1. Wolfgang, M. E. (1973). Cesare Lombroso. In H. Mannheim (ed.), Pioneers in Criminology, pp. 232–91. Montclair, N.J.: Patterson Smith.
2. Sellin, T. (1937). The Lombrosian myth in criminology. American Journal of Sociology 42, 898–99.
3. Kellerman, J. (1999). Savage Spawn: Reflections on Violent Children. New York: Random House.
1. I was able to buy a replica of this knife at the Bodrum marketplace and realized it was a cheap knife, probably used more for threat and defense rather than as a serious weapon. I had it on my office desk at the University of Southern California as a memento until it was stolen by an office cleaner.
2. Wilson, J. Q. & Herrnstein, R. (1985). Crime and Human Nature. New York: Simon & Schuster.
1. Horn, D. G. (2003). The Criminal Body: Lombroso and the Anatomy of Deviance. New York: Routledge.
2. Gibson, M. (2002). Born to Crime: Cesare Lombroso and the Origins of Biological Criminology, p. 20. Westport, Conn.: Praeger.
3. Wolfgang, M. E. (1973). Cesare Lombroso. In H. Mannheim (ed.), Pioneers in Criminology, pp. 232–91. Montclair, N.J.: Patterson Smith.
4. Shakespeare, W. (1914). The Tempest, Act IV, Scene 1. London: Oxford University Press.
5. Gibson, Born to Crime.
6. Dawkins, R. (1976). The Selfish Gene. New York: Oxford University Press.
7. Trivers, R. L. (1971). The evolution of reciprocal altruism. Quarterly Review of Biology 46, 35–57.
8. Cleckley, H. C. (1976). The Mask of Sanity. St. Louis: Mosby.
9. Hare, R. D. (2003). The Hare Psychopathy Checklist—Revised (PCL-R), 2nd ed. Toronto, Canada: Multi-Health Systems.
10. Harpending, H. & Draper, P. (1988). Antisocial behavior and the other side of cultural evolution. In T. E. Moffitt and S. A. Mednick (eds.), Biological Contributions to Crime Causation, pp. 293–307. Dordrecht: Martinus Nijhoff.
11. Lee, R. B. & DeVore, B. I. (1976). Kalahari Hunter-Gatherers. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.
12. Murphy, Y. & Murphy, R. (1974). Women of the Forest. New York: Columbia University Press.
13. Harpending & Draper, Antisocial behavior and the other side of cultural evolution.
14. We should not take the parallel between the Mundurucú and psychopaths too far. The lifestyle of the male Mundurucú does not exactly parallel the Western male psychopath. Western psychopaths do not in general form long-term relationships with either sex, and do not coexist and engage in joint enterprises. In contrast, the male Mundurucú do engage in long-term interpersonal relationships with members of their own sex and engage in all-male cooperative efforts for the benefit of the whole settlement.
15. Hare, R. D. (1980). A research scale for the assessment of psychopathy in criminal populations. Personality and Individual Differences 1, 111–19.
16. Chagnon, N. A. (1988). Life histories, blood revenge, and warfare in a tribal population. Science 239, 985–92.
17. Hare, R. D. (1993). Without Conscience: The Disturbing World of Psychopaths Amongst Us. New York: Guilford Press.
18. Woodworth, M. & Porter, S. (2002). In cold blood: Characteristics of criminal homicides as a function of psychopathy. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 111, 436–45.
19. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention National Center for Injury Prevention and Control (2002). WISQARS Leading Causes of Death Reports, 1999–2007, http://webapp.cdc.gov/sasweb/ncipc/leadcaus10.html.
20. Overpeck, M. D., Brenner, R. A., Trumble, A. C., Trifiletti, L. B. & Berendes, H. W. (1998). Risk factors for infant homicide in the United States. New England Journal of Medicine 339, 1211–16. While the first year of life is the time when you are most likely to be killed, for some ethnic groups this is rivaled by the risk of being a victim of homicide during adolescence and early adulthood.
21. Ibid.
22. Ibid.
23. Daly, M. & Wilson, M. (1988). Evolutionary social psychology and family homicide. Science 242, 519–24.
24. Wadsworth, J., Burnell, I., Taylor, B. & Butler, N. (1983). Family type and accidents in preschool-children. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health 37, 100–104.
25. Daly, M. & Wilson, M. (1988). Homicide. Hawthorne, N.Y.: Aldine de Gruyter.
26. Lightcap, J. L., Kurland, J. A. & Burgess, R. L. (1982). Child-abuse—A test of some predictions from evolutionary-theory. Ethology and Sociobiology 3, 61–67.
27. Daly & Wilson, Evolutionary social psychology and family homicide.
28. Ibid.
29. Ibid.
30. Gottschall, J. A. & Gottschall, T. A. (2003). Are per-incident rape-pregnancy rates higher than per-incident consensual pregnancy rates? Human Nature 14, 1–20.
31. Thornhill, R. & Palmer, C. (2000). A Natural History of Rape. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press.
32. Singh, D., Dixson, B. J., Jessop, T. S., Morgan, B. & Dixson, A. F. (2010). Cross-cultural consensus for waist-hip ratio and women’s attractiveness. Evolution and Human Behavior 31, 176–81.
33. Ward, T., Gannon, T. A. & Keown, K. (2006). Beliefs, values, and action: The judgment model of cognitive distortions in sexual offenders. Aggression and Violent Behavior 11, 323–40.
34. Levin, R. J. & van Berlo, W. (2004). Sexual arousal and orgasm in subjects who experience forced or non-consensual sexual stimulation: A review. Journal of Clinical Forensic Medicine 11, 82–88.
35. For counterarguments to the notion that orgasm can facilitate fertility and has an evolutionary basis, see Lloyd, A. E. (2005). The Case of the Female Orgasm: Bias in the Science of Evolution. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
36. Polaschek, D.L.L., Ward, T. & Hudson, S. M. (1997). Rape and rapists: Theory and treatment. Clinical Psychology Review 17, 117–44.
37. McKibbin, W. F., Shackelford, T. K., Goetz, A. T. & Starratt, V. G. (2008). Why do men rape? An evolutionary psychological perspective. Review of General Psychology 12, 86–97.
38. Thornhill, N. W. & Thornhill, R. (1990). An evolutionary analysis of psychological pain following rape, vol. 1, The effects of victim’s age and marital status. Ethology and Sociobiology 11, 155–76.
39. Russell, D.E.H. (1990). Rape in Marriage. Indianapolis: Indiana University Press.
40. Buss, D. M. (2000). The Dangerous Passion: Why Jealousy Is as Necessary as Love and Sex. New York: Free Press.
41. Daly & Wilson. Evolutionary social psychology and family homicide.
42. Buss, D. M., Shackelford, T. K., Kirkpatrick, L. A., Choe, J. C., Lim, H. K., et al. (1999). Jealousy and the nature of beliefs about infidelity: Tests of competing hypotheses about sex differences in the United States, Korea, and Japan. Personal Relationships 6, 125–50.
43. Andrews, P. W., Gangestad, S. W., Miller, G. F., Haselton, M. G., Thornhill, R., et al. (2008). Sex differences in detecting sexual infidelity: Results of a maximum likelihood method for analyzing the sensitivity of sex differences to underreporting. Human Nature: An Interdisciplinary Biosocial Perspective 19, 347–73.
44. Goetz, A. T. & Causey, K. (2009). Sex differences in perceptions of infidelity: Men often assume the worst. Evolutionary Psychology 7, 253–63.
45. Gage, A. J. & Hutchinson, P. L. (2006). Power, control, and intimate partner sexual violence in Haiti. Archives of Sexual Behavior 35, 11–24.
46. Lalumiere, M. L., Harris, G. T., Quinsey, V. L. & Rice, M. E. (2005). The Causes of Rape: Understanding Individual Differences in Male Propensity for Sexual Aggression. Washington, D.C.: APA Press.
47. Baker, R. (1996). Sperm Wars. New York: Basic Books.
48. Buss, D. M. (2009). The multiple adaptive problems solved by human aggression. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 32, 271–72.
49. Daly, M. & Wilson, M. (1990). Killing the competition: Female/female and male/male homicide. Human Nature 1, 81–107.
50. Wilson, M. & Daly, M. (1985). Competitiveness, risk-taking, and violence: The young male syndrome. Ethology and Sociobiology 6, 59–73.
51. Buss, D. M. & Shackelford, T. K. (1997). Human aggression in evolutionary psychological perspective. Clinical Psychology Review 17, 605–19.
52. Tremblay, R. E., Japel, C., Perusse, D., McDuff, P., Bolvin, M., et al. (1999). The search for the age of onset of physical aggression: Rousseau and Bandura revisited. Criminal Behavior and Mental Health 9, 8–23.
53. Archer, J. (2009). Does sexual selection explain human sex differences in aggression? Behavioral and Brain Sciences 32, 249–311.
54. Ibid.
55. Bettencourt, B. A. & Miller, N. (1996). Gender differences in aggression as a function of provocation: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin 119, 422–47.
56. Campbell, A. (1995). A few good men: Evolutionary psychology and female adolescent aggression. Ethology and Sociobiology 16, 99–123.
57. Zuckerman, M. (1994). Behavioural Expressions and Biosocial Bases of Sensation Seeking. New York: Cambridge University Press.
58. Campbell, A few good men.
59. Ibid.
60. Archer, Does sexual selection explain human sex differences in aggression?
61. Buss, D. N. & Dedden, L. A. (1990). Derogation of competitors. Journal of Personality and Social Relationships 7, 395–422.
62. Ibid.
1. 60 Minutes: Murder Gene: Man on Death Row Bases Appeal on the Belief That His Criminal Tendencies Are Inherited (2001). CBS television, February 27.
2. It is thought that this “malfunction” or spontaneous event of identical twinning occurs when a blastocyst collapses and splits the progenitor cells in two, with the same genetic material in both sides of the embryo, resulting in the development of two identical embryos.
3. Baker, L. A., Barton, M. & Raine, A. (2002). The Southern California Twin Register at the University of Southern California. Twin Research 5, 456–59.
4. Baker, L. A., Jacobsen, K., Raine, A., Lozano, D. I. & Bezdjian, S. (2007). Genetic and environmental bases of childhood antisocial behavior: A multi-informant twin study. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 116, 219–35.
5. Ibid.
6. The heritability of 98 percent that we obtain from our twin study is very high, and might be applying to children who are seen to be antisocial by all informants of their behavior. In contrast, other children may be antisocial, but their parents and teachers are not aware of their antisocial behavior.
7. Baker, L., Raine, A., Liu, J. & Jacobsen, K. C. (2008). Genetic and environmental influences on reactive and proactive aggression in children. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology 36, 1265–78.
8. Burt, S. A. (2009). Are there meaningful etiological differences within antisocial behavior? Results of a meta-analysis. Clinical Psychology Review 29, 163–78.
9. Arseneault, L., Moffitt, T. E., Caspi, A., Taylor, A., Rijsdijk, F. V., et al. (2003). Strong genetic effects on cross-situational antisocial behaviour among 5-year-old children according to mothers, teachers, examiner-observers, and twins’ self-reports. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines 44, 832–48.
10. Viding E., Jones, A. P., Frick, P. J., Moffitt, T. E. & Plomin, R. (2008). Heritability of antisocial behaviour at 9: Do callous-unemotional traits matter? Developmental Science 11, 17–22.
11. Grove, W. M., Eckert, E. D., Heston, L., Bouchard, T. J., Segal, N., et al. (1990). Heritability of substance abuse and antisocial behavior: A study of monozygotic twins reared apart. Biological Psychiatry 27, 1293–1304.
12. Christiansen, K. O. (1977). A review of criminality among twins. In S. A. Mednick and K. O. Christiansen (eds.), Biosocial Bases of Criminal Behavior, pp. 45–88. New York: Gardner Press.
13. Schwesinger, G. (1952). The effect of differential parent-child relations on identical twin resemblance in personality. Acta Geneticae Medicae et Germellologiae. Cited in ibid.
14. Grove, et al. Heritability of substance abuse and antisocial behavior.
15. Baker, et al. Genetic and environmental bases of childhood antisocial behavior.
16. Moffitt T. E. (2005). The new look of behavioral genetics in developmental psychopathology: Gene-environment interplay in antisocial behaviors. Psychological Bulletin 131, 533–54.
17. Bouchard, T. J. & McGue, M. (2003). Genetic and environmental influences on human psychological differences. Journal of Neurobiology 54, 4–45.
18. Mednick, S. A., Gabrielli, W. H. & Hutchings, B. (1984). Genetic influences in criminal convictions: Evidence from an adoption cohort. Science 224, 891–94.
19. Raine, A. (1993). The Psychopathology of Crime: Criminal Behavior as a Clinical Disorder. San Diego: Academic Press.
20. Moffitt, T. E., Ross, S. & Raine, A. (2011). Crime and biology. In J. Q. Wilson and J. Petersilia (eds.), Crime and Public Policy, 2nd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
21. Ibid.
22. Ibid.
23. Ibid.
24. In contrast to twin studies, several adoption studies have not shown heritability for violence. One explanation is that adoption studies rely on convictions for violence as their measure, yet conviction data is a notoriously poor measure, as most people who are violent are never even arrested, let alone convicted. In contrast, twin studies have relied more on laboratory, parent, teacher, child, and adult ratings of aggressive and violent behavior, which assess degree of aggression and hence have a much broader, more reliable, and more systematic radar screen compared with conviction data, which offers a much simpler yes/no dichotomy.
25. Jacobs, P. A., Brunton, M., Melville, M. M., Brittain, R. P. & McClemont, W. F. (1965). Aggressive behavior, mental sub-normality, and the XYY male. Nature 208, 1351–52.
26. Voorhees, J. J., Wilkins, J., Hayes, E. & Harrell, E. R. (1970). Nodulocystic acne as a phenotypic feature of the XYY genotype. Archives of Dermatology 105, 913–19.
27. Lyons, R. D. (1968). Ultimate Speck appeal may cite a genetic defect. New York Times, April 22, p. 43. http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F20C10FA355D147493C0AB178FD85F4C8685F9.
28. Telfer, M. A, Baker, D., Clark, G. R. & Richardson, C. E. (1968). Incidence of gross chromosomal errors among tall criminal American males. Science 159, 1249–50.
29. Davis, R. J., McGee, B. J., Empson, J. & Engel, E. (1970). XYY and crime. Lancet 296, 1086.
30. Witkin, H. A., Mednick, S. A., Schulsinger, F. et al. (1976). Criminality in XYY and XXY men. Science 193, 547–55.
31. Ibid.
32. Ross, J. L., Roeltgen, D. P., Kushner, H., Zinn, A. R., Reiss, A., et al. (2012). Behavioral and social phenotypes in boys with 47, XYY syndrome or 47, XXY Klinefelter syndrome. Pediatrics 129, 769–78.
33. Brunner, H. (2011). Do the genes tell it all? Invited address, Congress on Crime and Punishment: A Case of Biology, Organization for Biology, Bio-Medical Sciences and Psychobiology, University of Amsterdam, Netherlands, January 19.
34. Brunner, H. G. (2011). Personal communication, Amsterdam, January 19.
35. Brunner, H. G., Nelen, M., Breakfield, X. O., Ropers, H. H. & van Oost, B. A. (1993). Abnormal behavior associated with a point mutation in the structural gene for monoamine oxidase A. Science 262, 578–80.
36. Ibid.
37. Farrington, D. P. (2000). Psychosocial predictors of adult antisocial personality and adult convictions. Behavioral Sciences & the Law 18, 605–22.
38. Brunner, H. (1996). MAOA deficiency and abnormal behaviour: Perspectives on an association. Ciba Foundation Symposium 194, 155–64.
39. Cases, O., Seif, I., Grimsby, J., Gaspar, P., Chen, K., et al. (1995). Aggressive behavior and altered amounts of brain serotonin and norepinephrine in mice lacking MAOA. Science 268, 1763–66.
40. Caspi, A., McClay, J., Moffitt, T., Mill, J., Martin, J., et al. (2002). Role of genotype in the cycle of violence in maltreated children. Science 297, 851–54.
41. Kim-Cohen, J., Caspi, A., Taylor, A., Williams, B., Newcombe, R., et al. (2006). MAOA, maltreatment, and gene-environment interaction predicting children’s mental health: New evidence and a meta-analysis. Molecular Psychiatry 11, 903–13.
42. Beach, S.R.H., Brody, G. H., Gunter, T. D., Packer, H., Wernett, P., et al. (2010). Child maltreatment moderates the association of MAOA with symptoms of depression and antisocial personality disorder. Journal of Family Psychology 24, 12–20.
43. Williams, L. M., Gatt, J. M., Kuan, S. A., Dobson-Stone, C., Palmer, D. M., et al. (2009). A polymorphism of the MAOA gene is associated with emotional brain markers and personality traits on an antisocial index. Neuropsychopharmacology 34, 1797–1809.
44. Eisenberger, N. I., Way, B. M., Taylor, S. E., Welch, W. T. & Lieberman, M. D. (2007). Understanding genetic risk for aggression: Clues from the brain’s response to social exclusion. Biological Psychiatry 61, 100–108.
45. Guo, G., Ou, X. M., Roettger, M. & Shih, J. C. (2008). The VNTR 2 repeat in MAOA and delinquent behavior in adolescence and young adulthood: Associations and MAOA promoter activity. European Journal of Human Genetics 16, 626–34.
46. McDermott, R., Tingley, D., Cowden, J., Frazzetto, G. & Johnson, D.D.P. (2009). Monoamine oxidase A gene (MAOA) predicts behavioral aggression following provocation. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 106, 2118–23.
47. The important caveat that has to be borne in mind in interpreting the link between the low MAOA gene and antisocial behavior is that it accounts for only a small proportion of the variance. This is also true of most genes that have been linked to personality or mental illnesses.
48. Maori violence blamed on gene (2006). The Dominion Post (Wellington, New Zealand), August 9, Section A3.
49. Lea, R. & Chambers, G. (2007). Monoamine oxidase, addiction, and the “warrior” gene hypothesis. New Zealand Medical Journal 120, U2441.
50. Gibbons, A. (2004). American Association of Physical Anthropologists meeting. Tracking the evolutionary history of a “warrior” gene. Science 304, 818.
51. Newman, T. K., Syagailo, Y. V., Barr, C. S., et al. (2005). Monoamine oxidase A gene promoter variation and rearing experience influences aggressive behavior in rhesus monkeys. Biological Psychiatry 57, 167–72.
52. Lea & Chambers, Monoamine oxidase, addiction, and the “warrior” gene hypothesis.
53. Merriman, T. & Cameron, V. (2007). Risk-taking: Behind the warrior gene story. New Zealand Medical Journal 120, U2440.
54. Crampton, P. & Parkin, C. (2007). Warrior genes and risk-taking science. New Zealand Medical Journal 120, U2439.
55. Lea & Chambers, Monoamine oxidase, addiction, and the “warrior” gene hypothesis.
56. United Nations (2006). Intentional homicide, rate per 100,000 population. Office on Drugs and Crime, http://www.unodc.org/documents/data-and-analysis/IHS-rates-05012009.pdf.
57. Brunner, et al. Abnormal behavior associated with a point mutation in the structural gene for monoamine oxidase A.
58. Eisenberger et al., Understanding genetic risk for aggression.
59. It should be noted that the MAOA–antisocial relationship has not been found in all cultures. Shih and colleagues did not observe such a relationship with either antisocial personality disorder or antisocial alcoholism in participants from Taiwan: see Lu, R. B., Lin, W. W., Lee, J. F., Ko, H. C. & Shih, J. C. (2003). Neither antisocial personality disorder nor antisocial alcoholism is associated with the MAO-A gene in Han Chinese males. Alcoholism-Clinical and Experimental Research 27(6), 889–93. Furthermore, the interaction between abuse and low MAOA has not been found in African-Americans in one report: see Widom, C. S. & Brzustowicz, L. M. (2006). MAOA and the “Cycle of violence”: Childhood abuse and neglect, MAOA genotype, and risk for violent and antisocial behavior. Biological Psychiatry 60, 684–89.
60. Williams, et al., A polymorphism of the MAOA gene is associated with emotional brain markers.
61. Cadoret, R. J., Langbehn, D., Caspers, K., Troughton, E. P., Yucuis, R., et al. (2003). Associations of the serotonin transporter promoter polymorphism with aggressivity, attention deficit, and conduct disorder in an adoptee population. Comprehensive Psychiatry 44, 88–101.
62. DeLisi, M., Beaver, K. M., Vaughn, M. G. & Wright, J. P. (2009). All in the family: Gene x environment interaction between DRD2 and criminal father is associated with five antisocial phenotypes. Criminal Justice and Behavior 36, 1187–97.
63. Lee, S. S., Lahey, B. B., Waldman, I., Van Hulle, C. A., Rathouz, P., et al. (2007). Association of dopamine transporter genotype with disruptive behavior disorders in an eight-year longitudinal study of children and adolescents. American Journal of Medical Genetics Part B-Neuropsychiatric Genetics 144B, 310–17.
64. Gadow, K. D., DeVincent, C. J., Olvet, D. M., Pisarevskaya, V. & Hatchwell, E. (2010). Association of DRD4 polymorphism with severity of oppositional defiant disorder, separation anxiety disorder and repetitive behaviors in children with autism spectrum disorder. European Journal of Neuroscience 32, 1058–65.
65. Couppis, M. H. & Kennedy, C. H. (2008). The rewarding effect of aggression is reduced by nucleus accumbens dopamine receptor antagonism in mice. Psychopharmacology 197, 449–56.
66. Sokolov, B. P. & Cadet, J. L. (2006). Methamphetamine causes alterations in the MAP kinase-related pathways in the brains of mice that display increased aggressiveness. Neuropsychopharmacology 31, 956–66.
67. Caspi, A., Hariri, A. R., Holmes, A., Uher, R. & Moffitt, T. E. (2010). Genetic sensitivity to the environment: The case of the serotonin transporter gene and its implications for studying complex diseases and traits. American Journal of Psychiatry 167, 509–27.
68. Gelernter, J., Kranzler, H. R. & Cubells, J. F. (1997). Serotonin transporter protein (SLC6A4) allele and haplotype frequencies and linkage disequilibria in African- and European-American and Japanese populations and in alcohol-dependent subjects. Human Genetics 101, 243–46.
69. Hariri, A. R., Mattay, V., Tessitore, A., Kolachana, B., Fera, F., et al. (2002). Serotonin transporter genetic variation and the response of the human amygdala. Science 297, 400–403.
70. Hanna, G. L., Himle, J. A., Curtis, G. C., Koran, D. Q., Weele, J. V., et al. (1998). Serotonin transporter and seasonal variation in blood serotonin in families with obsessive-compulsive disorder. Neuropsychopharmacology 18, 102–11.
71. Brown, G. L., Goodwin, F. K., Ballenger, J. C., Goyer, P. F. & Major, L. F. (1979). Aggression in humans correlates with cerebrospinal fluid amine metabolites. Psychiatry Research 1, 131–39.
72. Moore, T. M., Scarpa, A. & Raine, A. (2002). A meta-analysis of serotonin metabolite 5-HIAA and antisocial behavior. Aggressive Behavior 28, 299–316.
73. Coccaro, E. F., Lee, R. & Kavoussi, R. J. (2010). Aggression, suicidality and intermittent explosive disorder: Serotonergic correlates in personality disorder and healthy control subjects. Neuropsychopharmacology 35, 435–44.
74. Crockett, M. J., Clark, L., Tabibnia, G., Lieberman, M. D. & Robbins, T. W. (2008). Serotonin modulates behavioral reactions to unfairness. Science 320, 1739.
75. Glenn, A. L. (2011). The other allele: Exploring the long allele of the serotonin transporter gene as a potential risk factor for psychopathy: A review of the parallels in findings. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 35, 612–20.
76. Beaver, K. M., Wright, J. P. & Walsh, A. (2008). A gene-based evolutionary explanation for the association between criminal involvement and number of sex partners. Biodemography and Social Biology 54, 47–55.
77. Orgel, L. E. & Crick, F. H. (1980). Selfish DNA: The ultimate parasite. Nature 284, 604–7.
78. Biémont, C. & Vieira, C. (2006). Genetics: Junk DNA as an evolutionary force. Nature 443, 521–24.
79. 60 Minutes: Murder Gene (2001). CBS television, February 27.
1. Kraft, R. “My Life,” chapter 5, Dad and the Fire. Death Row, California. http://www.ccadp.org/randykraft.htm.
2. McDougal, D. (1991). Angel of Darkness. New York: Warner Books.
3. Raine, A., Buchsbaum, M. S. & LaCasse, L. (1997). Brain abnormalities in murderers indicated by positron emission tomography. Biological Psychiatry 42, 495–508.
4. Barrash, J., Tranel, D. & Anderson, S. W. (2000). Acquired personality disturbances associated with bilateral damage to the ventromedial prefrontal region. Developmental Neuropsychology 18, 355–81.
5. Bechara, A., Damasio, H., Tranel, D. & Damasio, A. R. (1997). Deciding advantageously before knowing the advantageous strategy. Science 275, 1293–94.
6. Blair, R.J.R. (2007). The amygdala and ventromedial prefrontal cortex in morality and psychopathy. Trends in Cognitive Sciences 11, 387–92.
7. Damasio, A. (1994). Descartes’ Error: Emotion, Reason, and the Human Brain. New York: GP Putnam’s Sons.
8. Bechara, A. & Damasio, A. R. (2005). The somatic marker hypothesis: A neural theory of economic decision. Games and Economic Behavior 52, 336–72.
9. Yang, Y. L. & Raine, A. (2009). Prefrontal structural and functional brain imaging findings in antisocial, violent, and psychopathic individuals: A meta-analysis. Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging 174, 81–88.
10. The specific subregions of the occipital cortex found to be overactivated in murderers were visual areas 17 and 18.
11. Understanding Murder: An Examination of the Etiology of Murder (2001). The Learning Channel and Cronkite-Ward Productions, August.
12. People vs. Antonio Bustamante (1990–91). Case number: CR13160, Imperial County, Calif.
13. Bechara, A., Damasio, H. & Damasio, A. R. (2000). Emotion, decision making and the orbitofrontal cortex. Cerebral Cortex 10, 295–307.
14. Understanding Murder.
15. McDougal, Angel of Darkness.
16. Bechara & Damasio. The somatic marker hypothesis.
17. Kray, R. & Kray, R. (1989). Reg and Ron Kray: Our Story, p. 90. London: Pan Books.
18. Raine, A., Meloy, J. R., Bihrle, S., Stoddard, J., Lacasse, L., et al. (1998). Reduced prefrontal and increased subcortical brain functioning assessed using positron emission tomography in predatory and affective murderers. Behavioral Sciences and the Law 16, 319–32.
19. It is not just that homicidal acts can have a mixture of proactive and reactive aggression. An offender’s criminal lifestyle can at times be at odds with their killing. Ron and Reggie Kray, for example, were organized gangsters who ruled the underworld in east London in the 1960s and 1970s, and participated in planned armed robberies and protection rackets. So while Reggie’s killing of Jack “the Hat” McVitie was reactive aggression in nature, his criminal lifestyle was predominantly proactive.
20. Shaikh, M. B., Steinberg, A. & Siegel, A. (1993). Evidence that substance P is utilized in medial amygdaloid facilitation of defensive rage behavior in the cat. Brain Research 625, 283–94.
21. Adamec, R. E. (1990). Role of the amygdala and medial hypothalamus in spontaneous feline aggression and defense. Aggressive Behavior 16, 207–22.
22. Elliott, F. A. (1992). Violence: The neurologic contribution: An overview. Archives of Neurology 49, 595–603.
23. Adamec, R. E. (1991). The role of the temporal lobe in feline aggression and defense. Special Issue: Ethoexperimental psychology of defense: Behavioral and biological processes. Psychological Record 41, 233–53.
24. Mirsky, A. F. & Siegel, A. (1994). The neurobiology of violence and aggression. In A. J. Reiss, K. A. Miczek, and J. A. Roth (eds.), Understanding and Preventing Violence, vol. 2, Biobehavioral Influences (pp. 59–172). Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.
25. Amen, D. G., Hanks, C., Prunella, J. R. & Green, A. (2007). An analysis of regional cerebral blood flow in impulsive murderers using single photon emission computed tomography. Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences 19, 304–9.
26. Despite the lack of functional imaging research on murderers, there is a small literature on structural imaging. See, for example, Yang, Y. L., Raine, A., Han, C. B., Schug, R. A., Toga, A. W., et al. (2010). Reduced hippocampal and parahippocampal volumes in murderers with schizophrenia. Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging 182, 9–13; Puri, B. K., Counsell, S. J., Saeed, N., Bustos, M. G., Treasaden, I. H., et al. (2008). Regional grey matter volumetric changes in forensic schizophrenia patients: An MRI study comparing the brain structure of patients who have seriously and violently offended with that of patients who have not. Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry 32, 751–54.
27. Soderstrom, H., Hultin, L., Tullberg, M., Wikkelso, C., Ekholm, S., et al. (2002). Reduced frontotemporal perfusion in psychopathic personality. Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging 114, 81–94.
28. Hoptman, M. J. (2003). Neuroimaging studies of violence and antisocial behavior. Journal of Psychiatric Practice 9, 265–78; Miczek, K. A., de Almeida, R.M.M., Kravitz, E. A., Rissman, E. F., de Boer, S. F., et al. (2007). Neurobiology of escalated aggression and violence. Journal of Neuroscience 27, 11,803–6.
29. Gur, R. C., Ragland, J. D., Resnick, S. M., Skolnick, B. E., Jaggi, J., et al. (1994). Lateralized increases in cerebral blood flow during performance of verbal and spatial tasks: Relationship with performance level. Brain and Cognition 24, 244–58.
30. Sakurai, Y., Asami, M. & Mannen, T. (2010): Alexia and agraphia with lesions of the angular and supramarginal gyri: Evidence for the disruption of sequential processing. Journal of the Neurological Sciences 288, 25–33.
31. Rubia, K., Smith, A. B., Halari, R., Matsukura, F., Mohammad, M., et al. (2009): Disorder-specific dissociation of orbitofrontal dysfunction in boys with pure conduct disorder during reward and ventrolateral prefrontal dysfunction in boys with pure ADHD during sustained attention. American Journal Psychiatry 166, 83–94.
32. Soderstrom, H., Tullberg, M., Wikkelso, C., Ekholm, S. & Forsman, A. (2000): Reduced regional cerebral blood flow in non-psychotic violent offenders. Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging 98, 29–41.
33. Kiehl, K. A. (2006). A cognitive neuroscience perspective on psychopathy: Evidence for paralimbic system dysfunction. Psychiatry Research 142, 107–28.
34. Muller, J. L., Sommer, M., Wagner, V., Lange, K., Taschler, H., et al. (2003). Abnormalities in emotion processing within cortical and subcortical regions in criminal psychopaths: Evidence from a functional magnetic resonance imaging study using pictures with emotional content. Biological Psychiatry 54, 152–62.
35. Amen, D. G., Hanks, C., Prunella, J. R. & Green, A. (2007). An analysis of regional cerebral blood flow in impulsive murderers using single photon emission computed tomography. Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences 19, 304–9.
36. Raine, A., Ishikawa, S. S., Arce, E., Lencz, T., Knuth, K. H., et al. (2004). Hippocampal structural asymmetry in unsuccessful psychopaths. Biological Psychiatry 55, 185-91.
37. Raine, A., Moffitt, T. E., Caspi, A., Loeber, R., Stouthamer-Loeber, M., et al. (2005). Neurocognitive impairments in boys on the life-course persistent antisocial path. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 114, 38–49.
38. Boccardi, M., Ganzola, R., Rossi, R., Sabattoli, F., Laakso, M. P., et al. (2010). Abnormal hippocampal shape in offenders with psychopathy. Human Brain Mapping 31, 438–47.
39. Swanson, L. W. (1999). Limbic system. In G. Adelman & B. H. Smith (eds.), Encyclopedia of Neuroscience, pp. 1053–55. Amsterdam: Elsevier.
40. Gregg, T. R. & Siegel, A. (2001). Brain structures and neurotransmitters regulating aggression in cats: Implications for human aggression. Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology & Biological Psychiatry 25, 91–140.
41. Kiehl, K. A., Smith, A. M., Hare, R. D., Mendrek, A., Forster, B. B., Brink, J. & Liddle, P. F. (2001). Limbic abnormalities in affective processing by criminal psychopaths as revealed by functional magnetic resonance imaging. Biological Psychiatry 50, 677–84.
42. Rubia, K., Halari, R., Smith, A. B., Mohammed, M., Scott, S., et al. (2008): Dissociated functional brain abnormalities of inhibition in boys with pure conduct disorder and in boys with pure attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry 165, 889–97.
43. New, A. S., Hazlett, E. A., Buchsbaum, M. S., Goodman, M., Reynolds, D., et al. (2002): Blunted prefrontal cortical (18)fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography response to meta-chlorophenylpiperazine in impulsive aggression. Archives of General Psychiatry 59, 621–29.
44. Maratos, E. J., Dolan, R. J., Morris, J. S., Henson, R.N.A. & Rugg, M. D. (2001). Neural activity associated with episodic memory for emotional context. Neuropsychologia 39, 910–20.
45. Mayberg, H. S., Liotti, M., Brannan, S. K., McGinnis, S., Mahurin, R. K., et al. (1999). Reciprocal limbic-cortical function and negative mood: Converging PET findings in depression and normal sadness. American Journal of Psychiatry 156, 675–82.
46. Ochsner, K. N. et al. (2005). The neural correlates of direct and reflected self-knowledge. NeuroImage 28, 797–814.
47. Fagan, J. (1989). Cessation of family violence: Deterrence and dissuasion. In L. Ohlin & M. Tonry (eds.), Family Violence: Crime and Justice: A Review of Research, pp. 377–425. Chicago: University of Chicago.
48. Wilt, S. & Olson, S. (1996). Prevalence of domestic violence in the United States. Journal of American Medical Women’s Association 51, 77–88.
49. Guth, A. A. & Pachter, L. (2000). Domestic violence and the trauma surgeon. American Journal of Surgery 179, 134–40; Hamby, J. M. & Koss, M. P. (2003). Violence against women: Risk factors, consequences, and prevalence. In J. M. Leibschutz, S. M. Frayne & G. M. Saxe (eds.), Violence Against Women: A Physician’s Guide to Identification and Management, pp. 3–38. Philadelphia: American College of Physicians.
50. Pihlajamaki, M., Tanila, H., Kononen, M., et al. (2005). Distinct and overlapping fMRI activation networks for processing of novel identities and locations of objects. European Journal of Neuroscience 22, 2095–105.
51. Sevostianov, A., Horwitz, B., Nechaev, V., et al. (2002). fMRI study comparing names versus pictures of objects. Human Brain Mapping 16, 168–75.
52. George, D. T., Phillips, M. J., Doty, L., Umhau, J. C. & Rawlings, R. R. (2006): A model linking biology, behavior, and psychiatric diagnoses in perpetrators of domestic violence. Medical Hypotheses 67, 345–53.
53. Ibid.
54. Babcock, J. C., Green, C. E., Webb, S. A. & Graham, K. H. (2004). A second failure to replicate the Gottman et al. (1995) typology of men who abuse intimate partners … and possible reasons why. Journal of Family Psychology 18, 396–400.
55. We are not the only group to be thinking along these lines. Others have hypothesized that spouse-abusers are hypersensitive to emotional stimuli that could be interpreted as threatening, such as slights and signs of disapproval, resulting in increased negative emotionality and reacting out of proportion to the social context. See George, D. T., Rawlings, R. R., Williams, W. A., Phillips, M. J., Fong, G., et al. (2004). A select group of perpetrators of domestic violence: Evidence of decreased metabolism in the right hypothalamus and reduced relationships between cortical/subcortical brain structures in position emission tomography. Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging 130, 11–25; also Babcock et al., A second failure to replicate the Gottman et al. (1995) typology.
56. Babcock, J. C., Green, C. E. & Robieb, C. (2004). Does batterers’ treatment work? A meta-analytic review of domestic violence treatment. Clinical Psychology Review 23, 1023–53.
57. Twain, M. (1882). On the Decay of the Art of Lying. Boston: James R. Osgood and Company.
58. Very sadly, Sean Spence died prematurely, at the age of forty-eight, on Christmas Day, 2010, after suffering a long illness. He was a highly creative and energetic scientist that many of us miss.
59. Lee, T.M.C., Liu, H. L., Tan, L. H., Chan, C.C.H., Mahankali, S., et al. (2002). Lie detection by functional magnetic resonance imaging. Human Brain Mapping 15, 157–64.
60. Spence, S. A., Farrow, T.F.D., Herford, A. E., Wilkinson, I. D., Zheng, Y., et al. (2001). Behavioural and functional anatomical correlates of deception in humans. NeuroReport 12, 2849–53.
61. Langleben, D. D., Schroeder, L., Maldjian, J. A., Gur, R. C., McDonald, S., et al. (2002). Brain activity during simulated deception: An event-related functional magnetic resonance study. NeuroImage 15, 727–32.
62. Mackintosh, N., Baddeley, A., Brownsworth, R., et al. (2011). Brain Waves Module 4: Neuroscience and the Law. London: The Royal Society.
63. Greene, J. D., Sommerville, R. B., Nystrom, L. E., Darley, J. M. & Cohen, J. D. (2001). An fMRI investigation of emotional engagement in moral judgment. Science 293, 2105–8.
64. Koenigs, M., Young, L., Adolphs, R., Tranel, D., Cushman, F., et al. (2007). Damage to the prefrontal cortex increases utilitarian moral judgments. Nature 446, 908–11.
65. Moll, J. et al. (2002). The neural correlates of moral sensitivity: A functional magnetic resonance imaging investigation of basic and moral emotions. The Journal of Neuroscience: The Official Journal of the Society for Neuroscience 22, 2730–36.
66. Heekeren, H. R., Wartenburger, I., Schmidt, H., Prehn, K., Schwintowski, H. P., et al. (2005). Influence of bodily harm on neural correlates of semantic and moral decision-making. NeuroImage 24, 887–97.
67. Kumari, V., Das, M., Hodgins, S., Zachariah, E., Barkataki, I., et al. (2005). Association between violent behaviour and impaired prepulse inhibition of the startle response in antisocial personality disorder and schizophrenia. Behavioral and Brain Research 158, 159–66.
68. Kiehl, K. A., Smith, A. M., Mendrek, A., Forster, B. B., Hare, R. D., et al. (2004). Temporal lobe abnormalities in semantic processing by criminal psychopaths as revealed by functional magnetic resonance imaging. Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging 130, 295–312.
69. Yang, Y. L., Glenn, A. L. & Raine, A. (2008). Brain abnormalities in antisocial individuals: Implications for the law. Behavioral Sciences & the Law 26, 65–83.
70. Raine, A. & Yang, Y. (2006). Neural foundations to moral reasoning and antisocial behavior. Social, Cognitive, and Affective Neuroscience 1, 203–13.
71. Veit, R., Lotze, M., Sewing, S., Missenhardt, H., Gaber, T., et al. (2010). Aberrant social and cerebral responding in a competitive reaction time paradigm in criminal psychopaths. NeuroImage 49, 3365–72; Kiehl, K. A. (2006). A cognitive neuroscience perspective on psychopathy: Evidence for paralimbic system dysfunction. Psychiatry Research 142, 107–28.
72. New et al., Blunted prefrontal cortical (18)fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography response.
73. Lee, T.M.C., Chan, S. C. & Raine, A. (2009). Hyper-responsivity to threat stimuli in domestic violence offenders: A functional magnetic resonance imaging study. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 70, 36–45.
74. Rule, A. (2009). The Stranger Beside Me. New York: Pocket Books.
75. Vronsky, P. (2007). Female Serial Killers: How and Why Women Become Monsters. New York: Berkley Books.
76. Ibid.
77. Ibid., p. 132.
78. Ibid.
79. Bowlby, J. (1969). Attachment and Loss, vol. 1, Attachment. New York: Hogarth Press; Rutter, M. (1982). Maternal Deprivation Reassessed (2nd ed.). Harmondsworth, U.K.: Penguin.
80. Vronsky, Female Serial Killers.
81. Hare, R. D. (2003). The Hare Psychopathy Checklist—Revised (PCL-R), 2nd ed. Toronto, Canada: Multi-Health Systems.
82. Crime: Chronic Murder. August 29, 1938. Time. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,789132,00.html.
83. Glenn, A. L., Raine, A. & Schug, R. A. (2009). The neural correlates of moral decision-making in psychopathy. Molecular Psychiatry 14, 5–6.
84. Vronsky, Female Serial Killers.
85. Blair, The amygdala and ventromedial prefrontal cortex.
86. Raine & Yang. Neural foundations to moral reasoning and antisocial behavior.
1. Chynoweth, C. (2005). How do I become a bomb disposal expert? The Times (London), February 24, http://business.timesonline.co.uk/tol/business/career_and_jobs/graduate_management/article517604.ece.
2. Elder, R. K. (2008). A brother lost, a brotherhood found. Chicago Tribune, May 17, http://www.chicagotribune.com/news/nationworld/chi-unabomber-story,0,7970571.story.
3. Forty-three years after his first IQ test, at age eleven, Ted Kaczynski was retested, for a score of 138. The drop from 167 is likely due to mental illness, which developed in early adulthood.
4. Eisermann, K. (1992). Long-term heart rate responses to social stress in wild European rabbits: Predominant effect of rank position. Physiology & Behavior 52, 33–36.
5. Cherkovich, G. M. & Tatoyan, S. K. (1973). Heart rate (radiotelemetric registration) in macaques and baboons according to dominant-submissive rank in a group. Folia Primatologica 20, 265–73; Holst, D. V. (1986). Vegetative and somatic compounds of tree shrews’ behavior. Journal of the Autonomic Nervous System, Suppl., 657–70.
6. One reason it is hard for people to believe that low heart rate can predispose an individual to antisocial behavior is the idea that exercise reduces resting heart rate and we view people who exercise in a favorable light. Although this is technically true, surprisingly the effect is much smaller than people imagine. Even twenty weeks of endurance training lowers resting heart rate only by two beats per minute. The type of moderate exercise some of us regularly engage in has even smaller effects. See Wilmore, J. H., Stanforth, P. R., Gagnon, J., et al. (1996). Endurance exercise training has a minimal effect on resting heart rate: The HERITAGE study. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 28, 829–35.
7. Raine, A. & Venables, P. H. (1984). Tonic heart rate level, social class and antisocial behaviour in adolescents. Biological Psychology 18, 123–32.
8. Raine, A. & Jones, F. (1987). Attention, autonomic arousal, and personality in behaviorally disordered children. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology 15, 583–99.
9. Ortiz, J. & Raine, A. (2004). Heart rate level and antisocial behavior in children and adolescents: A meta-analysis. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 43, 154–62.
10. The overall “effect size” was -0.44. Effect sizes tell us the strength of the relationship. To put this into context, .2 is a small relationship, .5 is medium, and .8 is large.
11. For more examples of effect sizes in medicine and psychology, see Meyer, G. J. et al. (2001). Psychological testing and psychological assessment: A review of evidence and issues. American Psychologist 56, 128–65.
12. The correlation between smoking and lung cancer is .08, between alcohol use during pregnancy and premature birth is .09, and between taking aspirin to reduce the risk of death by a heart attack is .02. The effect of taking antihypertensive medication in reducing the risk of stroke is a correlation of .03. In comparison, the correlation between heart rate and antisocial behavior is .22.
13. Raine, A., Venables, P. H. & Mednick, S. A. (1997). Low resting heart rate at age 3 years predisposes to aggression at age 11 years: Evidence from the Mauritius Child Health Project. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry 36, 1457–64.
14. Voors, A. W., Webber, L. S. & Berenson, B. S. (1982). Resting heart rate and pressure rate product of children in a total biracial community: The Bogalusa Heart study. American Journal of Epidemiology 116, 276–86.
15. Ibid. The effect size here is quite strong, at d = 0.36, p < .0001.
16. Shaw, D. S. & Winslow, E. B. (1997). Precursors and correlates of antisocial behavior from infancy to preschool. In D. M. Stoff, J. Breiling & J. D. Maser (eds.), Handbook of Antisocial Behavior, pp. 148–58. New York: Wiley.
17. Baker, L. A., Tuvblad, C., Reynolds, C., Zheng, M., Lozano, D. I., et al. (2009). Resting heart rate and the development of antisocial behavior from age 9 to 14: Genetic and environmental influences. Development and Psychopathology, 21, 939–60.
18. Farrington, D. P. (1987). Implications of biological findings for criminological research. In S. A. Mednick, T. E. Moffitt & S. A. Stack (eds.), The Causes of Crime: New Biological Approaches, pp. 42–64. New York: Cambridge University Press; Venables, P. H. (1987). Autonomic and central nervous system factors in criminal behavior. In Mednick et al., The Causes of Crime, pp. 110-36.
19. Farrington, D. P. (1997). The relationship between low resting heart rate and violence. In A. Raine, P. A. Brennan, D. P. Farrington & S. A. Mednick (eds.), Biosocial Bases of Violence, pp. 89–106. New York: Plenum.
20. The reason parental crime may be such a well-replicated risk factor for offspring crime is that it combines significant genetic and environmental risks. Criminal parents pass on the genetic risk for crime to their offspring, and they also give their children poor parenting, an unstable lifestyle, and abuse, important social risk factors for crime.
21. Farrington, The relationship between low resting heart rate and violence.
22. Raine, A., Venables, P. H. & Williams, M. (1995). High autonomic arousal and electrodermal orienting at age 15 years as protective factors against criminal behavior at age 29 years. American Journal of Psychiatry 152, 1595–1600.
23. Connor, D. F., Glatt, S. J., Lopez, I. D., Jackson, D. & Melloni, R. H. (2002). Psychopharmacology and aggression, vol. 1: A meta-analysis of stimulant effects on overt/covert aggression-related behaviors in ADHD. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 41, 253–61.
24. Stadler, C., Grasmann, D., Fegert, J. M., Holtmann, M., Poustka, F., et al. (2008). Heart rate and treatment effect in children with disruptive behavior disorders. Child Psychiatry and Human Development 39, 299–309.
25. Rogeness, G. A., Cepeda, C., Macedo, C. A., Fischer, C., et al. (1990). Differences in heart rate and blood pressure in children with conduct disorder, major depression, and separation anxiety. Psychiatry Research 33, 199–206.
26. Moffitt, T. E., Arseneault, L., Jaffee, S. R., Kim-Cohen, J., Koenen, K. C., et al. (2008). Research Review: DSM-V conduct disorder: Research needs for an evidence base. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 49, 3–33.
27. Raine, A. (1993). The Psychopathology of Crime: Criminal Behavior as a Clinical Disorder. San Diego: Academic Press.
28. Raine, A., Reynolds, C., Venables, P. H. & Mednick, S. A. (1997). Resting heart rate, skin conductance orienting, and physique. In Raine et al., Biosocial Bases of Violence, pp. 107–26.
29. Cox, D., Hallam, R., O’Connor, K. & Rachman, S. (1983). An experimental study of fearlessness and courage. British Journal of Psychology 74, 107–17; O’Connor, K., Hallam, R., and Rachman, S. (1985). Fearlessness and courage: A replication experiment. British Journal of Psychology 76, 187–97.
30. Scarpa, A., Raine, A., Venables, P. H. & Mednick, S. A. (1997). Heart rate and skin conductance in behaviorally inhibited Mauritian children. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 106, 182–90; Kagan, J. (1994). Galen’s Prophecy: Temperament in Human Nature. New York: Basic Books.
31. Raine, A., Reynolds, C., Venables, P. H., Mednick, S. A. & Farrington, D. P. (1998). Fearlessness, stimulation-seeking, and large body size at age 3 years as early predispositions to childhood aggression at age 11 years. Archives of General Psychiatry 55, 745–51.
32. Oldehinkel, A. J., Verhulst, F. C. & Ormel, J. (2008). Low heart rate: A marker of stress resilience. The TRAILS Study. Biological Psychiatry 63, 1141–46.
33. Zahn-Waxler, C., Cole, P., Welsh, J. D. & Fox, N. A. (1995). Psychophysiological correlates of empathy and prosocial behaviors in preschool children with behavior problems. Development and Psychopathology 7, 27–48.
34. Lovett, B. J. & Sheffield, R. A. (2007). Affective empathy deficits in aggressive children and adolescents: A critical review. Clinical Psychology Review 27, 1–13.
35. Eysenck, H. J. (1997). Personality and the biosocial model of antisocial and criminal behavior. In Raine et al., Biosocial Bases of Violence, pp. 21–38.
36. Raine, A., Reynolds, C., Venables, P. H. & Mednick, S. A. (1997). Resting heart rate, skin conductance orienting, and physique.
37. El-Sheikh, M., Ballard, M. & Cummings, E. M. (1994). Individual differences in preschoolers’ physiological and verbal responses to videotaped angry interactions. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology 22, 303–20.
38. Raine et al., Fearlessness, stimulation-seeking, and large body size at age 3 years.
39. Zuckerman, M. (1994). Behavioral Expressions and Biosocial Bases of Sensation Seeking. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
40. Moffitt, T. E. (1993). Adolescence-limited and life-course persistent antisocial behavior: A developmental taxonomy. Psychological Review 100, 674–701.
41. Raine, A., Liu, J., Venables, P. H., Mednick, S. A. & Dalais, C. (2010). Cohort profile: The Mauritius Child Health Project. International Journal of Epidemiology 39, 1441–51.
42. WHO Scientific Group (1968). Neurophysiological and behavioural research in psychiatry. WHO Technical Report No. 381. Geneva: World Health Organization.
43. Raine, et al., Fearlessness, stimulation-seeking, and large body size at age 3 years.
44. Achenbach, T. M. (1991). Manual for the Child Behavior Checklist/4-18. Burlington, Vt.: Department of Psychiatry, University of Vermont.
45. Over Aggressie (2001). KRO network Amsterdam, Netherlands, http://www.kro.nl/.
46. Ibid.
47. Ibid.
48. Ibid.
49. Ibid.
50. Ibid.
51. Kenrick, D. T. & Sheets, V. (1993). Homicidal Fantasies. Ethology and Sociobiology 14, 231–46.
52. Crabb, P. B. (2000). The material culture of homicidal fantasies. Aggressive Behavior 26, 225–34.
53. Ibid.
54. Galvanic skin response (GSR) is an older term for skin conductance (SC), while electrodermal activity (EDA) is a more generic term encompassing both skin conductance and skin potential.
55. Dawson, M. E., Schell, A. M. & Filion, D. L. (2007). The electrodermal system. In J. T. Cacioppo, L. G. Tassinary & G. G. Berntson (eds.), Handbook of Psychophysiology, pp. 159-81. New York: Oxford University Press.
56. Williams, L. M., Felmingham, K., Kemp, A. H., Rennie, C., Brown, K. J., et al. (2007). Mapping frontal-limbic correlates of orienting to change detection. Neuroreport 18, 197–202.
57. Critchley, H. D. (2002). Electrodermal responses: What happens in the brain. Neuroscientist 8, 132–42.
58. Dawson, M. E. & Schell, A. M. (1987). Human autonomic and skeletal classical conditioning: The role of conscious cognitive factors. In G. Davey (ed.), Cognitive Processes and Pavlovian Conditioning in Humans, pp. 27–55. New York: Wiley & Sons.
59. Raine, A. (1997). Crime, conditioning, and arousal. In H. Nyborg (ed.), The Scientific Study of Human Nature: Tribute to Hans J. Eysenck, pp. 122–41. Oxford: Elsevier.
60. For a detailed account of a conditioning theory of crime, see Eysenck, H. J. (1977). Crime and Personality. St. Albans, England: Paladin. Eysenck is debatably England’s most influential and simultaneously controversial psychologist. His biosocial theory of crime did not sit well with many criminologists in the 1970s and still does not today.
61. Hare, R. D., Frazelle, J. & Cox, D. N. (1978). Psychopathy and physiological responses to threat of an aversive stimulus. Psychophysiology 15, 165–72; Lorber, M. F. (2004). Psychophysiology of aggression, psychopathy, and conduct problems: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin 130, 531–52; Raine, A. (1993). The Psychopathology of Crime: Criminal Behavior as a Clinical Disorder. San Diego: Academic Press.
62. Gao, Y., Raine, A., Venables, P. H., Dawson, M. E. & Mednick, S. A. (2010). Association of poor childhood fear conditioning and adult crime. American Journal of Psychiatry 167, 56–60.
63. Ibid.
64. Hare, R. D. (1993). Without Conscience: The Disturbing World of Psychopaths Amongst Us. New York: Guilford Press.
65. Raine, A., Lencz, T., Bihrle, S., LaCasse, L. & Colletti, P. (2000). Reduced prefrontal gray matter volume and reduced autonomic activity in antisocial personality disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry 57, 119–27.
66. Meeting diagnostic criteria for DSM antisocial personality disorder requires that the individual also meet criteria for conduct disorder in childhood or adolescence.
67. The temporary-employment-agency workers who met the adult criteria for antisocial personality disorder lack the child criteria. That is, they are antisocial in adulthood, but they did not meet criteria for conduct disorder as children. We focused our research on those who met full criteria for antisocial personality disorder.
68. None had been convicted of either homicide, attempted homicide, or rape.
69. For the entire unselected sample, males reported an average of 16.1 criminal offenses while females reported 8.6 offenses. Rates of at least one seriously violent act were 55.7 percent in males and 42.9 percent in females. For males, 24.4 percent of the sample admitted to rape or sexual assault, while 34.8 percent admitted to assault on a stranger causing bodily injury, 13.3 percent had fired a gun at someone, and 8.9 percent had either attempted homicide or completed homicide. For females, 14.3 percent admitted to assault on a stranger causing bodily injury, 7.1 percent had fired a gun at someone, and 7.1 percent had either attempted homicide or completed homicide.
70. Hare, R. D. (2003). The Hare Psychopathy Checklist—Revised (PCL-R), 2nd ed. Toronto, Canada: Multi-Health Systems.
71. Ibid.
72. Rates of psychopathy for females were 8.3 percent (a score of 30 or more) and 16.7 percent (a score of 25 or more).
73. Widom, C. S. (1978). A methodology for studying non-institutionalized psychopaths. In R. D. Hare & D. Schalling (eds.), Psychopathic Behavior: Approaches to Research, p. 72. Chichester, England: Wiley.
74. Ibid., p. 83.
75. Widom, C. S. & Newman, J. P. (1985). Characteristics of non-institutionalized psychopaths. In D. P. Farrington and J. Gunn (eds.), Aggression and Dangerousness, pp. 57–80. London: Wiley.
76. This quasi-conditioning is very much like fear conditioning. Numbers are flashed on a screen counting down from 12 to 0. At the count of 0 the subject is blasted with a loud noise or given an electric shock. Between 12 and 0 (the anticipatory phase), most of us will give skin conductance “anticipatory” responses as we are somewhat anxious about the noise blast. Psychopaths give significantly fewer of these responses. The task differs from conditioning in that participants are told what will happen—there is cognitive awareness. In the classical conditioning paradigm, they are not told the association—that the CS+ tone predicts the aversive noise—and instead they must learn this association for themselves.
77. Ishikawa, S. S., Raine, A., Lencz, T., Bihrle, S. & LaCasse, L. (2001). Autonomic stress reactivity and executive functions in successful and unsuccessful criminal psychopaths from the community. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 110, 423–32.
78. Ibid.
79. Damasio, A. R. (1994). Descartes’ Error: Emotion, Reason, and the Human Brain. New York: Grosset/Putnam.
80. We did not run a classical conditioning paradigm on the psychopaths because I felt at the time it was such a well-replicated finding that it did not need repeating, and that a paradigm with a social context that manipulated secondary emotions would be more novel. We have predicted that the successful psychopath would show better autonomic fear conditioning, and we have brought fear conditioning back into our research protocols.
81. Despite a dearth of systematic research studies, there has nevertheless been a great deal of speculation about what makes a serial killer; see, for example, Holmes, R. M. & Holmes, S. T. (1998). Serial Murder, 2nd ed. Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage Publications; also Fox, J. A. & Levin, J. (2005). Extreme Killing. Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage Publications.
82. The executive-functioning task we gave our participants is the Wisconsin card-sorting task, a classic measure of executive functioning.
83. Strangulation as depicted in movies and TV does not take too long, but it is much harder in reality. It took Ross eight minutes to strangle one of his victims, as his fingers would cramp up. He had to stop and massage them before proceeding.
84. Berry-Dee, C. (2003). Talking with Serial Killers, p. 150. London: John Blake.
85. Scripps argued that he became annoyed with his victim in the hotel room when he suspected that Lowe was a homosexual and was making advances to him.
86. Berry-Dee, Talking with Serial Killers, p. 94. Scripps used a six-inch boning knife to systematically dismember his victims; he gives a systematic description of how he went about doing it. His skills are unusual but stem from the fact that Scripps worked in a butchery while serving a prior prison sentence.
87. Ibid.
88. Pontius, A. A. (1993). Neuropsychiatric update of the crime “profile” and “signature” in single or serial homicides: Rule out limbic psychotic trigger reaction. Psychological Reports 73, 875–92.
89. Carver, H. W. (2007). Reasonable doubt. Scientific American 297, 20–21.
90. Johnson, S. (1998). Psychological Evaluation of Theodore Kaczynski. Federal Correctional Institution, Butner, North Carolina. January 11–16, http://www.paulcooijmans.com/psychology/unabombreport2.html.
91. Ishikawa, S. S., Raine, A., Lencz, T., Bihrle, S. & LaCasse, L. (2001). Autonomic stress reactivity and executive functions in successful and unsuccessful criminal psychopaths from the community. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 110, 423–32.
92. Dan Rather had other risk factors for an antisocial behavior outcome, including bad spelling and coming from a working-class neighborhood. Interestingly it was a heart inflammation he had as a ten-year-old, confining him for weeks to bed, where he could only listen to World War II newscasts—that caused him to become fascinated by broadcasting.
93. Raine, A. (2006). Crime and Schizophrenia: Causes and Cures. New York: Nova Science Publishers.
94. Johnson, Psychological Evaluation of Theodore Kaczynski.
95. Raine, A., Brennan, P. & Mednick, S. A. (1994). Birth complications combined with early maternal rejection at age 1 year predispose to violent crime at age 18 years. Archives of General Psychiatry 51, 984–88.
96. If you see The Hurt Locker, note Sergeant James’s thirst for vengeance when he believes that Beckham, a young boy he forms a fleeting relationship with, has suffered terribly at the hands of terrorists. Note also how he breaks down in the shower, haunted by guilt after his need for an adrenaline rush results in a comrade’s leg being shattered. Despite the devil-may-care, stimulation-seeking cowboy persona that he presents, James has a conscience—he is neither a psychopath nor a “red-neck piece of trailer trash,” as one of his disconcerted comrades calls him.
97. It should be recognized that there appears to be no unitary arousal system—measures of resting-state ANS correlate at a surprisingly low level, around .10. Arousal is clearly a complex and multifaceted construct, and low-arousal theory is perhaps too simplistic. Still, it is conceivable that an extreme (antisocial) group within this general population does have low arousal on multiple arousal measures. Evidence does exist for under-arousal on at least two separate measures of arousal in antisocial child and adolescent samples. Even with simple biological measures like heart rate, unfolding the “mechanism of action”—how low heart rate goes about producing individuals with antisocial and aggressive behavior—is likely highly complex, involving many different processes.
1. Rojas-Burke, J. (1993). PET scan advance as tool in insanity defense: Debate erupts over capability of brain scanning technology. Journal of Nuclear Medicine 34, 13N–26N.
2. Rosen, J. (2007). The brain on the stand. New York Times. Sunday, March 11.
3. Rojas-Burke, PET scan advance as tool in insanity defense.
4. Ibid.
5. Raine, A., Buchsbaum, S., Stanley, J., et al. (1994). Selective reductions in prefrontal glucose metabolism in murderers. Biological Psychiatry 6, 365–73.
6. Raine, A., Lencz, T., Bihrle, S., Lacasse, L. & Colletti, P. (2000). Reduced prefrontal gray matter volume and reduced autonomic activity in antisocial personality disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry 57, 119–27.
7. Goodwin, R. D. & Hamilton, S. P. (2003). Lifetime comorbidity of antisocial personality disorder and anxiety disorders among adults in the community. Psychiatry Research 117, 159–66; Raine, A. (2005). Crime and Schizophrenia. New York: Nova Science Publishers.
8. Raine, A. et al., Reduced prefrontal gray matter volume and reduced autonomic activity in antisocial personality disorder.
9. Yang, Y. & Raine, A. (2009). Prefrontal structural and functional brain imaging findings in antisocial, violent, and psychopathic individuals: A meta-analysis. Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging 174, 81–88.
10. Gansler, D. A., McLaughlin, N.C.R., Iguchia, L., et al. (2009). A multivariate approach to aggression and the orbital frontal cortex in psychiatric patients. Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging 171, 145–54.
11. Damasio, A. (1994). Descartes’ Error: Emotion, Reason, and the Human Brain. New York: GP Putnam’s Sons.
12. Bechara, A., Damasio, H., Tranel, D. & Damasio, A. R. (1997). Deciding advantageously before knowing the advantageous strategy. Science 275, 1293–94.
13. McMillan, M. B. (1986). A wonderful journey through skull and brains: The travels of Mr. Gage’s tamping iron. Brain and Cognition 5, 67–107.
14. Harlow, J. M. (1868). Recovery from the passage of an iron bar through the head. Publications of the Massachusetts Medical Society, 2, 327–47.
15. Such claims of drunkenness and sexual promiscuity in Gage have been questioned—see Malcolm Macmillan, The Phineas Gage information Page, http://www.deakin.edu.au/hmnbs/psychology/gagepage/Pgstory.php.
16. Glenn, A. L. & Raine, A. (2009). Neural circuits underlying morality and antisocial behavior. In J. Verplaetse and J. Braeckman (eds.), The Moral Brain, pp. 45–68. New York: Springer.
17. Butler, K., Rourke, B. P., Fuerst, D. R. & Fisk, J. L. (1997). A typology of psychosocial functioning in pediatric closed-head injury. Child Neuropsychology 3, 98–133.
18. Max, J. E., Koele, S. L., Smith, W. L., Sato, Y., Lindgren, S. D., et al. (1998). Psychiatric disorders in children and adolescents after severe traumatic brain injury: A controlled study. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry 37, 832–40.
19. Ibid.
20. Raine, A. (2002): Annotation: The role of prefrontal deficits, low autonomic arousal, and early health factors in the development of antisocial and aggressive behavior. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 43, 417–34.
21. Anderson, S. W., Behara, A., Damasio, H., Tranel, D. & Damasio, A. R. (1999). Impairment of social and moral behavior related to early damage in human prefrontal cortex. Nature Neuroscience 2, 1032–37. The female patient in Anderson’s study had bilateral polar and ventromedial damage, while the male had damage localized to the right polar/medial-dorsal region.
22. Pennington, B. F. & Bennetto, L. (1993). Main effects or transactions in the neuropsychology of conduct disorder? Commentary on “The neuropsychology of conduct disorder.” Development and Psychopathology 5, 153–64.
23. Damasio, A. R. (2000). A neural basis for sociopathy. Archives of General Psychiatry 57, 128–29.
24. Raine, et al. Reduced prefrontal gray matter volume and reduced autonomic activity in antisocial personality disorder, 119–27.
25. Damasio, A neural basis for sociopathy.
26. Damasio, H., Grabowski, T. J., Frank, R., Galaburda, A. M. & Damasio, A. (1994). The return of Phineas Gage—Clues about the brain from the skull of a famous patient. Science 264, 1102–5.
27. This ventromedial area is also known as gyrus rectus.
28. Knight, D. C., Cheng, D. T., Smith, C. N., Stein, E. A. & Helmstetter, F. J. (2004). Neural substrates mediating human delay and trace fear conditioning. Journal of Neuroscience 24, 218–28.
29. McNab, F., Leroux, G., Strand, F., Thorell, L., Bergman, S. & Klingberg, T. (2008). Common and unique components of inhibition and working memory: An fMRI, within-subjects investigation. Neuropsychologia 46, 2668–82.
30. Patrick C. J. (2008). Psychophysiological correlates of aggression and violence: An integrative review. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B-Biological Sciences 363, 2543–55.
31. Raine, A. & Yang, Y. (2006). Neural foundations to moral reasoning and antisocial behavior. Social, Cognitive, and Affective Neuroscience 1, 203–13.
32. Blair, R.J.R. (2007). The amygdala and ventromedial prefrontal cortex in morality and psychopathy. Trends in Cognitive Sciences 11, 387–92.
33. McClure, S. M., Laibson, D. I., Loewenstein, G. & Cohen, J. D. (2004). Separate neural systems value immediate and delayed monetary rewards. Science 306, 503–7.
34. Dolan, M. & Fullam, R. (2004). Behavioural and psychometric measures of impulsivity in a personality disordered population. Journal of Forensic Psychiatry & Psychology 15, 426–50.
35. Miller, J. D. & Lynam, D. R. (2003). Psychopathy and the five-factor model of personality: A replication and extension. Journal of Personality Assessment 81, 168–78.
36. Gu, X. S. & Han, S. H. (2007). Attention and reality constraints on the neural processes of empathy for pain. NeuroImage 36, 256–67.
37. Sterzer, P., Stadler, C., Poustka, F. & Kleinschmidt, A. (2007). A structural neural deficit in adolescents with conduct disorder and its association with lack of empathy. NeuroImage 37, 335–42.
38. Ramnani, N. & Owen, A. M. (2004). Anterior prefrontal cortex: Insights into function from anatomy and neuroimaging. Nature Reviews Neuroscience 5, 184–94.
39. Happe, F. & Frith, U. (1996). Theory of mind and social impairment in children with conduct disorder. British Journal of Developmental Psychology 14, 385–98.
40. Rolls, E. T. (2000). The orbitofrontal cortex and reward. Cerebral Cortex 10, 284–94.
41. Ragozzino, M. E. (2007). The contribution of the medial prefrontal cortex, orbitofrontal cortex, and dorsomedial striatum to behavioral flexibility. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1121, 355–75.
42. Seguin, J. R., Arseneault, L., Boulerice, B., Harden, P. W. & Tremblay, R. E. (2002). Response perseveration in adolescent boys with stable and unstable histories of physical aggression: The role of underlying processes. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 43, 481–94.
43. Fairchild, G., van Goozen, S. H., Stollery, S. J. & Goodyer, I. M. (2008). Fear conditioning and affective modulation of the startle reflex in male adolescents with early-onset or adolescence-onset conduct disorder and healthy control subjects. Biological Psychiatry 63, 279–85.
44. Toro, R., Leonard, G., Lerner, J. V., Lerner, R. M., Perron, M., et al. (2008). Prenatal exposure to maternal cigarette smoking and the adolescent cerebral cortex. Neuropsychopharmacology 33, 1019–27.
45. Schirmer, A., Escoffier, N., Zysset, S., Koester, D., Striano, T. & Friederici, A. D. (2008). When vocal processing gets emotional: On the role of social orientation in relevance detection by the human amygdala. NeuroImage 40, 1402–10.
46. Frick, P. J., Cornell, A. H., Bodin, S. D., Dane, H. E., Barry, C. T. & Loney, B. R. (2003). Callous-unemotional traits and developmental pathways to severe conduct problems. Developmental Psychology 39, 246–60.
47. Happe & Frith, U. Theory of mind and social impairment in children with conduct disorder.
48. Aron, A. R., Robbins, T. W. & Poldrack, R. A. (2004). Inhibition and the right inferior frontal cortex. Trends in Cognitive Sciences 8, 170–77.
49. Whittle, S., Yap, M.B.H., Yucel, M., Fornito, A., Simmons, J. G., et al. (2008). Prefrontal and amygdala volumes are related to adolescents’ affective behaviors during parent-adolescent interactions. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, U.S.A. 105, 3652–57.
50. Meyer-Lindenberg, A., Buckholtz, J. W., Kolachana, B., Hariri, A. R., Pezawas, L., et al. (2006). Neural mechanisms of genetic risk for impulsivity and violence in humans. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, U.S.A. 103, 6269–74.
51. Davidson, R. J., Putnam, K. M., & Larson, C. L. (2000). Dysfunction in the neural circuitry of emotion regulation—a possible prelude to violence. Science 289, 591–94.
52. Raine, A., Yang, Y., Narr, K. & Toga, A. (2011). Sex differences in orbitofrontal gray as a partial explanation for sex differences in antisocial personality. Molecular Psychiatry 16, 227–236.
53. Ibid.
54. Goldstein, J. M., Seidman, L. J., Horton, N. J., Makris, N., Kennedy, D. N., et al. (2001). Normal sexual dimorphism of the adult human brain assessed by in vivo magnetic resonance imaging. Cerebral Cortex 11, 490–97.
55. Gur, R. C., Gunning-Dixon, F., Bilker, W. B. & Gur, R. E. (2002). Sex differences in temporo-limbic and frontal brain volumes of healthy adults. Cerebral Cortex 12, 998–1003; Garcia-Falgueras, A., Junque, C., Gimenez, M., Caldu, X., Segovia, S. & Guillamon, A. (2006). Sex differences in the human olfactory system. Brain Research 1116, 103–11.
56. Good, C. D., Johnsrude, I., Ashburner, J., Henson, R.N.A., Friston, K. J. & Frackowiak, R.S.J. (2001). Cerebral asymmetry and the effects of sex and handedness on brain structure: A voxel-based morphometric analysis of 465 normal adult human brains. NeuroImage 14, 685–700.
57. Schlosser, R., Hutchinson, M., Joseffer, S., Rusinek, H., Saarimaki, A., et al. (1998). Functional magnetic resonance imaging of human brain activity in a verbal fluency task. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, & Psychiatry 64, 492–98.
58. Goldstein, J. M., Jerram, M., Poldrack, R., Ahern, T., Kennedy, D. N., et al. (2005). Hormonal cycle modulates arousal circuitry in women using functional magnetic resonance imaging. Journal of Neuroscience 25, 9309–16.
59. McClure, E. B., Monk, C. S., Nelson, E. E., Zarahn, E., Leibenluft, E., et al. (2004). A developmental examination of gender differences in brain engagement during evaluation of threat. Biological Psychiatry 55, 1047–55.
60. Koch, K., Pauly, K., Kellermann, T., Seiferth, N. Y., Reske, M., et al. (2007). Gender differences in the cognitive control of emotion: An fMRI study. Neuropsychologia 45, 2744–54.
61. Yang, Y. & Raine, A. (2009). Prefrontal structural and functional brain imaging findings in antisocial, violent, and psychopathic individuals: A meta-analysis. Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging 174, 81–88.
62. Mataro, M., Jurado, M. A., García-Sanchez, C., Barraquer, L., Costa-Jussa, F. R. & Junque, C. (2001). Long-term effects of bilateral frontal brain lesion: 60 years after injury with an iron bar. Archives of Neurology 58, 1139–42.
63. Ibid.
64. Bigler, E. D. (2001). Frontal lobe pathology and antisocial personality disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry 58, 609–11.
65. Ellenbogen, J. M., Hurford, M. O., Liebeskind, D. S., Neimark, G. B. & Weiss, D. (2005). Ventromedial frontal lobe trauma. Neurology 64, 757.
66. Mataro et al., Long-term effects of bilateral frontal brain lesion.
67. Sarwar, M. (1989). The septum pellucidum—normal and abnormal. American Journal of Neuroradiology 10, 989–1005.
68. Raine, A., Lee, L., Yang, Y. & Colletti, P. (2010). Presence of a neurodevelopmental marker for limbic maldevelopment in antisocial personality disorder and psychopathy. British Journal of Psychiatry 197, 186–92.
69. Gao, Y., Glenn, A. L., Schug, R. A., Yang, Y. L. & Raine, A. (2009). The neurobiology of psychopathy: A neurodevelopmental perspective. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry 54, 813–23.
70. Swayze, V. W., Johnson, V. P., Hanson, J. W., Piven, J., Sato, Y., et al. (2006). Magnetic resonance imaging of brain anomalies in fetal alcohol syndrome. Pediatrics 99, 232–40.
71. Bodensteiner, J. & Schaefer, G. (1997). Dementia pugilistica and cavum septi pellucidi: Born to box. Sports Medicine 24, 361–65.
72. Yang, Y., Raine, A., Karr, K. L., Colletti, P. & Toga, A. (2009). Localization of deformations within the amygdala in individuals with psychopathy. Archives of General Psychiatry 66, 986–94.
73. Knapska, E., Radwanska, K., Werka, T. & Kaczmarek, L. (2007). Functional internal complexity of amygdala: Focus on gene activity mapping after behavioral training and drugs of abuse. Physiological Reviews 87, 1113–73.
74. Ibid.
75. Raine, A., Ishikawa, S. S., Arce, E., Lencz, T., Knuth, K. H., et al. (2004). Hippocampal structural asymmetry in unsuccessful psychopaths. Biological Psychiatry 55, 185–91. It should be noted that this structural abnormality was specific to unsuccessful or caught psychopaths—it was not observed for successful psychopaths, who seem to lack the classical brain abnormalities found in their unsuccessful counterparts.
76. Raine, A., Buchsbaum, M. & LaCasse, L. (1997). Brain abnormalities in murderers indicated by positron emission tomography. Biological Psychiatry 42, 495–508.
77. Verstynen, T., Tierney, R., Urbanski, T. & Tang, A. (2001). Neonatal novelty exposure modulates hippocampal volumetric asymmetry in the rat. NeuroReport: For Rapid Communication of Neuroscience Research 12, 3019–22.
78. Riikonen, R., Salonen, I., Partanen, K. & Verho, S. (1999). Brain perfusion SPECT and MRI in foetal alcohol syndrome. Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology 41, 652–59.
79. Laakso, M. P., Vaurio, O., Koivisto, E., Savolainen, L., Eronen, M., et al. (2001). Psychopathy and the posterior hippocampus. Behavioural Brain Research 118, 187–93.
80. Boccardi, M., Ganzola, R., Rossi, R., Sabattoli, F., Laakso, M. P., et al. (2010). Abnormal hippocampal shape in offenders with psychopathy. Human Brain Mapping 31, 438–47.
81. Yang, Y. L., Raine, A., Han, C. B., Schug, R. A., Toga, A. W. & Narr, K. L. (2010). Reduced hippocampal and parahippocampal volumes in murderers with schizophrenia. Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging 182, 9–13. It should be noted that these volume reductions in Chinese murderers were specific to those who also presented with schizophrenia.
82. LeDoux, J. (1996). The Emotional Brain. New York: Simon and Schuster.
83. Swanson, L. W. (1999). Limbic system. In G. Adelman & B. H. Smith (eds.), Encyclopedia of Neuroscience, pp. 1053–55. Amsterdam: Elsevier.
84. Lukas, T. R. & Siegel, A. (2001). Brain structures and neurotransmitters regulating aggression in cats: Implications for human aggression. Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology & Biological Psychiatry 25, 91–140.
85. Becker, A., Grecksch, G., Bernstein, H. G., Hollt, V. & Bogerts, B. (1999). Social behaviour in rats lesioned with ibotenic acid in the hippocampus: Quantitative and qualitative analysis. Psychopharmacology 144, 333–38.
86. Gorenstein, E. E. & Newman, J. P. (1980). Disinhibitory psychopathy—A new perspective and a model for research. Psychological Review 87, 301–15.
87. The dichotic listening task is a neuropsychological measure that presents consonant-vowel stimuli (“da,” “ba”) simultaneously to both left and right ears. Subjects who are more left-hemisphere dominant for language report more words from the right ear. Those less lateralized for language, who have language more equally represented in both hemispheres, show a reduction in this right-ear advantage.
88. Hare, R. D. & McPherson, L. M. (1984). Psychopathy and perceptual asymmetry during verbal dichotic listening. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 93, 141–49.
89. Raine, A., O’Brien, M., Smiley, N., Scerbo, A. & Chen, C. J. (1990). Reduced lateralization in verbal dichotic listening in adolescent psychopaths. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 99, 272–77.
90. Scerbo, A., Raine, A., O’Brien, M., Chan, C. J., Rhee, C. & Smiley, N. (1990). Reward dominance and passive avoidance learning in adolescent psychopaths. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology 18, 451–63.
91. Quay, H. C. (1988). The behavioral reward and inhibition system in childhood behavior disorders. In L. M. Bloomingdale (ed.), Attention Deficit Disorder, vol. 3, pp. 176–86. Oxford: Pergamon Press.
92. Scerbo et al. Reward dominance and passive avoidance learning in adolescent psychopaths.
93. Glenn, A. L., Raine, A., Yaralian, P. S. & Yang, Y. (2010). Increased volume of the striatum in psychopathic individuals. Biological Psychiatry 67, 52–58.
94. Cohen, M. X., Schoene-Bake, J. C., Elger, C. E. & Weber, B. (2009). Connectivity-based segregation of the human striatum predicts personality characteristics. Nature Neuroscience 12, 32–34.
95. O’Doherty, J. (2004). Reward representations and reward-related learning in the human brain: Insights from neuroimaging. Current Opinions in Neurobiology 14, 769–76.
96. Barkataki, I., Kumari, V., Das, M., Taylor, P. & Sharma, T. (2006): Volumetric structural brain abnormalities in men with schizophrenia or antisocial personality disorder. Behavioral Brain Research 15, 239–47.
97. Tiihonen, J., Kuikka, J., Bergstrom, K., Hakola, P., Karhu, J., et al. (1995). Altered striatal dopamine re-uptake site densities in habitually violent and non-violent alcoholics. Nature Medicine 1, 654–57.
98. Amen, D. G., Stubblefield, M., Carmichael, B. & Thisted, R. (1996). Brain SPECT findings and aggressiveness. Annals of Clinical Psychiatry 8, 129–37.
99. Buckholtz, J. W., Treadway, M. T., Cowan, R. L., et al. (2010). Mesolimbic dopamine reward system hypersensitivity in individuals with psychopathic traits. Nature Neuroscience.
100. Williamson, S., Hare, R. D. & Wong, S. (1987). Violence: Criminal psychopaths and their victims. Canadian Journal of Behavioral Sciences 19, 454–62.
101. Glenn, A. L., Iyer, R., Graham, J., Koleva, S. & Haidt, J. (2010). Are all types of morality compromised in psychopathy? Journal of Personality Disorders 23, 384–98.
102. Decety, J., Michalska, K. J., Akitsuki, Y. & Lahey, B. B. (2009): Atypical empathic responses in adolescents with aggressive conduct disorder: A functional MRI investigation. Biological Psychology 80, 203–11.
103. Ekman, P. & O’Sullivan, M. (1991). Who can catch a liar? American Psychologist 46, 913–20.
104. Porter, S., Woodworth, M. & Birt, A. R. (2000). Truth, lies, and videotape: An investigation of the ability of federal parole officers to detect deception. Law and Human Behavior 24, 643–58.
105. DePaulo, B. M., Stone, J. L. & Lassiter, G. D. (1985). Deceiving and Detecting Deceit. In B. R. Schenkler (ed.), The Self and Social Life, pp. 323–70. New York: McGraw-Hill.
106. Leach, A. M., Talwar, V., Lee, K., Bala, N. & Lindsay, R.C.L. (2004). “Intuitive” lie detection of children’s deception by law enforcement officials and university students. Law and Human Behavior 28, 661–85.
107. Ibid.
108. Yang, Y. L ., Raine, A., Lencz, T., Bihrle, S., Lacasse, L., et al. (2005). Prefrontal structural abnormalities in liars. British Journal of Psychiatry 187, 320–25.
109. Yang, Y., Raine, A., Narr, K., Lencz, T., Lacasse, L., Colletti, P. & Toga, A. W. (2007). Localization of increased prefrontal white matter in pathological liars. British Journal of Psychiatry 190, 174–75.
110. Spence, S. A. (2005). Prefrontal white matter—the tissue of lies? Invited commentary on … Prefrontal white matter in pathological liars. British Journal of Psychiatry 187, 326–27.
111. Lee, T.M.C., Liu, H. L., Tan, L. H., Chan, C.C.H., Mahankali, S., Feng, C.-M., Hou, J., Fox, P. T. & Gao, J. H. (2002). Lie detection by functional magnetic resonance imaging. Human Brain Mapping 15, 157–64.
112. Paus, T., Collins, D. L., Evans, A. C., Leonard, G., Pike, B. & Zijdenbos, A. (2001). Maturation of white matter in the human brain: A review of magnetic resonance studies. Brain Research Bulletin 54, 255–66.
113. McCann, J. T. (1998). Malingering and Deception in Adolescents: Assessing Credibility in Clinical and Forensic Settings, 1st ed. Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Press.
114. Yang, Y., Raine, A., Narr, K., Lencz, T., Lacasse, L., et al. (2007). Localization of increased prefrontal white matter in pathological liars. British Journal of Psychiatry 190, 174–75.
115. Bengtsson, S. I., Nagy, Z., Skare, S., et al. (2005). Extensive piano practice has regionally-specific effects on white matter development. Nature Neuroscience 8, 1148–50.
116. Maguire, E. A., Gadian, D. G., Johnsrude, I. S., Good, C. D., Ashburner, J., et al. (2000). Navigation-related structural change in the hippocampi of taxi drivers. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences U.S.A. 97, 4398–4403.
117. Maguire, E. A., Woollett, K. & Spiers, H. J. (2006). London taxi drivers and bus drivers: A structural MRI and neuropsychological analysis. Hippocampus 16.
118. Lombroso, C. (1968). Crime: Its Causes and Remedies. Translated by H. Horton. Montclair, N.J.: Patterson Smith (originally published 1911).
119. Langton, L. & Leeper-Piquero, N. L. (2007). Can general strain theory explain white-collar crime? A preliminary investigation of the relationship between strain and select white-collar offenses. Journal of Criminal Justice 35, 1–15.
120. Paternoster, R. & Simpson, S. (1993). A rational choice theory of corporate crime. In R.V.G. Clarke and M. Felson (eds.), Routine Activities and Rational Choice Theory, pp. 37–51. New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction.
121. Sutherland, E. H. (1949). White Collar Crime. New York: Rinehart and Winston.
122. Wheeler, S., Weisburd, D. & Bode, N. (1982). Sentencing the white collar offender: Rhetoric and reality, American Sociological Review 47, 641–59.
123. Weisburd, D., Waring, E. & Chayet, E. J. (2001). White Collar Crime and Criminal Careers. New York: Cambridge University Press.
124. Raine, A., Laufer, W. S., Yang, Y., Narr, K. L. & Toga, A. W. (2012). Increased executive functioning, attention, and cortical thickness in white-collar criminals. Human Brain Mapping, 33, 2932–40.
125. Kongs, S. K., Thompson, L. L., Iverson, G. L., et al. (2000). Wisconsin Card Sorting Test: 64 Card Version; Professional Manual. Odessa, Fla.: Psychological Assessment Resources.
126. Williams, L. M., Brammer, M. J., Skerrett, D., Lagopolous, J., Rennie, C., et al. (2000). The neural correlates of orienting: An integration of fMRI and skin conductance orienting. NeuroReport 11, 3011–15.
127. Raine & Yang, Neural foundations to moral reasoning and antisocial behavior.
128. Tsujii, T., Okada, M. & Watanabe, S. (2010). Effects of aging on hemispheric asymmetry in inferior frontal cortex activity during belief-bias syllogistic reasoning: A near-infrared spectroscopy study. Behavioral Brain Research 210, 178–83; Hampshire, A., Chamberlain, S. R., Monti, M. M., Duncan, J. & Owen, A. M. (2010). The role of the right inferior frontal gyrus: Inhibition and attentional control. NeuroImage 50, 1313–19; Brass, M., Derrfuss, J., Forstmann, B. & von Cramon, D. Y. (2005). The role of the inferior frontal junction area in cognitive control. Trends in Cognitive Sciences 9, 314–16.
129. Shamay-Tsoory, S. G., Tomer, R., Berger, B. D., Goldsher, D. & Aharon-Peretz, J. (2005). Impaired “affective theory of mind” is associated with right ventromedial prefrontal damage. Cognitive and Behavioral Neurology 18, 55–67.; Goghari, V. M. & MacDonald, A. W. (2009). The neural basis of cognitive control: Response selection and inhibition. Brain and Cognition 71, 72–83.; Chikazoe, J. (2010). Localizing performance of go/no-go tasks to prefrontal cortical subregions. Current Opinion in Psychiatry 23, 267–72.
130. Bechara et al. Deciding advantageously; Bechara, A., Damasio, H. & Damasio, A. R. (2000). Emotion, decision making and the orbitofrontal cortex. Cerebral Cortex 10, 295–307.
131. Kringelbach, M. L. & Rolls, E. T. (2004). The functional neuroanatomy of the human orbitofrontal cortex: Evidence from neuroimaging and neuropsychology. Progress in Neurobiology 72, 341–72.
132. Ibid.
133. Kringelbach, M. L. (2005). The human orbitofrontal cortex: Linking reward to hedonic experience. Nature Reviews Neuroscience 6, 691–702.
134. Buch, E. R., Mars, R. B., Boorman, E. D. & Rushworth, M.F.S. (2010). A network centered on ventral premotor cortex exerts both facilitatory and inhibitory control over primary motor cortex during action reprogramming. Journal of Neuroscience 30, 1395–1401; Pardo-Vazquez, J. L., Leboran, V. & Acuna, C. (2009). A role for the ventral premotor cortex beyond performance monitoring. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, U.S.A. 106, 18,815–19.
135. Iacoboni, M., Molnar-Szakacs, I., Gallese, V., Buccino, G., Mazziotta, J. C. & Rizzolatti, G. (2005). Grasping the intentions of others with one’s own mirror neuron system. PLOS Biology 3, 529–35.
136. Lawrence, E. J., Shaw, P., Giampietro, V., Surguladze, S., Brammer, M. J., et al. (2006). The role of “shared representations” in social perception and empathy: An fMRI study. NeuroImage 29, 1173–84.
137. Damasio, Descartes’ Error.
138. Bechara, A. & Damasio, A. R. (2005). The somatic marker hypothesis: A neural theory of economic decision. Games and Economic Behavior 52, 336–72.
139. Decety, J. & Lamm, C. (2007). The role of the right temporo-parietal junction in social interaction: How low-level computational processes contribute to meta-cognition. The Neuroscientist 13, 580–93.
140. Hedden, T. & Gabrieli, J.D.E. (2010). Shared and selective neural correlates of inhibition, facilitation, and shifting processes during executive control. NeuroImage 51, 421–31.
141. Decety & Lamm, The role of the right temporo-parietal junction in social interaction.
1. Jonnes, B. (1992). Voices from an Evil God, pp. 38–39. London: Blake.
2. It should be noted that while Sutcliffe believed his victims were prostitutes, not all of them were, including one of his first attacks.
3. This is not to say that we don’t sorely need more good studies on the basic scientific question of what the genetic and biological correlates of violence are. There are many more questions to be answered on the neurobiology of violence. Nevertheless, we need to move away from the unproductive debates over whether there is a biological basis to violence. We need to take what knowledge we have and begin to understand the early factors in infancy, childhood, and adolescence that give rise to these biological risk factors.
4. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in the United States is a government agency that focuses on health promotion and disease prevention. It is one of the main components of the Department of Health and Human Services in the United States: http://www.cdc.gov/ViolencePrevention/index.html.
5. Dahlberg, L. L. & Krug, E. G. (2002). Violence, a global public health problem. In E. G. Krug, L. L. Dahlberg, J. A. Mercy, A. B. Zwi & R. Lozano (eds.), World Report on Violence and Health, pp. 3–21. Geneva: World Health Organization.
6. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. The cost of violence in the United States. http://www.cdc.gov/ncipc/factsheets/CostOfViolence.htm. See also Corso, P. S., Mercy, J. A., Simon, T. R., Finkelstein, E. A. & Miller, T. R. (2007). Medical costs and productivity losses due to interpersonal and self-directed violence in the United States. American Journal of Preventive Medicine 32, 474–82.
7. Corso et al., Medical costs and productivity losses.
8. Miller, T. R. & Cohen, M. A. (1997). Costs of gunshot and cut/stab wounds in the United States, with some Canadian comparisons. Accident Analysis and Prevention 29, 329–41.
9. World Health Organization (2004). Seventh World Conference on Injury Prevention and Safety Promotion, June 6–9, Vienna, Austria. See http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/9312.php.
10. John Shepherd’s achievements are truly significant in the field of crime prevention—they earned him the Stockholm Prize for Criminology in 2008.
11. Raine, A., Brennan, P. & Mednick, S. A. (1994). Birth complications combined with early maternal rejection at age 1 year predispose to violent crime at age 18 years. Archives of General Psychiatry 51, 984–88. Sarnoff Mednick, at the University of Southern California, should be credited with originally setting up this innovative study in 1969—it became one of many collaborative research works we had together.
12. Preeclampsia is hypertension that leads to hypoxia—a relative lack of oxygen, which damages the brain, especially the hippocampus, a control area for aggression.
13. While it may seem surprising, arrests are actually better assessments of who is a violent offender than convictions. About 90 percent of arrests never end up with a criminal conviction. Plea-bargaining results in many offenders’ never coming to court. If we relied on conviction data, many truly violent offenders would be misclassified as “nonviolent” and placed in the control group. Even with arrests, we are really getting at the tip of the iceberg, as many violent offenders are never detected. Yet at least with the “softer” criterion of arrest, we can capture in our analyses more of the truly violent offenders than conviction data yields.
14. The fact that the group with both birth complications and maternal rejection accounts for 18 percent of all crimes committed by the entire population highlights the influence of these risk factors in predisposing individuals to crime, but also cautions that we cannot attribute all violence to these processes. Clearly, many other factors are responsible for the remaining 82 percent of the variance in violence.
15. Raine, A., Brennan, P. & Mednick, S. A. (1997). Interaction between birth complications and early maternal rejection in predisposing individuals to adult violence: Specificity to serious, early-onset violence. American Journal of Psychiatry 154, 1265–71.
16. The reason not wanting the pregnancy did not interact with birth complications in predisposing individuals to adult violence may be that some mothers who initially do not want the pregnancy end up changing their minds, and go on to become affectionate, caring mothers.
17. Piquero, A. & Tibbetts, S. G. (1999). The impact of pre/perinatal disturbances and disadvantaged familial environment in predicting criminal offending. Studies on Crime & Crime Prevention 8, 52–70.
18. Technically speaking, regression analyses are used to uncover the interaction effects found in studies of birth complications and negative home environments. Breaking down the sample into four groups is used to help illustrate the nature and direction of the interaction effects.
19. Hodgins, S., Kratzer, L. & McNeil, T. F. (2001). Obstetric complications, parenting, and risk of criminal behavior. Archives of General Psychiatry 58, 746–52.
20. Arsenault, L., Tremblay, R. E., Boulerice, B. & Saucier, J. F. (2002). Obstetrical complications and violent delinquency: Testing two developmental pathways. Child Development 73, 496–508.
21. Unlike the other studies, in which more direct measures of family adversity were employed, being an only child is not obviously an indicator of psychosocial adversity, and the meaning of this interaction requires further elucidation.
22. Kemppainen, L., Jokelainen, J., Jaervelin, M. R., Isohanni, M. & Raesaenen, P. (2001). The one-child family and violent criminality: A 31-year follow-up study of the Northern Finland 1966 birth cohort. American Journal of Psychiatry 158, 960–62.
23. Werner, E. E., Bierman, J. M. & French, F. E. (1971). The Children of Kauai: A Longitudinal Study from the Prenatal Period to Age Ten. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.
24. Beck, J. E. & Shaw, D. S. (2005). The influence of perinatal complications and environmental adversity on boys’ antisocial behavior. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 46, 35–46.
25. Although the birth complication–adverse home environment interaction effects have been replicated in several countries, a study from Germany found that perinatal insult did not interact with family adversity. This may be because the sample size was small (N=322), limiting the power to detect the interaction. Alternatively, whereas in other studies the outcome was adult offending, in this study the outcome was restricted to antisocial behavior at age eight. Neurological deficits stemming from birth complications may particularly influence the more severe outcome of life-course-persistent antisocial behavior rather than the more common outcome of child antisocial behavior.
26. Raine, A., Moffitt, T. E., Caspi, A., Loeber, R., Stouthamer-Loeber, M., et al. (2005). Neurocognitive impairments in boys on the life-course persistent antisocial path. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 114, 38–49.
27. Beaver, K. M. & Wright, J. P. (2005). Evaluating the effects of birth complications on low self-control in a sample of twins. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology 49, 450–71.
28. Raine, A., Buchsbaum, M. & LaCasse, L. (1997). Brain abnormalities in murderers indicated by positron emission tomography. Biological Psychiatry 42, 495–508; Laakso, M. P., Vaurio, O., Koivisto, E., Savolainen, L., Eronen, M., et al. (2001). Psychopathy and the posterior hippocampus. Behavioural Brain Research 118, 187–93.
29. Liu, J. H., Raine, A., Venables, P. H., Dalais, C. & Mednick, S. A. (2004). Malnutrition at age 3 years and externalizing behavior problems at ages 8, 11 and 17 years. American Journal of Psychiatry 161, 2005–13.
30. Liu, J. H., Raine, A., Venables, P. H., Dalais, C. & Mednick, S. A. (2003). Malnutrition at age 3 years and lower cognitive ability at age 11 years—Independence from psychosocial adversity. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine 157, 593–600.
31. For reviews see Raine, A. (1993). The Psychopathology of Crime: Criminal Behavior as a Clinical Disorder. San Diego: Academic Press. And also Marsman, R., Rosmalen, J.G.M., Oldehinkel, A. J., Ormel, J. & Buitelaar, J. K. (2009). Does HPA-axis activity mediate the relationship between obstetric complications and externalizing behavior problems? The TRAILS study. European Child Adolescent Psychiatry 18, 565–73.
32. Batstra, L., Hadders-Algra, M., Ormel, J. & Neeleman, J. (2004). Obstetric optimality and emotional problems and substance use in young adulthood. Early Human Development 80, 91–101; Marsman et al., Does HPA-axis activity mediate the relationship between obstetric complications and externalizing behavior problems?
33. Wagner, A. I., Schmidt, N. L., Lemery-Chalfant, K., Leavitt, L. A. & Goldsmith, H. H. (2009). The limited effects of obstetrical and neonatal complications on conduct and attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder symptoms in Middle Childhood. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics 30, 217–25.
34. Schwartz, J. (1999). Cassandra’s Daughter: A History of Psychoanalysis, p. 225. New York: Viking/Allen Lane.
35. Bowlby, J. (1946). Forty-four Juvenile Thieves: Their Characters and Home-life. London: Tindall and Cox.
36. Rutter, M. (1982). Maternal Deprivation Reassessed, 2nd ed. Harmondsworth: Penguin.
37. Stanford, M. S., Houston, R. J. & Baldridge, R. M. (2008). Comparison of impulsive and premeditated perpetrators of intimate partner violence. Behavioral Sciences and the Law 26, 709–22.
38. Genesis 4:10–12.
39. Abel, E. L. (1983). Fetal Alcohol Syndrome. New York: Plenum.
40. Ibid.
41. Waldrop, M. F., Bell, R. Q., McLaughlin, B. & Halverson, C. F. (1978). Newborn minor physical anomalies predict attention span, peer aggression, and impulsivity at age 3. Science 199, 563–65.
42. Paulus, D. L. & Martin, C. L. (1986). Predicting adult temperament from minor physical anomalies. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 50, 1235–39.
43. Halverson, C. F. & Victor, J. B. (1976). Minor physical anomalies and problem behavior in elementary schoolchildren. Child Development 47, 281–85.
44. Arseneault, L., Tremblay, R. E., Boulerice, B., Seguin, J. R. & Saucier, J. F. (2000). Minor physical anomalies and family adversity as risk factors for violent delinquency in adolescence. American Journal of Psychiatry 157, 917–23.
45. Pine, D. S., Shaffer, D., Schonfeld, I. S. & Davies, M. (1997). Minor physical anomalies: Modifiers of environmental risks for psychiatric impairment? Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry 36, 395–403.
46. Mednick, S. A. & Kandel, E. S. (1988). Congenital determinants of violence. Bulletin of the American Academy of Psychiatry & the Law 16, 101–9.
47. Although both hands show the dimorphism, it is stronger on the right hand than the left hand, and in general the correlation between psychological traits and finger-digit ratios are stronger for the right hand than the left hand.
48. The specific genes in question are HoxA and HoxD.
49. Kondo, T., Zakany, J., Innis, J. W. & Duboule, D. (1997). Of fingers, toes, and penises. Nature 390, 29.
50. Low estrogen exposure due to diminished placental production could also be a factor in the development of shorter finger-length ratios.
51. For ease of understanding, I will use the term “longer ring finger” to describe findings that go in the male direction. Bear in mind, however, that we are talking about the ring finger relative to the index finger, not the absolute length of the ring finger. In the research literature, scientists discuss ratios: they divide the length of the index finger by the length of the ring finger. Because men have a bigger denominator (ring finger) in this calculation, men are reported as having “smaller second-to-fourth digit ratios” compared with women—meaning a bigger ring-finger length compared with the index finger.
52. Congenital adrenal hyperplasia is caused by a deficiency in 21-hydroxylase, which converts progesterone into corticoids; the excess of progesterone results in high concentrations of adrenal androgens.
53. Brown, W. M., Hines, M., Fane, B. A. & Breedlove, S. M. (2002). Masculinized finger length patterns in human males and females with congenital adrenal hyperplasia. Hormones and Behavior 42, 380–86.
54. Manning, J. T., Trivers, R. L., Singh, D. & Thornhill, R. (1999). The mystery of female beauty. Nature 399, 214–15.
55. It is known that prenatal androgens in particular influence digit ratios because this digit ratio is relatively stable after birth, and is not influenced by pubertal testosterone exposure.
56. Pokrywka, L., Rachon, D., Suchecka-Rachon, K. & Bitel, L. (2005). The second to fourth digit ratio in elite and non-elite female athletes. American Journal of Human Biology 17, 796–800.
57. The musicians who were high ranking also had lower digit ratios than low-ranking musicians—see Sluming, V. A. & Manning, J. T. (2000). Second to fourth digit ratio in elite musicians: Evidence for musical ability as an honest signal of male fitness. Evolution and Human Behavior 21, 1–9.
58. Manning, J. T., Taylor, R. P. (2001). Second to fourth digit ratio and male ability in sport: Implications for sexual selection in humans. Evolution and Human Behavior 22, 61–69.
59. Fink, B., Manning, J. T., Williams, J.H.G. & Podmore-Nappin, C. (2007). The 2nd to 4th digit ratio and developmental psychopathology in school-aged children. Personality and Individual Differences 42, 369–79; Austin, E. J., Manning, J. T., McInroy, K. & Mathews, E. (2002). A preliminary investigation of the associations between personality, cognitive ability and digit ratio. Personality and Individual Differences 33, 1115–24.
60. Hampson, E., Ellis, C. L. & Tenk, C. M. (2008). On the relation between 2D:4D and sex-dimorphic personality traits. Archives of Sexual Behavior 37, 133–44.
61. Bogaert, A. F., Fawcett, C. C. & Jamieson, L. K. (2009). Attractiveness, body size, masculine sex roles and 2D:4D ratios in men. Personality and Individual Differences 47, 273–78.
62. Martel, M. M., Klump, K., Nigg, J. T., Breedlove, S. M. & Sisk, C. L. (2009). Potential hormonal mechanisms of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and major depressive disorder: A new perspective. Hormones and Behavior 55, 465–79.
63. McFadden, D. & Schubel, E. (2002). Relative length of fingers and toes in human males and females. Hormones and Behavior 42, 492–500.
64. Bailey, A. A. & Hurd, P. L. (2005). Finger length ratio (2D:4D) correlates with physical aggression in men but not in women. Biological Psychology 68, 215–22. It should be noted that while effects were found in males, females showed a nonsignificant trend in the predicted direction. Furthermore, effects in males were specific to physical aggression, with no effects found for verbal aggression.
65. Burton, L. A. (2009). Aggression, gender-typical childhood play, and a prenatal hormone index. Social Behavior and Personality 37, 105–16. Again, males show significant effects, with females showing trends in the predicted direction.
66. Liu, J., Portnoy, J. & Raine, A. (2010). Association between a marker for prenatal testosterone exposure and externalizing behavior problems in children. Development and Psychopathology 24, 771–82.
67. Cousins, A. J., Fugère, M. A. & Franklin, M. (2009). Digit ratio (2D:4D), mate guarding, and physical aggression in dating couples. Personality and Individual Differences 46, 709–13.
68. Ibid.
69. Coyne, S. M., Manning, J. T., Ringer, L. & Bailey, L. (2007). Directional asymmetry (right–left differences) in digit ratio (2D:4D) predict indirect aggression in women. Personality and Individual Differences 43, 865–72.
70. Benderlioglu, Z. & Nelson, R. J. (2004). Digit length ratios predict reactive aggression in women, but not in men. Hormones and Behavior 46, 558–64.
71. McIntyre, M. H., Barrett, E. A., McDermott, R., Johnson, D.D.P., Cowden, J., et al. (2007). Finger length ratio (2D:4D) and sex differences in aggression during a simulated war game. Personality and Individual Differences 42, 755–64.
72. Potegal, M. & Archer, J. (2004). Sex differences in childhood anger and aggression. Psychiatric Clinics of North America 13, 513.
73. McIntyre et al., Finger length ratio (2D:4D) and sex differences in aggression during a simulated war game.
74. Smith, L. M., Cloak, C. C., Poland, R. E., Torday, J., Ross, M. G. (2003). Prenatal nicotine increases testosterone levels in the fetus and female offspring. Nicotine & Tobacco Research 5, 369–74.
75. Rizwan, S., Manning, J. T., Brabin, B. J. (2007). Maternal smoking during pregnancy and possible effects of in utero testosterone: Evidence from the 2D:4D finger length ratio. Early Human Development 83, 87–90.
76. Malas, M. A., Dogan, S., Evcil, E. H., Desdicioglu, K. (2006). Fetal development of the hand, digits and digit ratio (2D:4D). Early Human Development 82, 469–75.
77. Brennan, P., Grekin, E. & Mednick, S. (1999). Maternal smoking during pregnancy and adult male criminal outcomes. Archives of General Psychiatry 56, 215–19.
78. Rantakallio, P., Laara, E., Isohanni, M. & Moilanen, I. (1992). Maternal smoking during pregnancy and delinquency of the offspring: An association without causation? International Journal of Epidemiology 21, 1106–13.
79. Räsänen, P., Hakko, H., Isohanni, M., Hodgins, S., Järvelin, M. R. & Tiihonen, J. (1999). Maternal smoking during pregnancy and risk of criminal behavior among adult male offspring in the Northern Finland 1966 Birth Cohort. American Journal of Psychiatry 156, 857–62.
80. Weissman, M., Warner, V., Wickramaratne, P. & Kandel, D. (1999). Maternal smoking during pregnancy and psychopathology in offspring followed to adulthood. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 38, 892–99.
81. Wakschlag, L. & Hans, S. (2002). Maternal smoking during pregnancy and conduct problems in high-risk youth: A developmental framework. Development and Psychopathology 14, 351–69.
82. Wakschlag, L. S. & Keenan, K. (2001). Clinical Significance and Correlates of Disruptive Behavior in Environmentally At-Risk Preschoolers. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology 30, 262–75.
83. Wakschlag, L., Lahey, B., Loeber, R., Green, S., Gordon, R., et al. (1997). Maternal smoking during pregnancy and the risk of conduct disorder in boys. Archives of General Psychiatry 54, 670–76.
84. Day, N. L., Richardson, G. A., Goldschmidt, L. & Cornelius, M. D. (2000). Effects of prenatal tobacco exposure on preschoolers’ behavior. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics 21, 180–88.
85. Fergusson, D., Woodward, L. & Horwood, L. (1998). Maternal smoking during pregnancy and psychiatric adjustment in late adolescence. Archives of General Psychiatry 55, 721–27.
86. Button, T.M.M., Tharpar, A. & McGuffin, P. (2005). Relationship between antisocial behaviour, attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder and maternal prenatal smoking. British Journal of Psychiatry 187, 155–60.
87. Although many studies have controlled for multiple confounds, including maternal and paternal antisocial behavior, it is still possible that genes could play a role. Antisocial mothers who smoke could pass their antisocial genes on to their children. One study using a twin design concluded that while there is certainly a smoking-antisocial relationship in children, it is almost entirely genetically mediated. Even in this study, authors caution that findings do not preclude an independent causal role of cigarette smoking in the genesis of child antisocial behavior; also, that findings are limited to young children, aged five to seven. They may not apply to adult offending and violence. See Maughan, B., Taylor, A., Caspi, A. & Moffitt, T. E. (2004). Prenatal smoking and early childhood conduct problems. Archives of General Psychiatry 6, 836–84.
88. Gatzke-Kopp, L. M. & Beauchaine, T. P. (2007). Direct and Passive Prenatal Nicotine Exposure and the Development of Externalizing Psychopathology. Child Psychiatry and Human Development 38, 255–69.
89. Olds, D. (1997). Tobacco exposure and impaired development: A review of the evidence. Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities Research Reviews 3, 257–69.
90. Jaddoe, V.W.V., Verburg, B. O., de Ridder, M.A.J., et al. (2007). Maternal smoking and fetal growth characteristics in different periods of pregnancy: The Generation R Study. American Journal of Epidemiology 165, 1207–15.
91. Toro, R., Leonard, G., Lerner, J., et al. (2008). Prenatal exposure to maternal cigarette smoking and the adolescent cerebral cortex. Neuropsychopharmacology 33, 1019–27.
92. Cornelius, M. D. & Day, N. L. (2009). Developmental consequences of prenatal tobacco exposure. Current Opinion in Neurology 22, 121–25.
93. Batstra, L., Hadders-Algra, M. & Neeleman, J. (2003). Effect of antenatal exposure to maternal smoking on behavioural problems and academic achievement in childhood; prospective evidence from a Dutch birth cohort. Early Human Development 75, 21–33.
94. Levin, E. D., Wilkerson, A., Jones, J. P., Christopher, N. C. & Briggs, S. J. (1996). Prenatal nicotine effects on memory in rats: Pharmacological and behavioral challenges. Developmental Brain Research 97, 207–15.
95. Slotkin, T. A., Epps, T. A., Stenger, M. L., Sawyer, K. J. & Seidler, F. J. (1999). Cholinergic receptors in heart and brainstem of rats exposed to nicotine during development: Implications for hypoxia tolerance and perinatal mortality. Brain Research 113, 1–12.
96. Huizink, A. C. & Mulder, E.J.H. (2006). Maternal smoking, drinking or cannabis use during pregnancy and neurobehavioral and cognitive functioning in human offspring. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 30, 24–41.
97. Wikipedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Alton_Harris.
98. California Department of Corrections and Rehabilitation, http://www.cdcr.ca.gov/Reports_Research/robertHarris.html.
99. Jones, K. L. & Smith, D. W. (1973). Recognition of the fetal alcohol syndrome in early infancy. Lancet 2, 999–1012.
100. Sampson, P. D., Streissguth, A. P., Bookstein, F. L., Little, R. E., Clarren, S. K., et al. (1997). Incidence of fetal alcohol syndrome and prevalence of alcohol-related neurodevelopmental disorder. Teratology 56, 317–26.
101. Streissguth, A. P., Bookstein, F. L., Barr, H. M., Sampson, P. D., O’Malley, K. & Young, J. K. (2004). Risk factors for adverse life outcomes in fetal alcohol syndrome and fetal alcohol effects. Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics 25, 228–38.
102. Fast, D. K., Conry, J. & Loock, C. A. (1999). Identifying fetal alcohol syndrome among youth in the criminal justice system. Journal of Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrics 20, 370–72.
103. Sowell, E. R., Johnson, A., Kan, E., Lu, L. H., Van Horn, J. D., et al. (2008). Mapping white matter integrity and neurobehavioral correlates in children with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders. Journal of Neuroscience 28, 1313–19.
104. Connor, P. D., Sampson, P. D., Bookstein, F. L., Barr, H. M. & Streissguth, A. P. (2000). Direct and indirect effects of prenatal alcohol damage on executive function. Developmental Neuropsychology 18, 331–54.
105. Batstra, L., et al., Effect of antenatal exposure to maternal smoking on behavioural problems and academic achievement in childhood.
106. Riikonen, R., Salonen, I., Partanen, K. & Verho, S. (1999). Brain perfusion SPECT and MRI in foetal alcohol syndrome. Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology 41, 652–59.
107. Sood, B., Delaney-Black, V., Covington, C., Nordstrom-Klee, B., Ager, J., et al. (2001). Prenatal alcohol exposure and childhood behavior at age 6 to 7 years, vol. I, Dose–response effect. Pediatrics 108. doi:10.1542/ peds.108.
108. Qiang, M., Wang, M. W. & Elberger, A. J. (2002). Second trimester prenatal alcohol exposure alters development of rat corpus callosum. Neurotoxicology and Teratology 6, 719–32.