1. US Census Bureau, “Facts for Features: Irish-American Heritage Month (March) and St. Patrick’s Day (March 17): 2017,” February 21, 2017, https://www.census.gov/newsroom/facts-for-features/2017/cb17-ff05.html.
2. Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism (London: Verso, 2006), 31–36.
1. L. M. Cullen, Europeans on the Move: European Migration, 1500–1800 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1994).
2. Patrick Fitzgerald, “The Scotch-Irish and the Eighteenth-Century Irish Diaspora,” History Ireland 7, no. 3 (Autumn 1999): 37–41, https://www.historyireland.com/18th-19th-century-history/the-scotch-irish-the-eighteenth-century-irish-diaspora/.
3. Kevin Kenny, “The Irish Diaspora,” Aeon, https://aeon.co/essays/the-irish-experience-and-the-meaning-of-modern-diaspora.
4. Christopher Shepard, “Irish Journalists in the Intellectual Diaspora: Edward Alexander Morphy and Henry David O’Shea in the Far East,” New Hibernia Review 14, no. 3 (Autumn 2010): 75–90.
5. “The Printers’ File at AAS,” American Antiquarian Society, http://www.americanantiquarian.org/printers-file.
6. Mary Pollard, A Dictionary of Members of the Dublin Book Trade, 1500–1800 (London: Biographical Society, 2000), 87; Allan C. Clark, “William Duane,” Records of the Columbia Historical Society, Washington, D.C. 9 (1906): 18; James Morton Smith, “The Case of John Daly Burk and His New York ‘Time Piece,’” Journalism Quarterly 30, no. 3 (1953): 23; Joseph I. Shulim, “John Daly Burk: Irish Revolutionist and American Patriot,” Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, 54, no. 6 (1964): 7.
7. Shulim, “John Daly Burk,” 5–6.
8. Thomas Jefferson to John Taylor, June 4, 1798, National Archives, Founders Online, http://founders.archives.gov/documents/Jefferson/01-30-02-0280.
9. Pollard, A Dictionary, 86–87; Maurice J. Bric, “The United Irishmen, International Republicanism and the Definition of Polity in the United States of America,” Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy, Section C: Archaeology, Celtic Studies, History, Linguistics, Literature 104C, no. 4 (2004): 81–106, 87; David A. Wilson, United Irishmen, United States: Immigrant Radicals in the Early Republic (Ithaca, NY: Cornell Univ. Press, 1998), 11, 43.
10. Wilson, United Irishmen, 15, 44.
11. James N. Green, Mathew Carey: Publisher and Patriot (Philadelphia: Library Company of Philadelphia, 1985), 3.
12. Green, Mathew Carey, 3; Henry Carey Baird, “Carey-Baird Centenary, 1885, Memoir of Mathew Carey, Founder of the House,” American Bookseller, February 1, 1885, 59.
13. Green, Mathew Carey, 4; Wilson, United Irishmen, 17; Baird, “The Carey-Baird Centenary,” 59; Maurice Bric, “Mathew Carey, Ireland and the ‘Empire for Liberty’ in America,” Early American Studies 11, no. 3 (Fall 2013): 403–30, 406; Joseph M. Adelman, “Trans-Atlantic Migration and the Printing Trade in Revolutionary America,” Early American Studies 11, no. 3 (Fall 2013): 516–44, 516–17; James N. Green, “‘I Was Always Dispos’d to be Serviceable to You, Tho’ It Seems I Was Once Unlucky’: Mathew Carey’s Relationship with Benjamin Franklin,” Early American Studies 11, no. 3 (Fall 2013): 545–46; Edward C. Carter II, “Birth of a Political Economist: Mathew Carey and the Recharter Fight of 1810–1811,” Pennsylvania History: A Journal of Mid-Atlantic Studies 33, no. 3 (1966): 274–88.
14. Carter, “Birth of a Political Economist,” 274–88; Wilson, “United Irishmen,” 18.
15. Green, Mathew Carey, 5; Cathy Matson and James N. Green, “Ireland, America, and Mathew Carey: Special Issue Introduction,” Early American Studies 11, no. 3 (Fall 2013): 395–402, 397–98; Edward C. Carter II, “A ‘Wild Irishman’ Under Every Federalist’s Bed: Naturalization in Philadelphia,” Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 94, no. 3 (July 1970): 332–33; Seth Cotlar, Thomas Paine’s America: The Rise and Fall of Transatlantic Radicalism in the Early Republic (Charlottesville: Univ. of Virginia Press, 2011), 16, 24–25.
16. Bric, “United Irishmen,” 83, 94.
17. Bric, “United Irishmen,” 85–86, 88; Carter, “A ‘Wild Irishman,’” 331.
18. Fred S. Siebert, Freedom of the Press in England, 1476–1776: The Rise and Decline of Government Control (Urbana-Champaign: Univ. of Illinois Press, 1965).
19. Mathew Carey, The Olive Branch, 10th ed. (Philadelphia: Carey and Son, 1818), 316–17; Bric, “United Irishmen,” 91.
20. Shulim, “John Daly Burk,” 5–6.
21. Shulim, “John Daly Burk,” 9.
22. Shulim, “John Daly Burk,” 7; Smith, “Case of John Daly Burk,” 24; Kerby A. Miller, Arnold Schrier, Bruce D. Boling, and David N. Doyle, Irish Immigrants in the Land of Canaan: Letters and Memoirs from Colonial and Revolutionary America, 1675–1815 (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 2003), 586.
23. Shulim, “John Daly Burk,” 9.
24. Charles Campbell, Some Materials to Serve for a Brief Memoir of John Daly Burk (Albany, NY: Joel Munsel, 1868), 20.
25. Polar Star and Boston Daily Advertiser, December 1, 1796; Smith, “Case of John Daly Burk,” 24.
26. Polar Star and Boston Daily Advertiser, October 10 and 15, 1796.
27. Polar Star and Boston Daily Advertiser, October 20, 1796.
28. Shulim, “John Daly Burk,” 12.
29. Shulim, “John Daly Burk,” 19.
30. Smith, “Case of John Daly Burk,” 24n5; Joseph T. Lawless, “Some Irish Settlers in Virginia,” Journal of the Irish American Historical Society 2 (1899): 161–62.
31. Smith, “Case of John Daly Burk,” 23.
32. Smith, “Case of John Daly Burk,” 23; Shulim, “John Daly Burk,” 22–23.
33. Shulim, “John Daly Burk,” 23.
34. Shulim, 24.
35. Shulim, 23.
36. “United Irishmen,” reprinted in the New York Commercial Advertiser, November 1, 1798, 2.
37. “United Irishmen,” New York Commercial Advertiser, 2.
38. New Hampshire Gazette (Portsmouth), January 16, 1799, 3.
39. Shulim, “John Daly Burk,” 24.
40. “For The Time Piece,” Time-Piece (New York), June 22, 1798, 1.
41. “United Irishmen,” Time-Piece (New York) August 23, 1798, 3.
42. Time-Piece (New York), July 6, 1798, 3.
43. Shulim, “John Daly Burk,” 25.
44. Time-Piece (New York), June 27, 1798; Smith, “Case of John Daly Burk,” 23, 28; Jeffrey L. Pasley, “The Tyranny of Printers”: Newspaper Politics in the Early American Republic (Charlottesville: Univ. of Virginia Press, 2001), 125; Phillip I. Blumberg, Repressive Jurisprudence in the Early American Republic: The First Amendment and the Legacy of English Law (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Pres, 2010), 80; Geoffrey R. Stone, Perilous Times: Free Speech in War Time from the Sedition Act of 1798 to the War on Terrorism (New York: W. W. Norton, 2004), 48; Bruce A. Ragsdale, Sedition Act Trials: Federal Trials and Great Debates in United States History (Washington, DC: Federal Judicial Center/Federal Judicial History Office, 2005), 21.
45. Pasley, “Tyranny of Printers,” 125.
46. Blumberg, Repressive Jurisprudence, 80; Shulim, “John Daly Burk,” 33.
47. Rufus King to Alexander Hamilton, July 2, 1798, National Archives, Founders Online, https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Hamilton/01-21-02-0298; Rufus King to Timothy Pickering, July 19, 1798, in Charles R. King, The Life and Correspondence of Rufus King, Comprising His Letters, Private and Official, His Public Documents and His Speeches (New York: Putnam, 1895), 637–38; Nicole Anderson Yanoso, The Irish and the American Presidency (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction, 2016); Richard Brookhiser, “The Politics of Immigration: Clashing Impulses,” American History 48, no. 5 (2013): 17–18.
48. “To Farmers,” Russell’s Commercial Gazette, reprinted in Springer’s Weekly Oracle, November 12, 1798, 1.
49. Aurora General Advertiser (Philadelphia), November 22, 1977, 2.
50. “Messrs. Brown and Relf,” Gazette and Universal Daily Advertiser (Philadelphia), July 24, 1799, 3.
51. Ragsdale, Sedition Act Trials.
52. Michael Schudson, The Sociology of the News (New York: W. W. Norton, 2003), 159; James W. Carey, Communication as Culture: Essays on Media and Society (New York: Routledge, 1988), 18.
53. Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism, rev. ed. (New York: Verso, 2006), 6–7.
54. Donald M. MacRaild, “Review of Anthony McNicholas, Politics, Religion and the Press: Irish Journalism in Mid-Victorian England,” Catholic Historical Review 95, no. 1 (2009): 173–74.
1. Timothy Pickering to John Adams, July 24, 1799, Timothy Pickering Papers XI, 487, Massachusetts Historical Society, Boston; Jeffrey L. Pasley, “The Tyranny of Printers”: Newspaper Politics in the Early American Republic (Charlottesville: Univ. of Virginia Press, 2000), 189; Nigel Little, Transoceanic Radical: William Duane, National Identity and Empire 1760–1835 (New York: Taylor & Francis, 2008), 123.
2. Little, Transoceanic Radical, 18.
3. Allen C. Clark, William Duane, Records of the Columbia Historical Society 9 (1906): 17–19; Marcus Daniel, Scandal and Civility: Journalism and the Birth of American Democracy (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 2009), 234–35; Pasley, “Tyranny of Printers,” 177; James Morton Smith, “The ‘Aurora’ and the Alien and Sedition Laws. Part 2: The Editorship of William Duane,” Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 77, no. 2 (February 1953): 123–24.
4. Little, Transoceanic Radical, 109; William John Duane, Biographical Memoir of William John Duane (Philadelphia: Claxton, Remsen, and Haffelfinger, 1868), 1; Daniel, Scandal and Civility, 235.
5. Little, Transoceanic Radical, 29; Daniel, Scandal and Civility, 235.
6. Daniel, Scandal and Civility, 235.
7. Colum Kenny, “Matthew Duane: A Prudent Irish Catholic Chamber Counsel in England,” Eighteenth-Century Ireland 33 (2018), 88.
8. Daniel, Scandal and Civility, 235; T. B. Howell, “The Trial of John Almon,” Cobbett’s Complete Collection of State Trials and Proceedings for High Treason and Other Crimes and Misdemeanors (London: T. C. Hansard, 1814), 803–68; John Almon, Another Letter to Mr. Almon: In Matter of Libel (London: Printed for John Almon, 1770); Thomas Green, “The Jury, Seditious Libel and Criminal Law,” in Juries, Libel, and Justice: The Role of English Juries in Seventeenth- and Eighteenth-Century Trials for Libel and Slander; Papers Read at a Clark Library Seminar 28 February 1981, ed. R. H. Helmholz and T. A. Green (Los Angeles: William Andrews Clark Memorial Library, Univ. of California, 1984), 43.
9. Pasley, “Tyranny of Printers,” 178; Daniel, Scandal and Civility, 237–38.
10. Little, Transoceanic Radical, 6.
11. “India News,” Times (London), February 28, 1792.
12. Little, Transoceanic Radical, 50.
13. Little, 56.
14. Little, 74.
15. Little, 78.
16. Little, 19.
17. Little, 90.
18. Pasley, “Tyranny of Printers,” 180–81; Daniel, Scandal and Civility, 240–41.
19. Daniel, Scandal and Civility, 241–42; Little, Transoceanic Radical, 121–22.
20. Kim T. Phillips, “William Duane, Philadelphia’s Democratic Republicans, and the Origin of Modern Politics,” Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 101, no. 3 (July 1977): 368.
21. Arthur Scherr, “‘Vox Populi’ Verses the Patriot President: Benjamin Franklin Bache’s Philadelphia Aurora and John Adams (1797),” Pennsylvania History: A Journal of Mid-Atlantic Studies 62, no. 4 (Fall 1995): 503; Daniel, Scandal and Civility, 246.
22. The circulation of the Aurora under William Duane was about fifteen hundred, which made it approximately five times larger in circulation than his Indian newspapers. Little, Transoceanic Radical, 14.
23. Pasley, “Tyranny of Printers,” 183; Daniel, Scandal and Civility, 252.
24. James Morton Smith, “The ‘Aurora,’” 123; Daniel, Scandal and Civility, 254–55.
25. Edward C. Carter II, “A ‘Wild Irishman’ under Every Federalist’s Bed: Naturalization in Philadelphia,” Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 94, no. 3 (July 1970): 333–34; Daniel, Scandal and Civility, 256.
26. Timothy Pickering to John Adams, Philadelphia, July 24, 1799.
27. William David Sloan, “The Party Press,” in The Media in America: A History, ed. William David Sloan (Northport, AL: Vision Press, 2005), 80.
28. Sloan, 80.
29. Jeffery A. Smith, War and Press Freedom: The Problem of Prerogative Power (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1999), 85.
30. Bruce A. Ragsdale, “The Sedition Act Trials,” in Federal Trials and Great Debates in United States History (Washington, DC: Federal Judicial Center, 2005), 1.
31. James Madison to Thomas Jefferson, May 3, 1811, in Writings of James Madison, vol. 8 (Correspondence, 1808–1819), ed. Gaillard Hunt (New York: Putnam, 1908), 151.
32. Dwight L. Teeter Jr. and Don R. Le Duc, Law of Mass Communications: Freedom and Control of Print and Broadcast Media (Westbury, NY: Foundation Press, 1995), 22.
33. William Blackstone, Commentaries on the Laws of England, Book the Fourth (London: Strahan and Woodfall, 1791), 150.
34. Ragsdale, “Sedition Act Trials,” 2.
35. Teeter and Le Duc, Law of Mass Communications, 28.
36. Gordon T. Belt, “The Sedition Act of 1798: A Brief History of Arrests, Indictments, Mistreat, and Abuse,” First Amendment Center, Washington, DC, 2007, 2, https://www.freedomforuminstitute.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/10/Sedition_Act_cases.pdf.
37. Teeter and Le Duc, Law of Mass Communications, 28.
38. Jeffery A. Smith, War and Press Freedom, 75.
39. James Morton Smith, “‘The Aurora’ and the Alien and Sedition Laws: Part 1: The Editorship of Benjamin Franklin Bache,” Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 77, no. 1 (January 1953): 6–7.
40. James Morton Smith, “‘The Aurora,’” pt. 1, 10.
41. Sloan, “The Party Press,” 80.
42. Benjamin Franklin Bache and William J. Duane, The Truth Will Out: The Foul Charges of the Tories against the Editor of the Aurora, Repelled by Positive Proof and Plain Truth, and His Base Calumniators Put to Shame (Philadelphia: Bache, 1798), 3.
43. Richard N. Rosenfeld, American Aurora: A Democratic-Republican Returns; The Suppressed History of Our Nation’s Beginnings and the Heroic Newspaper That Tried to Report It (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1997), 664.
44. Rosenfeld, 664.
45. Rosenfeld, 665.
46. “British Influence!” Aurora (Philadelphia), August 5, 1799.
47. Rosenfeld, American Aurora, 678.
48. “British Influence!” Aurora (Philadelphia), August 13, 1799.
49. Rosenfeld, American Aurora, 664.
50. Rosenfeld, 672–73.
51. “British Influence,” Aurora (Philadelphia), July 24, 1799.
52. “British Influence.”
53. Rosenfeld, American Aurora, 673–74.
54. Rosenfeld, 687.
55. Sloan, “The Party Press,” 80.
56. Rosenfeld, American Aurora, 704.
57. “Federal Circuit Court,” Aurora (Philadelphia), October 22, 1799.
58. Dumas Malone, Jefferson and the Ordeal of Liberty (Boston: Little, Brown, 1962), 463.
59. Rosenfeld, American Aurora, 776.
60. Malone, Jefferson, 464.
61. “Untitled,” Aurora (Philadelphia), February 19, 1800.
62. Malone, Jefferson, 464.
63. Rosenfeld, American Aurora, 794.
64. Wendell Bird, Press and Speech under Assault: The Early Supreme Court Justices, the Sedition Act of 1798, and the Campaign against Dissent (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 2016), 279.
65. Malone, Jefferson, 464.
66. Michael Kent Curtis, Free Speech, “The People’s Darling Privilege”: Struggles for Freedom of Expression in American History (Durham, NC: Duke Univ. Press, 2000), 93.
67. Malone, Jefferson, 465.
68. Malone, 465.
69. Bird, Press and Speech, 280.
70. Phillips, “William Duane,” 368.
71. Curtis, Free Speech, 95.
72. Thomas Cooper, “Preface,” in Political Essays: A Treatise on the Law of Libel (Philadelphia: Campbell, 1799).
73. Curtis, Free Speech, 75.
74. Ragsdale, “Sedition Act Trials,” 5.
75. Malone, Jefferson, 468.
76. Rosenfeld, American Aurora, 795.
77. Thomas Cooper, “Preface,” Account of the Trial of Thomas Cooper of Northumberland (Philadelphia: John Bioren, 1800).
78. Eugene Volokh, “Thomas Cooper, Early American Public Intellectual,” New York University Journal of Law and Liberty 4 (2009): 377.
79. James Thomson Callender, The Prospect before Us (Richmond, VA: Jones, Pleasants, and Lyons, 1800), pt. 1, 179.
80. Thomas Jefferson to James Madison, May 26, 1800, in The Papers of Thomas Jefferson, ed. Barbara B. Oberg (Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press, 2004), 31:590.
81. Quoted in Fawn M. Brodie, Thomas Jefferson: An Intimate History (New York: W. W. Norton, 1974), 322.
82. “The Life of Representative Matthew Lyon of Vermont and Kentucky,” US House of Representatives: History, Art & Archives, August 1, 1822, http://history.house.gov/Historical-Highlights/1800-1850/The-life-of-Representative-Matthew-Lyon-of-Vermont-and-Kentucky/.
83. Ragsdale, “Sedition Act Trials,” 7.
84. Bird, Press and Speech, 274.
85. Bird, 275.
86. Ragsdale, “Sedition Act Trials,” 8.
87. Richard Peterson, The Public Statutes at Large of the United States of America, vol. 6 (Boston: Little, Brown, 1846), 802.
88. “American Papers,” Cambridge Intelligencer (UK), May 17, 1800.
89. “London,” Hampshire Chronicle (Winchester, UK), August 17, 1801.
90. “The Editor of the Aurora Has Been Arrested at Philadelphia,” Times (London), August 15, 1798.
91. “Congress of the United States,” Kentish Gazette (Canterbury, Kent, UK), May 16, 1800.
92. “Editor of the Aurora.”
93. “London,” Oxford Journal (UK), May 17, 1800.
94. “William Duane,” Belfast Commercial Chronicle, November 2, 1807.
95. “The United States of America,” Manchester Mercury (UK), September 13, 1808.
1. Writing in the Press, a United Irish newspaper, of March 3, 1798, O’Gorman asserted, “I glory in being an Irishman, and as an Irishman you will always find me ready to shed my blood, if requisite, or to sacrifice my existence.”
2. Habermas’s core concern is how, in eighteenth-century Europe, newspapers—together with public spaces, such as coffee shops, in which press content could be read and discussed—helped expand civil society, particularly among the bourgeoisie.
3. Benedict R. O’G. Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism, rev. ed. (London: Verso, 2006), 224.
4. The author was the twenty-one-year-old John Kells Ingram, son of a Church of Ireland (Episcopalian) clergyman. Entitled “The Memory of the Dead,” the ballad was, in 1845, set to music by John Edward Pigot, becoming thereafter a popular anthem.
5. Savannah Morning News, August 7, 1877.
6. According to David Gleeson’s The Irish in the South, 1815–1877 (Chapel Hill: Univ. of North Carolina Press, 2002), the Savannah Irish “made up less than 5 percent” of the “84,000” Irish resident, in 1860, in the eleven states that one year later would join the Confederacy (2, 5). Gleeson recognizes that about 90 percent of the Irish who came to America settled north of the Mason-Dixon line (2).
7. Louis Althusser, “Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses (Notes Towards and Investigation),” in The Anthropology of the State: A Reader, ed. Aradhana Sharma and Akhil Gupta (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2006), 86–111; quoted in Charles Gavin Duffy, Short Life of Thomas Davis (London: T. Fisher Unwin, 1896), 66. The Prospectus identifies “Nationality” as the Nation’s “first great object.”
8. Charles Gidden Haines, Memoir of Thomas Addis Emmet (New York: G. & C. & H. Carvill, 1829), 60. Thomas Addis Emmet was a member of and a legal advisor to the Society of the United Irishmen. In 1803, after his younger brother Robert’s failed rebellion, he exiled himself to America, where, as a successful lawyer, he argued before the United States Supreme Court and also served, briefly, as the New York State attorney general. One of the earliest Savannah advertisements for Haines’s Memoir appeared in the October 27, 1829, edition of the Savannah Daily Republican, placed there by a local bookseller, T. M. Driscoll.
9. In “The Rebellion of 1798 in South Leinster,” in 1798: A Bicentenary Perspective, ed. Thomas Bartlett (Dublin: Four Courts Press, 2003), 104–21, Daniel Gahan conveys the intensity of the rebellion in Wexford and a portion of the adjoining county of Wicklow, on Wexford’s northern border. Respecting the three weeks through June 21, 1798, he writes, “The insurgents . . . realized that they were an isolated enclave in the southeast [of Ireland]” and, thus, “made extraordinary efforts to react to this reality in military terms and to construct a make-shift local republic” (115). In analyzing the insurrection in Wexford, one should note that different zones within the county had different experiences. Mid-nineteenth-century Wexford emigrants to Savannah originated from across the entire county.
10. In the opening two pages of his essay, “Wexford Remembered in Prince Edward Island,” (in The Past: The Organ of the Uí Cinsealaigh Historical Society, 16 [1988]: 41–44), Brendan O’Grady observes that a “thousand or more Wexford immigrants” settled on the island “between 1800 and 1835,” forming “clusters in dozens of villages dotting the 400-mile coast.” During the 1820s, prior to Texas’s secession from Mexico, a Wexford settlement developed in and around Refugio in rural southeastern Texas. Another Wexford community emerged on the Mississippi in northeastern Iowa, once emigrants, primarily from northern Wexford, were disappointed in a scheme whereby, in 1850, a Wexford priest, Father Thomas Hoare, recruited them to follow him and establish farms in Arkansas.
11. Adrian N. Mulligan, “A Forgotten ‘Greater Ireland’: The Transatlantic Development of Irish Nationalism,” Scottish Geographical Journal 118, no. 3 (2002): 232.
12. While the authors of this chapter have not discovered passenger lists for Wexford vessels that carried emigrants to Savannah from the late 1840s through the mid-1850s, the Chatham County, Georgia, section of the US Federal Census of 1860 constitutes a useful mechanism for enumerating Wexford-born residents of Savannah in the aftermath of that migration. The tenth data column on the census schedule sought “Place of Birth, Naming the State, Territory, or Country.” Charles J. White, enumerator for the “City of Savannah, 1st District”—that is, the westernmost section of the city—recorded fifteen individuals present in the 606th dwelling, a boardinghouse, that he visited. Nine of them were from “Wexford, Ireland”: the female boardinghouse keeper, a female domestic, and seven men (a tailor, a machinist, and five laborers).
13. Three County Wexford shipping firms—Graves & Son and Howlett & Co. of New Ross and R., M., & R. Allen of Wexford Town—maintained the service. Our examination of some surviving records from the defunct Graves & Son points to both Graves and Howlett vessels first departing for Savannah in 1845. From then until late in the decade, those two companies’ primary interest in Savannah was not the delivery of emigrants from Wexford and its immediate hinterland but the purchase of Georgia goods, principally timber, for the Irish market. Thus, on October 19, 1847, the collector at the customhouse in New Ross issued a light-duty certificate to a Graves vessel, Lady Bagot, that notes its being “Bound to Savannah (Ballast)” (Grave & Sons Collection, National Archives of Ireland, box 97/48-2/10-3/087/10). Late in the 1840s, the Graves, Howlett, and Allen companies began actively pursuing the emigrant trade, likely in response to Ireland’s Great Hunger, although a detailed study of the full range of precipitating factors remains to be carried out.
14. Edward M. Shoemaker, “Strangers and Citizens: The Irish Immigrant Community of Savannah, 1837–1861” (PhD diss., Emory Univ., 1990), 42.
15. Charles J. Kickham, Knocknagow; or, The Homes of Tipperary, 13th ed. (Dublin: Duffy, 1887), 201, 378.
16. Kickham, Knocknagow, 229.
17. Anderson, Imagined Communities, 34.
18. From the Preamble (1812) of the Hibernian Society of Savannah.
19. Timothy J. Lockley, Lines in the Sand: Race and Class in Lowcountry Georgia, 1750–1860 (Athens: Univ. of Georgia Press, 2003), 36.
20. Savannah Republican, March 29, 1817.
21. Georgian (Savannah, GA), March 19, 1825. The piece acknowledges an additional toast invoking Tone and two invoking Emmet.
22. Georgian (Savannah, GA), March 19, 1825. In her biography, Wolfe Tone (Liverpool: Liverpool Univ. Press, 2012), Marianne Elliott discusses Tone’s authorship of pamphlets that enjoined those sharing the island of Ireland “to merge religious identities into the common one of Irishman” (4).
23. Obviously, multiple factors informed the reception of Irish arrivals, not least capitalist employers’ need for labor and the dominant population’s racial bias in favor of white Europeans.
24. Shoemaker, Strangers and Citizens, 45.
25. Offered by Colonel T.U. Camak, the toast asserts, “The star of [Emmet’s] greatness shines out from the midst of the past, untarnished in its brilliancy by the darkness of tyranny” (Savannah Morning News, March 20, 1850). As St. Patrick’s Day 1850 fell on a Sunday, the Hibernian Society of Savannah held its anniversary dinner on the following day.
26. Savannah Morning News, March 20, 1850.
27. For a table of the five “main types of diaspora,” see page 18 of Robin Cohen’s Global Diasporas: An Introduction (Seattle: Univ. of Washington Press, 1997). Earlier in the book, Cohen identifies the Irish as a “victim diaspora,” similar to “the Jewish, African, and Armenian diasporas”; he credits scholarship by Christine Kinealy with “adduc[ing]” that “there was much more deliberation in the British response to the potato blight” than had previously been identified (3). As he further develops his argument, Cohen emphasizes the rapidity of population decline: “The Irish lost 25 per cent of their homeland population between 1845 and 1851, the years of the potato famine” (162).
28. Daniel Gahan, “Wexford Emigrants and the Irish Experience in Canal Construction in Nineteenth-Century America: Evidence from the Wabash and Erie in Daviess and Huntington Counties, Indiana, 1850,” The Past: The Organ of the Uí Cinsealaigh Historical Society 32 (2016): 15.
29. Savannah Republican, January 12, 1850.
30. Tempering the descriptive lyricism is additional prose of unsentimental character. The Wexford “girls,” the newspaper observes, “went off briskly at four to five dollars a month, but toward ten o’clock as the stock became reduced, the article rose to seven and eight, at which the market closed firm.”
31. Peter D. O’Neill, Famine Irish and the American Racial State (New York: Routledge, 2017), 33.
32. Savannah Morning News, December 6, 1859.
33. Savannah Morning News, December 10, 1850.
34. Savannah Morning News, August 18, 1880. In addition to Michael Cash (who endured some mental-health challenges), the litany of Savannah Wexfordians who gained distinction is impressive, as just two examples begin to illustrate. From the south Wexford townland (district) of Loughnageer, Peter Whelan, a Catholic priest and Confederate chaplain, gained the rank of vicar general of Savannah’s Catholic diocese, becoming so beloved that his February 7, 1871, funeral was the longest Savannah had ever witnessed. A native of Mounthoward—a north Wexford townland and a United Irish redoubt—William Kehoe built up a nationally prominent ironworks and multiple other business interests in Savannah. Upon his demise on December 29, 1929, the flag on the gold-domed city hall was lowered to half-staff. Among other community functions, Kehoe served as a trustee of the Savannah Branch No. 38 of the Catholic Knights of America, a benevolent society. In that capacity, he facilitated, in December 1880, a death-benefit payment of $2,000 to the family of the deceased Michael Cash, an example of social intercourse among Wexfordians in Savannah.
35. At a gathering to celebrate its first St. Patrick’s Day, the Irish Union Society had “the memory of Emmett [sic], Tone, Fitzgerald, and their associates” as its third regular toast (Savannah Georgian, March 22, 1847). One notes that while Robert Emmet is likely being invoked here, the Irish in America also memorialized his brother, Thomas Addis Emmet.
36. Founded in Nashville, Tennessee, in 1877, the Catholic Knights of America established a Savannah branch in December of the following year. According to Gary W. McDonogh’s Black and Catholic in Savannah, Georgia (Knoxville: Univ. of Tennessee Press, 1993), beginning in 1884, the city’s Catholic cathedral sponsored an additional—and perhaps short lived—colored branch of the organization (232).
37. Not all Irish (or Irish-heavy) organizations accorded with or pleased the white establishment in Savannah. In 1857 Patrick Rossiter, an immigrant from Wexford, cofounded, primarily for the city’s longshoremen, the Workingmen’s Benevolent Association, which threatened strike action on the docks. See Monica Hunt, “Organized Labor along Savannah’s Waterfront: Mutual Cooperation among Black and White Longshoremen, 1865–1894,” Georgia Historical Quarterly 92, no. 2 (Summer 2008): 177–99.
38. Savannah Morning News, August 18, 1880. For a summary of Nast’s treatment of Irish Americans, see Thomas J. Archdeacon, Becoming American: An Ethnic History (New York: Free Press, 1983), 100–101.
39. Savannah Morning News, February 13, 1884.
40. Savannah Morning News, February 16, 1887.
41. Bryan Giemza, Irish Catholic Writers and the Invention of the American South (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State Univ. Press, 2013), 159. O’Connor respected Parnell, taking a leading role in both the establishment of Savannah’s Parnell Branch of the Irish National Land League and the Independence Day 1881 visit by Parnell’s brother, John Howard Parnell, to Savannah.
42. Thomas F. McGrath, History of the Ancient Order of Hibernians from the Earliest Period to the Joint National Convention at Trenton, New Jersey, June 27, 1898, with Biography of the Rt. Rev. James A. McFaul (Cleveland, OH: J.S. Savage Press, 1898), 86.
43. David T. Gleeson and Brendan J. Buttimer, “‘We Are Irish Everywhere’: Irish Immigrant Networks in Charleston, South Carolina, and Savannah, Georgia,” in Irish Migration, Networks, and Ethnic Identities since 1750, ed. Enda Delaney and Donald M. MacRaild (London: Routledge, 2007), 183–205, 39–61. A sense of the trauma experienced in Wexford may be obtained from a letter, dated July 30, 1798, in which John Colclough, nephew of a hanged rebel, wrote, “The cornfields are beaten and trod down and the county [Wexford] is quite a desert. You might ride from one end to the other without seeing a single man” (Public Record Office of Northern Ireland, Belfast, McPeake Transcripts: T3048/C/18).
44. Daily News and Herald (Savannah, GA), December 13, 1866.
45. Henry James, Partial Portraits (New York: Macmillan, 1888), 50. James was critiquing George Eliot’s “general attitude with regard to the novel,” a genre he believed she saw as “the last word of a philosophy endeavoring to teach by example.”
46. Savannah Morning News, March 5, 1879. The piece acknowledges that among the volunteer toasts offered was one to “The Savannah Morning News, the Banner Journal of the South.”
47. Savannah Morning News, August 7, 1879.
48. This spelling reflects the Irish orthographic convention of writing the “long a” sound with an a followed by a silent gh.
49. From early in 1846, Savannah newspapers acknowledged shipments of much timber and some rice and cotton from Savannah on Wexford vessels, most bound for Wexford ports. However, the Wexford Independent did not cover that commercial connection.
50. Wexford Independent, September 18, 1852.
51. Wexford Independent, January 1, 1851.
52. Wexford Independent, March 29, 1851.
53. A “Ship News” entry in the Wexford Independent of March 12, 1851, emphasized that while the Menapia’s arrival in Savannah on February 13 followed “a boisterous passage,” all on board “were in the best of health,” making “the fourth time” that the vessel had “landed passengers in America within . . . thirteen months” without “a death on board.”
54. Wexford Independent, March 29, 1851.
55. Kickham, Knocknagow, 170.
56. Anderson, Imagined Communities, 33n54.
1. Francis Robert Walsh, The Boston Pilot: A Newspaper for the Irish Immigrant, 1829–1908 (unpublished PhD diss., Boston Univ., 1968), 11. See also Cian McMahon, “Ireland and the Birth of the Irish-American Press, 1842–61,” American Periodicals 19, no. 1 (2009): 5–20.
2. Walsh, Pilot, 11.
3. Jesuit (Boston, MA), September 5, 1829.
4. Jesuit (Boston, MA), September 5, 1829.
5. Pilot, July 20, 1839.
6. For a detailed study of Donahoe’s life and career see Sister Mary Alphonsine Frawley, Patrick Donahoe (Washington, DC: Catholic Univ. of America Press, 1946). For his birth and early years in Ireland, see pages 4–12. See also Ian Kenneally, “Patrick Donahoe: An Irish-American Leader,” Breifne 14, no. 52 (2017): 107–18.
7. Frawley, Donahoe, 14.
8. Pilot, December 22, 1838, and December 21, 1844.
9. Patrick Donahoe, “Reminiscences of an Old Time Journalist: A letter to Martin J. Griffin,” Records of the American Catholic Historical Society 15 (1904): 314–17.
10. Today, the Pilot is perhaps best known through its “missing friends” column, which ran from 1831 until 1921. Irish immigrants placed advertisements in the column seeking information on family and friends who had traveled separately to the United States.
11. Pilot, June 8, 1844: editorial written by Thomas D’Arcy McGee, who edited the paper for a short period in the 1840s.
12. Walsh, Pilot, vii.
13. Walsh, 58.
14. Donahoe’s Emigrant Savings Bank was a very successful business, although it had competitors within the Irish community; see the Pilot, April 30, 1870.
15. New York Times, April 6, 1876: according to the paper, Donahoe’s annual profit from all his businesses may have been $100,000 per annum.
16. For a biography of John Boyle O’Reilly, see Ian Kenneally, From the Earth, a Cry: The Story of John Boyle O’Reilly (Cork: Collins Press, 2011).
17. The Irish Republican Brotherhood was founded in Dublin on March 17, 1858, with James Stephens and John O’Mahony taking the leading roles in the new organization. Although the term Fenian originated with O’Mahony, who claimed that it recalled the Fianna of Irish legend, it was not until 1863 that it became a part of popular parlance, when the New York Mercury newspaper printed a detailed feature on the “Fenian Brotherhood.”
18. R. V. Comerford, The Fenians in Context: Irish Politics and Society 1848–82 (Dublin: Wolfhound Press, 1998), 39.
19. Quotation taken from an oath taken by recruits to the Irish Republican Brotherhood.
20. Pilot, November 23, 1872. The paper described the scene after the fire had subsided: “Around the site of what was once the magnificent Pilot Building the whole street was nothing other than huge piles of cracked and powdered brick and stone.”
21. Kenneally, From the Earth, 157–64.
22. Frawley, Donahoe, 217. Donahoe’s insurance had been adequate to cover the losses incurred as a result of the fire of November 9, 1872. However, the claims resulting from this fire had subsequently bankrupted many insurers, and Donahoe did not recoup his losses for the fires of November 20, 1872, and the following May.
23. Frawley, Donahoe, 215.
24. New York Times, April 4, 1876. The decline in Donahoe’s fortunes was covered in great detail in the Boston and New York press. Especially damaging to Donahoe was a loss of $170,000 that resulted from his endorsement of loans to Gustavus Finotti, a Boston-based businessman. Finotti, whom the New York Times described as “a dreamer and a theorist,” had lost all the money in “experimenting and speculation” and had been unable to repay the loan, leaving the burden to fall on Donahoe.
25. Throughout February 1876 the Pilot covered the demise of Donahoe’s business; see editions of February 5, 12, 1, and 26. See Frawley, Donahoe, 219–21 for details on these negotiations.
26. O’Reilly to Charles Hurd, January 27, 1876, John Boyle O’Reilly Papers, Boston Public Library, Boston, MA. O’Reilly claimed that his plan to take over the paper would benefit Donahoe. If his plan was successful, he told a friend, “the old man [Donahoe] will come saved.”
27. Frawley, Donahoe, 222. See also Boston Daily Globe, April 17, 1876.
28. Historical Statistics of the Unites States, Colonial Times to 1970, vol. 1 (Washington, DC: United States Bureau of the Census, 1975), Labor Force, series D 1-682.
29. Boston Daily Globe, October 30, 1884: report of speech by O’Reilly.
30. Kerby Miller, Emigrants and Exiles: Ireland and the Irish Exodus to North America, (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1988), 329.
31. Thomas H. O’Connor, The Boston Irish: A Political History (Old Saybrook, CT: Konecky & Konecky, 1995), 141.
32. Pilot, October 20, 1877.
33. For an account of the Pilot’s stance on this issue, see Kenneally, From the Earth, 165–73 and 288–93.
34. Pilot, March 25, 1871.
35. Pilot, March 15, 1873.
36. Pilot, March 15, 1873.
37. O’Reilly had quit the Brotherhood after the failed Fenian raid on Canada, which took place in May 1870. This was a smaller version of the famous Fenian expedition of June 1866. O’Reilly took part in the 1870 raid, both as an officer and as a reporter for the Pilot. However, the Fenians were quickly repulsed by Canadian and British forces, and O’Reilly soon after left the Brotherhood, claiming that he was disgusted with the divisions within the organization.
38. Pilot, August 25, 1877.
39. Pilot, April 29, 1876.
40. Pilot, April 29, 1876.
41. Pilot, April 29, 1876.
42. Pilot, June 17, 1876.
43. Pilot, July 28, 1877; see also August 25, 1877.
44. Kevin Kenny, Making Sense of the Molly Maguires (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1998), 265.
45. Kenny, 240.
46. Pilot, February 28, 1880.
47. Pilot, August 10, 1878.
48. Pilot, January 18, 1879. The Pilot issued a rallying cry to its readers, dismissing commentators and politicians who claimed that any attempts to curtail the activities of large corporations would damage the economy: “It would not interfere with the return of ‘good times’ if the American people took advantage of their power and strangled a few monopolies.”
49. Arthur Mann, Yankee Reformers in the Urban Age (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press, 1974), 35.
50. Francis G. McManamin, The American Years of John Boyle O’Reilly, 1870–1890 (New York: Arno Press, 1976), 202–3.
51. Pilot, January 22, 1887.
52. Pilot, May 10, 1873.
53. Steven Bernard Leiken, The Practical Utopians: American Workers and the Cooperative Movement in the Gilded Age (Detroit, MI: Wayne State Univ. Press, 2005), 54.
54. Pilot, August 4, 1877.
55. Pilot, January 2, 1875.
56. James J. Kenneally, “Catholicism and Women Suffrage in Massachusetts,” Catholic Historical Review 53, no. 1 (April 1967): 43.
57. Pilot, February 24, 1883.
58. Katherine E. Conway and Mabel Ward Cameron, Charles Francis Donnelly: A Memoir (New York: James T. White, 1909), 30–31.
59. Hasia Diner, Erin’s Daughters in America: Irish Immigrant Women in the Nineteenth Century (Baltimore: John Hopkins Univ. Press, 1983), 139–53.
60. Rev. O. B. Frothingham, John Boyle O’Reilly, et al., Woman Suffrage, Unnatural and Inexpedient (Boston: [publisher not identified], 1886). O’Reilly’s contribution to the pamphlet was dated February 11, 1886.
61. John Boyle O’Reilly, “What Has Ireland Gained by Agitation,” American Catholic Quarterly Review 8 (October 1883): 715.
62. Pilot, April 18, 1885.
63. Pilot, April 18, 1885.
64. Pilot, April 18, 1885.
65. James Jeffrey Roche, Life of John Boyle O’Reilly: Together with His Complete Poems and Speeches (Philadelphia: John J. McVey, 1891), 227.
66. O’Reilly composed four volumes of poetry: Songs from the Southern Seas and Other Poems; Songs, Legends and Ballads; The Statues in the Block and Other Poems; and In Bohemia. He also wrote one novel, Moondyne, and coauthored another, The King’s Men. His final book was the nonfiction Ethics of Boxing and Manly Sport.
67. See American Newspaper Directory (New York: George P. Rowell, 1872), American Newspaper Annual (Philadelphia: N. W. Ayer & Sons, 1880), and American Newspaper Annual (Philadelphia: N. W. Ayer & Sons, 1889).
68. Kenneally, From the Earth, 296–311.
69. Pilot, January 3, 1891.
1. Pierre Nora, Realms of Memory: Rethinking the French Past (New York: Columbia Univ. Press, 1996), 3.
2. Janice Hume, “Memory Matters: The Evolution of Scholarship in Collective Memories and Mass Communications,” Review of Communication 10, no. 3 (July 2010): 183.
3. Laura D. Kelley, The Irish in New Orleans (Lafayette: Univ. of Louisiana at Lafayette Press, 2014), 20.
4. Margaret Varnell Clark, The Louisiana Irish: A Historical Collection (New York: iUniverse, 2007), 38.
5. Clark, 38.
6. Kelley, Irish in New Orleans, 35.
7. Dennis Clark, The Irish in Philadelphia: Ten Generations of Urban Experience (Philadelphia: Temple Univ. Press, 1973), 66.
8. Daily Orleanian, October 20, 1850, quoted in Earl F. Niehaus, The Irish in New Orleans, 1800–1860 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State Univ. Press, 1965), 27.
9. Louisiana Advertiser, December 14, 1830, quoted in Niehaus, Irish in New Orleans, 27; Dennis Clark, Irish in Philadelphia, 66.
10. Tyrone Power, Impressions of America: During the Years 1833, 1834, and 1835 (London: Richard Bentley, 1836), 138.
11. Power, 139.
12. Power, 141.
13. Power, 140.
14. Daily Orleanian, October 20, 1850, quoted in Niehaus, Irish in New Orleans, 27.
15. Mercantile Advertiser (New York), February 28, 1834, quoted in Niehaus, Irish in New Orleans, 46.
16. Edward H. Barton, Account of the Epidemic Yellow Fever Which Prevailed in New Orleans during the Autumn of 1833 (Philadelphia: Joseph R. A. Skerrett, 1834).
17. Meigs O. Frost, Times-Picayune (New Orleans, LA), July 18, 1937, 2.
18. Frost, 33.
19. Frost, 2.
20. Frost, 33.
21. Frost, 33.
22. Diane Farrell, Times-Picayune (New Orleans, LA), February 12, 1950.
23. William E. Keith, Times-Picayune (New Orleans, LA), May 1, 1952.
24. Clarence Doucet, Times-Picayune (New Orleans, LA), July 30, 1965.
25. Times-Picayune (New Orleans, LA), August 28, 1967.
26. William Borders, “Ireland’s Lynch Goes Home to Hear Sour Political Music,” New York Times, November 18, 1979.
27. Joan I. Duffy, Times-Picayune (New Orleans, LA), November 11, 1979.
28. Damon Veach, Times-Picayune (New Orleans, LA), November 20, 1983.
29. Nell Nolan, “Social Scene,” Times-Picayune (New Orleans, LA), May 31, 1988.
30. Mary Lou Widmer, “Death by the Lakes of Pontchartrain,” Irish America, February 1988, quoted in Times-Picayune (New Orleans, LA), May 15, 1988.
31. Widmer, “Death by the Lakes.”
32. Niehaus, Irish in New Orleans, 46.
33. Mary Lou Widmer, Lace Curtain (New York: Jove Books, 1985), 121.
34. Widmer, 282.
35. Widmer, 248.
36. Melinda Daffin, “Remembering O’Flaherty’s, a Real Irish Pub in the French Quarter,” March 16, 2019, https://www.nola.com/entertainment_life/article_e26cadb7-c3ba-5003-8fdb-3d9c5f5f6336.html.
37. Danny O’Flaherty, interview by the author, May 29, 2017.
38. O’Flaherty, interview.
39. It is not known how many were sold; no newspaper mentioned the poster again.
40. Mary Queen Donnelly, “Irish Descendants are Facing a Monumental Task,” Times-Picayune (New Orleans, LA), March 15, 1988.
41. Times-Picayune (New Orleans, LA), March 23, 1988.
42. Times-Picayune (New Orleans, LA), March 23, 1988.
43. Adrian McGrath, “The New Basin Canal, 1832–1838,” Old NOLA Journal (blog), July 3, 2012, http://oldnolajournal.blogspot.com/2012/07/new-basin-canal-1832-1838.html.
44. Kelley, Irish in New Orleans, 36.
45. Troy Gilbert, “Nearly Lost, but Not Forgotten,” Irish America, December/January 2007, https://irishamerica.com/2007/01/nearly-lost-but-not-forgotten/.
46. Carolyn Scanlon, quoted in Gilbert, “Nearly Lost.”
47. Irish Government News Service, “Minister Humphreys Travels to Atlanta and New Orleans and International Famine Commemoration,” November 3, 2014.
48. Simon Carswell, “Feast and Famine as Minister Addresses Irish in New Orleans,” Irish Times, November 10, 2014.
49. Mary Lou Widmer, Margaret: Friend of Orphans (New Orleans: Pelican, 1998), 53.
50. Widmer, 15–23.
51. Widmer, 121.
52. Widmer, 123.
53. Janice Hume, “Building an American Story: How Early American Historians Used Press Sources to Remember the Revolution,” Journalism History 37, no. 3 (Fall 2011): 178.
1. Yvonne C. Garrett, “From the Trail of Tears to the Famine Road: The Choctaw Nation’s Gift to Irish Famine Relief,” May 4, 2015, https://www.academia.edu/25302243/From_the_Trail_of_Tears_to_the_Famine_Road_The_Choctaw_Nations_Gift_to_Irish_Famine_Relief.
2. Garrett.
3. Garrett.
4. Donna L. Akers, Living in the Land of Death: The Choctaw Nation, 1830–1860 (East Lansing: Michigan State Univ. Press, 2004).
5. Akers, 1.
6. Akers, 2.
7. Akers, 2.
8. Akers, 9.
9. Akers, 9.
10. “Irish Leader to Visit Oklahoma Tribe Who Sent Ireland Famine Aid,” Irish Central (Dublin), March 9, 2018; Sean MacEachaidh, email interview by the author, October 4, 2018. Email in possession of the author. MacEachaidh is the curator at the Andrew Jackson House in Carrickfergus, Northern Ireland.
11. Akers, Living in the Land of Death, 11.
12. Akers, 88.
13. Boston Recorder, November 18, 1829.
14. Boston Recorder, November 18, 1829.
15. Boston Recorder, November 18, 1829.
16. Cherokee Phoenix and Indians Advocate (New Town, GA), April 7, 1830, 4.
17. Cherokee Phoenix and Indians Advocate (New Town, GA), April 7, 1830, 4.
18. Akers, Living in the Land of Death, 89.
19. Statesmen and Gazette (Natchez, MS), November 3, 1830.
20. United States Telegraph (Washington, DC) October 16, 1830.
21. Akers, Living in the Land of Death, 89.
22. Akers, 90.
23. Akers, 90.
24. Akers, 91.
25. Akers, 91.
26. Akers, 92.
27. United States Telegraph (Washington, DC), October 16, 1830.
28. Farmers Cabinet (Amherst, NH), April 2, 1831.
29. Cherokee Phoenix and Indians Advocate (New Town, GA), April 7, 1830, 4.
30. Gloria Jahoda, The Trail of Tears (New York: Wings Books, 1995), 74.
31. Akers, Living in the Land of Death, 94.
32. Akers, 112.
33. Akers, 112.
34. David M. Emmons, Beyond the American Pale: The Irish in the West, 1845–1910 (Norman: Univ. of Oklahoma Press, 2010), 139.
35. Emmons, 144.
36. Emmons, 145.
37. Emmons, 145.
38. Emmons, 146.
39. Susan Campbell Bartoletti, Black Potatoes: The Story of the Great Irish Famine, 1845–1850 (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 2001), 30.
40. Belfast News Letter, March 3, 1837.
41. Belfast News Letter, March 3, 1837.
42. Bartoletti, Black Potatoes, 30–31.
43. Bartoletti, 31.
44. Bartoletti, 31.
45. Bartoletti, 1.
46. Bartoletti, 1.
47. Bartoletti, 35.
48. Kerry Evening Post (Tralee, Ireland), October 22, 1845.
49. Belfast Newsletter, September 12, 1845.
50. Nation (Dublin), August 15, 1846.
51. Nation (Dublin), August 15, 1846.
52. Tuam Herald, November 28, 1846.
53. Bartoletti, Black Potatoes, 35.
54. Bartoletti, 35.
55. John Kelly, The Graves Are Walking: The Great Famine and the Saga of the Irish People (New York: Henry Holt, 2012), 255.
56. Kelly, 255–56.
57. Kelly, 255.
58. Irish Examiner (Cork), September 13, 1847.
59. Irish Examiner (Cork), September 13, 1847.
60. Irish Examiner (Cork), September 13, 1847.
61. Wisconsin Democrat (Madison, WI), May 1, 1847.
62. Arthur Gribben, The Great Famine and the Irish Diaspora in America (Amherst: Univ. of Massachusetts Press, 1999), 89.
63. Gribben, 89.
64. Gribben, 89.
65. Emmons, Beyond the American Pale, 149.
66. Kerry Evening Post (Tralee, Ireland), February 27, 1847.
67. Wisconsin Democrat (Madison, WI), May 1, 1847.
68. Wisconsin Democrat (Madison, WI), May 1, 1847.
69. New England Puritan (Boston, MA), March 4, 1847.
70. Belfast Newsletter, June 18, 1847.
71. Martin McGuiness, “Foreword” in Touched by Thunder by Waylon Gary White Deer (Walnut Creek, CA: Left Coast Press, 2013), 8.
72. McGuiness, 8.
73. “Sculpture Marks Choctaw Generosity to Irish Famine Victims,” British Broadcasting Network (Europe), June 18, 2017, http://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-40304645.
74. “Sculpture Marks.”
75. “Sculpture Marks.”
76. Cliodhna Russell, “Choctaw Chief to Visit Sculpture That Commemorates His Nation’s Generosity during Irish Famine,” The Journal.ie, https://www.the journal.ie/choctaw-memorial-kindred-spirits-midleton-cork-3445847-Jun2017/.
77. Stanley Heller, “The Choctaw Gift to the Starving Irish,” Indian Country Today, March 18, 2014, https://newsmaven.io/indiancountrytoday/archive/the-choctaw-gift-to-the-starving-irish-aenL15MWFkmarxUr0Q2gLw/.
78. “Sculpture in Ireland Honors Choctaw Nation,” July 3, 2017, https://www.choctawnation.com/news-events/press-media/sculpture-ireland-honors-choctaw-nation.
79. “Sculpture in Ireland.”
80. “Sculpture in Ireland.”
81. “How Choctaw Indians Raised Money for Irish Great Hunger Relief,” Irish Central (Dublin), October 13, 2015.
82. “Irish Prime Minister Visits Choctaw Nation,” March 12, 2018, https://www.choctawnation.com/news-events/press-media/irish-prime-minister-visits-choctaw-nation.
83. “Irish Prime Minister.”
84. “Irish Prime Minister.” Note: “Taoiseach” means prime minister in Irish Gaelic.
85. White Deer, Touched by Thunder, 159.
1. The author would like to thank the Office of Faculty Development and Teaching Excellence at Augusta University for funding a portion of this work.
2. “In Memory of John Mitchel,” Nation (Dublin), May 8, 1875.
3. Kevin Grieves, Journalism across Boundaries: The Promises and Challenges of Transnational and Transborder Journalism (New York: Palgrave MacMillan, 2012), 24–25.
4. Gaye Tuchman, Making News: A Study in the Construction of Reality (New York: Free Press, 1978); Ulf Hannerz, Transnational Connections: Culture, People, Places (London: Routledge, 1996), 122.
5. Michael Schudson, “Four Approaches to the Sociology of News,” in Mass Media and Society, ed. James Curran and Michael Gurevitch (London: Hodder Arnold, 2005), 187.
6. Marcel Broersma, “Transnational Journalism History: Balancing Global Universals and National Peculiarities,” Medien & Zeit 25, no. 4 (2010): 11; Grieves, Journalism across Boundaries, 8.
7. Steven A. Channing, Crisis of Fear: Secession in South Carolina (New York: W. W. Norton, 1974), 20, 21, 24, 74, 76; Stefan Kieniewicz, “The Social Visage of Poland in 1848,” Slavonic and East European Review 27, no. 68 (December 1948): 91.
8. Broersma, “Transnational Journalism History,” 10.
9. “A Week Later from England,” Courier (Boston, MA), June 12, 1848, 2; “Bold Talk—Treason in Ireland,” Daily Advertiser (Newark, NJ), June 1, 1848, 2; “Later from Europe,” Republican Farmer (Bridgeport, CT), June 13, 1848, 3; “One Day’s Dirty Work,” New York Herald June 20, 1848, 1; “Arrival of John Mitchel at Bermuda,” Times-Picayune (New Orleans, LA), July 7, 1848, 2.
10. Daily Journal (Lafayette, IN), February 11, 1854, 2.
11. “Bold Talk,” 2.
12. “The Irish and the Eastern War,” Baltimore Sun, March 28, 1854, 2.
13. “News of the Day,” Alexandria Gazette (VA), June 23, 1854, 2.
14. Glenn C. Altschuler and Stuart M. Blumin, Rude Republic: Americans and Their Politics in the Nineteenth Century (Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press, 2000), 3–4.
15. John R. McKivigan, Abolitionism and American Politics and Government (New York: Garland, 1999), 12.
16. Cong. Globe, 35th Cong., 1st Sess. 441 (1858); McKivigan, Abolitionism, 12.
17. Ian Delahanty, “‘A Noble Empire in the West’: Young Ireland, the United States and Slavery,” Britain and the World 6, no. 2 (2013): 176–77.
18. “Mr. Haughton to Mr. Meagher Sends Greetings,” Irish Citizen (New York), January 14, 1854.
19. Liam Hogan, “John Mitchel Was Hailed as a Totem for Irish Liberty . . . but He Was a White Supremacist,” Journal (Dublin), January 18, 2014, http://www.the journal.ie/readme/john-mitchel-was-hailed-as-a-totem-for-irish-liberty-but-he-was-a-white-supremacist-1266182-Jan2014/.
20. Bryan P. McGovern, John Mitchel: Irish Nationalist, Southern Secessionist (Knoxville: Univ. of Tennessee Press, 2009), 119, 129; Ann Tucker, “Newest Born of Nations: Southern Thought on European Nationalisms and the Creation of the Confederacy, 1820–1860,” (PhD diss., Univ. of Southern California, 2014), 56; Anthony Russell, “Should Irish Slavery Supporter John Mitchel’s Statue in Newry Be Taken Down?,” Irish Times, February 7, 2018, https://www.irishtimes.com/culture/books/should-irish-slavery-supporter-john-mitchel-s-statue-in-newry-be-taken-down-1.3382077.
21. McGovern, John Mitchel, 119.
22. “Mr. Haughton to Mr. Meagher Sends Greetings.”
23. “Affairs in Europe,” Charleston Mercury (SC), December 25, 1860, 2.
24. “Interesting from Europe,” Charleston Mercury (SC), December 23, 1861, 1; “Affairs in Europe,” Charleston Mercury (SC), August 24, 1861, 1.
25. “Distinguished Arrival,” Semi-Weekly Raleigh Register (NC), October 22, 1862, 2. Reprinted from the Richmond Enquirer.
26. “John Mitchel among the Rebels,” New York Herald, April 18, 1863, 4; “Jeff Davis’s Chief Defamer of the North,” New Haven Daily Palladium, August 1, 1863, 1; McGovern, John Mitchel, 181.
27. McGovern, John Mitchel, 176; Richmond Enquirer (VA), March 17, July 25, September 5, and October 16, 1863.
28. “Fort Sumter Captured,” Vermont Watchman and State Journal (Montpelier), August 28, 1863, 2.
29. “Letter from John Mitchel,” Semi-Weekly Raleigh Register (NC), March 4, 1863, 1.
30. “Letter from John Mitchel.”
31. “Letter from John Mitchel.”
32. McGovern, John Mitchel, 184–85.
33. McGovern, 185–210, 216.
34. Brendan Ó Cathaoir, “An Irishman’s Diary on John Mitchel, a Contentious Patriot,” Irish Times (Dublin), November 3, 2015, https://www.irishtimes.com/opinion/an-irishman-s-diary-on-john-mitchel-a-contentious-patriot-1.2414491.
35. Anthony Russell, “John Mitchel: Flawed Hero,” History Ireland: 24, no. 1 (January–February 2016): 30–33.
36. “John Mitchel: A Rebel with Two Causes Remembered,” Irish News (Belfast), July 11, 2015.
37. Nation (Dublin), February 13 and 20, 1875.
38. Tucker, “Newest Born of Nations,” 55–56, 65, 97, 102.
39. Tucker, 64–65.
40. “John Mitchel (1815–1875): Young Irelander, a Felon of our Land, Author, Publisher, Supporter of the Confederacy,” Fenian Graves, posted August 24, 2010, http://feniangraves.net/Mitchel,%20John/Mitchel,%20John.htm; Ó Cathaoir, “An Irishman’s Diary.”
41. O’Connor, John Mitchel, 302.
42. John F. Kvach, DeBow’s Review: The Antebellum Vision of a New South (Lexington: Univ. Press of Kentucky, 2013), 131.
43. “In Memory of John Mitchel.”
44. John Quinn, “Southern Citizen: John Mitchel, the Confederacy and Slavery,” History Ireland 15, no. 3 (2007): 30–35, http://www.historyireland.com/18th-19th-century-history/southern-citizen-john-mitchel-the-confederacy-and-slavery/.
45. Steven R. Knowlton, “The Politics of John Mitchel: A Reappraisal,” Éire-Ireland 22, no. 2 (Summer 1987): 38–55, 40; Émile Montégut, John Mitchel: A Study of Irish Nationalism, translated and edited by J. M. Hone (Dublin: Maunsel, 1915), 27, 13; James Quinn, “John Mitchel and the Rejection of the 19th Century,” Éire-Ireland 38, nos. 3/4 (2003): 95.
46. “John Martin,” Nation (Dublin), April 3, 1875.
1. “John Bull’s Irish Relations,” Texas Siftings, September 8, 1883. For background on the problem of absentee, Anglican landowners, the land-lease system in Ireland, and the burden that high rents placed on tenant farmers, see Jay P. Dolan, The Irish Americans (New York: Bloomsbury Press, 2008), 5–7.
2. For more on the types of caricatures and stereotypes common among American periodicals in the late 1800s, see Worth Robert Miller, Populist Cartoons: An Illustrated History of the Third Party Movement in the 1890s (Kirksville, MO: Truman State Univ. Press, 2001), 16–21.
3. Kerry Soper, “From Swarthy Ape to Sympathetic Everyman and Subversive Trickster: The Development of Irish Caricature in American Comic Strips between 1890 and 1920,” Journal of American Studies 39, no. 2 (2005): 258.
4. Martha Banta, Barbaric Intercourse: Caricature and Culture of Conduct, 1841–1936 (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press, 2003), 7; L. Perry Curtis, Apes and Angels: The Irishman in Victorian Caricature (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1971).
5. Soper, “From Swarthy Ape,” 264.
6. Kathleen Diane McGuire, “The Transatlantic Paddy: The Making of Transnational Irish Identity in Nineteenth-Century America,” (PhD diss., Univ. of California, Riverside, 2009), 2; Dale Knobel, Paddy and the Republic: Ethnicity and Nationality in Antebellum America (Middletown, CT: Wesleyan Univ. Press, 1986), 15–16.
7. Soper, “From Swarthy Ape,” 260. The San Francisco humor magazine, the Wasp, was particularly vicious in its verbal and visual depictions of the Chinese during the late nineteenth century. For a scholarly assessment, see Nicholas Sean Hall, “The Wasp’s ‘Troublesome Children,’” California History 90, no. 2 (January 2013): 42–63.
8. Joseph Boskin and Joseph Dorinson, “Ethnic Humor: Subversion and Survival,” American Quarterly 37, no. 1 (1985): 81.
9. Leonard Dinnerstein and David M. Reimers, Ethnic Americans: A History of Immigration, 5th ed. (New York: Columbia Univ. Press, 2009), 2, 18, 24.
10. Boskin and Dorinson, “Ethnic Humor,” 81.
11. Stephen A. Brighton, “Degrees of Alienation: The Material Evidence of the Irish and Irish American Experience, 1850–1910,” Historical Archaeology 42, no. 4 (2007): 132–53, 133; Avtar Brah, Cartographies of Diaspora: Contesting Identities (London: Routledge, 1996), 190.
12. See Kevin Grieves on the definitions and implications of transnational journalism. Kevin Grieves, Journalism across Boundaries: The Promises and Challenges of Transnational and Transborder Journalism (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012), 8.
13. Joseph Keppler, the German editor and cartoonist for Puck magazine, was similarly supportive of German immigrants in his publication, if they were not Jewish, but often was hostile to other immigrant groups. For more on Keppler, see Richard Samuel West, Satire on Stone: The Political Cartoons of Joseph Keppler (Urbana: Univ. of Illinois Press, 1988); Michael Alexander Kahn and Richard Samuel West, Puck: What Fools These Mortals Be (San Diego: IDW, 2014).
14. Walter Blair, “Traditions in Southern Humor,” in Essays on American Humor, ed. Hamlin Hill (Madison: Univ. of Wisconsin Press, 1993), 15.
15. Robert K. Dodge, “The Irish Comic Stereotype in the Almanacs of the Early Republic,” Eire-Ireland 19, no. 3 (1984): 112.
16. James L. Ford, “The Evolution of American Humor,” Collier’s Illustrated Weekly 30, no. 18 (1903): 21; Frank Luther Mott concurred, noting the period from 1885 to 1905 was “unique in having so many humorous journals of high quality.” See Frank Luther Mott, A History of American Magazines, 1885–1905, vol. 4 (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 1957), 383.
17. Ford, “Evolution of American Humor,” 21; Mott, History of American Magazines, 383–85.
18. “New York’s Comic Papers,” Hamilton Literary Monthly 30 (April 1896): 284–85.
19. David Reed, The Popular Magazine in Britain and the United States of America, 1880–1960 (Toronto: Univ. of Toronto Press, 1997), 50–51.
20. Ford, “Evolution of American Humor,” 21.
21. Historian Frank Luther Mott’s multivolume history of American magazines provides a solid accounting of the nation’s national and regional humor magazines of the nineteenth century. For his analysis of Texas Siftings, see Frank Luther Mott, A History of American Magazines 1885–1905, vol. 4 (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 1957), 385.
22. Leland Krauth, “Mark Twain: The Victorian of Southwestern Humor,” in Humor of the Old South, ed. Thomas M. Inge and Edward J. Piacentino (Lexington: Univ. Press of Kentucky, 2001), 223; Carolyn S. Brown, The Tall Tale in American Folklore and Literature (Knoxville: Univ. of Tennessee Press, 1987), 5; Hennig Cohen and William B. Dillingham, Humor of the Old Southwest, 2nd ed. (Athens: Univ. of Georgia Press, 1975), xvii.
23. Virginia Eisenhour, Alex Sweet’s Texas: The Lighter Side of Lone Star History (Austin: Univ. of Texas Press, 1986), 191. Americans’ fascination with the West and its mythology led to the rise of such showman as William F. “Buffalo Bill” Cody and his stage show. For more, see Joy S. Kasson, Buffalo Bill’s Wild West: Celebrity, Memory, and Popular History (New York: Hill and Wang, 2000), 62.
24. David Pickering, Texas Siftings and Texas Journalism (Austin: Univ. of Texas Press, 1976), v.
25. Pickering, 4. Unlike most of their fellow literary comedians, Sweet and Knox used their own personas in sketches rather than creating new characters and writing from those imagined perspectives. But, like their fellow journalist-humorists, Sweet’s and Knox’s sketches demonstrate the men were well traveled and well read. David B. Kesterson, “Those Literary Comedians,” in Critical Essays on American Humor, ed. William Bedford Clark and W. Craig Turner (Boston: G. K. Hall, 1984), 167–83.
26. Mary M. Cronin, “Sifting Comic Wheat from Western Chaff: Alex E. Sweet, John Armoy Knox, and the Humor of the American West,” in The Funniest Pages: International Perspectives on Journalism and Humor, ed. David Swick and Richard Lance Keeble (New York: Peter Lang, 2016), 53–66; Eisenhour, Alex Sweet’s Texas; Pickering, Texas Siftings and Texas Journalism; Ernest B. Speck, “Alex Sweet: Comic Journalist from Texas,” Texas Press Messenger 46 (1971): 6–8; William R. Linneman, “Colonel Bill Snort: A Texas Jack Downing,” Southwestern Historical Quarterly 64, no. 1 (1961): 185–99.
27. Charles Henry Smith, Joshua Billings, Charles Farrar Browne, and Mark Twain all capitalized on their popularity and lectured to vast crowds. David B. Parker, Alias Bill Arp: Charles Henry Smith and the South’s Goodly Heritage (Athens: Univ. of Georgia Press, 2009), 38.
28. Eisenhour, Alex Sweet’s Texas, xvii; David Pickering notes that within one to two years of the publication’s founding, Texas Siftings “was no longer the state paper its editors had intended it to be, but a successful national journal that was engaging less and ever less in ‘Texas Sifting.’” Pickering, Texas Siftings and Texas Journalism, 2.
29. James E. Caron, Mark Twain, Unsanctified Newspaper Reporter (Columbia: Univ. of Missouri Press, 2008), 52; Kesterson, “Those Literary Comedians,” 167–83.
30. “Alex Edwin Sweet,” Vancouver Independent (Vancouver, BC), December 20, 1883.
31. “Sweet, Alexander Edwin,” Appleton’s Annual Cyclopaedia and Register of Important Events of the Year 1901, vol. 6 (New York: D. Appleton, 1902), 470.
32. Eisenhour, Alex Sweet’s Texas, xii–xiii; “Sweet, Alexander Edwin,” The National Cyclopedia of American Biography, vol. 6 (New York: James T. White, 1896), 31.
33. John Fowler, James P. Newcomb: Texas Journalist and Political Leader (Austin: Department of Journalism Development Program, 1976), 82–83.
34. Speck, “Alex Sweet,” 6.
35. “J. Armoy Knox,” Folio 28, no. 4 (1885): 139.
36. “Death of a Distinguished Ulsterman,” Belfast Evening Telegram, January 9, 1907. The obituary notes that a year of living in Texas “served completely to restore him to sound health again.”
37. Harriett Smither, “Knox, John Armoy,” Handbook of Texas Online, uploaded June 15, 2010, http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/fkn06. Knox’s obituary also noted that he immigrated for a better climate; however, so little biographical material is available on Knox that it’s unknown where he was from 1871 to 1874 when he arrived in Texas. Nor is there any information on why Knox did not want to follow his father into the family’s grain business.
38. M. Mark Stolarik, Forgotten Doors: The Other Ports of Entry to the United States (Philadelphia: Balch Institute Press, 1988), 137. Numerous ferries ran regular routes between New Orleans and several Texas coastal cities.
39. Graham Davis, “Models of Migration: The Historiography of the Irish Pioneers in South Texas,” Southwestern Historical Quarterly 99, no. 3 (1996): 326–49.
40. Phillip L. Fry, “Irish,” Handbook of Texas Online, last modified April 10, 2019, http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/pii01.
41. Austin Texas Government, accessed August 24, 2019, https://www.austintexas.gov/sites/default/files/files/Planning/Demographics/population_history_pub.pdf. That population would grow to 11,013 by 1880.
42. In 1875 the census counted 757 inhabitants from Germany, 297 from Mexico, 215 from Ireland, and 138 from Sweden. For more information, see David C. Humphrey, “Austin, TX (Travis County),” Handbook of Texas Online, last modified October 23, 2018, http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/hda03.
43. “J. Armoy Knox,” 139; New York Clipper Annual for 1890 (New York: Frank Queen, 1890), 8.
44. Leon C. Metz, John Wesley Hardin: Dark Angel of Texas (Norman: Univ. of Oklahoma Press, 1998), 332. The brief sketch from Folio notes on page 139 that Knox met Sweet in 1880, but the accuracy of this statement can’t be confirmed. Texas’s journalistic circle was a relatively small one.
45. “Alexander Edwin Sweet,” Vancouver Independent (Vancouver, BC), December 20, 1883, 6.
46. N. W. Ayer & Son’s American Newspaper Annual (Philadelphia: N. W. Ayer & Son, 1888), 781.
47. N. W. Ayer & Son’s American Newspaper Annual (Philadelphia: N. W. Ayer & Son, 1890), 515.
48. See the 1888 issue of N. W. Ayer & Son’s American Newspaper Annual, pages 779–80, 508, and 512, for circulation figures for the above-mentioned magazines.
49. Ernest Speck, “Alex Sweet,” 6.
50. Ernest B. Speck, “Texas Siftings,” Handbook of Texas Online, last modified January 30, 2020, http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/edt16.
51. Throughout the nineteenth century, the American press engaged in an extensive normative practice of reprinting other writers’ and publications’ work, not always with credit. Texas Siftings always listed bylines for its authors or sources of its material, except for work produced by Sweet, Knox, and the periodical’s other editors. For more on the origins of the culture of reprinting and its economic and literary controversies, see Meredith L. McGill, American Literature and the Culture of Reprinting, 1834–1853 (Philadelphia: Univ. of Pennsylvania Press, 2003); Peter Baldwin, The Copyright Wars: Three Centuries of Trans-Atlantic Battles (Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press, 2014), 119–22. At a time when copyright laws were lax, Sweet’s jokes, anecdotes, and comic sketches of the 1870s were reprinted by newspapers in the United States, Australia, and several European countries, which brought him to international popularity.
52. Kesterson, “Those Literary Comedians,” 167–74; Edward J. Piacentino, “Sleepy Hollow” Comes South: Washington Irving’s Influence on Old Southwestern Humor,” in Humor of the Old South, ed. Thomas M. Inge and Edward J. Piacentino (Lexington: Univ. Press of Kentucky, 2001), 22–35.
53. Kesterson, “Those Literary Comedians,” 168–74, 179.
54. Speck, “Alex Sweet,” 7.
55. Eisenhour, Alex Sweet’s Texas, xv.
56. US Census Bureau, “Nativity of the Population and Place of Birth of the Native Population: 1850 to 1990,” internet release date March 9, 1999, http://www.census.gov/population/www/documentation/twps0029/tab01.html.
57. Noel Ignatiev notes that from 1815 until the first famine in the late 1840s, between eight hundred thousand and one million Irish sailed for America, up to two-thirds of whom were from Ulster. Noel Ignatiev, How the Irish Became White (New York: Routledge, 1995), 38.
58. Dolan, Irish Americans, 10.
59. Dinnerstein and Reimers, Ethnic Americans, 25; Brighton, “Degrees of Alienation,” 134; John Higham, Strangers in the Land, 5–6.
60. D. Gregory Van Dussen, “An American Response to Irish Catholic Immigration: The Methodist Quarterly Review, 1830–1870,” Methodist History 10, no. 1: 21–22.
61. Van Dussen, 25.
62. Higham, Strangers in the Land, 5–6.
63. Van Dussen, “An American Response,” 22. Fear of Irish Catholic loyalties to the United States led to the establishment of a number of anti-Catholic groups, like the American Protective Association, a group that died by 1896. Also see Donald L. Kinzer, An Episode in Anti-Catholicism: The American Protective Association (Seattle: Univ. of Washington Press, 1964), 93–94.
64. James H. Dormon, “Ethnic Stereotyping in American Popular Culture: The Depiction of American Ethnics in the Cartoon Periodicals of the Gilded Age,” Amerikastudien 30, no. 4 (1985): 489.
65. Michael de Nie, The Eternal Paddy: Irish Identity and the British Press, 1798–1882 (Madison: Univ. of Wisconsin Press, 2004), 5.
66. Dodge, “Irish Comic Stereotype,” 111.
67. Dodge, 114.
68. Dodge, 114.
69. Soper, “From Swarthy Ape,” 259; William Murrel, A History of American Graphic Humor (New York: Cooper Square, 1967), 5; Curtis, Apes or Angels, xii; Miller, Populist Cartoons, 16; Banta, Barbaric Intercourse, 7; Dormon, “Ethnic Stereotyping,” 490. Joshua Brown, a leading scholar on the nineteenth-century American pictorial press, notes that wood-engraved news imagery was a “social process.” “Over time, it was altered and mediated by a rapidly changing social context and the demands of readers.” Such stereotypes and depictions influenced reader’s beliefs about minorities and immigrants. While Harper’s magazine attracted a readership that was wealthier, Frank Leslie’s Illustrated Newspaper attracted “the broad ‘middle,’ an elastic range of readers that, in the mid-nineteenth century, stretched from mechanics to merchants.” Joshua Brown, “Reconstructing Representation: Social Types, Readers, and the Pictorial Press, 1865–1877,” Radical History Review 66, no. 5 (1996): 6–7.
70. Robert L. Gambone, Life on the Press: The Popular Art and Illustrations of George Benjamin Luks (Jackson: Univ. Press of Mississippi, 2009), 64.
71. Brown, “Reconstructing Representation,” 10; Elizabeth Johns, American Genre Painting: The Politics of Everyday Life (New Haven, CT: Yale Univ. Press, 1991), 1–23.
72. Dormon, “Ethnic Stereotyping,” 494.
73. John J. Appel, “From Shanties to Lace Curtains: The Irish Image in Puck, 1876–1910,” Comparative Studies in Society and History 13, no. 4 (1971): 367; Kathleen Donovan, “Good Old Pat: An Irish-American Stereotype in Decline,” Eire-Ireland 15, no. 3 (1980): 6.
74. Appel, “From Shanties to Lace Curtains,” 367.
75. Donovan, “Good Old Pat,” 9; Gambone, Life on the Press, 65–67.
76. Dormon, “Ethnic Stereotyping,” 492.
77. Brown, “Reconstructing Representation,” 5–6.
78. For more on revolutionary Irish nationalists and violence in the 1880s in Ireland and England and their supporters in America, see Niall Whelehan, Irish Nationalism and Political Violence in the Wider World, 1867–1900 (New York: Cambridge Univ. Press, 2012), 119; Deaglan O’Donghaile, Blasted Literature: Victorian Political Fiction and the Shock of Modernism (Edinburgh: Edinburgh Univ. Press, 2011), 3–4; Eileen Muccino, “Irish Filibusters and Know-Nothings in Cincinnati,” Ohio Valley History 10, no. 3 (2010), 4.
79. “General Comment,” Texas Siftings, March 29, 1884, 2.
80. Donal P. McCracken, Inspector Mallon: Buying Irish Patriotism for a Five Pound Note (Dublin: Irish Academic Press, 2009), 101–3.
81. “Editorial Brevities,” Texas Siftings, December 16, 1882, 1.
82. Texas Siftings, June 16, 1883, 1.
83. “Justice to Ireland,” Texas Siftings, January 23, 1886.
84. D. B. Knox, “The People of Ulster,” Texas Siftings, June 6, 1885, 6.
85. “Editorial Brevities, 1.”
86. Donovan, “Good Old Pat,” 10.
87. Many of the articles, sketches, and so-called two-line dialogues were illustrated. Although Texas Siftings had several illustrators on staff who often, but not always, depicted the subjects of the articles in stereotypical fashion, the periodical’s most famous illustrator was Thomas Worth, who, prior to his tenure at Texas Siftings, had penned illustrations for Harper’s and Frank Leslie. For a biographical sketch of Worth, see “Siftings’ Portrait Gallery,” Texas Siftings, August 9, 1890, 12.
88. Donovan notes that on occasion some American humor magazines of the late nineteenth century portrayed the Irish as deserving of getting back at opponents in clever, verbal fashion. See Donovan, “Good Old Pat,” 9, 11.
89. “Serving a Writ in Ireland,” Texas Siftings, January 6, 1883, 3.
90. Donovan, “Good Old Pat,” 10.
91. “A Pat Proverb,” Texas Siftings, December 12, 1885, 1; in the July 16, 1887, issue, “Bridget” is shown as no one’s fool. The two-line dialogue is as follows: Gypsy—“Give me fifty cents and I’ll tell your fortune.” Irishwoman—“Shure, an’ if I had Fifty Sints that would be fortune enough.”
92. “She Married a Lord,” Texas Siftings, April 2, 1887, 7.
93. Soper, “From Swarthy Ape,” 260. As Soper notes on page 261, the racist constructs implied “claims about biology and physiognomy.”
94. “Not to Be Caught a Second Time,” Texas Siftings, April 28, 1888, 3.
95. For example, see “Can’t Stand Jealousy,” Texas Siftings, December 22, 1888; “The New Year’s Card Basket,” Texas Siftings, December 29, 1888, 5.
96. “A Just Rebuke,” Texas Siftings, December 29, 1888, 14.
97. An online search reveals four plays credited to Knox: a comedy titled A Stuffed Dog that he cowrote with Edwin Atwell; another play titled Marcel; an Irish musical titled Shane-na-Law cowritten with J. C. Roach and with music by William J Scanlan; and A Comic Opera, in Three Acts, Entitled the False Prophet, cowritten with Charles McCoy Snyder and Robert August Stoepel. For more information, see New York Evening World, October 1, 1889; Philadelphia Times, September 8, 1889; New York Clipper Annual for 1890 (New York: Frank Queen, 1890); Smither, “Knox, John Armoy.”
98. “Famous Texas Editor Dead,” New York Times, December 20, 1906; “News and Notes,” Writer, January 1907, 16.
1. J. P. Rodechko, Patrick Ford and His Search for America: A Case Study of Irish American Journalism, 1870–1913 (New York: Arno Press, 1967), 49; Niall Whelehan, “Skirmishing, the Irish World, and Empire, 1876–86,” Éire-Ireland 42, nos. 1–2 (Spring–Summer 2007): 180–200.
2. Ayers Newspaper Annual and Directory (Philadelphia: N. W. Ayers & Sons) 1904; 1914, https://www.loc.gov/rr/news/news_research_tools/ayersdirectory.html.
3. Cian T. McMahon, “Caricaturing Race and Nation in the Irish American Press, 1870–1880: A Transnational Perspective,” Journal of American Ethnic History 33, no. 2 (Winter 2014): 36.
4. David Brundage, “‘In Time of Peace, Prepare for War’: Key Themes in the Social Thought of New York’s Irish-American Nationalists, 1900–1916,” in The New York Irish, ed. Ronald H. Bayor and Timothy J. Meagher (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press, 1996), 323.
5. Edward T. O’Donnell, “‘Though Not an Irishman’: Henry George and the American Irish,” American Journal of Economics and Sociology 56, no. 4 (1997): 410.
6. Úna Ní Bhroiméil, “Political Cartoons as Visual Opinion Discourse: The Rise and Fall of John Redmond in the Irish World,” in Ireland and the New Journalism, ed. Karen Steele and Michael de Nie (Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014), 119–40.
7. Mick Mulcrone, “Those Miserable Little Hounds: World War I Postal Censorship of the Irish World,” Journalism History 20, no. 1 (1994): 15–24.
8. The Irish World and American Industrial Liberator (Irish World), September 24, 1904.
9. Matthew J. Shaw, “Drawing on the Collections,” Journalism Studies 8, no. 5 (2007): 747–48.
10. Shaw, 747–48. Also see Mark W. Summers, Rum, Romanism, and Rebellion: The Making of a President, 1884 (Chapel Hill: Univ. of North Carolina Press, 2000) for a detailed account of the election.
11. Chris Lamb, “Drawing Power: The Limits of Editorial Cartoons in America,” Journalism Studies 8, no. 5 (2007): 720.
12. I cannot find any background information for Charles Pickett. For Thomas Fleming, see Ní Bhroiméil, “Political Cartoons,” 135n21.
13. Rachel Schreiber, “Before Their Makers and Their Judges: Prostitutes and White Slaves in the Political Cartoons of the ‘Masses’ (New York, 1911–1917),” Feminist Studies 33, no. 1 (Spring 2009): 167.
14. Janis L. Edwards and Laura Ware, “Representing the Public in Campaign Media: A Political Cartoon Perspective,” American Behavioral Scientist 49, no. 3 (November 2005): 470.
15. William A. Gamson and David Stuart, “Media Discourse as a Symbolic Contest: The Bomb in Political Cartoons,” Sociological Forum 7, no. 1 (1992): 64.
16. Elisabeth El Refaie, “Multiliteracies: How Readers Interpret Political Cartoons,” Visual Communication 8, no. 2 (2009): 181.
17. Joel H. Wiener, “Get the News! Get the News!: Speed in Transatlantic Journalism, 1830–1914,” in Anglo-American Media Interactions, 1850–2000, ed. Joel H. Wiener and Mark Hampton (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007), 54.
18. Ní Bhroiméil, “Political Cartoons,” 120.
19. Schreiber, “Before Their Makers,” 167.
20. Ria Wiid, Leyland F. Pitt, and Anne Engstrom, “Not So Sexy: Public Opinion of Political Sex Scandals as Reflected in Political Cartoons,” Journal of Public Affairs 11, no. 3 (2011): 138.
21. Martin J. Medhurst and Michael A. DeSousa, “Political Cartoons as Rhetorical Form: A Taxonomy of Graphic Discourse,” Communication Monographs 48 (1981): 205–13.
22. See, however, Roger Fischer for the perceived impact of Thomas Nast’s cartoons on William Tweed’s political career: Roger Fischer, Them Damned Pictures: Explorations in American Political Cartoon Art (North Haven, CT: Archon, 1996), 7.
23. Wiid, Pitt, and Engstrom, “Not So Sexy,” 138.
24. Fischer, Them Damned Pictures, 15.
25. Fischer, 122.
26. See Margaret E. Duffy, “Web of Hate: A Fantasy Theme Analysis of the Rhetorical Vision of Hate Groups Online,” Journal of Communication Inquiry 27, no. 3 (July 2003): 291–312. Cited in Fred Vultee, “Dr. FDR and Baby War: The World through Chicago Political Cartoons before and after Pearl Harbor,” Visual Communication Quarterly 14 (2007): 161; Martin Conboy, The Press and Popular Culture (London: Sage, 2002), 59.
27. William M. Benoit and John P. McHale, “Presidential Candidates’ Television Spots and Personal Qualities,” Southern Communication Journal 68, no. 4 (November 2003): 323.
28. Charles Press, The Political Cartoon (Rutherford, NJ: Fairleigh Dickinson Univ. Press, 1981), 68.
29. John L. Offner, “McKinley and the Spanish-American War,” Presidential Studies Quarterly 34, no. 1 (March 2004): 60.
30. Paul A. Kramer, “Decolonizing the History of the Philippine-American War,” http://www.paulkrameronline.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/wolffintro.pdf. (Introduction to Little Brown Brother: How the United States Purchased and Pacified The Philippine Islands at the Century’s Turn by Leon Wolff.)
31. Matthew J. Krogman, “Censorship: Spanish-American and Philippine-American Wars,” in The Encyclopedia of the Spanish-American and Philippine-American Wars: A Political, Social, and Military History, ed. Spencer C. Tucker (Santa Barbara, CA: ABC Clio, 2009) 106–7; Jerry Kennan and Spencer C. Tucker, “Othis, Elwell S.,” in The Encyclopedia of the Spanish-American and Philippine-American Wars, ed. Spencer C. Tucker, 457–58.
32. Stuart C. Miller, Benevolent Assimilation: The American Conquest of the Philippines, 1899–1903 (New Haven, CT: Yale Univ. Press, 1982), 104–29.
33. Carnegie endorsed McKinley in 1896 and 1900. See Jeff Taylor, Where Did the Party Go? William Jennings Bryan, Hubert Humphrey, and the Jeffersonian Legacy (Columbia: Univ. of Missouri Press, 2006), 139.
34. Shakespeare’s plays were on the curriculum of at least some public high schools in the United States. See, for example, Charles van Cleve, “The Teaching of Shakespeare in American Secondary Schools,” Peabody Journal of Education 15, no. 6 (May 1938): 333–50. Macbeth opened on Broadway on February 26, 1900, Internet Broadway Database, accessed April 30, 2018, https://www.ibdb.com/broadway-production/macbeth-5316.
35. Kristin L. Hoganson, Fighting for American Manhood: How Gender Politics Provoked the Spanish-American and Philippine-American Wars (New Haven, CT: Yale Univ. Press, 2000), 158–59.
36. Hoganson, 88–93.
37. This cartoon was published after the signing of the Philippine Organic Act, July 1, 1902.
38. Irish World (New York), October 29, 1904; Irish World (New York), November 26, 1904.
39. Irish World (New York), March 25, 1905.
40. Ironically, this board was funded by Andrew Carnegie, who was a bête noire of the Irish World because of his Anglophone tendencies.
41. Janis L. Edwards, “Running in the Shadows in Campaign 2000: Candidate Metaphors in Editorial Cartoons,” American Behavioral Scientist 44, no. 12 (2001): 2141.
42. Josh Greenberg, “Framing and Temporality in Political Cartoons: A Critical Analysis of Visual News Discourse,” Canadian Review of Sociology and Anthropology 39, no. 2 (2002): 181–98.
43. See for example Steven P. Erie, Rainbow’s End: Irish-Americans and the Dilemmas of Urban Machine Politics, 1840–1985 (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1990).
44. Summers, Rum, Romanism, and Rebellion, 217–19.
45. Marc-William Palen, “The Imperialism of Economic Nationalism, 1890–1913,” Diplomatic History 39, no. 1 (2015): 161n17.
46. Irish World (New York), October 4, 1890.
47. For example, the Wilson Gorman Tariff, 1894, and the Dingley Tariff, 1897.
48. Palen, “Imperialism of Economic Nationalism,” 29–31.
49. Interestingly, the use of the Democratic donkey symbol and the Republican elephant symbol are attributed mainly to the political cartoonist Thomas Nast. See “Why the Donkey vs. the Elephant?,” Radio Free Europe / Radio Liberty, November 6, 2012, https://www.rferl.org/a/us-politics-why-donkey-vs-elephant/24762343.html.
50. Irish World (New York), February 17, 1894.
51. Irish World (New York), September 24, 1904.
52. Irish World (New York), October 22, 1904.
53. In a hotly contested convention at St. Louis, Parker had defeated Randolph Hearst for the Democratic nomination. The eight-hour day was a central labor demand throughout this period.
54. Irish World (New York), October 29, 1904.
55. Irish World (New York), April 3, 1909; Irish World (New York), February 11, 1911.
56. “Cherry Tree Myth,” Digital Encyclopedia of George Washington, accessed April 24, 2018, http://www.mountvernon.org/digital-encyclopedia/article/cherry-tree-myth/.
57. Irish World (New York), April 22, 1905.
58. Stephen Tuffnell, “‘Uncle Sam Is to Be Sacrificed’: Anglophobia in Late Nineteenth-Century Politics and Culture,” American Nineteenth Century History 12, no. 1 (2011): 77–99, 77.
59. See Paul A. Kramer, “Empires, Exceptions, and Anglo-Saxons: Race and Rule between the British and United States Empires, 1880–1910,” Journal of American History 88, no. 4 (2002): 1315–53; Úna Ní Bhroiméil, “Anglo-American Rapprochement and Irish America: John Bull in the Irish World, 1909–14,” in Culture and Society in Ireland since 1750: Essays in Honour of Gearóid Ó Tuathaigh, ed. John Cunningham and Niall Ó Cíosáin (Dublin: Lilliput Press, 2015), 263–81; Úna Ní Bhroiméil, “‘Up with the American Flag in All the Glory of Its Stainless Honor’: Anti-Imperial Rhetoric in the Chicago Citizen, 1898–1902,” in Ireland in an Imperial World: Citizenship, Opportunism and Subversion, ed. Timothy G. McMahon, Michael de Nie, and Paul Townend (Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2017), 245–65.
60. Tuffnell, “‘Uncle Sam Is to Be Sacrificed,’” 81.
61. Irish World (New York), December 2, 1893.
62. Marc-William Palen, “Foreign Relations in the Gilded Age: A British Free-Trade Conspiracy?,” Diplomatic History 37, no. 2 (2013): 235.
63. Irish World (New York), September 24, 1904.
64. Irish World (New York), October 22, 1904.
65. See Edmund Rogers, “The United States and the Fiscal Debate in Britain, 1873–1913,” Historical Journal 50, no. 3 (2007): 593–622.
66. Andrew Gyory, Closing the Gate: Race Politics and the Chinese Exclusion Act (Chapel Hill: Univ. of North Carolina Press, 1998), 97–102, 115–30; Charles J. McLain, In Search of Equality: The Chinese Struggle against Discrimination in Nineteenth-Century America (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1994), 9.
67. Irish World (New York), September 17, 1904.
68. Irish World (New York), September 16, 1905.
69. Marc G. DeSantis, “Laws of War: TR’s 1905 Treaty of Portsmouth,” History-Net, accessed April 29, 2018, http://www.historynet.com/laws-war-trs-1905-treaty-portsmouth.htm. Roosevelt won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1906 for the negotiation of this treaty.
70. Irish World (New York), October 7, 1905.
71. See Thomas H. Bivins, “The Body Politic: The Changing Shape of Uncle Sam,” Journalism Quarterly 64, no. 1 (1987): 13–20; Medhurst and DeSousa, “Political Cartoons,” 213.
72. Irish World (New York), April 14, 1906.
73. Irish World (New York), August 18, 1906.
74. Irish World (New York), December 15, 1906.
75. Irish World (New York), February 4, 1899.
76. Irish World (New York), May 4, 1901.
77. McMahon, Caricaturing Race and Nation, 44.
78. Raymond L. Buell, “The Development of the Anti-Japanese Agitation in the United States,” Political Science Quarterly 37 (1992): 605–38.
79. Greg Robinson, “Quebec Newspaper Reactions to the 1907 Vancouver Riots: Humanitarianism, Nationalism, and Internationalism,” BC Studies 192 (Winter 2016/17): 28.
80. Irish World (New York), September 21, 1907.
81. Woodrow Wilson was a Democrat; T. R. Roosevelt, a Progressive (in 1912); William H. Taft, a Republican; and Eugene Debs, a Socialist.
82. Irish World (New York), November 2, 1912.
83. See William M. Leary Jr., “Woodrow Wilson, Irish Americans, and the Election of 1916,” Journal of American History 54, no. 1 (1967): 57–72.
84. Janis L. Edwards, “Visualizing Presidential Imperatives: Masculinity as an Interpretive Frame in Editorial Cartoons, 1988–2008,” in Gender and Political Communication in America: Rhetoric, Representation, and Display, ed. J. L. Edwards (Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2009), 233–50.
85. Colin Seymour-Ure, “Farewell Camelot! British Cartoonists’ Views of the United States since Watergate,” Journalism Studies 8, no. 5 (2007): 737.
86. Cited in Mark Hampton, “The Political Cartoon as Educationalist Journalism: David Low’s Portrayal of Mass Unemployment in Interwar Britain,” Journalism Studies 14, no. 5 (2013): 681.
87. For this concept in a black context, see Windy Lawrence, Benjamin R. Bates, and Mark Cervenka, “Politics Drawn in Black and White: Henry J. Lewis’s Visual Rhetoric in Late-1800s Black Editorial Cartoons,” Journalism History 40, no. 3 (Fall 2014): 146.
1. Tablet (London), February 27, 1904; Cincinnati Daily Gazette, June 18, 1878; Harper’s Bazaar, October 1901; Dial, June 16, 1901.
2. See for example: “Legal Injustice to Women,” Indianapolis Journal, December 10, 1893; “Let It Die,” Chicago Times, November 7, 1880; Broad Ax (Salt Lake City), January 2, 1904.
3. “Genius of Mrs. Sullivan,” Chicago Chronicle, January 3, 1904; Isabella C. O’Keefe, “Catholic Women,” Intermountain Catholic, November 18, 1899; Gaelic American (New York), February 21, 1925.
4. “Women in Newspapers,” in History of Woman Suffrage, ed. Elizabeth Cody Stanton, Susan B. Anthony, Matilda Joslyn Gage, 2nd ed. (Rochester, NY: Susan B. Anthony, 1889); Maurine H. Beasley and Sheila J. Gibbons, Taking Their Place: A Documentary History of Women and Journalism, 2nd ed. (State College, PA: Strata, 2003).
5. Frances F. Willard, Occupations for Women (New York: Success, 1897), 284.
6. Agnes Hooper Gottlieb, “Grit Your Teeth, Then Learn to Swear: Women in Journalistic Careers 1850–1926,” American Journalism 18, no. 1, (2013): 58. Helen M. Winslow, “The Confessions of a Newspaper Woman,” Atlantic, February 1905.
7. Cynthia Westover Alden, Women’s Ways of Earning Money (New York: University Society, 1904), 166.
8. Margaret E. Sangster, “Editorship as a Profession for Women,” Forum, December 1895.
9. Lida Rose McCabe, “Margaret Sullivan: The Ablest Woman Journalist in the Country,” Los Angeles Times, June 4, 1893. A US congressman or senator earned $5,000 per annum in 1889, while the average wage for a manufacturing worker was $427.
10. Gottlieb, “Grit Your Teeth,” 63.
11. Edward Bok, “Is the Newspaper Office the Place for a Girl,” Ladies’ Home Journal, February 1901, quoted in Gottlieb, “Grit Your Teeth,” 53.
12. Sangster, “Editorship as a Profession for Women.”
13. Kathleen Sprows Cummings, New Women of the Old Faith: Gender and American Catholicism in the Progressive Era (Chapel Hill: Univ. of North Carolina Press, 2010), 20–21.
14. Irish Standard (Minneapolis, MN), January 2, 1904; Evening Star (Washington, DC), December 28, 1903.
15. Educated by the Religious of the Sacred Heart, she remained close to the nuns and was active in the Alumnae Society, and in 1866 she wrote a poem, “The Corridors of Memory,” for the first general meeting of the Alumni Society. In 1868 she was the vice president of the Alumni Society and in 1870 she was on the committee organizing the annual reunion. In 1897 she was president of the alumnae association of Chicago. Twelve Years of the Detroit High School Scholarship Fund, 1891–1903, with a Complete List of Officers of the Detroit High School Alumni Society (Detroit: Detroit High School Scholarship Fund Association, 1903), 55–57. New York Times, “Noted Woman Writer Dead,” August 29, 1903. I am grateful to Ellen Skerrett for information on Sullivan’s presidency of the alumnae association.
16. James O’Brien, Irish Celts: A Cyclopedia of Race History (Detroit: L. F. Kilroy, 1884), 80–81.
17. Gillian O’Brien, Blood Runs Green: The Murder That Transfixed Gilded Age Chicago (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press, 2015).
18. James O’Brien, Irish Celts, 80–81; Harriet Monroe, “Margaret Sullivan’s Meed,” Chicago Chronicle, December 30, 1903; Indiana State Sentinel, May 9, 1894.
19. Federal Writers Project, The Case of Dr. Cronin (unpublished manuscript, probably 1936), Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library, Springfield, IL, 3; “Gifted Woman Dead,” Irish Standard (Minneapolis, MN), January 2, 1904.
20. David Nord, Communities of Journalism: A History of American Newspapers and Their Readers (Urbana: Univ. of Illinois Press, 2001), 112.
21. “Margaret Sullivan: Some Facts about the Leading Woman Journalist of America,” Fort Worth Gazette, July 30, 1889.
22. “Margaret Sullivan, “Some Facts.”
23. New York Herald, March 6, 1882.
24. J.L.H., “A Woman’s Experience of Newspaper Work,” Harper’s Weekly, January 25, 1890.
25. Quoted in Sprows Cummings, New Women of the Old Faith, 178.
26. Some writers’ names appeared alongside their articles as early as the 1830s, but it did not become common until the end of the nineteenth century and indeed was not the default until well into the twentieth century. Such anonymity posed a problem for both sides in the American Civil War, and General Joseph Hooker, commander of the Army of the Potomac, issued General Order 48 in April 1863 to deal with the problems associated with anonymous reports of the war which Hooker believed were often either untrue or revealed crucial details to the Confederates. Journalists were not pleased with Hooker’s action, but quickly changed their opinion as many of them developed national reputations because of their identifiable war coverage. William E. Huntzicker, The Popular Press, 1833–1865 (Westport, CT: Praeger, 1999), 149.
27. Monroe, “Margaret Sullivan Meed.”
28. For detail on the Hanford murder see Charles H. Wood, “The Sullivan Trial,” American Law Register (1852–1891) 25, no. 7 (July 1877): 385–92. The city council was then known as the common council.
29. On the Catholic Church and public schools see Timothy Walch, “Catholic Social Institutions and Urban Development: The View from Nineteenth-Century Chicago and Milwaukee,” Catholic Historical Review 64, no. 1 (January 1978): 16–32; Timothy Walch, “The Catholic Press and the Campaign for Parish Schools: Chicago and Milwaukee 1850–1885,” U.S. Catholic Historian 3, no. 4 (Spring 1984): 254–72.
30. In the first trial the jury failed to reach a unanimous verdict. Professor David Swing, a well-known preacher and friend of Mrs. Lincoln, was certain that the killing of Hanford would destroy Sullivan’s life: “Let us pity tenderly the widow and the fatherless, and pity also the hearthstone of Alexander and Margaret Sullivan. The ruin of their home, founded only last spring, seems complete.” “What Prof. Swing Thinks of the Homicide,” Chicago Tribune, August 20, 1876.
31. Isaac E. Adams, Life of Emery A. Storrs (Chicago: G. L. Howe, 1886), 548–65; Thirteenth Annual Report of the Board of Public Works to the Common Council of the City of Chicago for the Municipal Fiscal Year Ending March 31, 1874 (Chicago: Board of Public Works, 1874), 23.
32. Thirteenth Annual Report. At the time of the shooting Alexander Sullivan was enrolled at the Union College of Law, but was expelled. However, by 1879 he had been admitted to the Illinois bar on the recommendation of a Chicago judge. The college was a department of the now defunct Chicago University and the city’s first law school. It was established in 1859 and in 1891 became part of Northwestern University. Federal Writers Project, The Case of Dr. [Patrick] Cronin: A Manuscript from the Federal Writers Project Papers, Illinois State Historical Library Federal Writers Project (Springfield: Illinois State Historical Library, 1935?), 21, 46. Sullivan’s probate record states that he was a lawyer from 1873 to 1913, which is untrue. Alexander Sullivan probate record, Cook County Archives, Chicago, IL.
33. Gillian O’Brien, Blood Runs Green, 51.
34. “Notes from the Capital,” Daily True American (Trenton, NJ), June 12, 1889.
35. Margaret Sullivan was so well known that she appeared in the society pages. For example, Daily Inter Ocean (Chicago), August 13, 1881, noted that “Mrs. Margaret F. Sullivan left for the seashore Monday.”
36. List of meetings that Parnell attended in the United States, January–March 1880, National Library of Ireland (NLI), Devoy Papers, MS 18,041(2).
37. Alexander Sullivan, “Parnell as a Leader,” North American Review 144, no. 367 (June 1887): 613; Ely M. Janis, “Anointing the ‘Uncrowned King of Ireland’: Charles Stewart Parnell’s 1880 American Tour and the Creation of a Transatlantic Land League Movement,” Supplement of the German Historical Institute Bulletin 5 (2008): 23, 32. Federal Writers Project, Case of Dr. Cronin, 40. The Exposition Hall was built in 1872 on the site of the present-day Art Institute. It was demolished in 1892.
38. Michael Davitt, The Fall of Feudalism in Ireland (London: Harper, 1904), 208; Alexander Sullivan to John Devoy, March 5, 1880, NLI, Devoy Papers, MS 18,012 (17).
39. Typescript of Poem: The Irish Famine of 1880, NLI, Devoy Papers, MS 18,142 (11).
40. See, for example, “A Prayer of Doubt,” Catholic World 36 (1882): 771, and “A Paper-Knife of Irish Oak,” in The Poetry and Song of Ireland, ed. John Boyle O’Reilly (New York: Gay Brothers, 1889).
41. In October 1874 she resigned from the Chicago Times in order to take over Ave Maria, a Catholic periodical established in 1865 by the founder of Notre Dame University, Fr. Edward Sorin. However, this proved a short-lived endeavor, and within a month she was back in Chicago. “Suffrage Notes,” Cambridge Chronicle (Cambridge, MA), October 3, 1874.
42. Margaret Sullivan, “How Cornwallis Consolidated the British Empire,” Catholic World 34 (December 1881): 300. Author’s emphasis.
43. Margaret Sullivan, “Concerning Sir Walter Raleigh,” Catholic World 39 (August 1884): 628.
44. Her faith was important to her, personally and professionally. The Sullivans rented pew no. 14 in the center aisle of Immaculate Conception Church. My thanks to Ellen Skerrett for this information.
45. “A Lesson in Loyalty,” Sacred Heart Review, March 12, 1904, 5. Katherine Conway, “Margaret F. Sullivan, Journalist and Author,” Donahoe’s Magazine, March 1904, 220–23.
46. W. E. Gladstone, The Vatican Decrees in Their Bearing on Civil Allegiance: A Political Expostulation (London: John Murray, 1874), 61.
47. [Margaret Sullivan], “Chiefly among Women,” Catholic World 21 (June 1875): 324.
48. “Chiefly among Women,” 335. For a detailed consideration of the “Chiefly among Women,” see Sprows Cummings, New Women of the Old Faith, 17–21.
49. “Chiefly among Women,” 339.
50. Margaret Sullivan, “A Philosopher in Bohemia,” Catholic World 69, no. 409 (June 1899), 365–75; “A Revolution in Farm Life,” Harper’s Bazaar, 35, no. 1 (1901), 590; “Growth of Musical Taste in the United States,” Dial, May 1882, 4–5.
51. Monroe, “Margaret Sullivan’s Meed”; Evening Dispatch (Provo, UT), July 16, 1894; McCabe, “Margaret Sullivan.” My thanks to Margaret Storey for supplying the Los Angeles Times reference.
52. M. F. Sullivan, Ireland of To-day: Causes and Aims of Irish Agitation (San Francisco: Bancroft, 1881), 20.
53. Sullivan, 449.
54. Sullivan, 27–28.
55. Sullivan, 449. Sullivan returned to the land issue later in the 1880s. In 1888 she and Mary Elizabeth Blake, a friend, fellow Irish American, and poet published Mexico: Picturesque, Political, Progressive. In this work Sullivan made several comparisons between Mexico and Ireland, particularly in relation to land: Mexican landlords, like those in Ireland, were largely absentee “and the money produced by the soil flows out of Mexico in exports of bullion for these absentees . . . precisely as the crops and money of Ireland are carried from her to replenish the purses of her landlords.” Mary Elizabeth Burke and Margaret Sullivan, Mexico: Picturesque, Political, Progressive (Boston: Lee & Shepard, 1888), 182–83. Sections of Sullivan’s part of the book had first appeared in the Boston Journal and the Catholic World in 1887.
56. William O’Brien, Evening Memories (Dublin: Maunsel, 1920), 124.
57. Davitt, Fall of Feudalism, 716; “Irish Grievances,” Third Letter from James Redpath to the Editor of the Tribune, July 1, 1882, published in the Irish Canadian (Toronto), August 3, 1882.
58. Mother Seraphine Leonard, Immortelles of Catholic Columbian Literature Compiled from the Works of American Catholic Women Writers by the Ursulines of New York (Akron, OH: D. H. McBride, 1897), 380.
59. “Notes from the Capital,” Daily True American (Trenton, NJ), June 12, 1889.
60. W. J. Abbot, “Chicago Newspapers and Their Makers,” Review of Reviews 11 (1895): 664; “Library Leaflets,” Good Housekeeping 7 (1888): 238. The Associated Press had been established in New York in 1846 as a news agency representing seven newspapers. A midwestern group developed, and there was much rivalry between the two until in 1882 an agreement was made that divided control between New York and the Midwest.
61. Katharine Tynan, Twenty-Five Years: Reminiscences (London: Smith, Elder, 1913), 184.
62. Margaret Sullivan, “Observations on the Grand Old Man,” written for the New York Sun, republished in Reynold’s Newspaper (London), July 4, 1886.
63. “Mrs. Sullivan in Paris,” Harper’s Bazaar, April 21, 1900, 364.
64. Gillian O’Brien, Blood Runs Green; Monroe, “Margaret Sullivan’s Meed”; McCabe, “Margaret Sullivan.”
65. Margaret Sullivan, “Features of the Festival,” New York Tribune, May 7, 1889.
66. Her articles appeared in many newspapers across the United States. Examples include Industrial Art, Daily Globe (St. Paul, MN), May 12, 1889; Fine Art, Daily Globe (St. Paul, MN), May 18, 1889; Manufacturing, Indianapolis Journal, May 20, 1889; Education, Pittsburgh Dispatch, June 10, 1889.
67. On the Cronin murder see Gillian O’Brien, Blood Runs Green.
68. [Alexander Sullivan] to Mrs. S[ullivan], Paris, May 24, 1889; [Alexander Sullivan] to Mrs. S[ullivan], May 28, 1889; [Alexander Sullivan] to Mrs. S[ullivan], June 11, 1889; Mrs. S[ullivan], London, to Alexander Sullivan, June 13, 1889; Schedule and Transcripts of Cablegrams and Telegrams passing between AS, his wife, Michael Davitt, etc., March–June 1889, NLI, Devoy Papers MS 18,058 (11).
69. W. B. Yeats, London, to Katharine Tynan, July 25, [1889], in W. B. Yeats and Katharine Tynan, Letters to Katharine Tynan, ed. Roger McHugh (New York: McMullen, 1953), 98. Sullivan was equally impressed, later recalling the young Yeats as “pale, slender, just entering then on manhood, he seemed, in his lustrous dark eyes, modest demeanor, sincerity, earnestness and unconscious air of abstraction, what a man must be who wrought in journalism form bread of the body, and for necessity of his soul wrote poetry as a luxury.” Margaret F. Sullivan, “Triumph of the ‘Literary Play,’” Dial, June 16, 1901, 391–93.
70. Tynan, Twenty-Five Years, 184, 293.
71. “Chicago Newspaper Rot,” Evening Star (Washington, DC), June 17, 1889.
72. Northampton Mercury (UK), July 6, 1889.
73. Abbot, “Chicago Newspapers,” 664; Sheffield Independent (UK), June 21, 1889; Northampton Mercury (UK), July 6, 1889.
74. Margaret Sullivan to Davitt, October 28, 1889, Davitt Papers, Trinity College Dublin (TCD), MS 932/2590.
75. Margaret Sullivan to Davitt, August 9, 1889, Davitt Papers, TCD, MS 9432.2589.
76. “Mrs. Sullivan on the Women’s Congress,” Citizen (Chicago, IL), May 27, 1893, quoted in Sprows Cumming, New Women of the Old Faith, 25.
77. Oamaru Mail (New Zealand), May 3, 1892. From the 1890s onward Sullivan wrote less about Ireland in her poetry and articles for periodicals, instead focusing more on Catholicism. Sprows Cummings, New Women of the Old Faith, 168.
78. New York Tribune, September 16, 1896.
79. New World editorial, quoted in Sacred Heart Review, January 9, 1904.
80. Monroe, “Margaret Sullivan’s Meed.”
81. McCabe, “Margaret Sullivan.”
82. “Legal Injustice to Women,” Indianapolis Journal, December 10, 1893; Monroe, “Margaret Sullivan’s Meed”; McCabe, “Margaret Sullivan.”
83. [Margaret Sullivan], “Readiness and Range,” Chicago Chronicle, August 29, 1903.
84. Gottlieb, “Women in Journalistic Careers,” 54.
85. Jan Whitt, Women in American Journalism (Urbana: Univ. of Illinois Press, 2008), 5.
1. I wish to thank Aoife Murphy of DCU Library for helping me to track down a library willing to send to Ireland rare microfilms of the New York American for the period under consideration, and I also thank the US Library of Congress for lending me those reels.
2. See, for example, Carla King, “‘Always with a Pen in His Hand’: Michael Davitt and the Press,” in Visual, Material and Print Culture in Nineteenth-Century Ireland, ed. Ciara Breathnach and Catherine Lawless (Dublin: Four Courts Press, 2010), 186–97; Carla King, Michael Davitt after the Land League, 1882–1906 (Dublin: UCD Press, 2016), 285–97; Laurence Marley, Michael Davitt: Freelance Radical and Frondeur (Dublin: Four Courts Press, 2007), 99–118.
3. T. W. Moody, Davitt and Irish Revolution, 1846–82 (New York: Univ. Press, 1981); page 587 states that from 1878 to 1906 Davitt wrote “a host of polemical contributions” for the Freeman’s Journal, the Irishman, and the Nation, and lists for 1879 to 1895 fourteen other titles for which Davitt also wrote; Michael Davitt: Collected Writings, 1868–1906, ed. Carla King, 8 vols. (London: Thoemmes Press, 2001), ii, 303–4.
4. King, “Always with a Pen,” 188–90.
5. Dod’s Parliamentary Companion (London: Dod’s, 1893), 228.
6. Henry Cockcroft, “A Persevering Printer’s Devil,” Burnley Free Press, March 14, 1863, cited in Moody, Davitt, 19–21.
7. Trinity College Dublin (TCD), Davitt MS 9572/1, Diary no. 1, 78.
8. TCD Davitt MS 9582, 21v–24.
9. Marley, Davitt, 257.
10. Moody, Davitt, 552.
11. Henry Myers Hyndman, Further Reminiscences (London: Macmillan, 1912), 40.
12. King, Davitt: Collected Writings, i, vii–viii. Even were one to set out to find all of Davitt’s journalism, it would be easy to overlook some of it. Many newspaper articles in his day carried no byline.
13. TCD Davitt MS 9572/1, Diary no. 1, note inside front cover.
14. TCD Davitt MS 9450, 3622 (September 21, 1900).
15. Fred Arthur McKenzie, “English War-Correspondents in South Africa,” Harper’s, July 1900, 209–16.
16. Simon J. Potter, News and the British World: The Emergence of the Imperial Press System, 1876–1922 (Oxford: Clarendon, 2003), 43–44.
17. D. P. McCracken, “The Relationship between British War Correspondents in the Field and British Military Intelligence during the Anglo-Boer War,” Scientia Militaria, South African Journal of Military Studies 43, no. 1 (2015): 99–126; Donal P. McCracken, “Imperial Running Dogs or Wild Geese Reporters? Irish Journalists in South Africa,” Historia (Historical Association of South Africa) 58, no. 1 (January 2013): 122–38.
18. TCD Davitt MS 9411, to John Dillon, 1805 and 1808.
19. TCD Davitt MS 9572 (“Jottings on a Journey from Dalkey to Pretoria and Back,” 1900), Diary no. 1 (of 2, although second is numbered “3”), 127.
20. Felix M. Larkin, “The Dog in the Night-Time: The Freeman’s Journal, the Irish Parliamentary Party and the Empire, 1875–1919,” in Newspapers and Empire in Ireland and Britain: Reporting the British Empire, c.1857–1921, ed. Simon J. Potter (Dublin: Four Courts Press, 2004), 112, 116.
21. Although Davitt reached Pretoria on March 26, 1900, it was not until June 6 that the editor published his first report, promoting it as “special to the Freeman’s Journal.” It was prefaced by an editorial addendum that, “Mr. Davitt, in a private note accompanying this letter, states that this is the sixth of a series of letters addressed by him to the Freeman’s Journal from South Africa. It is the first to be received by us, the previous five having been delayed or suppressed.” That same post brought the editor three later letters from Davitt, “numbered by him the seventh, eighth and ninth,” which the editor promised to publish as they were “vivid” and “truthful.” See TCD Davitt MS 9572/1, 115–16, 127 (re nos. 1–5) and 129–31 (re nos. 6–10, with a note that, “Ten letters in all written up to date of departure this mail—five by each mail”), 131–32 (re nos. 11–12 but “postponed” and “not written”).
22. Freeman’s Journal (Dublin), July 10, 1900.
23. United Irishman (Dublin), October 6 and 27, 1900, and May 11, June 1 (twice), and June 8, 1901; King, Michael Davitt after the Land League, 480.
24. Marley, Davitt, 246.
25. Review of Reviews 22 (July–December 1900): 15 (July); Freeman’s Journal (Dublin), July 17, 1900; Joseph O. Baylen, “Stead, William Thomas (1849–1912),” Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, 2004), notes that Stead’s stances against the Boer War “incurred severe circulation losses and financial difficulties for the Review of Reviews.”
26. Ferdinand Lundberg, Imperial Hearst: A Social Biography (New York: Random, 1936), 91. On the first US visit by a prime minister of the Irish Free State, W. T. Cosgrave reportedly told Hearst’s “universal correspondent” in 1928 that, “Ireland will never forget William Randolph Hearst, who has always been one of her best and truest friends” (Colum Kenny, An Irish-American Odyssey: The Remarkable Rise of the O’Shaughnessy Brothers [Columbia: Univ. of Missouri Press, 2014], 198).
27. Lundberg, Imperial Hearst, 91, 93, 102–3, 141–42; Ian Mugridge, The View from Xanadu: William Randolph Hearst and United States Foreign Policy (Montreal: McGill-Queen’s Univ. Press, 1995), 34–36.
28. This pioneering colored cartoon strip led to the term “yellow journalism” being coined for the populist newspapers of Hearst and Pulitzer (Colum Kenny, “An Irishman’s Diary,” Irish Times, March 4, 2017).
29. Editorial, New York Journal, November 8, 1896.
30. Donald A. Ritchie, American Journalists: Getting the Story (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1997), 129.
31. Úna Ní Bhroiméil, “The South African War, Empire and the Irish World, 1899–1902,” in Newspapers and Empire in Ireland and Britain: Reporting the British Empire, c.1857–1921, ed. Simon J. Potter (Dublin: Four Courts Press, 2004), 195–216.
32. TCD Davitt MS 9411, 1823 (November 12, 1900), 1826 (December 4, 1900); “Paul Kruger’s Mission to Europe,” Review of Reviews 22 (July–December 1900): 520.
33. Donald L. Shaw, “News Bias and the Telegraph: A Study of Historical Change,” Journalism Quarterly 4, no. 1 (Spring 1967): 3–31, 4.
34. Menahem Blondheim, News over the Wires: The Telegraph and the Flow of Public Information in America, 1844–1897 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press, 1994); Alex Nalbach, “‘Poisoned at the Source’? Telegraphic News Services and Big Business in the Nineteenth Century,” Business History Review 77, no. 4 (2003): 577–610.
35. Anthony Smith, “The Long Road to Objectivity and Back Again: The Kinds of Truth We Get in Journalism,” in Newspaper History from the 17th Century to the Present Day, ed. George Boyce, James Curran, and Pauline Windgate (London: Sage, 1978): 167–68; Shaw, “News Bias,” 3–12, 31.
36. TCD Davitt MS 9572/1, Diary no. 1, 58.
37. TCD Davitt MS 9480, 4539–48 (October 31, 1900 to February 15, 1901).
38. TCD Davitt MS 9411, 1832 (December 23, 1900).
39. W. J. Bryan, The Commoner Condensed (New York: Press Publishers, 1901–2). Also see W. J. Bryan, The Old World and Its Ways (St. Louis, MO: Thompson, 1907), 498–503 (see “Ireland and Her Leaders” for a flattering reference to Davitt). Bryan included a speech by Davitt on the Irish Land League in volume 6 of a collection that he edited entitled The World’s Famous Orations (New York: Funk and Wagnalls, 1906). On May 3, 1901, the Commoner noted that “the Irish World is printing a continued story by Michael Davitt on the Boer war. It contains many interesting documents bearing on the present struggle.” On June 8, 1906, the Commoner noted Davitt’s death.
40. TCD Davitt MS 9480, 4562, Scott to Davitt.
41. Tablet (London), December 19, 1903, 18.
42. TCD Davitt MS 9480, 4565–72 (April 13–21, 1903).
43. Cork Examiner, May 4, 1903, quoted the Russian Novosti to inform its readers that stores and shops had been sacked, scores of people killed, and several hundreds wounded: “The majority hid themselves or fled for their lives.”
44. New York American, May 3, 1903; Cyrus Adler, ed., The Voice of America on Kishineff (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America, 1904); Philip E. Schoenberg, “The American Reaction to the Kishinev Pogrom of 1903,” Jewish Historical Quarterly 63, no. 3 (March 1974): 262–83.
45. TCD Davitt MS 9480, 4565–72 (May 10–11, 1903).
46. McKenzie, “English War-Correspondents,” 211.
47. Hyndman, Further Reminiscences, 52.
48. Hyndman, 51–52; New York Herald, January 15, 1898; Noel McLachlan, “Davitt, Michael (1846–1906),” Dictionary of Irish Biography (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 2009).
49. New York American, May 12, 1903, front-page headline, “‘American’ Sends Agent to Russia for Facts”; New York American, May 13, 1903, front-page headline with photograph of Davitt, “Michael Davitt Will Go to Russia as the ‘American’s’ Agent”; Adler, America on Kishineff, 32–33.
50. New York American, May 13, 1903. Irish papers that relayed this rationale for Hearst choosing Davitt included the Cork Examiner (May 23, 1903) and the Kerry Weekly Reporter (May 30, 1903).
51. New York American, May 12, 1903; Adler, America on Kishineff, 330–31.
52. TCD Davitt MS 9501, 5302 and 5308.
53. TCD Davitt MS 9501, 5308–12. Davitt had sent a long cable from Odessa to New York on May 25 reporting expressions of anti-Semitic attitudes among Russians and foreigners there but it remained unpublished (TCD Davitt MS 9503, 5418).
54. New York American, May 15, 1903 (from Paris), front-page headline, “I Am Going, Resolved to Find the Truth”; May 22, 1903 (from Odessa), front-page headline, “Michael Davitt Sends His First Report from Russia”; May 28, 1903 (from Kishineff), “Michael Davitt Appeals from Kishineff for Its Thousands of Poor Orphans.”
55. New York American, June 4, 1903, front-page headline, “Davitt Reveals Inside Facts of Kishineff Massacre”; June 7, 1903, front-page headline, “Davitt Pleads for Independent American Envoy to the Czar”; June 14, 1903, “Michael Davitt Explains the Causes of Anti-Jewish Outrages at Kishineff” (with five photographs taken in Kishineff).
56. Mugridge, View from Xanadu, 60–64.
57. Steven J. Zipperstein, “Inside Kishinev’s Pogrom: Hayyim Nahman Bialik, Michael Davitt and the Burden of Truth,” in The Individual in History: Essays in Honor of Jehuda Reinharz, ed. ChaeRan Y. Freeze, Sylvia Fuks Fried, and Eugene R. Sheppard (Waltham, MA: Brandeis Univ. Press, 2015) 65–83, 66.
58. New York American, June 3 and 10, 1903.
59. Michael Davitt, Within the Pale: The True Story of Anti-Semitic Persecution in Russia (New York: Barnes, 1903), ix; Colum Kenny, “Sinn Féin, Socialists and ‘McSheeneys’: Representations of Jews in Early Twentieth-Century Ireland,” Journal of Modern Jewish Studies 16, no. 2 (2017): 198–218.
60. Hyndman, Further Reminiscences, 55.
61. TCD Davitt MS 9523, 6025, telegram from Berlin to London, June 2, 1903.
62. Adler, America on Kishineff, 175, 205.
63. TCD Davitt MS 9506, 5454, E. F. Flynn to Davitt, London, undated.
64. Adler, America on Kishineff, 343–44.
65. TCD Davitt MS 9523, 6025, cable from Berlin to London, June 2, 1903.
66. New York American, June 8, 1903, cited in Adler, America on Kishineff, 347–48.
67. Zipperstein, “Inside Kishinev’s Pogrom,” 368.
68. New York American and Journal, June 14, 1903.
69. Edward Judge, Easter in Kishinev: Anatomy of a Pogrom (New York: NYU Press, 1995), 88; Zipperstein, “Inside Kishinev’s Pogrom,” 368.
70. Davitt, Within the Pale, v. Also see TCD Davitt Papers 9501/5324, Flynn to Davitt, June 22, 1903.
71. Davitt, Within the Pale, ix; Kenny, “Sinn Féin, Socialists and ‘McSheeneys’,” 198–218. Also see Colum Kenny, “James Larkin and the Jew’s Shilling: Irish Workers, Activists and Anti-Semitism before Independence,” Irish Economic and Social History 44, no. 1 (2017): 1–19.
72. TCD Davitt MS 9480, 4577–83.
73. TCD Davitt MS 9480, 4585 (December 26, 1903).
74. TCD Davitt MS 9480, 4588, Hearst to Davitt, undated.
75. TCD Davitt MS 9580, 55–67; Freeman’s Journal (Dublin), July 4, 1904.
76. TCD Davitt MS 9507, 5493 and 9580, 4; London Standard, May 26, 1904.
77. TCD Davitt MS 9580, 4, 29–33.
78. TCD Davitt MS 9580, 4, 29–33.
79. Norman E. Saul, The Life and Times of Charles R. Crane, 1858–1939: American Businessman (Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2013), 84, 94.
80. TCD Davitt MS 9507, 5471–74, 5480.
81. TCD Davitt MS 9582, 1.
82. TCD Davitt MS 9582, 2 (January 25, 1905).
83. TCD Davitt MS 9582, 2v.
84. TCD Davitt MS 9524, 1, transcript of telegram sent January 27, 1905; New York American, January 29 and 30, 1905; Irish Independent (Dublin), January 30 and 31, 1905.
85. TCD Davitt 9582, 26v (February 4, 1905).
86. TCD Davitt MS 9582, 39v, 41.
87. TCD Davitt MS 9582, 11v.
88. TCD Davitt MS 9524, 13.
89. Freeman’s Journal (Dublin), January 26, 1905.
90. TCD Davitt MS 9524, 2–3.
91. TCD Davitt MS 9582, 2 (January 28, 1905).
92. TCD Davitt MS 9582, 26.
93. New York American, February 3, 1905; Irish Independent (Dublin), February 4, 1905; Kerry Sentinel, February 8, 1905.
94. TCD Davitt MS 9582, 14, 17; Denis Brien, Pulitzer: A Life (New York: Wiley, 2001), 300.
95. TCD Davitt MS 9508, 5506.
96. TCD Davitt MS 9582, 21v–24.
97. Oakland Tribune (California), February 7, 1905. A copy at TCD Davitt MS 9508, 5501. The president of the Oakland Tribune was identified within it as William E. Dargle.
1. For Dillon’s biographical profile see Kevin Rafter, “E. J. Dillon: From Our Special Correspondent, in Irish Journalism before Independence: More a Disease than a Profession, ed. Kevin Rafter (Manchester: Manchester Univ. Press, 2011), 91–105.
2. William Latey, “Dr. Emile Joseph Dillon: A Great Irish Journalist,” Everyman, September 19, 1913.
3. “Obituary: Dr. E. J. Dillon,” Times (London), June 10, 1933.
4. See Laurel Brake and Marysa Demoor, A Dictionary of Nineteenth Century Journalism (London: British Library, 2009).
5. Michael Bromley, “From Noted ‘Phenomenon’ to ‘Missing Person’: A Case of the Historical Construction of the Unter-Journalist,” Journalism 11, no. 3 (2010): 259–75.
6. See Green Library, Stanford Univ., Emile Joseph Dillon Collection no. M0935; National Library of Scotland (NLS), Emile Joseph Dillon Reference 12382.
7. Joel H. Wiener, The Americanization of the British Press, 1830s–1914. (London: Palgrave, 2011), 156.
8. Fred Inglis, A Short History of Celebrity (Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press, 2010).
9. Martin Conboy, “Celebrity Journalism—an Oxymoron? Forms and Functions of a Genre,” Journalism 15, no. 2 (2014): 171–85.
10. Inglis, A Short History, 121–22.
11. Quoted in Weiner, Americanization, 159.
12. Quoted in Inglis, A Short History, 121–22.
13. “Draft Memoir,” NLS 12382: 51.
14. “Draft Memoir.”
15. “Draft Memoir.”
16. Rafter, “E. J. Dillon,” 91–105.
17. “Draft Memoir,” NLS 12382: 51.
18. “Draft Memoir.”
19. W. T. Stead, “The Russian Revolution from Various Points of View,” Review of Reviews 32 (December 1905): 606.
20. American Monthly Review of Reviews to EJD February 24, 1905, Stanford, series 1, box 22, folder 2; 1:22(2).
21. Frank W. Wcislo, Tales of Imperial Russia: The Life and Times of Sergei Witte, 1849–1915 (Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, 2011), 252.
22. E. J. Dillon, The Eclipse of Russia (New York: Doran, 1918), 44–45.
23. “Witte as Known at Close Range,” New York World, August 6, 1905.
24. “Man of the Hour,” New York World, August 6, 1905.
25. “Count Witte’s Memoirs,” World’s Work, March 1921.
26. “A Mid-Ocean ‘Beat’: How It Was Achieved,” Daily Telegraph (London), August 17, 1905.
27. “A Mid-Ocean ‘Beat.’”
28. “Goodbye to Portsmouth,” New York World, September 6, 1905.
29. “Notable Reunion Held,” Boston Herald, August 18, 1905.
30. Lionel V. Redpath, Petroleum in California: A Concise and Reliable History of the Oil Industry of the State (Los Angeles: Redpath, 1900).
31. “Diary entry, August 1, 1919,” Stanford 2:3(1). John Le Sage was managing editor of the Daily Telegraph.
32. EJD letter to Doheny, September 15, 1919, Stanford 13:22 and 13:23.
33. “Diary entry, December 10, 1919,” Stanford 2:3(1).
34. “Dillon Comments on Wilson Error,” Seattle Post Intelligencer, December 16, 1919.
35. “Peace Treaty a Makeshift, Says Dr. Dillon,” San Francisco Chronicle, December 20, 1919.
36. “Peace Table Secrets Told by Dr. Dillon,” Los Angeles Chronicle, December 28, 1919.
37. “Peace Table Secrets.”
38. “Interesting Messages by Famous People Found in Mrs. Dillon’s Autograph Album,” Vancouver Daily World (Vancouver, BC), December 13, 1919.
39. “Great Changes in Mexico Dr. E. J. Dillon Believes,” New York Globe and Advertiser, September 29, 1920.
40. “Diary entry, January 3, 1921,” Stanford 2:3(4).
41. “Great Changes in Mexico.”
42. Baltimore News, October 5, 1920.
43. “Great Changes in Mexico.”
44. Graeme Turner, Understanding Celebrity (London: Sage, 2014), 78.
1. Devoy (1842–1928) had been arrested in 1865 prior to the Fenian rebellion of 1867. Released in a British amnesty of Fenian prisoners in 1870, he made his way to the United States to later become the leader of Clan na Gael. For a comprehensive account of Devoy’s life see Terry Golway, Irish Rebel: John Devoy and America’s Fight for Ireland’s Freedom (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1998).
2. Its readership extended beyond this since a single newspaper would undoubtedly have been read by more than one individual in the same household. J. P. Rodechko, Patrick Ford and His Search for America: A Case Study of Irish-American Journalism, 1870–1913 (New York: Arno Press, 1976), 23–26. The Gaelic American continued publication until 1951, when it was taken over by its main rival, the Irish World.
3. For more on the foundation and early years of the Gaelic American see Michael Doorley, “The Gaelic American and the Shaping of Irish-American Opinion, 1903–1914,” in Probing the Past: Festschrift in Honor of Leo Schelbert, ed. Wendy Everham (New York: Peter Lang, 2015), 63–72.
4. “The Story of Clan na Gael,” Gaelic American (New York), June 6, 1925.
5. Éamon de Valera was born in New York but brought up in Ireland. Imprisoned for his part in the 1916 Rising, after his release he became president of Sinn Féin in October 1917. He toured the United States seeking funds and diplomatic recognition for an Irish Republic from June 1919 to November 1920. For an account of these disputes see Michael Doorley, Irish American Diaspora Nationalism: The Friends of Irish Freedom, 1916–35 (Dublin: Four Courts Press, 2005).
6. Gaelic American (New York), September 19, 1903. This objective was outlined in banner headlines in Gaelic lettering under the title Gaelic American.
7. Chicago Citizen, February 18, 1890.
8. Cohalan became an advisor to the powerful Tammany Boss Charlie Murphy. Michael Doorley, “Judge Daniel Cohalan: American Irish Nationalist and Crusader against British Influence in American Life,” New Hibernia Review 19, no. 2 (Summer 2015): 113–29. Cohalan also has an entry in the comprehensive online Dictionary of Irish Biography.
9. Daniel Cohalan, The Indictment (New York: Friends of Irish Freedom, 1919), 1.
10. See in particular Daniel Cohalan, The Menace of Foreign Entanglements: Let Us Awaken Before It Is Too Late! (New York: Friends of Irish Freedom, 1923).
11. One of these share certificates, listing Cohalan as president of the Gaelic American Publishing Company, is located in the National Library of Ireland (NLI), McGarrity Papers, MS 17660.
12. Patrick McCartan, With de Valera in America (Dublin: Fitzpatrick, 1932), 15; “The Story of Clan na Gael,” Gaelic American (New York), June 6, 1925.
13. Clan circular, NLI, McGarrity Papers, MS 17660. McGarrity (1874–1940) was from County Tyrone and led the Clan in Philadelphia.
14. US Bureau of the Census, Twelfth Census of the United States: 1900; Population (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1902–6), clxx.
15. Kevin Kenny, The American Irish: A History (Edinburgh: Pearson, 2000), 112–20.
16. William E. Van Vugt, “British and British Americans (English, Scots, Scots Irish, and Welsh) to 1870,” in Immigrants in American History: Arrival, Adaptation, and Integration, ed. Elliott Robert Barkan (Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, 2013), 19.
17. Alison Kibler, Censoring Racial Ridicule: Irish, Jewish and African American Struggles over Race and Representation, 1890–1930 (Chapel Hill: Univ. of North Carolina Press, 2015), 30.
18. Doorley, Irish-American Diaspora Nationalism, 23–25. For a comprehensive analysis of American foreign policy in this period see Robert E. Hannigan, The Great War and American Foreign Policy, 1914–24 (Philadelphia: Univ. of Pennsylvania Press, 2017).
19. Clan circular, NLI McGarrity Papers, MS 17660.
20. Gaelic American (New York), November 5, 1904.
21. Gaelic American (New York), January 19, 1907.
22. Clan circular, NLI, McGarrity Papers, MS17660.
23. John Hutchinson, The Dynamics of Cultural Nationalism (London: Unwin Hyman, 1987), 283.
24. “The Story of Clan na Gael,” Gaelic American (New York), June 6, 1925.
25. Cohalan was head of the Gaelic League’s finance committee in the New York area and maintained close contact with the president of the league in Ireland, Douglas Hyde. Cohalan, along with fellow lawyer John Quinn, later played a key role in organizing Douglas Hyde’s successful tour of the United States, which received much coverage in the pages of the Gaelic American. Úna Ní Bhroiméil, Building Irish Identity in America, 1890–1915: The Gaelic Revival (Dublin: Four Courts Press, 2003).
26. Francis M. Carroll, “The Collapse of Home Rule and the United Irish League of America, 1910–18,” in Ireland’s Allies: America and the 1916 Rising, ed. Miriam Nyhan Grey (Dublin: UCD Press, 2016), 31–42.
27. Gaelic American (New York), December 27, 1913.
28. “Treason of the Parliamentarians,” Gaelic American (New York), October 15, 1910.
29. Gaelic American (New York), November 20, 1909. The Liberal government finally introduced a Home Rule bill in 1912, but due to the opposition of the Conservative House of Lords, it would not become law until 1914. The implementation of the measure was postponed following the outbreak of the war.
30. Gaelic American (New York), August 15, 1914.
31. Irish World (New York), August 15, 1917.
32. Gaelic American (New York), August 15, 1914.
33. Gaelic American (New York), May 15, 1915. After decades of denial, the British Foreign Office admitted in 1982 that the ship did in fact carry large quantities of munitions. Guardian (London), May 1, 2014.
34. See correspondence between Casement and Cohalan in the NLI where Casement refers to using the offices of the Gaelic American. NLI Cohalan Papers, MS 22,463.
35. Gaelic American (New York), March 11, 1916.
36. Golway, Irish Rebel, 197–229.
37. New York Times, May 3, 1916; Gaelic American (New York), April 29, 1916.
38. Gaelic American (New York), April 29, 1916.
39. The Gaelic American reported that “the traitor Redmond” had approved these “murders.” Gaelic American (New York), May 13, 1916. In reality, Redmond had pleaded with the British government to stop the executions knowing full well the impact these would have on nationalist opinion.
40. Gaelic American (New York), May 13, 1916.
41. Gaelic American (New York), June 9, 1917
42. Gaelic American (New York), September 15, 1917.
43. Cited in David Kennedy, Over Here: The First World War and American Society (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1980), 24.
44. Alan J. Ward, Ireland and Anglo-Irish Relations, 1899–1921 (Toronto: Univ. of Toronto Press, 1969), 144; Gaelic American (New York), February 2, 1918. The Irish publication Bull was banned for the duration of the war, as were many socialist and anarchist newspapers.
45. Gaelic American (New York), September 28, 1918.
46. Gaelic American (New York), February 8, 1919.
47. Doorley, Irish-American Diaspora Nationalism, 105–21.
48. Gaelic American (New York), December 14, 1918.
49. Gaelic American (New York), December 14, 1918.
50. Matthew Cummings to Daniel Cohalan, January 12, 1919, box 3, folder 19, Cohalan Papers, American Irish Historical Society (AIHS), New York.
51. Gaelic American (New York), March 1, 1919.
52. Arthur Mitchell, Revolutionary Government in Ireland: Dáil Éireann 1919–22 (Dublin: Gill and Macmillan, 1995), 68–77.
53. Gaelic American (New York), August 18, 1920.
54. David McCullagh, De Valera: Rise (1882–1932), vol. 1 (Dublin: Gill Books, 2017), 164–70. The FOIF had grown to 270,000 regular and associate members by the end of 1920. Doorley, Irish American Diaspora Nationalism, 200.
55. De Valera to Arthur Griffith, March 6, 1920. Cited in T. Ryle Dwyer, De Valera: The Man and the Myths (Dublin: Poolbeg, 1991), 35. Griffith was acting head of the Irish cabinet while de Valera was in the United States.
56. Gaelic American (New York), March 15, 1919.
57. De Valera to Griffith, July 9, 1919. Univ. College Dublin Archives (UCDA), de Valera Papers, P150/727.
58. McGarrity believed that Irish Americans needed to put the Irish cause ahead of any American interests. For an account of McGarrity’s critical perspective on Devoy and the Gaelic American see Sean Cronin, The McGarrity Papers: Revelations of the Irish Revolutionary Movement in Ireland and America, 1900–1940 (Tralee: Anvil Books, 1972). Diarmuid Lynch (1878–1950) from County Cork was a member of the IRB and had fought in the Irish Rebellion. He became national secretary of the Friends of Irish Freedom at the 1918 Irish Race Convention. Eileen McGough, Diarmuid Lynch: A Forgotten Irish Patriot (Cork: Mercier Press, 2013).
59. Westminster Gazette (UK), February 7, 1920. See also McCullagh, Rise, 175.
60. Cited in Howard Zinn, A People’s History of the United States (New York: Perennial Classics, 2001), 311–12.
61. Gaelic American (New York), February 21, 1920.
62. De Valera to Cohalan, February 20, 1920; Cohalan to de Valera, February 22, 1920, de Valera papers, UCDA, P150/1134; see also box 4, folder 1, Cohalan papers, AIHS.
63. De Valera to Cohalan, February 20, 1920; Cohalan to de Valera, February 22, 1920.
64. De Valera to Cohalan, February 20, 1920; Cohalan to de Valera, February 22, 1920.
65. Press release, October 22, 1920, NLI McGarrity Papers, MS17445, NLI.
66. Gaelic American (New York), December 25, 1920.
67. Gaelic American (New York), December 2, 1922.
68. F. S. L. Lyons, “The Irish Americans, A Dual Allegiance,” Irish Times (Dublin), December 3, 1957. Lyons was reviewing a book by Charles Tansill, America and the Fight for Irish Freedom, 1866–1922 (New York: Devin Adair, 1957).
1. Irish independence, which was accompanied by the partition of the island, was followed by a civil war in the Free State, which remained within the British Commonwealth until a republic was declared in 1949. The six counties of Northern Ireland remained under British jurisdiction.
2. Terence Brown, Ireland: A Social and Cultural History (London: Harper Perennial, 2004), 192–93.
3. Felix M. Larkin, “Green Shoots of the New Journalism in the Freeman’s Journal, 1877–90,” in Ireland and the New Journalism, ed. Karen Steele and Michael de Nie (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014), 35–55.
4. Margot Gayle Backus, Scandal Work: James Joyce, the New Journalism, and the Home Rule Newspaper Wars (Notre Dame, IN: Univ. of Notre Dame Press, 2013), 62–63. For an account of the Dublin Castle scandal, see Myles Dungan, Mr Parnell’s Rottweiler: Censorship and the United Ireland Newspaper, 1881–91 (Dublin: Irish Academic Press, 2014).
5. See Mark O’Brien, The Fourth Estate: Journalism in Twentieth-Century Ireland (Manchester, UK: Manchester Univ. Press, 2017), 46–50.
6. Kevin C. Kearns, Dublin Tenement Life: An Oral History (Dublin: Gill & Macmillan, 1994), 1.
7. Kearns, 1.
8. Kearns, 2.
9. Irish Builder 43 (1901): 678, cited in Kearns, Dublin Tenement Life, 11.
10. Kearns, Dublin Tenement Life, 10–11.
11. Cork Examiner, September 12, 1919.
12. Irish Press (Dublin), July 7, 1961.
13. “Dublin’s Slum Plague,” Honesty, June 27, 1925, 8–10. For more on Honesty see Anthony Keating, “Killing Off the Competition,” Media History 22, no. 1 (2016): 85–100.
14. Richard English, “Socialism and Republican Schism in Ireland: The Emergence of the Republican Congress in 1934,” Irish Historical Studies 27, no. 105 (1990): 48–65. The republican congress was a breakaway group of IRA volunteers who wished to pursue left-wing politics. Its leadership included Peadar O’Donnell, who later helped establish the Bell magazine.
15. Mary E. Daly, The Slow Failure: Population Decline and Independent Ireland, 1922–1973 (Madison: Univ. of Wisconsin Press, 2006), 30–32.
16. National Archives of Ireland (Dublin), file D/T, S3642 (memo dated April 4, 1937).
17. Brooklyn Daily Eagle, June 24, 1938 and July 2, 1938.
18. Brooklyn Daily Eagle, July 2, 1938.
19. See Tim Pat Coogan, A Memoir (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2008), 35–36. In a quirk of history, while general manager of the Irish Press, Harrington was involved in a serious altercation with a deputy police commissioner, Eamonn Coogan, whose son, Tim Pat Coogan, would edit the paper between 1968 and 1987.
20. National Library of Ireland, Frank Gallagher Papers, MS 18361.
21. Frank Gallagher Papers, MS 18361.
22. See Irish Press, January 4, 1941, for Herlihy’s obituary. Gallagher and Herlihy would have known each other from the time they both worked together at the Cork Free Press.
23. Joseph Connolly, Memoirs of Senator Joseph Connolly (1885–1961), ed. J. Anthony Gaughan (Dublin: Irish Academic Press, 1996), 283.
24. O’Sullivan, an Australian journalist of Irish parentage, visited Ireland during the Irish war of independence and returned to Dublin in 1932, where he secured a position on the Irish Press.
25. The article was subsequently expanded and published in book form as How the Other Half Lives: Studies among the Tenements of New York (New York: Scribner’s, 1890).
26. Irish Press (Dublin), December 20, 1937.
27. Irish Press (Dublin), October 15, 1936.
28. Irish Press (Dublin), October 2, 1936.
29. Irish Press (Dublin), October 7, 1936.
30. Irish Press (Dublin), October 2, 1936.
31. Irish Press (Dublin), October 1, 1936. The paper later extended its series to other cities, but for reasons of space, this chapter is confined to its Dublin investigation.
32. Irish Press (Dublin), October 9, 1936.
33. Irish Press (Dublin), October 5, 1936.
34. Tim Pat Coogan, Ireland in the Twentieth Century (London: Hutchinson, 2003), 721.
35. Irish Press (Dublin), October 9, 1936.
36. Irish Press (Dublin), October 21, 1936.
37. Irish Press (Dublin), October 22, 1936.
38. Irish Press (Dublin), October 29, 1936.
39. Irish Press (Dublin), November 3, 1936.
40. Irish Press (Dublin), October 14, 1936.
41. Irish Press (Dublin), October 22, 1936.
42. Irish Press (Dublin), November 24, 1936.
43. Irish Press (Dublin), December 5, 1936.
44. Irish Press (Dublin), December 20, 1937.
45. Irish Press (Dublin), December 18, 1936.
46. Irish Press (Dublin), February 10, 1937.
47. Irish Press (Dublin), May 31 1937.
48. Irish Press (Dublin), June 1 and November 2, 1937.
49. Irish Press (Dublin), February 1, 1938.
50. Figures quoted in the Irish Press (Dublin), October 21, 1936.
51. Coogan, Ireland in the Twentieth Century, 719.
52. Interview of Chris O’Sullivan conducted by Andrew Reeves, July 26, 1978, National Library of Australia (Canberra, ACT), Oral History and Folklore Collection.
53. Labour News (Dublin), November 27, 1937.
54. Irish Press (Dublin), November 27, 1937.
55. Labour News (Dublin), December 4, 1937.
56. Irish Press (Dublin), December 4, 1937.
57. Irish Press (Dublin), December 20, 1937.
58. Brooklyn Daily Eagle, June 24, 1938.
59. Brooklyn Daily Eagle, July 2, 1938.
60. Sheila May, “Two Dublin Slums,” Bell 7, no. 4 (January 1944): 351–56, 354. For more on the Bell’s investigative journalism see Mark O’Brien, “Other Voices: The Bell and Documentary Journalism,” in Periodicals and Journalism in Twentieth-Century Ireland, ed. Mark O’Brien and Felix M. Larkin (Dublin: Four Courts Press, 2014), 158–72.
61. Coogan, Ireland in the Twentieth Century, 721.
62. See O’Brien, The Fourth Estate, 152–55.
1. In 1942, it had been only twenty years since Ireland was partitioned. The British often referred to their territory as Ulster. The arrival of US troops in Northern Ireland sparked anger among leaders of the republic, which remained neutral throughout World War II. See David Reynolds, Rich Relations: The American Occupation of Britain, 1942–1945 (New York: Random House, 1995), 117.
2. See “American Troops Arrive in Northern Ireland,” Belfast News-Letter, January 27, 1942, 3.
3. See “American Troops Arrive.”
4. “Welcome!” Belfast News-Letter, January 27, 1942, 2.
5. I have chosen to use the term “African American” to describe US troops of African descent in an attempt to restore dignity to men and women whose military service, in the words of historian James Campbell, “does not conform nicely with the celebrated stories of white heroism and sacrifice.” See James Campbell, The Color of War: How One Battle Broke Japan and Another Changed America (New York: Random House, 2012), xiii. Terms more commonly used during this period, such as “black,” “Negro,” “colored,” and “coloured” appear in this research only in direct quotes from government reports or news articles.
6. “In First Contingent of American Negro Troops Abroad,” New York Times, July 29, 1942, 8.
7. British historians have estimated that before World War II, the number of British colonial citizens of African descent totaled around eight thousand with the majority settling in coastal port cities. For most Britons, the war was the first time they would see people of color outside of movies. See Reynolds, Rich Relations, 216; and Juliet Gardiner, “Overpaid, Oversexed & Over Here”: The American GI in World War II Britain (New York: Canopy Books, 1992), 152.
8. See Dehra Parker, O.B.E., member of Parliament, Clonmore, Northern Ireland, to Robert Gransden, Assistant Secretary to the Cabinet, undated letter, Cabinet Secretariat (henceforth CAB), Record Group (henceforth RG) 9/CD/225/19, Public Records Office of Northern Ireland (henceforth PRONI), Belfast, Northern Ireland, United Kingdom.
9. See Simon Topping, “Laying Down the Law to the Irish and the Coons: Stormont’s Response to American Racial Segregation in Northern Ireland during the Second World War,” Historical Research 86, no. 234 (November 2013): 741–59, 775.
10. Historian Graham Smith noted the Antrim incident was the “first casualty” in the racial war brewing among US troops stationed in Northern Ireland. See Graham Smith, When Jim Crow Met John Bull (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1987), 140. Fellow British historian Reynolds also lists the incident as the first. See Reynolds, Rich Relations, 222.
11. This chapter examined news coverage from September 30 through October 10, 1942, in twenty-four newspapers, including local, regional, and national newspapers in Great Britain and the United States. This period was expanded into mid-October for the American black press due to weekly production deadlines. Among the British newspapers examined that reached local and regional audiences, were Belfast News-Letter, Belfast Telegraph, Bristol Evening Post, Bristol Evening World, the Chorley Guardian, the Lancashire Daily Post, and the Western Daily Press & Bristol Mirror. American newspapers representing local and regional newspapers included Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, Boston Daily Globe, the Baltimore Sun, Detroit Free Press, San Francisco Examiner, and the Los Angeles Times. National British newspapers included the Daily Express (London), the Daily Mail (London), Irish News (Belfast), News of the World (London), and the Times (London). National US newspapers included Chicago Daily Tribune, Washington Post, and the New York Times. Because these mainstream US newspapers largely excluded African American life, three black newspapers were also examined: Pittsburgh Courier, Chicago Defender, and the Afro-American (Baltimore, MD). These newspapers, in addition to being the three largest-circulation black press publications, also had the most war correspondents assigned to Europe. See John D. Stevens, “From the Back of the Foxhole: Black Correspondents in World War II,” Journalism Monographs 27 (Columbia, SC: Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication), 1973.
12. “More American Troops in Ulster,” Belfast News-Letter, May 19, 1942, 1.
13. “Armoured Force Landed,” Belfast News-Letter, May 19, 1942, 1.
14. See “Visit to United States Naval Operations Base at Londonderry,” Belfast News-Letter, July 2, 1942; and “Baseball in Belfast,” Belfast News-Letter, July 27, 1942.
15. “American Forces in Northern Ireland, 1942,” report, CAB, RG 3a/46, PRONI, Belfast, Northern Ireland, UK.
16. “American Forces in Northern Ireland.”
17. See, for example, Gardiner, “Overpaid, Oversexed & Over Here,” 6.
18. Welfare of Colonial People in the U.K.—Relations with American Forces in the U.K., letter dated June 24, 1942, Colonial Office (henceforth CO), RG 876/14, Public Records Office (henceforth PRO), Kew Gardens, United Kingdom.
19. Welfare of Colonial People.
20. Welfare of Colonial People.
21. John L. Keith, a welfare officer in the Colonial Office, noted just a few days later that a white American soldier had publicly insulted a former serviceman from West India—an incident that resulted in a police report. He further noted: “There is to my knowledge apprehension among coloured Colonial people in this country about the generally rude attitude the American soldiers take towards them, and it is clear to me that the presence of American troops in any Service hostel makes impossible the entry of Colonial Servicemen.” See J. L. Keith file note, June 30, 1942, Welfare of Colonial People in the U.K.—Relations with American Forces in the U.K., CO, RG 876/14, PRO.
22. J. L. Keith to Sir Charles Jeffries, July 30, 1942, CO, RG 876/14, PRO.
23. Keith to Jeffries.
24. Keith to Jefferies. Also see Gardiner, “Overpaid, Oversexed & Overhere,” 152.
25. Keith file note, June 30, 1942, CO, RG 876/14, PRO.
26. T.E. St. Johnston to F. Newsam, July 22, 1942, Home Office (henceforth HO), RG 45/25604, PRO.
27. Concerns about British policy on race and race relations were constant among the country’s leaders and officials in the summer of 1942. Of similar concern: American autonomy, particularly when it came to dealing with misconduct among US troops. This prompted British officials to adopt the 1942 Act and Defence Regulations, which permitted the United States to handle all disciplinary matters involving its troops—including incidents with British civilians—through US military courts. See Note on “United States of America Visiting Forces. Coloured Troops,” to Mr. Newsam, August 7, 1942, HO, RG 45/25604, PRO.
28. Note on “United States of America Visiting Forces.” In his memoir, Truman K. Gibson Jr., who replaced William Hastie as a civilian aide to the US War Department, noted that white American troops often “bristled at the absence of Jim Crow social norms and segregation in the British Isles.” See Truman K. Gibson Jr., Knocking Down Barriers: My Fight for Black America, with Steve Huntley (Evanston, IL: Northwestern Univ. Press, 2005), 102.
29. “United States of America Visiting Forces,” August 7, 1942.
30. Harry Haig, “Confidential: U.S.A. Coloured Troops,” August 10, 1942, HO, RG 45/25604, PRO.
31. Haig. Underlined emphasis in original text.
32. Haig.
33. F. Newsam minutes notes, August 20, 1942, HO, RG 45/25604, PRO.
34. F. Newsam to General Eisenhower, August 31, 1942, HO, RG 45/25604, PRO.
35. Newsam to Eisenhower.
36. John E. Dahlquist to Mr. F. A. Newsam, September 3, 1942, HO, RG 45/25604, PRO.
37. Dahlquist to Newsam.
38. Fred A. Meyer, “Policy on Negroes,” July 16, 1942, Report of investigation of racial relations in U.K., RG 498/UD372, series 291.1, box 1600, National Archives and Records Administration (henceforth NARA), College Park, MD.
39. Meyer.
40. Meyer.
41. “Command and Leadership of Colored Troops,” to Base Section Commanders, Com Z, undated, Benjamin O. Davis Papers (henceforth BODP), box 5, folder 1, US Army Military History Institute (henceforth USAMHI), Carlisle, PA.
42. “Command and Leadership of Colored Troops.”
43. “Command and Leadership of Colored Troops.”
44. Parker to Gransden, CAB, RG 9/CD/225/19, PRONI.
45. Parker to Gransden.
46. Simon Topping, “‘The Dusky Doughboys’: Interaction between African-American Soldiers and the Population of Northern Ireland during the Second World War,” Journal of American Studies 47, no. 4 (2013): 1135.
47. “American File,” August 21, 1942, CAB, RG 9/CD/225/19, PRONI.
48. “American File.”
49. By 1940 the “draconian” Regulation 2D, introduced by British home secretary Sir John Anderson, “gave government the right to ban publication of material or publications ‘prejudicial to national interest’: those accused had no right of appeal in the law, and inevitably, comparisons with Nazi Germany were made by opponents.” In addition to the right to shut down publications, British censors commonly cut articles out of publications arriving from the United States. See Mick Temple, The British Press (Berkshire, England: Open Univ. Press, 2008), 44. Temple also noted the British government regularly went after publications that were vocal against the war. For example, it shut down the communist Daily Worker in January 1941, reopening in August 1942, only after the Russians joined the Allied effort. Temple, 44–45.
50. See Michael S. Sweeney, Secrets of Victory: The Office of Censorship and the American Press and Radio in World War II (Chapel Hill: Univ. of North Carolina Press, 2001), 2.
51. Anthony Smith, The British Press since the War (Totowa, NJ: Rowman & Littlefield, 1974), 109.
52. “American File,” August 21, 1942, CAB, RG 9/CD/225/19, PRONI.
53. See “Russians Advance Along West Bank of Don N.W. of Stalingrad,” and “Belfast Shooting Affair,” Belfast Telegraph, October 1, 1942, 3.
54. “U.S. Soldier Was Killed: Knifed in Rumpus,” Belfast Telegraph, October 1, 1942, 3.
55. “U.S. Soldier Was Killed.”
56. “American Soldier Killed in Antrim Street Fracas,” Irish News (Belfast), October 2, 1942, 1.
57. “American Soldier Killed.”
58. “U.S. Soldiers: One Killed in Brawl in Antrim,” Belfast News-Letter, October 2, 1942, 5.
59. “U.S. Soldiers: One Killed.”
60. See “When Patience Is Wearing Thin,” Irish News (Belfast), October 2, 1942, 2.
61. See “Eyes on Egypt,” Belfast Telegraph, October 2, 1942, 4.
62. “U.S. Soldier Killed in Antrim,” Times (London), October 2, 1942, 2.
63. “U.S. Soldier Killed in Antrim.”
64. At the very bottom of the Times’s editorial page, a letter to the editor carried the headline “Coloured Soldiers.” D. Davie-Distin, a snack bar manager for an Oxford shop, wrote that the shop’s employees felt compelled to comment on race relations in England. Davie-Distin’s letter described how an African American soldier had come into the store the night before carrying a note from his commander. In the correspondence, the Yank officer begged shop owners to look after his soldier, who was responsible for running supplies across the country thus missing regular meals and was having difficulty securing food off-post. The letter writer noted: “Naturally, we ‘looked after’ him to the best of our ability, but I could not help feeling ashamed that in a country where even stray dogs are ‘looked after’ by special societies a citizen of the world, who is fighting the world’s battle for freedom and equality, should have found it necessary to place himself in this humiliating position.” For the readers of the Times, that letter to the editor would be the only mention of race in the newspaper that day. See D. Davie-Distin, “Coloured Soldiers,” Times (London), October 2, 1942, 3.
65. “U.S. Soldier Killed in Brawl in Ireland,” New York Times, October 2, 1942, 3.
66. “U.S. Soldier Killed in Brawl.”
67. “U.S. Soldier Killed in Brawl.”
68. “Yank Killed in Ireland,” Washington Post, October 2, 1942, 4.
69. “Yank Killed in Ireland.”
70. “Yankee Soldier Dies in Irish Brawl,” Detroit Free Press, October 1, 1942, 2.
71. “Yankee Soldier Dies in Irish Brawl.”
72. See “Briton Says Teen Age Girls ‘Throw Selves’ at Overseas Troops,” Chicago Daily Tribune, October 3, 1942, 7.
73. “Identify Soldier Killed in Ireland as Indiana Negro,” Chicago Daily Tribune, October 8, 1942, 19.
74. Just prior to World War II, the Courier and Defender joined founding newspaper member, the Afro-American (Baltimore, MD), in subscribing to the ANP wire services. See Lawrence D. Hogan, A Black National News Service: The Associated Negro Press and Claude Barnett, 1919–1945 (Cranbury, NJ: Associated Univ. Presses, 1984), 57.
75. “Soldier Killed in Ireland,” Pittsburgh Courier, October 10, 1942, 22.
76. “U.S. Soldier Killed in Brawl in Ireland.”
77. “Soldier Killed in Ireland.” There was debate in the black press about how to identify race. In his memoir, Enoch P. Waters recalled the debate in the Defender newsroom over which adjective to use. He noted: “[Robert S.] Abbott didn’t like the words ‘Negro,’ ‘Colored,’ ‘black,’ or ‘Afro American.’ He tried to force the adoption of ‘The Race’ as a capitalized adjective. . . . Even though other Negro publishers held Abbott in high esteem, not one was persuaded” (222). While the term Negro was most commonly used (although the New York Times did not start capitalizing Negro until the late 1930s), use of the term was not “unanimous.” The publisher of the Afro-American preferred Afro-American while the Courier used colored. Eventually, the Defender editors returned to using Negro. See Enoch P. Waters, American Diary: A Personal History of the Black Press (Chicago: Path Press, 1987), 222.
78. “Soldier Slain during Knife Fight in Eire,” Chicago Defender, October 10, 1942, 2.
79. “Soldier Slain.”
80. “Soldier Dies of Knifing in Ireland,” Chicago Defender, October 17, 1942, 12.
81. “Soldier Dies of Knifing.” The parenthetical “tavern” was used in the original text by newspaper editors to help readers unfamiliar with the English term “pub.”
82. “Soldier Dies of Knifing.”
83. “Identify Soldier Slain in Fight in Ireland,” Afro-American (Baltimore, MD), October 17, 1942, 3.
84. See “Negro General in England,” Baltimore Sun, September 29, 1942, 8; “Only Negro General Arrives in Britain,” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, September 29, 1942, 3; “General B. O. Davis on Duty in Europe,” Afro-American, October 3, 1942, 1; and “Gen. Davis Overseas With Troops,” Chicago Defender, October 3, 1942, 1.
85. Brigadier General Benjamin O. Davis to Sadie Davis, September 30, 1942, BODP, box 8, folder 13, USAMHI.
86. Marvin E. Fletcher, America’s First Black General: Benjamin O. Davis Sr., 1880–1970 (Lawrence: Univ. Press of Kansas, 1989), 102–3.
87. Topping, “Laying Down the Law,” 749; Smith, British Press, 153.
88. Fletcher, America’s First Black General, 95–97.
89. Miss M. Lyall to Brigadier General Benjamin O. Davis, October 25, 1942, BODP, box 3, folder 7, USAMHI.
90. Lyall to Davis.
91. Gardiner, “Overpaid, Oversexed & Over Here,” 111–13.
92. Extract from Army Mail Censorship Report, No. 57, December 11–31, 1942, Foreign Office, RG 371/34123, PRO.
93. Neil A. Wynn, The African-American Experience during World War II (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2010), 29.
94. “Command and Leadership of Colored Troops,” to Base Section Commanders, Com Z, undated, BODP, box 5, folder 1, USAMHI.
95. “Command and Leadership of Colored Troops.”
96. President Harry S. Truman was the first to forge societal changes through the military when he signed Executive Order 9981: Desegregation of the Armed Forces in 1948. It took two decades before American society followed with the Civil Rights Act of 1964, signed into law by President Lyndon B. Johnson. See “Executive Order 9981,” Harry S. Truman Library, accessed March 15, 2015, https://www.trumanlibrary.gov/library/executive-orders/9981/executive-order-9981; and “Civil Rights Act of 1964,” NARA, accessed March 30, 2015, http://research.archives.gov/description/299891.
97. George Padmore, “Race Problem Cause of Great Concern in Britain, Padmore Says in Dispatch,” Chicago Defender, October 3, 1942, 1.
98. Padmore, 2.
1. Pete Hamill, “Foreword,” in Ray O’Hanlon, The New Irish Americans (Niwot, CO: Roberts Rinehart, 1998), page unnumbered.
2. Hamill.
3. Hamill.
4. Michael Dorgan, “New Figures Show 2.4 Million North Americans Visited Ireland in 2018,” Irish Central, January 30, 2019, https://www.irishcentral.com/travel/north-american-vistors-ireland-2018; “Higher Number of American Tourists Expected to Visit Ireland in 2018,” Irish Examiner (Cork), January 18, 2018, https://www.irishexaminer.com/breakingnews/business/higher-number-of-american-tourists-expected-to-visit-ireland-in-2018-823708.html.
5. O’Hanlon, New Irish Americans, 12.
6. Fintan O’Toole, “The Irish American Cultural Swap Shop,” Irish Times (Dublin), May 11, 2000; Maureen Dezell, Irish America: Coming into Clover (New York: Anchor Books, 2002), 206.
7. Timothy Meagher, “Irish America,” in The Cambridge Social History of Modern Ireland, ed. Eugenio F. Biagini and Mary E. Daly (New York: Cambridge Univ. Press, 2017), 509.
8. The oath of allegiance was abolished when the antitreaty faction assumed power in 1932.
9. David T. Gleeson, ed. The Irish in the Atlantic World (Columbia: Univ. of South Carolina Press, 2010), 6.
10. New York Times, January 28, 1957, 26.
11. William Shannon, The American Irish (New York: McMillian, 1963), vii.
12. Irish Times (Dublin), June 26, 1963, 7.
13. It should be noted that JFK’s sister Jean Kennedy Smith served as US ambassador to Ireland during the critical peace process years of the 1990s.
14. US-Ireland Business 2020 (Dublin: American Chamber of Commerce), 16–17.
15. Emergency Supplemental Appropriations Act for Defense, the Global War on Terror, and Tsunami Relief, 2005, Pub. L. No. 109–13, 119 Stat. 231 (2005), https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/PLAW-109publ13/pdf/PLAW-109publ13.pdf; Jerry Kammer, “The Hart-Celler Immigration Act of 1965: Political Figures and Historical Circumstances Produced Dramatic, Unintended Consequences,” Center for Immigration Studies, September 30, 2015, https://cis.org/Report/Hart Celler-Immigration-Act-1965); Brian O’Donovan, “Irish Access to E3 Visas Suffers Setback in U.S. Senate,” RTÉ News, updated January 3, 2019, https://www.rte.ie/news/ireland/2019/0103/1020061-us-e-3-visa/; Alan C. Tidwell, “The Special One: Australia, Ireland and the U.S. Working Visa Fight,” Interpreter, January 9, 2019, https://www.lowyinstitute.org/the-interpreter/special-one-australia-ireland-US-working-visa-fight.