Rabbits: in Arab cooking, 214; in Carthage, 61; in late Middle Ages, 265; sauces for, 323
Radishes: in Arab diet, 217; in early Middle Ages, 173; in Jewish cooking, 227; in Rome, 135
Raisins: in Arab cooking, 212, 215, 219; in Carthage, 60; medicinal uses of, 315–16; in Phoenicia, 57
Rape: in Greco-Roman period, 72; in Rome, 134
Raw versus cooked foods, 119
Reagan administration, 527
Recipes: beef, 422–23; boar sauce, 134; broad beans, 134; first written, 16–17; how to read medieval, 297–98; in Jewish cooking, 237–39; in late Middle Ages, 297–98; meat sauces, 323; oysters, 319; pears in red wine, 322; in Persian cooking, 209; piquant sauce, 408–9; puls, 58, 134–35; sauce for fish, 239, 323; spices for sick persons and, 323–24, 424; tharid, 209; for Yom Kippur, 231
Refrigeration systems: effect on food habits, 497–98; food preservation industry changes and, 483, 490–91; trade expansion due to, 464
Regimen conditum (Fagarola), 322–23
Regimen corpus (Aldobrandino of Siena), 316
Regimen sanitatis (Magninus of Milan), 318
Relatio de Legatione Constantinoplitana (Liutprand of Cremona), 203
Religious orders: chocolate and Mexican, 385; dietary restrictions on, 263; diets in Byzantine Empire, 200; diets in early Middle Ages, 174; diets in late Middle Ages, 260–63; fasting among, 183, 261; fish consumption by, 405; function in Middle Ages, 181; hunger and, 183; kitchens of, 262, 263; privacy concept and, 333; public hospitality and, 289, 290; renunciation of meat by, 183–84, 190; self-sufficiency of, 262; vegetables, 183, 184. See also Catholic Church; Christianity; names of specific orders
Renaissance period: courtly entertainment during, 329; printed texts of, 394–96
Restaurants: Boulanger affair, 474–76; chain, 537, 539–40; definition of, 475; French Revolution impact on, 475–76; versus guilds, 474; Industrial Revolution effect on, 436–37; in nineteenth century, 476–77; origins of, 472–74; street kitchens, 471–72; tourism and, 477–78; in twentieth century, 478–80. See also McDonald’s; Taverns
Roasting, 179; in Arab cooking, 215; larding prior to, 415
Rome: agriculture in, 72, 115, 117–18, 121, 129; bread in, 75, 125, 126, 131, 132, 303; cena in, 107, 114, 123–24; Christian impact on food culture of, 117, 166; classification of foods in, 121–23, 133; condiments in, 131, 134; conquest effects on food in, 129; cooked versus rotten food concept in, 121–23; cooking equipment in, 135–36; dairy products in, 133, 135; diet and conquest and, 161; dietetics in, 75–76; domestic versus wild meat, 119–20; fish in, 74, 120, 121, 122, 130, 133; food model of, 73, 77, 78, 129, 165–66; food symbolism of, 114–15, 116, 117, 125; food taboos in, 136–37; fruit in, 123, 125, 129, 131, 135; funeral meals in, 135; gardens in, 118–19; government regulation of food in, 129, 131, 132, 137; grains in, 72, 82, 85, 115, 119, 132; honor concept in, 114–15; hot versus cold meals in, 134–35; kitchens of, 135–36; legumes in, 72, 80, 82, 119, 133, 134, 135, 136; markets in, 115, 120, 121, 130; meal patterns of, 107, 124–25; mealtimes in, 124; meat in, 74, 77–78, 119, 120, 122, 133, 134 (see also Meat); “Other” concept in, 114; public hospitality in, 288–89; sacrificial animals in (see Sacrifices: of meat in Greco-Roman period); social status and food in, 128, 130, 134; sociology and study of food in, 137–38; spices and herbs in, 72, 118, 134, 135, 315; tableware in, 136; taxation in, 129, 130; vegetables in, 72, 118, 121, 125, 126, 127, 128, 133, 166; wine and, 71, 114, 125, 131, 134. See also Banquets
Roquette, medicinal uses of, 316
Rousseau, Jean-Jacques, 371
Royalty, banquets of, 33–36
Russia: importation of linseed oil from, 457; sugar consumption in, 392; tea introduction into, 391
Sacrifices: in ancient Egypt, 41; of ancient Hebrews, 47, 51, 54, 230; blood, 90, 92, 113; Christian impact on, 77; game and, 74; Greek concept of, 153–54; human, 158; Jewish meat, 240; of meat in Greco-Roman period, 74, 82, 91, 113–14, 119, 121, 122, 123, 124–25; processed foods in, 51; study of Mediterranean society and, 137; in symposia, 101
Saffron: in Arab cooking, 212, 213, 221; Fr. Labat on, 423; in Jewish cooking, 239; in Polish cooking, 413
Sage, 202; in late Middle Ages, 265; medicinal uses of, 316
Saint-Sauveur, J.-S., 502
Salads: in Ireland, 411; in Jewish cooking, 238; proverbs against eating, 324–25; in Rome, 118, 133
Salt: in ancient Egypt, 42; in Arab cooking, 213; in Byzantine Empire, 195; in Carthage, 61; European consumption of, 411–12; in fruit hors d’oeuvres, 363, 364; in Jewish cooking, 239; medicinal uses of, 318; in Phoenicia, 57–58; salads and, 325; symbolism of, 19, 33; taxation of, 411; Le Viandier de Taillevent on, 323
Salted foods: alcoholic beverage consumption and, 413; in Arab world, 220; in early Middle Ages, 174; in early modern period, 364; fish, 42, 314; in Great Chain of Being, 311; illness attributed to, 325; in late Middle Ages, 249, 273, 285; meat, 122, 314, 325, 364; rarity of, 314; in Rome, 136; taste for, 413; vegetables, 412
Sardines: in Arab cooking, 216; in Byzantine Empire, 202
Sauces, 323; black pepper, 323; boar, 134; butter in, 407, 409; camel, 222; changes in making of, 407–8; dietetics and, 323; elites and, 408; fat- and sugar-based, 362, 407, 408; fish, 239, 323; green, 408; jance, 323; in Jewish cooking, 239; lamprey, 323, 422; meat, 323, 422; medicinal aspects of, 316; modern, 551; piquant, 408–9; in Poland, 411; spices in, 323; vinegar in, 323, 408
Lo Scalco prattico (Lancellotti), 365
Seasonality: dietetics and, 147–48; in Mesolithic period, 22; in prehistoric diet, 22, 27
Seating arrangements: in late Middle Ages, 344; posture in, 3, 43, 124; at Roman banquets and social status, 130, 329–30
Sesame: bread, 228; in classical Greece, 82
Sesame oil: in ancient Egypt, 43; in Arab cooking, 213
Seventh-Day Adventists, 520
Sextus Pompeius Festus, 59
Shad: in Arab cooking, 216; salted, 314
Sheep: in Arab cooking, 213, 214; in Byzantine Empire, 197; in Carthage, 61; consumption decline of, 405; in early Middle Ages, 169, 170; in Etruria, 109; in France, 448; in Great Chain of Being, 311; in Greco-Roman period, 74; in late Middle Ages, 264; in Muslim diet, 209; in Neolithic period, 14, 28; in Phoenicia, 57; in Rome, 133; as sacrificial animals in Rome, 119. See also Lamb; Mutton
Sicily, 283; Arab influence on cooking of, 221; sugar production and, 384
Silvipastoral system, 247, 248
Slaves: at banquets, 94, 96; in Byzantine Empire, 195; height of American black, 517; rations in Greco-Roman period, 78, 85, 108, 131; as shepherds and hunters in Roman culture, 118; sugar production and African, 392
“Slow Food” movement, 541
Social organization: agriculture impact on, 108; cooking impact on, 25–26; eating as identity in, 29, 69–71, 190, 413–14, 532; hunting and, 23, 26–27, 109; social segregation in, 370. See also Banquets: social organization and
Società Anonima di Esportazione Agricola Cirio, 487–88
Società delle Ferrovie dell’alta Italia, 488
Société Dauphinoise d’Ethnologie et d’Anthropologie, 513 n.3
Société de la Méduse, 368
Société des Traditions Populaires, 513 n.3
Société d’Ethnologie Nationale et d’Art Populaire, 513 n.3
Soldiers’ rations: in ancient Egypt, 42; in Byzantine Empire, 198; food preservation for, 486, 497; in Greco-Roman period, 75, 107, 126–27, 131, 132, 133, 137; as source material for study of cuisine, 381; in United States Civil War, 489
Sole: in Byzantine Empire, 202; in Carthage, 61
Sorghum: in early Middle Ages, 173; introduction into Europe, 221; in late Middle Ages, 269; in Muslim diet, 210
Soupers de la Cour (Menon), 398
Soups, 180; in Arab cooking, 218; in classical Greece, 83; in early Middle Ages, 174; in Etruria, 108; in late Middle Ages, 265; recipe for, 422
Sourdough, as leavening in ancient Egypt, 39–40
Spain: Arab influence on cooking of, 221, 222; chocolate introduction into, 385; egg consumption in modern, 451; Jewish cooking in, 227, 231; mealtimes in, 370; meat consumption in, 448; milk consumption in modern, 450; population growth in, 376, 377; public inns in, 293; red pepper in, 358; spices in, 410–11; sugar consumption in, 392; sugar production and, 384
Specialty food shops, 531
Spelt: bread in ancient Egypt, 39; in early Middle Ages, 173; in early modern period, 380; in Greek concept of otherness, 155; in late Middle Ages, 269; porridge, 72
Spices: in ancient Egypt, 42; Arab influence on use of, 192, 212–14, 215, 315; changes in use of, 423; “cold” meat and, 422; definition of, 423; in French cooking, 373, 408–9, 423; in German cooking, 411; as “hot,” 422; in Italian baroque cooking, 410; in Jewish cooking, 239; in late Middle Ages, 298; medicinal value of, 42, 213, 315–17, 423; in Polish baroque cooking, 411; preservative myths about, 313–15; in Rome, 72, 118, 134, 135, 315; in sauces, 323; for sick persons, 323–24, 424; social status and, 314; in Spanish baroque cooking, 410–11; Le Thresor de santé on, 315–16; trade in, 359; wine and, 261, 322. See also Herbs; names of specific spices
Spinach: in Arab cooking, 210, 213, 217; fresh versus frozen, 547 n.11; in Great Chain of Being, 309; introduction into Europe, 191, 221; in Jewish cooking, 231, 238; in Jewish cooking, 231; in late Middle Ages, 265
Spit cooking: in Arab world, 215; in France, 407, 414; prehistoric, 27
Squashes: in Arab diet, 217; in Jewish cooking, 238; in late Middle Ages, 265
Standards of Living in the Later Middle Ages (Dyer), 303
Status, social, 5; alcoholic beverage consumption and, 272, 314; banquets and, 70, 130–31, 307, 329–30; bread and, 263, 281, 303; city versus countryside, 249; cooking techniques and, 179; dietetics and, 142, 182, 363; food and, in Rome, 128, 130, 134; food in late Middle Ages and, 260, 304, 305–6; meat and, 305, 306, 311; quality of person and, 182; of servants, 37 n.9, 307; source material on food and, 304–5; spices and, 314; vegetables and, 312
Stews: in France, 406; in Jewish cooking, 225, 238; in late Middle Ages, 265; pulmentarium as, 132–33
Storage of food: in ancient Egypt, 43; of grains, 211; in late Middle Ages, 343; in modern period, 443; wine, 343, 485
Strawberries: in Great Chain of Being, 309; when to eat, 420
Sturgeon: in Byzantine Empire, 202; in Carthage, 61; salted, 314
Suchard chocolate factory, 386
Sugar: in Arab cooking, 210, 212, 219; beet, 392, 437, 459; changes in use of, 424, 427; in colonial beverages, 360; consumption of, 299, 373, 384, 391–92, 409, 411, 446–47; in food preservation, 486; food reform movement on, 526; for ill people, 299, 324, 384, 423–24; introduction of cane, 191; in late Middle Ages, 282, 299; production of, 211, 360, 383–84, 392, 393, 437; sauces based on fats and, 362, 407, 408; in Spanish baroque cooking, 410–11; tastes of, 320. See also Desserts
Suite des Dons de Comus (Marin), 398
Sweden: fish consumption in modern, 449; milk consumption in modern, 450
Sweet and sour tastes: in Arab cooking, 222, 223; in late Middle Ages, 299; in Rome, 135
Sweetness and Power: The Place of Sugar in Modern History (Mintz), 391–92
Switzerland: chocolate introduction into, 386; fish consumption in modern, 449; milk consumption in modern, 450; potato consumption in, 445
Symposia, 71, 92; ceremony in, 100–102; definition of, 97; elegiac versus iambic, 103; elites and, 97–98; as ethical experience, 98; food served at, 101; locations of, 100, 101; poetry associated with, 99, 102–4; purpose of, 99–100; religious symbolism of, 97–98, 101; sacrifices in, 101; symposiarch of, 101
Symposiarchs, of symposium, 101
Syria: banquets in, 19; olive oil production in, 56; wine trade in, 57
Syrups: in Arab cooking, 219; in late Middle Ages, 282
La Table au pays de Brillat-Savarin (Tendret), 505
Table manners: in ancient Egypt, 43; in ancient times, 330; in Arab world, 220; body control and, 334–35; changes in, 3; in classical Greece, 92; courtesy concept and, 330; early normative accounts of, 330–31; in eighteenth-century France, 369; etiquette and, 328–29; handbooks for, 332; hand washing and, 333, 343–44; indiscriminate behavior and, 332–34, 369; in late Middle Ages, 250; women’s influence on, 335–36
Tableware: in ancient Egypt, 43, 44; drinking cups, 71, 98, 333, 344; in eighteenth-century Europe, 369; forks, 3, 368–69; for individual use, 332, 333, 344; in Jewish culture, 233–34; knives, 3, 233; in late Middle Ages, 250, 259, 344–45; in modern period, 550; reasons for, 3; in Rome, 136
Taboos: alcoholic beverage, 51, 191, 208; ancient Hebrews, 47–48, 50, 51; blood, 54, 208, 230, 235, 237; broad bean, 119; dairy product, 50, 322–23, 421; fish, 42, 322–23, 421; versus food habits, 16; Hindu food, 16; Muslim food, 16, 191; against pork, 41–42, 52–53; priests and food, 47, 51, 119, 263; Roman food, 136–37. See also Meat
Tacuinum sanitatis in medicina, 280, 285
Tafelmusik (Telemann), 329
Taste: basic, 298, 320–21; changes in, 404; characteristics of Jewish, 237; complexity of, 18; concept of “good,” 428–30, 524; dietetics beliefs and, 319–21, 364, 419–20; food intake dictated by, 405–6; gluttony versus “good,” 365, 431; gourmets and “good,” 431; importance of, 429; for salted foods, 413
Taverns: in Byzantine Empire, 198–99; design of, 293; in England, 473; food served in, 292; guests of, 292–93; in late Middle Ages, 276, 283, 289–91; location of, 291, 293–94; origins of, 472; in Rome, 136; signs for, 292; wine sales in, 292, 473. See also Public hospitality; Restaurants
Taxation: of beverages, 292; in Byzantine Empire, 196, 198; grain storage and, 211; of peasants in Middle Ages, 255–56; in Rome, 129, 130; of salt, 411
Tea: Chinese origins of, 389; consumption of, 390, 447, 453; introduction into Europe, 389–90, 391; as medicine, 389; Portugal and, 389; production of, 391; trade in, 360, 380, 390
Technology: changes in feudal period, 253–54; food industry and changes in, 482–83
Telemann, Georg Philipp, 329
Tenant farming, feudalism and, 253, 255
Territorial seigniory, 255
Thévenot, Melchisédec, 387
Thibault IV of Chartres, 276
Thickening agents: in Arab cooking, 212, 215, 218; in Jewish cooking, 239; in late Middle Ages, 323, 341
Thierriat, Florentin, 307, 311
Thoreau, Henry David, 518
Three Hundred Stories (Sacchetti), 280
Thrésor de la langue françoise (Nicot), 428–29
Le Thresor de santé, 400 n.4; on beef consumption, 421; on crane, 318; dietetics linked with gastronomy in, 419; on eating fruit, 321–22; on goose, 317; on oysters, 319; on pears, 322; on spices, 315–16; on temperament and dietary prescriptions, 424
Thyme: in Arab cooking, 213, 217; in classical Greece, 82; in late Middle Ages, 265
Tithes: corn exempt from, 356; grain as, 351; peasant, 170, 351–52; pigs as, 170; potato exempt from, 444
Tobler chocolate factory, 386
Tomatoes: introduction of, 357; preservation of, 490, 497
Tongue: cooking for digestibility, 318; cooking techniques for, 406, 407
Le Tour de France gastronomique (Rouff and Curononsky), 510–11
Tourisme et Régionalisme (Brun), 511
Trade: Arab world and, 219; in Byzantine Empire, 195, 196; changes due to Industrial Revolution, 437–38; in early modern period, 380; in fruit, 437, 465–68; government regulations of, 282–83; in late Middle Ages, 257–58; in pasta, 283; in Phoenicia, 58; protectionism, 462, 466, 467, 490; in Rome, 129; spices in, 359; technological advances and expansion of, 436–64; transportation in, 464, 482, 488; in tropical beverages, 360, 380, 388, 390; in tropical oils, 437, 457–63; urbanism and, 257–58; wine, 57, 58, 87; women and food processing and, 286. See also Guilds
Traité de l’usage des fruits des arbres pour se conserver en santé ou pour se guérir lorsqu’on est malade (Venette), 426
Traité des aliments (Lémery), 427
Traité des conserves alimentaires (Faucheaux), 495
Traité des livres rares, 431
Transportation: fast foods and, 539; regional cuisine and, 544; tourism effect on, 509; trade and advances in, 464, 482, 488
Trésor gastronomique de la France (Croze and Curnonsky), 506
Tripe: in Jewish cooking, 238; in late Middle Ages, 280; in Rome, 133, 135
Les Trois Frères Provençaux, 475
Truffles, 203; in Arab cooking, 218; in early modern period, 361, 363; preservation of, 488
Tuna: in Arab cooking, 216; in Carthage, 61
Turnips: in Arab cooking, 217; in classical Greece, 82, 87; in early Middle Ages, 173; in Greco-Roman period, 72; in haricot de mouton, 358; in late Middle Ages, 265; in Rome, 118, 133, 134, 135, 136; salted, 412; social status and consumption of, 312
Turtledoves: in classical Greece, 82; in late Middle Ages, 323
United Africa Company, 461
United Brands Company, 467
United States: beef in, 518; cattle industry in, 489; colonial period subsistence diet, 516–17; egg consumption in modern, 451; fats in diet in, 528; food exports from, 489; food habits in, 534; food preservation industry origins in, 488–90, 533–34; food reform movements in, 517–21, 522, 525–26; hygiene obsession in, 539; mealtimes in, 539; milk consumption in modern, 450; pineapple imports of, 468; postwar abundance, 523–25; shortening in, 462; soldiers’ rations in Civil War in, 489; sugar consumption in, 392; trade and transportation advances in, 464; vegetable oil exports of, 460; vitamins in, 521–23
U.S. Department of Agriculture, 527
Urbanity, concept of, 330
Veal: in Arab cuisine, 221; in Great Chain of Being, 311; social status and consumption of, 306
Vegetable gardens: in ancient Egypt, 40; of peasants in feudal period, 253, 265, 271; in Phoenicia, 56; in Rome, 118
Vegetables: in ancient Egypt, 39, 40–41; in Arab cooking, 213, 216–18; in Byzantine Empire, 197–98; in Carthage, 59; changes in French taste for, 404; in classical Greece, 82, 87; in colonial America, 517; in diet of nobility in late Middle Ages, 259; in early Middle Ages, 173; elites and, 421; in Great Chain of Being, 309, 311; in Jewish cooking (see Jews: vegetables in cooking of); modern consumption of, 445–46; peasants and, 181, 311–12, 420–21; in Phoenicia, 56; preservation of, 412, 487, 488, 490, 497; religious orders and, 183, 184; in Rome (see Rome: vegetables in). See also names of specific vegetables
Vegetarians: Adam and Eve as, 53; Grahamite, 518; in Greco-Roman period, 74; in modern Europe, 549; prandium meals and, 16; religious orders as, 184
Venison: salted, 314; sauces for, 323
Vetch: in classical Greece, 82, 84; in Greco-Roman period, 72; in late Middle Ages, 265
Le Viandier de Taillevent: on boiled meat, 422; competitors of, 394–95; development of, 297; on meat mixed with milk, 421; meats and, 322; on parboiling, 407; on salt, 323; sugar and recipes for illness in, 424
Vidal de la Blanche, Paul, 506
Vineyards: in ancient Egypt, 41; in Arab world, 219; blight in, 484; in Byzantine Empire, 195; in classical Greece, 80; expansion in feudal period, 253. See also Grapes; Wine
Vladimir I, prince of Kiev, 189
Voyage en France (Ardouin-Dumazet), 509
Voyage sentimental et pittoresque dans les Pyrénées (Saint-Amant), 502
War of the Spanish Succession, 376
Water: drinking, 198, 202, 229, 232, 258; in Great Chain of Being hierarchy, 309–11; prehistoric boiling techniques for, 27; sources of, 211; wine mixed with, 172, 198, 199
Watercress: in classical Greece, 82; in late Middle Ages, 265; medicinal uses of, 316
Watermelons: in Arab diet, 219; introduction into Europe, 221
Whales, 57; blubber, 405; in Great Chain of Being, 310; salted, 314
Wheat: in ancient Egypt, 39; in Arab cooking, 210; in Byzantine Empire, 195, 196–97; corn as substitute, 356; cost of, 303; distribution as annona, 115, 127, 129; in early modern period, 380; as food of travelers, 126; in Greco-Roman period, 72, 82, 85, 115; importation of, 353–54, 437; in Jewish cooking, 230; in late Middle Ages, 268–70, 280–81; milling of, 86; modern market share of, 443–44; in Neolithic period, 28; in Phoenicia, 55; symbolism of, 127
Widows, food choices of, 305
Wild boar: Arab hunting of, 214; in classical Greece, 82; in early Middle Ages, 171; in Etruria, 109; in Mesolithic period, 14; recipes for, 134, 323; in Rome, 120, 134; salted, 314
Wild foods: as dietary supplements in Neolithic period, 28; in Roman period, 72, 121, 129. See also Game
Wine: age of person and intake of, 425; in ancient Egypt, 41, 42; ancient trade in, 57; in Arab cooking, 213; at banquets, 35, 71, 94; barbarians and, 98; in Byzantine Empire, 195, 198, 202; in Carthage, 60–61; in classical Greece, 71, 83, 86–87, 98–99; dietetics on iced, 419, 425; dietetic value of, 318; in early Middle Ages, 172; Galen on, 86; government regulations of, 231, 232; Greek terminology for, 83; hypocras, 261, 282, 285; industrialization of, 484–85; in Jewish diet, 226, 231; in late Middle Ages, 258, 265, 272, 343; in Mesopotamia, 35; modern consumption of, 451–54, 549; in monastic diets in late Middle Ages, 261; pasteurization of, 484–85; in peasant diets in late Middle Ages, 264; quality of, 272; racking of, 485; recipes with, 322; rituals associated with, 57, 241; in Rome, 71, 114, 125, 131, 134, 135; sales in taverns, 292, 473; salted food consumption and, 413; spices and, 261, 322; storage of, 343, 485; as symbol of civilization, 73; taboos and ancient Hebrew priests, 51; taboos and Muslims, 191; trade and, 57, 58, 87; water mixed with, 172, 198, 199
Women: at banquets (see Banquets: women at); as cookbook authors, 366; as cooks, 212, 236; dietetics for, 146; food processing and trade and, 286; industrial revolution effect on, 435–36, 437, 521, 531; table manners and, 335–36; vegetable gardens and, 253, 265; as workers, 546 n.3
Workers: daily meals of agricultural, 382 n.12; food reform movement and, 519–20; Industrial Revolution effect on, 438; women as, 546 n.3
Yeast: in ancient Egypt, 39–40; Jewish dietary laws and, 227