n’ position contains a noun phrase or pronoun. If the subject of the clause is not in the ‘F’ position, then it will be placed here (so-called inverted word order) (4, 6–9, 11–14, 16, 19, 20, 22).
4. (d) The ‘a’ position contains negations and other clausal adverbials (2, 3, 5, 8–9, 12, 14, 19–20). There may be more than one (11).
5. (e) In the ‘V’ position are non-finite verbs (3, 9, 11–13, 16, 18–20) but also particles (7).
6. (f) In the ‘N’ position are noun phrases as objects (1–5, 7–9, 12, 13, 20, 21, 23) and complements (10, 15, 18). The potential subject is in this position when there is a formal subject (17). With ditransitive verbs, there is both a direct and an indirect object in this position (21).
7. (g) In the ‘A’ position come one or more other adverbials, often denoting time or place (1–3, 5–11, 16–23).
8. (h) There may also be extra positions before the ‘F’ position and after the ‘A’ position (see 10.7.3.5).
9. (i) There may also be a conjunction ‘f’ position before the extra position or ‘F’ position (10.7.3.6).

10.4.2.3 Summary of main clause order

1. (a) Main clause sentences are either statements, questions or commands.
2. (b) In statements, position ‘F’ is always filled, either by the subject or in principle by any non-verbal clause element (examples 1, 2 below).
3. (c) Questions are of two types: Yes/no questions in which ‘F’ is unfilled (3) and Hv-questions in which ‘F’ is always filled (4).
4. (d) In commands, position ‘F’ is unfilled and this usually also applies to ‘n’ (5)

10.4.3 Scheme B – Order of clause elements in the subordinate clause

10.4.3.1 Positions in Scheme B

1. (a) Notice that the matrix is that part of the sentence remaining when the subordinate clause is removed.
2. (b) In Scheme B, there is no ‘F’ position in the sense of a position which can house any element, but instead there is an ‘f’ position (Nw. forbinderfelt) containing a subordinator or hv-word.
3. (c) The subject position (‘n’) is always occupied in Scheme B.
4. (d) The subordinator at may sometimes be omitted (4), as may the subordinator som when it is not the subject of the clause (5), see 10.5.1, 10.8.2.3(b), 9.1.5.4 (c), 9.4.1.2.
5. (e) For independent clauses (6) with subordinate clause word order, see 10.8.7.
6. (f) An extra position may be inserted after the ‘A’ position, see 10.7.3.5.
7. (g) Where there are two subordinate clauses linked by a conjunction, this conjunction precedes the subordinator in the ‘f’ position.

10.5 Differences between main clause and subordinate clause positions

There are two major differences.

10.5.1 Subject and verb

While the main clause begins with any clause element in the ‘F’ position, the subordinate clause almost always begins with the subjunction (position ‘f’) and subject (‘n’). Occasionally, however, (see 10.4.3.1) the subordinators at and som are omitted in the subordinate clause. So, while main clause order may be either S – FV (‘straight’) or FV – S (‘inverted’), subordinate clause order is usually S – FV (straight).

10.5.2 The clausal adverbial

In the main clause, the clausal adverbial (‘a’) comes immediately after the FV (‘v’). In the subordinate clause, the clausal adverbial (a) comes immediately before the finite verb (v), although there are exceptions (see 10.6.3.1).

10.6 Order within positions

In many sentences, there is more than one element in the ‘a’, ‘V’, ‘N’ and ‘A’ positions. This section discusses the relative order of elements within these positions.

10.6.1 Order of non-finite verbs and verb particles

With separable compound verbs, the verb particle occupies the ‘V’ position. When the separable verb is in the non-finite form, both verb and particle occupy this position.

For compound verbs, see 5.7.

10.6.2 Order of objects, complements and potential subjects (in ‘N’)

Potential	Subject	Indirect	Direct	Object
subject	complement	object	object	complement

10.6.2.1 Order of objects

See also 10.3.4.2.

The order of objects is usually the same as in English: the indirect object (IO) precedes the direct object (DO) unless the indirect object is a prepositional phrase:

This is also true when the objects are pronouns (see also 10.3.4.2):

BUT:

When the DO is a subordinate clause, it is usually preceded by the IO, as in English:

10.6.2.2 The direct object usually precedes the object complement (OC)

10.6.2.3 The subject complement (SC) usually precedes its “objects”

Note – There are exceptions in some set phrases:

10.6.2.4 Unstressed object pronouns and reflexive pronouns

Unlike stressed objects, which go in the ‘N’ position, unstressed object pronouns (including reflexive pronouns) go in the ‘n’ position:

Note – An exception is the clause with a complex verb (i.e. both finite and non-finite verbs):

Han har aldri lært seg språket.

He has never learnt the language.

10.6.3 Order of clausal adverbials

10.6.3.1 Positions ‘a¹’ and ‘a²’

Clauses with an unstressed subject have the order seen in 10.4.2f., namely:

Scheme A	Main Clause:	F | –v–n–a – | V–N–A
Scheme B	Subordinate clause:	f | –n–a–v – | V–N–A

In these clauses, the clausal adverbial adopts the position marked in the table below as a². Note, therefore, that in normal (unmarked) use in Scheme A, the clausal adverbial frequently comes after the finite verb and in Scheme B, it frequently comes before the finite verb, i.e. in a¹.

But, with a stressed subject (marked ' below), the adverbial may come either before or after the finite verb, and some versions of the schemes in Norwegian grammar books consequently have the order where the clausal adverbial goes in a¹:

10.6.3.2 Order within position ‘a’

The order of clausal adverbials is usually:

1 Modal, 2 Context, 3 Empathy, 4 Epistemic, 5 Focus, 6 Negation

1. 1 Modal: short modal adverbs (6.2.4.3), used to reinforce or moderate the content of the clause, e.g. jo, ‘you know’; nok, ‘I suppose’; vel, ‘certainly’
2. 2 Context, used to link the clause to a previous clause or to the context as a whole, e.g. nemlig, ‘namely’; altså, ‘therefore’; derfor, ‘therefore’; dessuten, ‘moreover’
3. 3 Empathy, used to express the speaker’s attitude toward the content of the clause, e.g. heldigvis, ‘luckily’; dessverre, ‘unfortunately’; forhåpentlig, ‘hopefully’
4. 4 Epistemic, used to indicate the truth value of the content in the clause, e.g. faktisk, ‘actually’; kanskje, ‘perhaps’; sikkert, ‘certainly’; trolig, ‘presumably’; visstnok, ‘in all probability’
5. 5 Focus, used to emphasize, focus on, parts of the clause, e.g. bare, ‘simply’; også, ‘also’
6. 6 Negation: ikke, ‘not’; aldri, ‘never’

If several of these are used in the same clause, the order may be as above:

10.6.4 Order of other adverbials and the passive agent

See also 10.6.3.3.

10.6.4.1 Order of other adverbials: manner, place, time, condition

1. (a) The relative order of other adverbials is quite flexible, and it is only possible to give two rules of thumb:
   • Adverbials of manner usually precede those of place and time: manner – place – time (MPT).
   • Long adverbials usually follow the MPT group.
2. (b) The order is often (but see 10.6.3.3):
   1. 1 Adverbial expressions of manner: fort, quickly; dårlig, badly; sent, late; umiddelbart, immediately
   2. 2 Adverbial expressions of place: her, here; ute, outside; utenfor huset, outside the house; i Bergen, in Bergen
   3. 3 Adverbial expressions of time: i går, yesterday; neste uke, next week; før juleferien, before the Christmas holidays
   4. 4 Longer adverbial expressions such as cause, condition, etc.: av den grunn, for that reason

      

10.6.4.2 Position of the passive agent

The passive agent usually comes immediately before the Other adverbial expressions in position ‘A’.

10.7 Main clause transformations

Optional movements within the Norwegian main clause are often made for stylistic reasons.

10.7.1 The base clause

In order to discuss movements within the clause, we will assume a Norwegian base clause, that is one that is stylistically unmarked, for example:

This base clause begins with the subject and therefore has straight (subject – finite verb) word order, with all the other positions filled except for ‘n’. The subject is, therefore, the theme of the sentence, see 10.9.1.1.

Variations on this order are explored in the paragraphs that follow, where other sentence elements may become the theme. In 10.7.3.3–10.7.3.5 these changes involve a radical redisposition of elements.

10.7.2 Topicalisation

10.7.2.1

In topicalisation (or fronting, Nw. framflytting, topikalisering)), one of the clause elements usually located in positions 2 to 7 is placed in this first, ‘F’, position, and the subject in the ‘n’ position. The most common topicalisation is of adverbial expressions of time or place.

10.7.2.2 Why topicalise?

See also 10.9.1.1f for theme and focus. Numbers below refer to examples in 10.7.2.1 above.

1. (a) Background information

For example, see 1 in 10.7.2.1 above: I år vil hun ikke spille fotball.

Adverbial ‘A’ – the element topicalised provides background information (often establishing time or place, see 10.7.2.4) to the new information that is to come in the clause. It is not emphasised.

1. (b) Linking information

   

The adverbial (The word der in the second sentence) may serve to link the clause with a previous clause.

1. (c) Added emphasis

For examples see 2 in 10.7.2.1 above: Fotball vil hun ikke spille i år (, men tennis vil hun spille) and also 3–6. The elements topicalised are given added emphasis. The weight of the additional emphasis corresponds to the relative infrequency with which that element appears in ‘F’. In cases 4–6 these topicalisations are not found in English. See also Emphatic topic 10.9.3.2.

10.7.2.3 One element is topicalised

Note that (with the exception of example 5b in 10.7.2.1) only one clause element usually occupies the ‘F’ position (10.4.2.1 (a). For instance, only one adverbial is normally topicalised, which is different from English:

10.7.2.4 Adverbial clause in position ‘F’

A subordinate clause otherwise found in the ‘A’ position may commonly be found in the ‘F’ position, where it provides background information, as in this temporal clause:

10.7.3 The weight principle and altering emphasis in the sentence

An unstressed element referring to a familiar idea (i.e. a short element) tends to be located to the left of the sentence, while a stressed element introducing a new idea (i.e. a longer element) tends to be located to the right. So, the natural balance of the sentence in spoken and informal written Norwegian is one of ‘end weight’ as in this example:

The implications of the weight principle (Nw. vektprinsippet) are that:

1. (a) Elements losing stress move leftwards, though not necessarily all the way to ‘F’, e.g. the unstressed object pronoun which moves to ‘n’.

Compare:

1. 

2. (b) In some cases, such as ikke, this requires the use of the ‘a¹’ and ‘a²’ positions; see 10.6.3.1. In this case, ikke goes in ‘a¹’:

   

3. (c) Some stressed subjects introducing a new idea are postponed (moved rightwards) and are replaced (↑) by a formal subject (FS). When such ‘potential subjects’ (PS) comprise infinitive phrases or subordinate clauses, they move to the extra position. See 10.3.2.2f.

   

   

4. (d) Clauses and clause elements that are not formed in accordance with the weight principle are sometimes found in formal written Norwegian and have varying degrees of ‘left weight’.

   

   At han skal bruke tid på å skrive upassende tweeter med hysteriske utfall mot kvinnelige journalister, har vakt forundring i vide kretser.
   That he should spend time on writing inappropriate tweets with hysterical outbursts against female journalists has caused surprise in many circles.

   Long subordinate clause in position 'F'

Various implications of the weight principle are explored in 10.7.3.1–10.7.3.6 below.

10.7.3.1 Free and bound adverbials

See also 10.6.4.

Other adverbials (10.3.6.1) are sometimes classified as either ‘free’ or ‘bound’. Free adverbials are those whose position or content is not determined by a governing verb. They can adopt various positions in the clause. Time adverbials are generally free:

1. 1 Hun har mottatt prisen i dag.    She has received the prize today.
2. 2 I dag har hun mottatt prisen.
3. 3 Hun har i dag mottatt prisen.

When the free adverbial is located in position ‘a’, as in example 3, this is usually an indication of formal written style.

Bound adverbials form a complement to the verb and are usually found in position ‘A’. Place adverbials are bound more often than time adverbials:

• Akkurat nå befinner de seg i Sydvest-Frankrike.
  At this moment, they are in south-west France.

For adverbial subordinate clauses see 10.7.2.4, 10.8.2.2, 10.10.2.1.

10.7.3.2 Negative elements

1. (a) The adverb ikke usually has a fixed location in the mid field in position ‘a’, and may on occasion also attract other clause elements to this position when these include a negative. These include objects comprising or containing ingen, ingenting, etc., which are found not as one might assume in ‘N’ in the end field, but in ‘a’ in the mid field:

   

This also occurs in subordinate clauses:

1. 

   This order is, however, stylistically marked, and usually it indicates an old-fashioned or literary style.

2. (b) In unmarked sentences ingen(ting), etc. is replaced by ikke noen, etc., (see 4.6.3.1, 4.6.6.3) with ikke in position ‘a’ and the object in ‘N’:

   

   

10.7.3.3 Passive transformation

1. (a) For passive verb forms and usage, see 5.6.1. The transformation from active to passive is a method for moving ‘light’ information leftwards and ‘heavy’ information rightwards in the sentence (10.9.1). There are two main reasons for using the passive:
   1. (i)  The object in the base (active) sentence is unstressed, and some other element needs to be emphasised, and/or:
   2. (ii) The subject in the base sentence is unknown or unimportant (‘agentless passive’, examples 1–3 below).
2. (b) In the examples of passive transformations below, italics indicate stressed words:

   Active		Passive
   1 Noen stjeler biler.	→	Biler stjeles.
   Someone steals cars.		Cars are stolen.
   2 De valgte ham.	→	Han ble valgt.
   They elected him.		He was elected.
   3 Man har invitert oss.	→	Vi har blitt invitert.
   They have invited us.		We have been invited.
   4 Henrik slo ham.	→	Han ble slått av Henrik.
   Henrik hit him.		He was hit by Henrik.

In examples 1–3 an expression containing an unimportant subject becomes an agentless passive expression with emphasis on the verb. In example 4 the subject in the base is important, and for emphasis, it is moved rightwards according to the weight principle. See 10.7.3.

1. (c) If the object of the base sentence in 5 below (henne) is not to receive emphasis, but this is instead to be placed on some other element, then passive transformation moves this object leftwards to become a natural (unstressed) topic. Now the verb (sparket) is emphasised, or alternatively the agent (av sjefen) if it is present.

   

2. (d) Of the two methods available for radically altering emphasis in the sentence, topicalisation (10.7.2, 10.9.3) is possible only for the main clause, while passive transformation is possible for both main and subordinate clause:

   

10.7.3.4 Existential sentences and the place holder

See 10.3.2.1f. for types.

1. (a) It is usual to postpone a subject containing heavy, new information. This postponed subject is then known as the potential subject. An extra subject, the formal or ‘place-holder’ subject, usually det (10.3.2.1ff) replaces it in the ‘F’ position.

   In English, this construction is largely only found with the verb ‘to be’, hence the term ‘existential sentence’, but in Norwegian its use extends beyond verbs of existence or non-existence to what might be called ‘presentative’ verbs, i.e. any intransitive verb (cf. the Norwegian term presenteringskonstruksjon).

   

2. (b) Position of the formal and potential subject in the main clause:
   

10.7.3.5 Extra positions

Extra positions (X_1, X₂) are occasionally added at the beginning and end of the schema to accommodate clauses as potential subject, object clauses or free elements outside the clause.

10.7.3.6 Position ‘f’ in main clauses

A position ‘f’ – which one might call a ‘conjunction field’ (Nw. forbinderfelt) – is added before position ‘F’ in the main clause in order to accommodate conjunctions:

10.7.4 Questions

This section deals with direct questions. For indirect questions, see 10.8.1.2. There are several different constructions.

10.7.4.1 Yes/no questions

These questions are so called because they anticipate either affirmation or denial (see also 10.4.2.3). They have inversion of the finite verb and subject, and the ‘F’ position is usually empty.

10.7.4.2 Hv-questions

The topic in this kind of question is an interrogative adverb or pronoun, most of which begin with hv– : hvem, ‘who’; hva, ‘what’; hvor, ‘where’; hvilken, ‘which’, etc. (see 4.8) (but notice når, ‘when’) located in the ‘F’ position.

The hv-question requests information about a specific clause element: in example 1 an object, 2 a subject complement, 3 an adverbial of place, 4 an adverbial of time, 5 an adverbial of manner.

10.7.4.3 Questions in statement form

Some questions are found in statement form (‘declarative’ questions), when question intonation is used or a tag or tag clause is added:

Du reiser altså i morgen?	You are leaving tomorrow, then?
Du reiser ofte, gjør du ikke?	You travel often, don’t you?
Det er ikke dårlig, hva?	That’s not bad, eh?
Du kommer fra USA, ikke sant?	You come from the USA, don’t you?
Du reiser mye, eller?	You travel a lot, don’t you?

The last variant with eller as a tag is colloquial and mainly found in speech.

10.8 Subordinate clauses

10.8.1 Form

10.8.1.1 Conjunctional clauses

These clauses are introduced by a subordinator such as at, ‘that’; ettersom, ‘as’; fordi, ‘because’; hvis, ‘if, whether’; når, ‘when’; om, ‘if’, etc (see 9.3.1):

• Sigrid sa at politikk er uforenlig med moral.
  Sigrid said that politics is irreconcilable with morality.
• Hvis man fortsatt er sulten, kan man bestille mer mat.
  If you are still hungry, you can order some more food.

10.8.1.2 Indirect question clauses

See also 10.7.4 for direct questions.

These clauses are introduced by:

1. (a) An hv-word:

   Han visste ikke hva han skulle tro.
   He didn’t know what he was supposed to believe.

When the hv-word is the subject of the subordinate clause, the subject marker som must be added (cf. 10.8.4.2):

1. Han ville vite hva som skjedde.
   He wanted to know what was happening.

2. (b) om (hvorvidt)

   Jeg vet ikke om (hvorvidt) vi kan fortsette.
   I don’t know whether we can go on.

10.8.1.3 Relative clauses

These clauses usually occur as a postposed attribute to or are in apposition to a noun phrase, and are introduced by a subjunction or a relative adverb:

• Den gutten som kom med avisen, heter Jan.
  The lad who came with the paper is called Jan.
• Den lille byen hvor vi bor, har tre kirker.
  The small village where we live has three churches.

10.8.2 Function

Subordinate clauses can be classified according to their function, that is according to the clause element they represent in the larger sentence.

10.8.2.1 Subject and object clauses

See also 10.3.1, 10.3.4.

1. (a) at-clauses

   At du vegret, var meget klokt.	Subject
   That you refused was very sensible.
   Jeg håper at han vinner.	Object
   I am hoping that he will win.

2. (b) Indirect question clauses

   Det er uvisst hvem som blir sjef.	Potential subject
   It is not known who will be the boss.
   Vi spurte henne hva hun hadde tenkt å gjøre.	Object
   We asked her what she was considering doing.

10.8.2.2 Adverbial clauses

These include:

1. (a) Temporal clauses (indicating time)
   • Vi får fortsette å høste mens været er godt.
     We will have to go on harvesting while the weather holds.
   • Når jeg kommer hjem, bruker jeg å ta en kopp kaffe.
     When I get home, I usually have a cup of coffee.
2. (b) Conditional clauses (indicating condition)
   • Hvis jeg vant i lotteriet, ville jeg kjøpe en vingård.
     If I won the lottery, I would buy a vineyard.
   • Jeg har med melk, i fall du glemte å kjøpe.
     I’ve brought milk in case you forgot to buy any.
3. (c) Comparative clauses (indicating comparison)
   • Det gikk lettere enn vi hadde fryktet.
     It was easier than we had feared.
4. (d) Consecutive clauses (indicating consequence)
   • En mann skubbet borti ham, slik at glasset gikk i gulvet.
     A man bumped into him so that the glass fell to the floor.
5. (e) Causal clauses (indicating cause)
   • Jeg spiller fotball fordi det er kult.
     I play football because it’s fun.
6. (f) Final clauses (indicating intention)
   • Det er bare små endringer som skal til for at vi skal vinne.
     Only minor changes are necessary in order that we will win.
7. (g) Concessive clauses (indicating concession)
   • Hun kan ikke knytte skolissene sine, enda hun er åtte år.
     She can’t tie her own shoelaces even though she is eight years old.

10.8.2.3 Attributive clauses

1. (a) Relative clauses with som

There are two types: restrictive and non-restrictive:

1. 1)  In a restrictive relative clause, the relative pronoun defines or modifies its antecedent in such a way that the relative clause cannot be omitted without drastically changing the meaning of the sentence:

   De bileierne som allerede har betalt årsavgift, må ikke betale mer.
   Those car-owners who have already paid road tax do not have to pay anything more.

2. 2)  In the non-restrictive relative clause, the relative clause provides extra information about the antecedent that may be omitted without changing the basic meaning of the sentence:

   Bileierne, som for øvrig allerede betaler en årsavgift, må betale denne avgiften.
   The car-owners, who incidentally already pay road tax, have to pay this charge.

3. (b) Relative clauses without som

When the relative clause relates to the subject, som is necessary, but in other cases it is often omitted (see 9.1.5.3f, 9.4.1.1(b), 10.8.4.2):

Compare:

• Her er den boken som handler om språk.
  Here is the book that is about language.
  (den boken is the subject of handler om)
• Har du sett den boken (som) jeg kjøpte i dag?
  Have you seen the book I bought today?
  (den boken is the object of kjøpte)

10.8.3 Position of the subordinate clause in the sentence

See also: 10.3.1.2, 10.3.4.1(a), 10.3.5.1(c), 10.4.1.2f., 10.7.2.4, 10.7.3.4).

10.8.3.1 Subject and object clauses

These usually occupy the ‘F’ or ‘X₂’ position.

10.8.3.2 Adverbial clauses

1. (a) These clauses (temporal, conditional, causal, comparative, concessive, final) usually occupy the ‘F’ or ‘A’ position (cf. 10.8.2.2).

Note – It is also possible in formal written language to locate the adverbial clause in ‘a’. See 10.7.3.1.

Some adverbial clauses (consecutive) usually only occupy the ‘A’ position:

10.8.3.3 Attributive clauses

Attributive clauses that are associated with the subject or object occupy the same position as these, i.e. ‘F’, ‘n’ or ‘N’:

10.8.4 Subordinate clause with no indicator of subordination

10.8.4.1 Omission of at

As in English, at, ‘that’ is often omitted after verbs of saying, thinking or perceiving:

De sa (at) de skulle komme neste uke.	They said they were coming next week.
Han synes (at) det er hyggelig.	He thinks it’s nice.

10.8.4.2 Omission of som

1. (a) As in English, the subordinator som, ‘that, which’, is often omitted when it does not refer to the subject in the subclause:

   Filmen (som) vi så, var kjedelig.	Object
   The film we saw was boring.
   Vi fant den skjorta (som) han lette etter.	Object
   We found the shirt he was looking for.

2. (b) When referring to an entire clause, som is often omitted (except when correlating with the subject), but the word noe, ‘something’ is then inserted:

   Hun skriver krim, noe (som) publikum liker.
   She writes detective stories, something the public like.

10.8.5 Subordinate clauses with main clause order

Subordinate clauses usually have no topic and possess subject-verb order. The order is usually subject – clausal adverbial – finite verb:

De sa at de ikke kunne komme.

They said they couldn’t come.

But some subordinate clauses follow Scheme A (10.4.2). These are detailed in 10.8.5.1f below.

10.8.5.1 at-clauses in indirect speech

Main clause word order is found in some at-clauses after a verb of saying:

1. (a) Inversion after a non-subject following the subjunction at:

   De sa at når de kom hjem, skulle de spise middag.
   They said that when they got home they would eat dinner.

2. (b) The clausal adverbial follows the finite verb in the at-clause. This happens when the at-clause is reported speech and only when the matrix sentence is a positive statement.

   De sa at de kunne ikke komme. cf. 10.8.5.

   (cf. ‘Vi kan ikke komme.’)

10.8.5.2 Conditional clauses with no subordinator

See also conditional subjunctions, 9.3.4.3.

Conditional clauses usually begin with a subordinator:

• Hvis pengene strekker til, kan vi bygge et svømmebasseng.
  If there is enough money, we can build a swimming pool.

cf. Vi kan bygge et svømmebasseng hvis pengene strekker til.

• Dersom du kommer, får du middag med vin.
  If you come, you can have dinner with wine.

1. (a) Yes/no question word order (see 10.7.4.1):

This kind of conditional clause, which has no subordinator, but instead inverted word order and an unfilled ‘F’ position, usually comes at the beginning of the sentence. This type of conditional is much more frequent in Norwegian:

Hadde jeg nok penger, skulle jeg bygge et svømmebasseng.
If I had enough money, I would build a swimming pool.

Leser du bruksanvisningen nøye, vil det være lettere å sette det sammen.
If you read the instructions carefully, it will be easier to assemble it.

This construction exists in English elevated and formal style after ‘had’, ‘were’, ‘should’:

• Were we to do so, we would be breaking the law.
• ‘Had we but world enough and time,
  This coyness, Lady, were no crime… ’ (Andrew Marvell)

1. (b) It is, however, always possible to use a subordinator such as hvis and normal Scheme B word order instead:

   Cf.
   Hvis jeg hadde nok penger, …
   Hvis du leser bruksanvisningen nøye, …

10.8.7 Main clauses with subordinate clause order

Most main clauses follow Scheme A (10.4.2), but a few main clause sentences have Scheme B word order (10.4.3). These include three cases detailed below in 10.8.7.1ff.

10.8.7.1 Clauses expressing a wish or exclamation

• Om de bare hadde visst!
  If they just had known!
• At han aldri ville hjelpe oss!
  That he was never prepared to help us!

This construction is usually associated with emotional intensity.

10.8.7.2 Clauses beginning with kanskje or kan hende

Kanskje, ‘perhaps’ and kan hende, ‘may be’ are the remnants of verb phrases historically followed by at: det kan skje at and det kan hende at. Therefore, the sentences below may follow schema B:

• Kanskje det ikke blir frost i kveld.
  Perhaps there won’t be frost tonight.
• Kan hende vi ikke makter dette.
  It may be that we won’t manage this.

(Schema A is, however, also possible.)

10.8.7.3 Echo questions

These are a type of direct question that repeats part or all of what someone has just asked.

Question:	«Er du allerede ferdig?»	“Are you ready already?”
Echo question:	«Om jeg allerede er ferdig?»	“Am I ready already?”

10.9 Emphasis

10.9.1 Factors determining word order

In Norwegian, three factors determine the order of the words in the clause: the information structure, the syntactic function and the weight.

10.9.1.1 Information structure

The information structure of the sentence is such that it is divided into two parts, ‘given’ information and ‘new’ information. The given information is called the theme and the new information the focus (Nw. tema and rema respectively). The first element after any conjunction is the theme, while the rest is focus:

Theme	Focus
Jeg	liker å leve i Frankrike
I	like living in France.
Der	kan jeg koble av.
There	I can relax.
Det	er bra for helsen min.
That	is good for my health.
Derfor	må jeg dra dit hver sommer.
That’s why	I have to go there every summer.

10.9.1.2 Syntactic function

As can be seen from the short text above, the element that forms the theme is governed by the context. The order within the focus is primarily governed by the syntactic function of the clausal elements involved (subject, object, etc.), compare:

I går slo Man U Chelsea.	Yesterday Man U beat Chelsea.
I går slo Chelsea Man U.	Yesterday Chelsea beat Man U.

10.9.1.3 Weight

Because the focus involves new information or new ideas, it is often longer and ‘heavier’ than the theme, so end-weight is natural in the sentence. See the weight principle, 10.7.3. The end of the sentence also forms a natural stress position, so we can also talk of end-focus.

cf.
Hun kjøpte en ny platetopp.	She bought a new hob.

• Hun kjøpte en ny elektrisk induksjonstopp med booster og brofunksjon, som var ganske dyr.
  She bought a new electric induction hob with a booster and bridge function, which was rather expensive.

10.9.2 Contrastive stress in spoken language

In the spoken language, it is possible to use voice stress to emphasise any element without altering the word order:

• ‘Neutral base’ sentence:
• Frida solgte hytta si i fjor sommer.
  Frida sold her cottage last summer.

Subject
Subject	'Frida solgte hytta si i fjor sommer.	(i.e. not Sara or…)
Verb	Frida 'solgte hytta si i fjor sommer.	(i.e. did not give it away)
Object	Frida solgte 'hytta si i fjor sommer.	(i.e. not her flat)
Adverbial	Frida solgte hytta si 'i fjor sommer.	(i.e. not this summer)

This is, of course, not possible in written Norwegian, and various strategies can be adopted in writing in order to provide an unequivocal marking of elements, such as fronting (10.9.3), raising (10.9.4), duplication (10.9.5) or the cleft sentence (10.3.2.4).

10.9.3 Fronting

As we have seen above, the front position ‘F’ usually, but not always, contains given information (10.9.1). It is in this context practical to think of topics (elements in ‘F’) as being of two kinds.

10.9.3.1 Natural topics

1. (a) The subject is the element most commonly found in ‘F’, and usually comprises a definite noun phrase, name or pronoun:

   Læreren/Eva/Hun kom inn i forelesningssalen.
   The teacher/Eva/She came into the lecture room.

This is regarded as an unmarked or base clause (10.7.1).

1. (b) When adverbials of time or place come in ‘F’, they often provide a background or jumping-off point for the content of the sentence:

   I neste uke reiser jeg til Tyskland.	Next week I’m going to Germany.
   I Berlin skal jeg treffe Tobi.	In Berlin, I’m meeting Tobi.

2. (b) ‘New’ elements may occupy ‘F’ if they have a logical relation to what has gone before:

   Bilen kan ikke godkjennes. Et frontlys er ødelagt.
   The car cannot pass its test. One headlight is broken.

   It is clear that the headlight belongs to the car.

10.9.3.2 Emphatic topics

See also 10.7.2.1ff.

The ‘F’ position is, less frequently, used to add extra emphasis (marked ') to an element already ‘heavy’ in information. Emphatic topics may include the object, a verb phrase, infinitive phrase or negation. This kind of topicalisation is rare in English, but is considerably more frequent in Norwegian.

• 'Vin drikker hun, men øl kan hun ikke fordra.
  She drinks wine, but beer she cannot stand.

'Lære noe gjør jeg hver dag.	I learn something every day.
'Jage etter jenter gjør han stadig.	He’s always running after girls.
'Aldri har jeg sett maken.	I have never seen the like.

10.9.4 Raising

10.9.4.1

Raising (often resulting in what Norwegians call setningsknute) is the term used when an element in a subordinate clause is fronted in the matrix, thus ‘raising’ it to a higher level:

Jeg synes ikke	(at) den filmen var så vellykket.
Matrix	subject in the subordinate clause
I don’t think	that film was so successful.
cf.
Den filmen synes jeg ikke var så vellykket.
Topic in the main clause
That film I don’t think was so successful.

10.9.4.2

Frequent kinds of raising are:

1. (a) Where an element is raised from a relative clause

   Vi hadde en katt som het Smilla.	We had a cat called Smilla.
   cf.
   Smilla hadde vi en katt som het.
   (raised subject complement in subclause)

2. (b) Where the verb in the matrix is a reporting verb, e.g. si, ‘say’; mene, ‘think’; høre, ‘hear’:

   Jeg vil ikke si at de er dyre. cf.	I wouldn’t say they are expensive.
   Dyre vil jeg ikke si (at) de er.
   (raised subject complement in subclause)

   Jeg tror ikke at Shakespeare skrev det dramaet.
   I don’t believe Shakespeare wrote that drama.
   cf.
   Det dramaet tror jeg ikke (at) Shakespeare skrev.
   (raised object in subclause)

   Jeg regner med at vi har arbeidet ferdig i neste uke.
   I expect we will have the work completed next week.
   cf.
   Ineste uke regner jeg med at vi har arbeidet ferdig.
   (raised adverbial in subclause)

10.9.5 Duplication

See also extra positions, 10.7.3.5.

10.9.5.1 Duplication at the front

The theme in the ‘F’ position can be moved leftwards to the ‘X₁’ position and at the same time be represented in ‘F’ by a ‘pro-word’. This is often a personal (subject or object) pronoun or an adverb like så, da or der:

Amundsen, han kom først til polen. Amundsen, he arrived at the pole first.	Subject duplicated
Sigrid Undset, henne gav de Nobelprisen i 1928.	Object duplicated
Sigrid Undset, they gave her the Nobel Prize in 1928.
Forsiktig med penger, det var han ikke.	Complement duplicated
Careful with money he was not.
I Paris, der vil jeg tilbringe påsken.	Adverbial duplicated
In Paris, that’s where I want to spend Easter.
I fjor, så/da var vi i Sverige.	Adverbial duplicated
Last year, then we were in Sweden.

Although duplication is more characteristic of the spoken language, it does occur in written texts, especially when the element in ‘X₁’ is an adverbial clause:

• Hvis det som skjedde onsdag, er opplegget for videre aksjoner, så mener vi det er å gå over streken.
  If what happened on Wednesday is standard foretaste of future actions, then we think that this is going too far.

10.9.5.2 Duplication at the end

In the ‘X₂’ position one finds elements that are also represented inside the clause. The element in the extra position duplicates the sense of the one inside the clause, usually a pronoun, pro-word or adverb.

1. (a) The element inside the clause is often:
   1. (i)  The subject

      Maja er ikke frisk, hun.
      Maja is not well (, she [isn’t]).

   2. (ii)  A noun phrase that is not the subject

      De arbeidsløse er det synd på, de.
      The unemployed are to be pitied (they [are]).

   3. (iii) An adverbial expression of time or place

      På universitetet var det fint, der.
      At the university (there) it was great.

   4. (iv)  An adverbial expression of degree, in practice most often så

      Det var så spennende, så.
      It was so exciting(, it was).

10.10  Ellipsis

10.10.1 Clauses with no subject or no finite verb

A clause usually contains both a subject and a finite verb. But there are some exceptions to this pattern.

10.10.1.1 Commands

See also 5.4.4.

These are usually found with the imperative form of the verb and have an implicit subject in the second person:

Spis (du) smørbrødet ditt nå!

Eat up your sandwich now!

Note 1 – The subject is occasionally explicit and then follows the finite verb:

Kjør du!

You drive!

Note 2 – The negative can precede or follow the finite verb.

Ikke gjør dette hjemme!	Don’t do this at home!
Tro ikke at kjærlighet varer.	Don’t think that love lasts.
	(H. Wildenvey)

10.10.1.2 Verb deletion and subject deletion

1. (a) In coordinated phrases and clauses (9.1.2) linked by og, ‘and’; men, ‘but’ or eller, ‘or’, either the subject or the finite verb can be omitted if it is identical in both cases:

   Han kom fram til oss og (han) skrek.	Subject deleted
   He came up to us and (he) shouted.
   Aksel spiser oksekjøtt og Emma (spiser) fisk.	Finite verb deleted
   Aksel is eating beef and Emma (is eating) fish.

2. (b) When the verb and object, complement or adverbial are identical, both elements can be omitted:

   Han skal ta seg en kaffepause nå og hun	Finite verb and object deleted
   (skal ta seg en kaffepause) om en time.
   He’ll take a coffee break now and she (’ll take a coffee break) in an hour.

3. (c) In relative clauses, the subject may (as in English) be left out if it is identical with the main clause correlate of som:

   Her er jenta som vant kampen.
   Here is the girl that won the match.

   Her er bilen jenta vant.
   Here is the car the girl won.

10.10.2 Non-finite clauses

In the example following, a preposition is followed by a finite subordinate clause:

• Vi fikk beskjed om at vi måtte betale 1000 kroner.
  We were told that we had to pay 1000 kroner.

But, in this case the finite verb (and here the subject) may be omitted if the subject is the same in both clauses. Then, an infinitive with å replaces them:

• Vi fikk beskjed om å betale 1000 kroner.
  We were told to pay 1000 kroner.

Clauses lacking a finite verb are of several different kinds, see 10.10.2.1ff.

10.10.2.1 Ellipted adverbial clause

1. (a) Replacement of a finite verb with an infinitive may occur after a preposition in a number of adverbial clauses, for example:

   Han var flere ganger alene med keeper uten å score.
   He was alone with the goalkeeper several times without scoring.

   Vi tar betalt for å bringe varene hjem til folk.
   We charge for home delivery.

2. (b) This also occurs in some comparative clauses, for example:

   Det er bedre enn å slenge rundt uten arbeide.
   It is better than hanging about without any work.

   Det er fortsatt tryggere å fly enn å kjøre bil.
   It is still safer to fly than to drive.

10.10.2.2 Object and infinitive constructions

1. (a) These constructions are found after verbs of perception such as be, ‘ask’; høre, ‘hear’; kjenne, ‘feel’; late, ‘allow’; se, ‘see’. There is usually no infinitive marker å.

The noun phrase preceding the infinitive has a double function, both as object of the verb in the matrix and as the logical or implied subject of the infinitive:

Jeg så ham falle.	cf.	Jeg så at han falt.
I saw him fall.		I saw that he fell.

Other examples:

• Redningmannskapene hørte henne rope på hjelp.
  The rescue teams heard her cry for help.
  cf.
  Redningmannskapene hørte at hun ropte på hjelp.

Jeg bad dem bli til middag.	I asked them to stay for dinner.
Hun lot meg snakke videre.	She allowed me to go on talking.

1. (b) In the case of the verbs forby, ‘forbid’ and tillate, ‘allow’, the infinitive has the infinitive marker å:

   Klubben tillater publikum å se på treningene.
   The club allows the public to watch the training sessions.

10.10.2.3 Subject and infinitive constructions

We may regard this as a development of the object + infinitive construction above (in an active sentence) in which the ‘object’ then becomes the subject of a passive verb. Compare the following:

10.10.2.4 Word order in non-finite clauses

1. (a) Position within subordinate clauses and elliptical constructions

1. (b) Position of the non-finite clause in the sentence