Annotations for Leviticus

1:1—16:34 Laws of the Tabernacle. Chs. 1–16 focus primarily on regulations for the tabernacle in the midst of the community and the importance of purity in the community that surrounded the tabernacle. Chs. 1–7 serve as a manual for the various kinds of sacrificial procedures. Chs. 8–10 recount the consecration of the priests and the inauguration of their service in the tabernacle. Chs. 11–15 detail the purity regulations for the community, and ch. 16 concludes the section with the Day of Atonement procedures.

1:1—7:38 Sacrifices and Offerings. Chs. 1–7 detail (1) the regulations for the five main types of offerings in the tabernacle (burnt, grain, fellowship, sin, and guilt offerings [1:3—6:7; 1:1–2 introduces the whole section]; see “Major OT Offerings and Sacrifices,” which describes the basic regulations concerning them) and (2) the specific regulations for the priests and their portions from the offerings (6:8—7:38).

1:1—6:7 Description of the Rituals. After an introduction to the section (1:1–2), there are three main units: (1) the burnt, grain, and fellowship offerings (1:3—3:17); (2) the sin offering (4:1—5:13); and (3) the guilt offering (5:14—6:7). The first three sacrifices are grouped together as a unit because there is no new introductory note in 2:1 and 3:1 as there is in 4:1 and 5:14 (“The LORD said to Moses”).

1:1 from the tent of meeting. Directly connects back to the end of Exodus. The glory cloud of the Lord’s presence had so completely filled the tent that Moses could not enter (Exod 40:34–35). tent of meeting. The tabernacle (Exod 26). “Tabernacle” refers to the tent as a dwelling place, while “tent of meeting” focuses on the same tent as a place where the Israelites could meet with the Lord. It was set up in the middle of the camp (Num 2:2) and served as the Lord’s residence until the temple was built in the days of Solomon (1 Kgs 8:4–6; 2 Chr 5:5–7). It is not to be confused with the other “tent of meeting” that stood outside the camp (Exod 33:7–8); this other “tent of meeting” was for revelation, not sacrifice, and the Lord did not dwell in this tent but came and spoke to Moses at the entrance (see Exod 33:9–11 and note on 33:7). There is some uncertainty about whether certain other passages refer to this tent outside the camp or the tabernacle in the midst of the camp (e.g., Num 11:24–26, 30; 12:4–5; and perhaps Deut 31:14–15).

1:2 Speak to the Israelites and say to them. Moses was to speak not just to the priests but also to the Israelites as a whole (cf. 10:11). These were not secret texts intended only for the priests, as is the case with many ancient ritual texts. offering. The Hebrew word, pronounced “korban,” refers to “something brought near.” Jesus used this Hebrew word when he rebuked Jewish religious leaders for allowing offerings to be used as an excuse for not providing for one’s parents (see Mark 7:11–13 and note). animal. A general word for four-footed herd or flock animals. This verse does not mention birds in spite of the regulations for them in vv. 14–17 probably because they are not pasture animals and were allowed to be offered largely as a concession to the poor (e.g., 5:7–10; 12:8; 14:21–32). herd. Cattle (vv. 3, 5). flock. Sheep or goats (v. 10).

1:3–17 This section on the burnt offering divides into three subsections: burnt offerings (1) from the herd (vv. 3–9), (2) from the flock (vv. 10–13), and (3) of birds (vv. 14–17). See “Major OT Offerings and Sacrifices”; cf. 6:8–13. A burnt offering was offered every morning and evening in the tabernacle (Exod 29:38–42; Num 28:3–4); this was doubled on the Sabbath day (Num 28:9–10), and extra burnt offerings were offered on festival days (Num 28–29). The NT reflects the background of the burnt offering when it urges believers to “offer [their] bodies” to God as a “living sacrifice, holy and pleasing to God”—the kind God will find acceptable—which is their “true and proper worship” (Rom 12:1).

1:3 male. A bull, not a female cow, was the first option for the burnt offering (cf. v. 10). A male was required perhaps because it was more dominant than the female, and perhaps also because the male was more expendable, not being able to produce milk or offspring. A bull was often offered by more prominent members of the community (vv. 3–9); a common person would offer a sheep or goat (vv. 10–13), and a poor person would offer a bird (vv. 14–17). without defect . . . acceptable to the LORD. It would be offensive to offer a defective animal to the Lord since such an animal was less valuable and showed disrespect (e.g., Mal 1:6–14; cf. 1 Pet 1:19). entrance to the tent of meeting. At the east end. The slaughtering took place in the northeast section (v. 11). The waste heap was in the southeast section (v. 16). See “Tabernacle Floor Plan.”

1:4 lay your hand on the head. The offerer identified the offering as belonging to him and, at the same time, dedicated it for the purpose(s) for which he brought it. Some say this action transferred the offerer’s sin to the offering, but that would defile the altar and tabernacle, the opposite of atonement (15:31). The Day of Atonement hand-laying was very different, and that animal was not offered on the altar (see 16:21, 22 and notes). atonement. See Introduction: Major Theological Themes (Offerings, Sacrifices, and Atonement). The atonement in the burnt offering ritual was about ransom (payment) and propitiation (appeasement), not expiation (removal of sin or impurity, for which see especially the sin offering [ch. 4]). The blood, representing the life of the animal (17:11), was splashed all around on the sides of the altar (v. 5) as part of offering the whole animal on the altar (vv. 8–9). The offerings that made atonement were the burnt, sin, and guilt offerings, not the fellowship offering or grain offering, except when the latter was a sin offering concession to the poor (5:11–13).

1:5 You. The offerer. blood. Especially important because it represented the life of the animal (17:11). In this way, not only the dead carcass but also the life of the animal was given over to the Lord as a substitute for the life of the offerer. Jesus Christ became the sacrificial mediator of the new covenant when he shed his blood and thus gave his life for those who would believe in him (Heb 9:11–15, 22).

1:6 skin. Given to the priest who performed the priestly duties for the particular burnt offering (7:8). Not all priests actively served at the altar at the same time.

1:8 The offerer slaughtered the offering (v. 5), but the priests placed the parts of the slaughtered animal on the altar. Only the priests—not ordinary Israelites—could come into direct contact with the altar.

1:9 food offering. The whole carcass of the burnt offering was consumed on the altar as a food offering (but not the hide, see v. 6 and note). The other offerings were only partially consumed on the altar. Some take this term (Hebrew ʾ iššeh) to mean “an offering [made] by fire” because it is thought to derive from the Hebrew word for “fire” (Hebrew ʾ ēšh). However, the way the same term is used in other ancient texts and the fact that in the Bible it sometimes refers to offerings that are not burned up on the altar (e.g., 24:9) suggests the NIV rendering. an aroma pleasing to the LORD. Suits the purpose(s) of the offering, which was to present a pleasing food gift to the Lord (cf. Gen 8:21), even though the Lord himself does not “eat” food (Ps 50:7–15).

1:14–17 The burnt offering procedures for birds naturally differ from those for herd and flock animals (vv. 3–13) because birds are smaller and have a different kind of anatomy.

1:14 young pigeon. Either a young pigeon or perhaps one from the various species of pigeons.

1:16 crop. The enlarged part of a bird’s gullet that serves as a pouch for storing food before full digestion. feathers. See NIV text note. The whole expression could also mean “remove its entrails by [cutting off] its tail feathers.” east of the altar. Where they took the waste from slaughtered animals (e.g., the crop) and the ashes from the burnt offering after the animal was consumed on the altar (6:10–11).

1:17 not dividing it completely. Birds were not split in two or cut up into various parts like the other animals were when they were placed on the altar. They were so small that the whole carcass could easily burn up without such severing.

2:1 grain offering. See “Major OT Offerings and Sacrifices”; cf. 6:14–23; 7:9–10. The instructions for the grain offering divide into four subsections: (1) general regulations (vv. 1–3), (2) kinds of grain offerings (vv. 4–10), (3) yeast and salt (vv. 11–13), and (4) firstfruits grain offerings (vv. 14–16). A grain offering generally accompanied a burnt or fellowship offering to supplement the meat with bread (cf. Num 15:1–10; 28:12–13; 29:3–4); a drink offering of wine (Lev 23:13) was also offered, thus completing the “food offering” to the Lord (see note on 1:9). It could make atonement either along with the burnt offering (14:20) or alone as a sin offering for the poor (5:11–13). In some instances the Hebrew word for grain offering is used for either a meat or a grain offering to God (Gen 4:3–5), a gift to another person (Gen 32:13, 20–21), or tribute to a king (Judg 3:17–18). finest flour. Finely ground wheat flour as opposed to barley; but also possibly “grits,” not so finely ground. incense. Frankincense, a white gum substance from trees of the genus Boswellia, native to Sheba in South Arabia.

2:2 all the incense. They did not eat incense. Its purpose here was to give off a fine fragrance to the Lord when burnt on the altar along with the handful of grain and oil. memorial portion. Intended to memorialize the offerer’s specific reason for bringing the offering to the Lord.

2:3 most holy. Only the consecrated priests could eat the rest of the grain offering, and they were to eat it within the sanctuary courtyard. It was their payment for performing the service at the altar on behalf of the people (cf. 6:16–18).

2:4 thick loaves. Either “ring-shaped” or perhaps “perforated.”

2:5 prepared on a griddle. Producing something like a pancake made on a plate of iron.

2:7 cooked in a pan. Suggests that the olive oil in the pan was used for deep-frying, perhaps like making a donut.

2:11 yeast. Anything having a “leavening” effect on the bread.

2:12 firstfruits. Given to the priests as payment for their service to the Lord, so they were not offered on the altar (Num 18:12–13).

2:13 salt of the covenant. Appears only two other places in the OT: for the Lord’s covenant with the priests (Num 18:19) and his covenant with David (2 Chr 13:5). salt. Its character suggests the enduring nature of the covenant-bond between the Lord and his people.

3:1 your offering is a fellowship offering. See “Major OT Offerings and Sacrifices”; cf. 7:11–34. Either “sacrifice offering” or “fellowship offering” can designate the fellowship offering, or they can occur in combination. Both terms refer to offerings of which the worshipers ate the meat as part of a banquet in fellowship with God and one another. The fellowship offering occurs throughout the OT for eating meals together as part of making covenants, whether between God and people (Exod 24:5–11) or between two (groups of) people (Gen 31:51–54). The term for the fellowship offering is related to the well-known Hebrew word for “peace” or “well-being” (šālôm), so this offering is often called the “peace offering,” which is appropriate for making, renewing, and practicing covenant relationships. This is the kind of covenant sacrifice offering Jesus alluded to at the Last Supper (Luke 22:19–20; 1 Cor 11:24–25; cf. Jer 31:31–37). Compare, e.g., what Moses says about the blood in Exod 24:8 with what Jesus says about his own blood in Luke 22:20. male or female. Unlike the burnt offering, in which only a male animal was acceptable (1:3, 10). without defect. See note on 1:3.

3:2 lay your hand on the head of your offering. See note on 1:4. entrance. See note on 1:3.

3:11 as a food offering. This does not mean that God was actually eating the “food” (Ps 50:7–15).

3:17 You must not eat any fat or any blood. A permanent prohibition repeated in 7:22–27, also in the context of regulations for the fellowship offering. This is the only kind of offering of which regular worshipers could eat some of the meat, so it was the only offering that required accompanying warnings against eating the fat or blood. fat. Considered the finest part of the animal. Even “the finest of wheat” (Ps 147:14) is literally “the fat of wheat” (cf. Gen 45:18; Num 18:12). Because they preferred fat as the finest part of the animal, the corrupt sons of Eli came to the sacrifice “even before the fat was burned” and took their priestly portion from it raw with the fat (1 Sam 2:15). blood. Not eaten because it stands for the life of the animal, and life belongs only to God (see 17:11 and note; cf. Gen 9:4–5; Deut 12:23–24).

4:1—5:13 This section is a single, long, complex unit of regulations for the “sin offering,” sometimes translated “purification offering” because its purpose was to purify. This section includes a short introduction (4:1–2), the sin offering for the priest (4:3–12), the sin offering for the whole Israelite community (4:13–21), the sin offering for the tribal leader (4:22–26), the sin offering for any other member of the community (4:27–35), a list of certain kinds of sins involved (5:1–6), and sin offerings for the poor (5:7–13). The Hebrew word for “sin offering” is the same as the Hebrew word for “sin.” Which rendering is intended can only be determined by the context. See, e.g., 4:3, where the priest is to bring “a sin offering [Hebrew ḥaṭṭā ʾ t] for the sin [ḥaṭṭā ʾ t] he has committed.” The sin offering consecrated (i.e., “de-sinned”) or restored the purity of the tabernacle and/or community (8:15; 16:29–34). The Israelites were to avoid contaminating the tabernacle (i.e., the tent of God’s special presence in their midst) with sin or impurity lest God’s wrath come against them (15:31). The sin offering made atonement to gain either forgiveness of sin (4:20, 26, 31, 35; 5:10, 13) or purification from uncleanness (12:7–8; 14:20, 31; 15:15, 30; 16:19). In the latter case it was not a matter of sin in any moral sense but a matter of ceremonial impurity (see Introduction: Major Theological Themes [Holiness and Purity]). See “Major OT Offerings and Sacrifices.”

In the NT Jesus is sometimes referred to as the sin offering for the people of the new covenant (see Introduction: Major Theological Themes [Offerings, Sacrifices, and Atonement]). Rom 8:3 says God sent Jesus “to be a sin offering,” or to be sin (see NIV text note); and 2 Cor 5:21 says God made Jesus “to be sin,” or “to be a sin offering,” for us (see NIV text note).

4:1 The LORD said to Moses. Introduces the section (see note on 1:1—6:7) that ends at 5:13.

4:2 unintentionally. This word occurs regularly in the sections on the sin offering (vv. 13, 22, 27) and guilt offering (5:15, 18). Num 15:27–31 contrasts sinning “unintentionally” with sinning “defiantly” (or “with a raised hand”); those sinning defiantly raise their fist, so to speak, and presumptuously defy the Lord. Such a person “blasphemes the LORD” (Num 15:30), so they must be “cut off from their people” (see note on 7:20, 21). They have “despised the LORD’s word and broken his commands” (Num 15:31). One could not bring an offering for such sin. Unintentional sin was another matter. It was straying from the Lord’s commands either through ignorance, inattention, or human frailty, not through defiance or blasphemy (see 22:14–16 and note on 22:14). Forgiveness was available for unintentional sin through the sin offering. what is forbidden in any of the LORD’s commands. Prohibitive commands in the Mosaic law—what one must not do. Some would restrict these commands to those given in the tabernacle and community regulations here in Leviticus. The term “any,” however, suggests that it would also include the numerous prohibitions that the Lord had already pronounced at Sinai—whether, e.g., in the Ten Commandments (Exod 20:1–17) or in the Book of the Covenant (Exod 20:22—23:33). To violate any of them and not deal with them according to the regulations given in the law itself would be to sin against either God, the people, or both. This would generate impurity that would defile the tabernacle. For example, a person sinned if they did not come forward in a legal dispute in which they were a witness, if they handled uncleanness improperly, or if they did not fulfill a vow; these kinds of violation required confession and a sin offering (see 5:1–6 and notes there).

4:3 anointed priest. Refers either to only the high priest (cf. 8:12; Exod 29:7) or to any of the anointed priests (cf. Exod 40:15). bringing guilt on the people. The effect on the people as a whole when the anointed priest sinned. All priests sinned. This is why they needed to bring a sin offering for themselves, e.g., on the Day of Atonement (16:6, 11–14). The only exception is Jesus Christ, our sinless high priest (Heb 4:15), who offered himself once for all so that “sacrifice for sin is no longer necessary” (Heb 10:18; cf. Heb 9:11—10:18). he must bring. Burnt, grain, and fellowship offerings were voluntary on some occasions (see 7:12–18 and note) but required on other occasions (see 16:23–25). The sin and guilt offerings were always required.

4:5 The manipulation of the blood for the sin offering was different than that for the burnt, fellowship, and guilt offerings (1:5; 3:2; 7:2). into the tent of meeting. Into the tent itself, not just to the altar of burnt offering that was out near the entrance to the tabernacle complex (see “Tabernacle Floor Plan”).

4:6 seven times. The number seven suggests complete purification (cf. 8:11; 14:7; 16:14, 19; Num 19:4), like the cycle of seven days completes the week (Exod 20:9–10). curtain. Separated the front room of the tabernacle (the Holy Place) from the back room (the Most Holy Place), where the ark of the covenant was. The curtain stretched not only in front of the ark but also, like a canopy, over the top of the ark.

4:7 horns. Protruded from the altar’s four corners (Exod 30:1–3). altar of fragrant incense. Stood right in front of the curtain just opposite the ark of the covenant, which was on the other side of the curtain (see “Tabernacle Floor Plan”). Sprinkling the blood in front of the curtain (v. 6) along with smearing it on the horns of the altar signified purification of the entire tent from the ritual pollution caused by the priest’s sin.

4:12 outside the camp. When the sin offering was offered for the priest or for the Israelite community as a whole (vv. 3–21), the blood was applied in the Holy Place (vv. 5–7, 16–18) and the body of the animal was burned up in a fire outside the camp, not eaten by the priests (6:30). The meat of the sin offering for a regular Israelite or a leader was most holy (see note on 2:3), so it would be eaten by the priests (6:24–26; see note on 4:25). As our sin offering, Jesus was crucified outside Jerusalem (Heb 13:11–12). a place ceremonially clean. A place where there was nothing ritually unclean, such as carcasses of dead animals.

4:13 the whole Israelite community. Includes all the people and the priests as well. For this reason the blood was applied inside the tent of meeting as it was for the priest (cf. vv. 5–7 with vv. 16–18; see note on v. 16).

4:16 into the tent of meeting. See note on v. 13 and recall that the priests would enter into the tent of meeting every day for ministry purposes (24:1–4). The blood was therefore applied here because the ritual impurity caused by the sin of the priests had reached this far into the tabernacle (contrast vv. 25, 30, 34; see note on v. 25).

4:22–23 when he realizes his guilt and the sin he has committed becomes known. There are difficulties here in the translation, which are reflected in the diverse renderings of modern English versions. First, the NIV renders the end of v. 22 as “realizes his guilt”; another possible translation would be “incurs guilt” (i.e., by committing the sin). Second, the Hebrew text at the beginning of v. 23 may suggest that this is a second possible situation in which the leader knows about his guilt through being informed by someone else or through being convicted of his guilt by legal action. Cf. vv. 27–28.

4:22 leader. Perhaps one of the elders of a clan or tribe (Exod 16:22; Num 1:16, 44; Josh 9:15, 18).

4:23 a male goat. This was a less expensive offering than the bull brought for the priest or the whole Israelite community (vv. 3, 14), but it was more valuable than the female goat or lamb brought for a regular member of the community (vv. 28, 32).

4:25 on the horns of the altar of burnt offering. For the first time in the chapter the blood is manipulated on the altar of burnt offering near the entrance to the tabernacle complex, not at the altar of incense inside the tabernacle tent itself (contrast vv. 5–6, 16–17; see notes on vv. 12, 16). The meat was therefore eaten by the priests (6:24–29).

4:27–28 See note on vv. 22–23.

4:31 an aroma pleasing to the LORD. Like burning the meat and fat of the burnt offering (1:9, 13, 17; see note on 1:9) and like the fat of the fellowship offering (3:5, 16). This is significant because, in principle, it tells us that the sin offering procedure included within it both a “sin offering” (the blood manipulation) and a “burnt offering” (the burning of the fat). This is confirmed by the sin offering of the poor, who could bring two birds, “one for a sin offering and the other for a burnt offering” (5:7). make atonement. Both the blood manipulation and the burning of the fat contributed to making atonement (see note on 1:4).

5:1 do not speak up when they hear a public charge to testify. The person had “seen” or otherwise “learned about” the case but did not come forward as a witness as they were required to do when the public call for witnesses was made. The reason for not coming forward is not given, and it did not matter. It was then too late to step forward in the court case. they will be held responsible. See note on 10:17.

5:2 ceremonially unclean. Touching the carcass of an unclean animal made the person unclean (see ch. 11 for clean and unclean animals). they are unaware. Here the person was not aware that they had become unclean, so they had not handled their uncleanness in a proper and timely way (see 11:28, 40 for the required procedure). They had therefore spread uncleanness to the tabernacle in the midst of the community. This was especially worrisome (15:31).

5:3 human uncleanness. Caused by an unclean bodily flow of some sort (15:4–12, 21–24) or by touching a human corpse (Num 19:11–20). they are unaware. See note on v. 2. For the regular required procedures, see 15:5–6, 13–15.

5:4 thoughtlessly. A person might carelessly, foolishly, or in the heat of the moment speak a promissory oath. Nevertheless, they would need to fulfill the vow (cf. Num 30:6–8 for more on rash vows; see also Deut 23:21–23). Jephthah’s vow was one kind of rash vow, but he knew that he had made the vow (Judg 11:30–31) and everyone knew that he needed to fulfill it (Judg 11:35–36). but then they learn of it. Sometimes in emotional situations a person might say things that they were unaware of and that they really did not mean. If they made an oath in this state of mind, they might not even remember it as such, so time might pass without their fulfilling the oath. If after that time they learned that they had made the oath, they were guilty of breaking it. realize their guilt. Or “incurs guilt.” See note on 4:22–23.

5:5 they must confess. Since the four violators described in vv. 1–4 had either concealed their violation or it had been concealed from them, they needed to confess their sin to bring it to light before God and others.

5:6 sin offering. After they confessed their guilt (v. 5), they needed to make atonement with a sin offering since they had, in the meantime, polluted the tabernacle in their midst.

5:7 Anyone who cannot afford a lamb. For a sin offering. The regulations in vv. 7–10 are a concession to the poor. The Hebrew term used for “lamb” here refers to any flock animal, whether a sheep or a goat, as distinguished from the larger herd animals (see note on 1:2).

5:10 prescribed way. Following the basic regulations for birds as the burnt offering (see 1:14–17).

5:11 a tenth of an ephah. Although the measurements are debated, the grain offered here probably amounts to two quarts (2 liters), approximately the size of one daily ration. Alternatively, it may be understood as a measure of weight rather than volume. See NIV text note. finest flour. See note on 2:1. because it is a sin offering. Not a regular grain offering, so “they must not put olive oil or incense on it” (cf. 2:1). This was a concession to the poor and should not be construed as a contradiction to Heb 9:22: “Without the shedding of blood there is no forgiveness.” Here the “finest flour” was a substitute for the bloody sin offerings prescribed previously.

5:14—6:7 This section on the guilt offering falls into three parts: the guilt offering for (1) trespassing on the Lord’s holy things (5:14–16), (2) an unknown suspected violation (5:17–19), and (3) trespassing upon a neighbor’s property (6:1–7). The sin offering made atonement for defiling the tabernacle with impurities, whether through sin or ritual impurity (see 4:1—5:13), whereas the guilt offering made atonement for desecration of the Lord’s holy things by trespassing on whatever had been devoted to him. For that reason the guilt offering is sometimes called the “trespass offering.” In addition to the guilt offering, the violator needed to make restitution plus pay a fine of a fifth of the value (see 5:16; 6:5; see also Introduction: Major Theological Themes [Holiness and Purity]). A guilt offering was necessary for something as simple as unintentionally eating an animal that had been specifically devoted to the Lord, like a firstborn animal (Lev 22:14–16; Exod 13:1–2, 11–16). The guilt offering was also required when an Israelite violated the property of another Israelite through some kind of fraud (6:1–7). See “Major OT Offerings and Sacrifices”; see also notes on 5:15—6:2.

5:15 proper value in silver. The value of the ram that was offered. Alternatively, this might suggest that the guilt offering could be presented in the form of money. sanctuary shekel. See NIV text note.

5:16 make restitution. Replace the holy thing that they violated. fifth. A 20 percent fine was added to the restitution to compensate for the violation, even though unintentional, of something that was holy (see v. 15; contrast Exod 22:4, 7, 9, where a thief had to pay back double what he had stolen).

5:17 do not know it. It seems that they did not know what they had done wrong and never came to know it, so this is a “suspected violation.” Another interpretation is that the offender did not originally know what their violation was but then they came to know it; however, there is no indication in the passage that they ever came to know it. No restitution and no fine of 20 percent could be made because the offender only suspected they had done something wrong but did not know what it was. This kind of suspicion and fear of having violated the holy things is also known from elsewhere in the ancient world.

6:1 Cf. 5:14. This introduces vv. 2–7 as a second subsection of the guilt offering section (5:14—6:7).

6:2 sins and is unfaithful to the LORD by deceiving a neighbor. Like in 5:15, the violation was a trespass upon property, but here it was the property of a neighbor (i.e., a member of the Israelite community) rather than the property of the Lord (see the parallel law in Num 5:5–10). After all, the people of Israel belonged to the Lord as his “holy nation” (Exod 19:6) and were therefore part of the Lord’s “holy” things.

6:8—7:38 Distribution of the Sacrificial Portions. These regulations are addressed first to Aaron and his sons (6:8—7:21) and then to all the Israelites (7:22–36). They refer to the same five kinds of offerings as in 1:1—6:7, but here the concern is the distribution of the various parts of the offerings, whether to the Lord on the altar or to the priests or people.

6:10 linen clothes. The outer layer. linen undergarments. Possibly leggings, underwear, shorts, or some kind of apron worn under the linen clothes. They reached from a priest’s waist to his thighs, and priests wore them whenever they ministered in the tabernacle tent or at the altar of burnt offering “so that they [did] not incur guilt and die” (Exod 28:43). The undergarments prevented their private parts from being exposed as they were ministering (Exod 20:26).

6:11 a place that is ceremonially clean. Cf. 4:12; see note there.

6:18 Whatever touches them will become holy. There are two possible translations and interpretations here. The main text of the NIV has “will become holy,” indicating that the “most holy” grain offering (v. 17) would transfer holiness to anyone who touched it (cf. v. 27; Exod 29:37; 30:29). Ezek 46:20 would seem to support this view. The NIV text note has “must be holy,” which would prohibit anyone who was not consecrated as a priest from touching the holy food, but this rendering does not suggest that holiness would transfer to the person who touched it. Hag 2:11–13 could be taken to support this rendering: uncleanness was transferable by touch, but holiness was not. But Haggai is not referring specifically to “most holy” food, which this verse and Ezek 46:20 do, so the rendering in the NIV main text is preferable. Food that was “holy” did not transfer holiness but “most holy” (vv. 17–18) food did.

6:30 blood . . . brought into the tent of meeting. Sin offerings for the anointed priest and for the whole Israelite community (4:3–21). The meat was burned up outside the camp, not eaten by the priests (see note on 4:12).

7:2 its blood is to be splashed. Unlike that of the sin offering (see 4:5–7, 25 and notes), the blood of the guilt offering was handled the same way as that of the burnt and fellowship offerings (1:5; 3:2). Here the blood was not used to cleanse the tabernacle from impurity but to make amends for the trespass violation of other things that were holy (see note on 5:14—6:7).

7:7 They belong to the priest. Like the meat of the sin offering, the meat of the guilt offering was “most holy” (6:25; see notes on 6:18; 27:28).

7:12–18 There are three major kinds of fellowship offerings: thank offerings (vv. 12–15), vow offerings (vv. 16–18), and freewill offerings (vv. 16–18). Thus, one could bring a fellowship offering for various purposes. Sometimes a person was especially thankful for something the Lord had done in their life; sometimes a person needed to fulfill a vow they had made (e.g., Gen 28:20–22; Num 30:1–2; Deut 23:21–23); and sometimes a person simply wanted to freely express their love and worship of the Lord with a freewill offering. The freewill offering was the least regulated since, by definition, it was offered freely, without any kind of specific obligation attached (vv. 15–17; 22:23).

7:12 without yeast. These breads were unleavened (cf. 2:11–12) because a memorial portion from them (see note on 2:2) would be offered on the altar.

7:13 with yeast. Contrast v. 12. No memorial portion was given from these loaves, so they could be made with yeast (cf. 2:11–12).

7:14 contribution. What was set aside from the offerings to the Lord as payment for the officiating priests (vv. 28–36).

7:15 eaten on the day it is offered. Some argue that this rule was required so the meal would be shared with others and not selfishly hoarded. Others argue that the distinction between the thank offering (all eaten on the first day) and the votive and freewill offerings (eaten on the first and second day [vv. 16–18]) reflects the higher level of gratitude owed to the Lord in the thank offering.

7:18 not be accepted. Voided the benefit of the offering altogether. It will not be reckoned to their credit. Whatever recognition the worshiper would have received from the Lord for the offering was canceled. impure. Cf. 19:7–8. In Isa 65:4 this term stands parallel to the flesh of pigs (an unclean animal), and in Ezek 4:14 it is parallel to the meat of animals found dead or killed by wild animals. It may refer here to the spoiling of the meat after two days, but the main point is simply that this holy meat had become desecrated by eating from it beyond the prescribed period of two days. held responsible. For violating these regulations.

7:19–21 Uncleanness was contagious (cf. Hag 2:11–13), so it was important that no thing (or person) that was unclean touch (or eat) the holy dedicated meat of the fellowship offering, rendering the meat unclean (cf. 22:3–8).

7:20, 21 cut off from their people. This penalty clause seems to indicate varying consequences in different contexts. It may refer to execution either by the community (e.g., 20:2–3; Exod 31:14–15; and perhaps Num 15:30–36) or by the Lord himself (e.g., 20:4–5, which may include also terminating the violator’s line of descent [extirpation]). The similar expression in Num 19:13 refers to excommunication from the covenant community so that the impure person would not defile the tabernacle.

7:24 This extends the prohibition against eating fat (vv. 23, 25; cf. 3:17) to that of “an animal found dead or torn by wild animals” (cf. 17:15–16). They could use it, however, for other purposes and for daily needs such as oil for lamps.

7:26–27 The fat of wild game that had been hunted and killed could be eaten, but even then the blood needed to be poured out on the ground—no blood could ever be eaten (Deut 12:15–16). The origin of this prohibition goes back to Gen 9:4–5, the rationale being that blood represents the life of the animal, and life belongs only to the Lord himself (see note on 17:11). Its importance is stressed even in the letter to the Gentile churches in Acts 15:20, 29.

7:29 bring part of it as their sacrifice to the LORD. The worshipers ate most of the meat of the fellowship offering (see ch. 3), but the parts referred to here (vv. 30–34) were to be given to the priests to eat.

7:30 fat. See note on 3:17. breast. Went to the priests as payment for their priestly services. wave. Probably a special lifting up of the fat and the breast as a way of presenting them to the Lord. According to Num 8:11, however, Aaron was to “present [‘wave’] the Levites before the LORD as a wave offering.” Obviously he did not take them on his hands and literally “wave” them. wave offering. Refers specifically to the part(s) of the offering that the priests did not put on the altar and the offerer did not eat.

7:31 belongs to Aaron and his sons. The wave offering went to all the priests and their families as a benefit to them (10:14–15; 22:10–16; Num 18:18–19).

7:32 right thigh. For the priest who presided over an offering (v. 33). contribution. Translated “heave offering” in some earlier versions because it comes from a Hebrew verb that means “raise” or “lift” (heave = to lift or push something heavy). But in Leviticus the same Hebrew verb describes priests or offerers removing or taking out a certain portion from the offering to use it for a specific purpose (2:9; 4:8, 10, 19) such as to make a “contribution” to the officiating priest.

7:35 This. Either refers to the priestly portions described by all the regulations in 6:8—7:34 or only the breast and right thigh of the fellowship offering described by the regulations in vv. 28–34.

8:1–36 The Ordination of Aaron and His Sons. Moses ordained the priests according to the regulations set forth in Exod 29 and as the Lord directed him in Exod 40:12–15. This is the first time in Leviticus that the offerings and sacrifices prescribed in chs. 1–7 are actually performed.

8:2 garments. See vv. 7–9; see also Exod 28 and notes; see further the illustration of the priestly garments; cf. Exod 39:1–31. without yeast. Because one of each kind of loaf was to be burned up on the altar (vv. 26, 28) and nothing made with yeast could ever be offered on the altar (2:11–12).

8:7–9 See notes on Exod 28.

8:10 anointing oil. A special recipe sprinkled or poured on only the tabernacle and the priests (Exod 30:22–33). consecrated. Made holy or sacred, putting them into the category of holy/sacred as opposed to common/profane (see 10:10 and note; see also Introduction: Major Theological Themes [Holiness and Purity]). See “Holiness.”

8:13 Cf. Exod 28:40; 29:8–9; 39:27–29. The priestly garments of Aaron’s sons are compared to those of Aaron the high priest (vv. 7–9). tunics . . . sashes. The same as for Aaron (v. 7). fastened. Tied on the head, possibly by some kind of strap. caps. Different than Aaron’s “turban” (v. 9); the Hebrew word is related to the word for “cup,” which suggests that it is perhaps more like a regular cap placed on the head.

8:15 purify. “De-sin” or decontaminate the altar. for. Either the sin offering made atonement “for” the altar so that it became consecrated on this ordination day, or by purifying it so that the altar became a consecrated place upon which atonement could be made then and into the future.

8:22 ordination. This Hebrew term derives from the expression in v. 33 “your ordination will last seven days,” which can be translated “seven days he will fill your hands.” It refers to putting the priestly responsibilities (or possibly the portions of the offerings that went to the priests) into their hands. The ordination offering was a kind of fellowship offering.

8:23 took . . . put. The same terms as those used in v. 15 for applying the blood to the horns of the altar of burnt offering to purify and consecrate it. The lobe of the right ear, the thumb on the right hand, and the big toe on the right foot probably correspond to the “horns” of the altar: they protrude from the human body like the horns from the four corners of the altar (Exod 27:2). Thus, Moses purified and consecrated the priests like he did the altar.

8:30 consecrated. By taking some of the oil and blood that was on the altar and sprinkling it on the priests, Moses bound the priests to the altar as those who were of the same level of holiness and purity as the altar. This qualified them to actually touch the altar so that they could minister there on behalf of the people.

9:1—10:20 The Priests Begin Their Ministry. The priests ordained in ch. 8 begin their ministry in chs. 9–10, the inauguration day of tabernacle worship. All that happens in chs. 9–10 takes place “on the eighth day” (9:1), the day after the seven-day ordination of the tabernacle and the priests in ch. 8.

9:2–4 The combination of offerings for the priests first (vv. 2, 8–14) and then for the people (vv. 3–4, 15–21) appears again on the Day of Atonement (ch. 16). The sequence of offerings is important: first, the sin offering for purification (vv. 8–11, 15); second, the burnt offering as a dedicatory gift to the Lord (vv. 12–14, 16–17); and finally, the fellowship offering to enact the relationship between God and his people (vv. 18–21).

9:4 today the LORD will appear to you. The rationale for these offerings on this occasion. They anticipated the appearance of the glory of the Lord (vv. 6, 23) and the fire that came out from the Lord and consumed the inauguration-day offerings on the altar (v. 24).

9:6 so that the glory of the LORD may appear to you. See note on v. 4. This refers to the same glory cloud that occupied the tabernacle in Exod 40:34–35. See Introduction: Major Theological Themes (The Lord’s Presence); see also “The Glory of God.”

9:17 in addition to the morning’s burnt offering. The regular morning burnt and grain offerings had already been placed on the altar before the inaugural burnt and grain offerings referred to here (Exod 29:18–42; 40:29).

9:21 wave offering. See note on 7:30. The right thigh was the normal contribution to the officiating priest and his family (see note on 7:32). It could be presented as a wave offering along with the breasts, which were given to all the priests and their families, which is the case here (cf. 8:27, 29; 10:15).

9:23 glory of the LORD. See note on v. 6; cf. 16:2; Exod 40:34–38; Num 9:15–23; 10:11–12.

9:24 shouted for joy. The Hebrew word may mean either that the people shouted for joy or shouted out of fear (cf. Exod 19:16; 20:18–21).

10:1–20 See note on 9:1—10:20.

10:1 unauthorized. This may have involved any (or a combination) of the following: (1) using coals taken from someplace other than the altar of burnt offering (16:12); (2) using the wrong kind of incense (Exod 30:34–38); (3) performing an incense offering at a time not prescribed; or (4) entering the Most Holy Place at an inappropriate time (16:1–2). For another possible violation, see note on v. 9.

10:2 fire came out from the presence of the LORD and consumed. As in 9:24. died. This too took place on the inauguration day (see note on 10:16). This was a terrible catastrophe, but v. 3 tells us why the Lord responded this way to their violation.

10:3 be proved holy. Or “be treated as holy” or “show myself holy.” In the immediate situation the Lord himself indeed showed himself to be holy by how he responded to the illegitimate incense offering in v. 1. Nadab and Abihu did not treat the Lord as holy, so the Lord acted on his own behalf to demonstrate his holiness in a way that would emphasize the importance of it. See “Holiness.” Similar demonstrations of the Lord’s holiness occurred at the beginning of the conquest of the land (the Achan incident, Josh 7), when they brought the ark up to Jerusalem (Uzzah’s death, 2 Sam 6:1–7), and at the beginning of the church (the death of Ananias and Sapphira, Acts 5:1–11).

10:8 the LORD said to Aaron. Normally the Lord spoke to and through Moses. In fact, in Leviticus this is the only time God spoke to Aaron alone. In this catastrophic moment for Aaron and his family, the Lord emphasized to Aaron and his remaining sons the serious nature and dangers of the priestly ministry (see notes on vv. 3, 9; cf. 15:31; 16:2).

10:9 not to drink wine or other fermented drink. This warning stands out in isolation here, which suggests that perhaps Nadab and Abihu had offered the unauthorized fire because they were under the influence of alcohol and therefore did not follow the incense regulations carefully (see note on v. 1).

10:10 holy . . . common. A person, place, thing, or time was either consecrated and, therefore, had holy status, or was not consecrated and, therefore, had common status. There were certain regulations for each (see note on v. 11). There was nothing inherently wrong with being common as long as the rules for that status were maintained. For example, a common person (i.e., not a holy priest) was never to come into contact with the altar in the tabernacle since it was a holy thing. unclean . . . clean. A person, place, or thing could be in a condition of being either clean or unclean. For example, even a holy priest could become unclean, but once he purified himself he could return to his work in the holy sanctuary. These are the basic underlying principles of the entire priestly ritual system in the tabernacle (see Introduction: Major Theological Themes [Holiness and Purity]).

10:11 all the decrees. All the commands God gave through Moses, including and especially the various regulations that went with the core concerns underlined in v. 10. The priests were to instruct all Israel in the principles and practices of walking with God and one another. The priests were the custodians of the law in ancient Israel (Deut 17:8–13, 18).

10:12–15 Summarizes regulations for payments to the priests from “the food offerings” (v. 13; see note on 1:9; cf. 6:8—7:36).

10:16–18 Follows naturally after the payments to the priests reiterated in vv. 12–15 because this was a “most holy” (v. 17) portion for only the priests to eat and only “in the sanctuary area” (v. 17; cf. 6:24–29).

10:16 goat of the sin offering. Earlier that day Aaron had offered it for the people (9:15). angry. Because they burned the offering instead of eating it in the prescribed manner (v. 18; cf. 6:24–29). Moses was concerned that once again they had violated the tabernacle regulations, similar to what Nadab and Abihu had done (vv. 1–2).

10:17 to take away the guilt. Part of the priestly mediatorial role. Some argue that the priests did this by eating the meat of the sin offering. This is not likely. The priests received their portions from the offerings (such as the meat of the sin offerings of the people here), as well as their share of the tithe, as payment for the work they did “to bear the responsibility for offenses connected with the sanctuary” (Num 18:1). Since the priests bore the iniquities of the congregation on themselves, the high priest could confess them and so lay them on the scapegoat to completely remove them from the community on the Day of Atonement (see 16:21–22 and note on 16:21). In fact, the verses just previous (10:12–15) focus on such provisions for the priests.

10:19 Eating the meat of the sin offering was a provision for the priests; it provided a celebratory banquet for them before the Lord. But this was not a day for celebration because Aaron had lost his two sons, Nadab and Abihu, that very day (vv. 1–2). Aaron argued that this was an exception to the general rule. That was why Aaron had broken the regulations for eating the sin offering.

10:20 satisfied. Moses thought Aaron made a good argument for not following the regulations on this occasion.

11:1—15:33 Purity Regulations. According to 16:1, “The LORD spoke to Moses after the death of the two sons of Aaron who died when they approached the LORD,” referring back to ch. 10. The purity laws are inserted as a unit between 10:20 and 16:1. Chs. 11–15 focus on the importance of holiness and purity in Israel (see note on 10:10), focusing specifically on clean and unclean animals (ch. 11); purification after childbirth (ch. 12); regulations about defiling skin diseases and defiling molds (ch.13); cleansing from defiling skin diseases and defiling molds (ch. 14); and discharges causing uncleanness (ch. 15). See note on 15:31, which connects all these regulations to the Day of Atonement (ch. 16) and the issue of tabernacle purity and purification. See Introduction: Major Theological Themes (Holiness and Purity).

11:1–47 The rationale for distinguishing between clean and unclean food is not altogether clear and is debated among scholars. Nevertheless, some of the basic principles are quite clear. Verse 46 lists four general categories of living creatures, and v. 47 gives this chapter’s purpose, i.e., to set forth what the Israelites could and could not eat. The terminology for the animal world is essentially the same as for days five and six in Gen 1:20–25; this is as close as we come to broad categories of zoology in ancient Israel. Whether a species is clean or unclean has a good deal to do with its means of locomotion and whether it is appropriate to the sphere in which it lives and moves (land, water, or sky). Another consideration is the animal’s diet. Animals that eat the flesh of other animals eat their meat with the blood in it. Therefore, scavenger birds, e.g., are unclean (vv. 13–19) as are land animals that do not chew the cud (see note on v. 3). Not only were the Israelites not to eat meat with the blood in it (7:26–27; 17:10–12; cf. Gen 9:4–5), they were also to avoid eating the meat of animals that eat the meat of other animals with the blood in it. Another stated purpose of the clean and unclean animal laws was to separate Jews from Gentiles (see notes on vv. 44, 45; cf. 20:22–26). If Jews had dietary laws that kept them from eating with Gentiles, they would be less likely to have meaningful relationships with Gentiles. This is one of the main reasons the clean and unclean animal laws are set aside in the NT. The “barrier” or “dividing wall of hostility” between Jews and Gentiles has been broken down by Christ (Eph 2:14); therefore, regulations that kept Jews separate from Gentiles needed to be set aside in favor of the unity of the church (Acts 10:9–16; 10:44—11:18; Gal 2:11–21). Of course, underlying all this is the fact that, as Jesus put it, the things that enter into a person are not what defiles them, but what comes out of them from their heart is what defiles them (Mark 7:18–23; note especially v. 19: “In saying this, Jesus declared all foods clean”).

11:2 animals. Land animals that walk on four legs (vv. 2–7). God created them from the ground in the first part of day six (Gen 1:24–25), and ch. 11 treats them first because they are closest to the world of humans.

11:3 You may eat. Thus, clean animals. divided hoof. A split hoof is naturally good for walking on pasture, so these are largely pastoral animals. This also eliminates animals with paws rather than hooves (cf. v. 27). Cattle, goats, sheep, and pigs, e.g., have divided hooves, while horses and donkeys do not. chews the cud. Eats only grass and other fodder. These animals eat and swallow their food and then later, at their leisure, regurgitate it and chew it more thoroughly and swallow it again as part of their digestive process. They cannot digest meat, so they cannot eat blood or the meat of animals with the blood still in it. Cattle, goats, and sheep, e.g., chew the cud. Pigs have a divided hoof but do not chew the cud, so they were unclean. Similarly, camels chew the cud but do not have a divided hoof, so they were unclean.

11:4–7 Edible animals had both features, not just one of them (see v. 3 and note).

11:5 hyrax. A relatively small rodent-like animal that lives in rocky areas and eats plants (e.g., the rock badger).

11:8 touch their carcasses. Not only was it unacceptable to eat unclean animals, but the Israelites were not to even touch their carcasses (v. 26). If they touched such a carcass, they were unclean until evening; if they picked it up, they needed to wash their clothes and were unclean until evening (v. 28). As an unclean person, they could not enter the tabernacle lest they defile it, and they could not eat anything that required a person to be clean (7:20–21).

11:9 creatures living in the water. Those that have fins and scales belong to the category of normal; they were considered edible fish. Those that do not have these features are by and large scavengers, bottom feeders that eat flesh with the blood in it (lobster, catfish, etc.; see note on vv. 1–47); they were not to be eaten (see note on v. 10).

11:10 you are to regard as unclean. Or “they are detestable to you”; the regular Hebrew word for “unclean” does not occur here (nor does it occur in vv. 11–13, 20, 23, 41–42). The inedible land animals (vv. 2–8) were “unclean,” while inedible fish, birds, and most flying insects were worse than unclean; they were detestable or repugnant (vv. 11–13, 20, 23). This corresponds to the distinction between fifth-day water and sky creatures (Gen 1:20–23) versus sixth-day land animals (Gen 1:24–25). The sixth-day land animals belong to the primary world of humans, having been created on the same day, while the fifth-day animals do not. The term “detestable” also describes creeping and crawling land creatures (see notes on vv. 41, 43).

11:13–19 This list of unclean birds does not identify them by features of the body, which is true of the land animals and fish in vv. 2–12. Rather, these are exclusively scavenger birds that eat flesh with the blood in it. They were detestable (see note on v. 10).

11:20–23 The only four-legged flying insects they could eat were those with “jointed legs for hopping on the ground” (v. 21). This made the four-legged flying insects something like the four-legged animals they could eat (vv. 2–8). John the Baptist, e.g., ate a diet of “locusts and wild honey” (Matt 3:4).

11:29–40 Animals that moved along the ground fell into two main categories: (1) unclean (vv. 29–40) and (2) not only unclean but detestable (vv. 41–43; see notes on vv. 10, 43). For the eight in the first category, their dead carcasses would defile a person or thing if touched (v. 31). These were the kinds of creatures they might find lying dead in their homes (vv. 32–38).

11:41 unclean. Detestable (see note on v. 10).

11:43 defile yourselves. Or “make yourselves detestable.” by any of these creatures. By eating any of these detestable creeping and crawling creatures (vv. 41–43). See note on v. 10.

11:44 be holy, because I am holy. This is the first instance of the expression in the Bible. The same basic expression with some variations is found also in v. 45; 19:2; 20:7, 26; 21:8 (see note on 18:1—26:46). In the present context this holiness formula is sandwiched between commands that the Israelites not make themselves unclean by the unclean (“detestable,” see note on v. 10) creatures referred to in vv. 41–43 (cf. v. 43b with 44b; cf. also 20:25–26). Elsewhere in the book the holiness formula emphasizes the importance of moral holiness (19:2; 20:7) and the need for priests to maintain their holiness as those who served their holy Lord in the tabernacle (21:8). In other places God’s holiness is a matter of his overwhelming majesty, purity, or both (Isa 6:3–5). Peter cites this formula in 1 Pet 1:16 in support of the holiness and purity of those who believe in Jesus Christ (see note on 1 Pet 1:15–16).

11:45 I am the LORD. This is the covenant name of God proclaimed to Moses at the burning bush (see Exod 3:14–15 and notes there) when he commissioned Moses to lead Israel out of Egypt. who brought you up out of Egypt to be your God. The Lord’s claim is that by delivering the Israelites from Egypt they were now bound to worship and serve him as their one and only God. This refrain appears repeatedly with variations in Leviticus (8 more times: 19:36; 22:33; 23:43; 25:38, 42, 55; 26:13, 45), and nearly 60 times in 18 other OT books. holy. See note on v. 44. Faithful obedience to these clean and unclean animal laws would keep them holy, separated from the worship of other gods because worshiping the gods of the peoples around them would require violating their own regulations about clean and unclean animals. They could not worship with people if they could not eat with them. Eating was then, and still is today, central to social, political, and religious relations (see note on 20:25). See “Holiness.”

11:46–47 These verses summarize ch. 11. See note on vv. 1–47.

12:2 gives birth to a son. A woman was ceremonially unclean after giving birth to a son because of the flow of blood during and after the birth. For the longer period of time after the birth of a daughter, see v. 5 and note. seven days, just as she is unclean during her monthly period. As during her monthly period, she was unclean for seven days and her uncleanness could be contracted by anyone who had physical contact with her or with anything on which she lay or sat. Her husband would become impure for seven days if he had sexual intercourse with her during this time (15:19–24). The flow of blood was ceremonially unclean in the first place because of the problems with hygiene and, in the case of childbirth, especially because of the danger of sickness or death from loss of blood.

12:3 circumcised. For the original institution of circumcision of the male child in ancient Israel, see Gen 17:9–14 and notes.

12:4 thirty-three. Number of days required to be purified from her bleeding (in addition to the seven days in v. 2). must not touch anything sacred or go to the sanctuary. If she did so during this time, she would defile it. However, during this 33-day period she was no longer contagious like she had been during the first seven days (v. 2), so she could engage in normal everyday life, including sexual intercourse, without fear of contaminating anyone. After these 33 days, blood atonement was made for her purification from her blood flow so that she could be pronounced “clean” by the priest (vv. 6–8).

12:5 gives birth to a daughter . . . two weeks . . . sixty-six days. Doubling the time after the birth of a female child is puzzling. What stands out about the passage, however, are the doublings of 7 to 14 and 33 to 66, adding up to 40 days for the son and 80 days for the daughter. The mention of circumcision on the eighth day for the boy child (v. 3) may also be of help here. First, a male baby had to be circumcised on the eighth day, so the contagious impurity of the mother could not last beyond the first seven days lest it interfere with the circumcision rite (cf. Luke 2:21–24). Of course, this did not apply to the female baby. Second, one would expect that the increased severity of the blood flow after childbirth, as compared to that of a woman’s monthly period, would call for a longer period of impurity than the normal seven days (see note on v. 2). The initial 14-day impurity period for the female baby would have been more appropriate. But this had to be shortened for the male baby precisely because of circumcision. The second set of days is handled proportionately (i.e., 33 becomes 66).

12:6 sin offering. See note on 4:1—5:13. Its purpose was to purge impurities from the tabernacle. In this case, the woman had not sinned by having a child. Even Mary brought such offerings for giving birth to Jesus (Luke 2:22–24), though she certainly did not sin in giving birth to the Messiah.

12:7 she will be ceremonially clean. The result of bringing the “sin offering” was that the mother was pronounced “clean” (vv. 7–8), not forgiven (see note on v. 6).

13:1—14:57 Chs. 13–14 deal with defiling skin diseases and defiling molds: first, the diagnosis (ch. 13) and second, purification procedures if or when the person/fabric/house recovered (ch. 14). The summary statement at the end of the section lays out the main categories of such diseases (14:54–57). Regarding defiling skin diseases, they could occur (1) as a swelling, rash or shiny spot on the body (14:56; cf. 13:2–28, 38–44); (2) as a sore on the head or chin (14:54b; cf. 13:29–37); or (3) as a defiling mold either in fabric (14:55; cf. 13:47–59) or in a house (14:55; cf. 14:33–53).

13:2 Some of the terms for disease or symptoms of disease in ch. 13 present difficulties for translators. swelling. Could derive from a verb that means “to rise up.” rash. Exact meaning unknown; some versions translate it “scab” or “flaking skin” or “eruption.” defiling skin disease. See NIV text note. The regulations are concerned with any diseases that are observable on the surface of the skin or penetrate below the surface of the skin (vv. 3–4) or spread further across the surface of the skin (vv. 5–8).

13:3 unclean. See also vv. 8, 11, 15, 20 and throughout the chapter. The primary concern of ch. 13 is that these diseases make a person ceremonially unclean. These were actual diseases from which a person could be physically healed (14:3), but even then the focus became the ceremonial cleansing procedures that followed (14:4–20).

13:4 isolate the affected person. Because it might take time for the priest to determine whether the mark indicated a defiling skin disease.

13:11 chronic skin disease. An old, enduring disease that keeps on developing or recurring. not to isolate. See note on v. 4. Since it is already clear that the disease is infectious, there is no need to isolate them for seven days to find that out. For the full and enduring quarantine required, see note on v. 46.

13:13–14 If it had all turned white, it was dried up and healing (cf. vv. 16–17), but if there was raw flesh, the disease was still active (vv. 10–11).

13:26 isolate. See note on v. 4.

13:45 wear torn clothes, let their hair be unkempt, cover the lower part of their face. All these practices were associated with funerary mourning rites (10:6; 21:10; Ezek 24:17, 22; Mic 3:7). In Num 12:10–12 Miriam, the sister of Moses and Aaron, was punished with a skin disease. Aaron associated it with death when he begged the Lord, “Do not let her be like a stillborn infant coming from its mother’s womb with its flesh half eaten away” (Num 12:12). The close association with death explains why such diseases were so defiling and required such extreme measures to ensure that the defilement did not spread (cf. Num 19:11–13). In a sense, the person was considered dead by the community. cry out, ‘Unclean! Unclean!’ See Lam 4:15; Luke 17:12–13. The purpose was to announce their uncleanness so people would not touch them or even come near them.

13:46 They must live alone; they must live outside the camp. This is different from the period of “isolation,” the purpose of which was to determine whether the disease was active or not (see vv. 4, 10–11 and notes). Here the presence of active disease had already been confirmed, so a quarantine was imposed. No matter how long it took, the person needed to be healed from the disease (14:3) before they could start the required ritual purification procedures (14:4–20) and eventually move back into the camp. The primary purpose of the quarantine was to prevent the spread of ceremonial impurity in the camp and to the tabernacle (see note on v. 3; cf. 15:31). Of course, it would also help prevent the spread of the actual disease if it was contagious, but many of the people with such diseases were not contagious, so that was not the main point.

13:47–48 defiling mold. Translates the same term rendered “defiling skin disease” in v. 2. woolen or linen . . . leather. Defiling mold could appear and spread on any such materials. The regulations that follow are in many ways parallel to the way defiling skin diseases were to be diagnosed and dealt with (cf. vv. 1–46).

14:3 go outside the camp. The person could not reenter the camp until (1) they were purified by the priest through certain special rituals (vv. 4–7), (2) the priest declared them “clean” (v. 7), and (3) they washed their clothes, shaved off all their hair, and bathed their bodies (v. 8). After that, they could reenter the camp but had to live outside their tent for seven days (v. 8). To make sure they were rid of the skin disease, on the seventh day they once again washed their clothes, shaved off all their hair, and bathed their bodies; then they were “clean” (v. 9). On the eighth day they performed sacrificial rituals for atonement and final purification (vv. 10–20).

14:4 cedar wood, scarlet yarn. Both the reddish color of the cedar wood and the scarlet-colored fabric seem to correspond to the color of blood and may therefore symbolize either “life,” which is in the blood, or the use of blood to “make atonement” (17:11; see Gen 9:4). hyssop. A spice and herb that grew out of walls in the Holy Land (1 Kgs 4:33). It was particularly leafy and therefore especially useful for sprinkling the purifying liquid (cf. vv. 6–7).

14:5–7 This ritual procedure probably symbolized the renewed life of the diseased person and displayed it publicly for all to see. It was preparatory to the sacrificial rituals that followed (vv. 10–20, especially vv. 18–20). The nature of this ritual and its obvious similarity to the scapegoat ritual in 16:20–22 suggests that the person’s uncleanness was removed far away so that they were free from its effects both personally and communally.

14:8 ceremonially clean . . . they may come into the camp. The outcome of the ritual procedures in vv. 4–7 and the washing and shaving in v. 8 (cf. 13:46). But they had to undergo further cleansing rituals and pronouncements in the tabernacle (vv. 10–20).

14:12 guilt offering. The primary purpose of the guilt offering was to make atonement for desecration of the Lord’s “holy” things, whether they were his sacred objects or his sacred people (see note on 5:14—6:7). Israel was “a kingdom of priests and a holy nation” to the Lord (Exod 19:6), and the skin-diseased person was a member of the “holy nation.” Therefore, being expelled from the community was desecration—that which was holy had been treated as not holy. wave offering. See notes on 7:30, 31.

14:14–17 See the similarities of the manipulation of blood and oil here to that for the consecration of the Aaronic priests (see 8:22–24, 30 and notes; Exod 29:19–21). All the Israelites were consecrated to worship and serve the Lord.

14:18 make atonement. Also in vv. 18, 19, 21, 31, 53; see notes on 16:20–22; 17:11; see also NIV text note on Rom 3:25.

14:21–22 Concessions to the poor allowed them to bring less expensive offerings (cf. 5:7–13; see notes on 5:7, 11), but the procedures in vv. 23–31 are virtually the same as those in vv. 14–20.

14:34 I put. Reflects the reality that such things are from the Lord too. spreading mold. As in 13:47–48 (see note there), the term is the same as that for a “defiling skin disease” in 13:2.

14:48–53 The rituals for the house that the priest pronounced clean are virtually the same as those for the recovered person (see 14:4–7 and notes).

14:54–57 See note on 13:1—14:57.

15:1–33 See the summary in vv. 32–33. Here the concern is discharges from a man or woman’s body, specifically those from the sexual organs: (1) a male’s emission of semen, even in regular sexual intercourse (vv. 16–18); (2) a woman’s monthly period (vv. 19–23); (3) an irregular discharge from the sexual organs of a man (vv. 1–15) or a woman (vv. 25–30). There is also a regulation for a man who had sexual relations with a woman who was ceremonially unclean because of her monthly period (v. 24). For the rationale of ceremonial uncleanness, see note on 11:1—15:33; see also Introduction: Major Theological Themes (Holiness and Purity).

15:2 unusual bodily discharge. In ch. 15, the terms “flesh” and “body” are usually euphemisms for the male or female genitals.

15:4 lies . . . sits. Uncleanness was contagious (see Hag 2:11–13), so those who were unclean had to be cleansed, and others needed to avoid physical contact with them or anything to which the person’s uncleanness had been transferred.

15:5 unclean. Also vv. 6–11. The person could not, e.g., eat holy food or enter the tabernacle until their uncleanness was cleansed lest they contaminate it (cf. 7:20–21). till evening. From 23:32 it is clear that the day went from evening to evening. So if a person became unclean for the day, they needed to do cleansing procedures (i.e., wash their body and clothes) and consider themselves unclean until the coming evening, which was the beginning of the next day.

15:16–18 Whether in sexual intercourse or not, an emission of semen caused ceremonial uncleanness. This does not imply that there is anything sinful about sex or sexual relations between a husband and wife. When a sin offering was presented for such uncleanness, it always resulted in cleansing, not forgiveness (see notes on 4:1—5:13; 12:6, 7).

15:31 separate. Translates a Hebrew word from the same root used for the “Nazirite” vow (Num 6), a special vow of holy separation unto God. Here it refers to the need to prevent contamination of the tabernacle in their midst. so they will not die in their uncleanness. This was a matter of life and death. Nadab and Abihu are examples of such a catastrophe (10:1–2), and the purity laws in chs. 11–15 are set forth right after that incident occurred to instruct the people in this regard (see 10:10–11 and notes). for defiling my dwelling place. This key verse states the purpose of the purity regulations in chs. 11–15.

15:32–33 A summary of ch. 15. See note on vv. 1–33.

16:1–34 The Day of Atonement. The Day of Atonement (Yom Kippur; Hebrew yōm hakkippurîm; cf. 23:26–32; 25:9; Exod 30:10; Num 29:7–11) was the capstone of the tabernacle sacrificial procedures for the year. It was the annual day of purification for the whole tabernacle, including even the Most Holy Place (see note on 15:31). It provided a complete ceremonial cleansing for the whole community of Israel (vv. 29–31) and for the tabernacle for the coming year (see vv. 32–33 and note on v. 33). It included both sin offerings (vv. 3, 5–22) and burnt offerings (vv. 3, 5, 23–25). There was a sin offering for the high priest and his household (vv. 6, 11–14) and two sin offerings for the people: the slaughtered sin offering (vv. 9, 15–19) and the scapegoat sin offering (vv. 10, 20–22). There was also a burnt offering for the high priest and his household as well as one for the whole community (vv. 3, 5, 23–25).

16:2 atonement cover. Served as the lid for the ark of the covenant and was the site of the most important atonement procedures on the Day of Atonement. For Jesus Christ as our “atonement cover” (i.e., place of atonement), see NIV text note on Rom 3:25.

16:6 Aaron needed to make atonement for himself and his whole household first (cf. vv. 11–14); only after that could he mediate for the rest of Israel (vv. 7–10, 15–19). That the priest needed to bring such offerings for himself from year to year stands in contrast to Jesus, our high priest, who offered himself once for all and thereby put an end to the need for sacrifice (Heb 9:25—10:14; cf. Heb 4:15; 5:1–3; 7:26–28).

16:8, 10, 26 scapegoat. Hebrew ʿ ăzā ʾzēl, occurs four times in the OT—all in ch. 16 (v. 8, v. 10 (twice), v. 26); see NIV text note on v. 8. Its meaning is debated: (1) It may derive from a combination of the words for “goat” ( ʿ ēz) and “go away” ( ʾ āzal): “the goat that departs.” This would suit the ritual practice of sending the so-called scapegoat away into the wilderness (vv. 10, 21–22, 26). (2) It may mean “rough ground,” describing the wilderness area to which the goat was dispatched. (3) It may be the name of a particular demon associated with the wilderness desert regions (see 17:7 and note). But even if a demon or the demonic realm is the source for the name, there is no intention here of appeasing the demons. The goal is to remove impurity and iniquity from the community (vv. 21–22) in order to avoid offending the Lord and the repercussions of it (see note on 15:31).

16:14 atonement cover. See note on v. 2.

16:16 uncleanness and rebellion . . . whatever their sins have been . . . uncleanness. The focus here is on “uncleanness” (the first term, and then repeated at the end of the verse). This uncleanness attached itself to the tabernacle and its furniture and so defiled them (see chs. 11–15 and notes on 10:10; 15:31). The atonement made by means of the slaughtered sin offerings purged the tabernacle and its furniture of such uncleanness (contrast note on v. 21). In the NT the sacrifice of Jesus Christ is sometimes specifically referred to as a sin offering for us so that we can be cleansed and forgiven of our sins (see, e.g., Rom 8:3; 2 Cor 5:21 [see NIV text note]; see also note on 4:1—5:13). Heb 9:6–14 and 9:23—10:4 draw on these sin offerings on the Day of Atonement to explain that Christ cleansed the tabernacle in heaven for us once for all so that we can enter directly and boldly into the heavenly throne room of God (Heb 4:14–16; 10:19–22; note also the tearing of the curtain from top to bottom in Matt 27:51; Mark 15:38; Luke 23:45).

16:20 making atonement for. Summarizes the work that had been accomplished so far (vv. 11–19). The Most Holy Place, the tent of meeting, and the altar are all the direct objects of the verb. The basic meaning of the Hebrew verb translated “make atonement for” is “purge” or “wipe clean,” and this comes to the forefront here. All the various kinds of uncleanness have been purged from the sanctuary (see note on v. 16). That was the goal of the slaughtered sin offerings—the bull for the priest and the goat for the people—on this day. See note on v. 33.

16:21 lay both hands on the head of the live goat and confess over it. See note on vv. 8, 10, 26. Previously and normally in Leviticus, the offerer laid a hand (but not both hands; cf. 3:2, 8, 13; 4:4, 15, 24) on the head of the sacrificial animal to identify the offering as belonging to them, and, at the same time, dedicated it for the purpose(s) for which they had brought the offering. No confession of sin is mentioned, and there was no transfer of sin to the animal (see note on 1:4). Here in ch. 16, however, the high priest explicitly transferred the sins of the people to the scapegoat by the laying on of the hands with confession. As their substitute, therefore, the goat bore the sins of the people on itself and took them away (v. 22). It was the high priest who would “confess over” the goat the wickedness of the people and thereby put it on the goat’s head because the high priest and his sons were the mediators for the Israelites: the priests were to “bear the responsibility for offenses connected with the sanctuary” (Num 18:1; see note on Lev 10:17). all the wickedness and rebellion of the Israelites—all their sins. The scapegoat referred to here was never slain, and “uncleanness” is never mentioned here. The key term and the main concern is the actual sinful and rebellious “wickedness” of the people. Thus, on the Day of Atonement both the tabernacle and the community were “cleansed” from all the “sins” of the people (see v. 30 and note), whether they consisted of “uncleanness” (vv. 16–19) or “wickedness” (v. 21).

16:22 carry on itself all their sins to a remote place . . . in the wilderness. The scapegoat was never slain. It carried all the “wickedness” away from the community—away from all the people and the camp (vv. 21–22). It was released alive in the wilderness, never to return to the camp. Thus, all the sins of the whole community were completely removed and eliminated.

16:24 burnt offering . . . to make atonement for himself and for the people. Burnt offerings made atonement as a gift offered up on the altar to the Lord, unlike the sin offerings in vv. 3–23, which were offered to cleanse the tabernacle. See note on 1:4; see also Introduction: Major Theological Themes (Offerings, Sacrifices, and Atonement).

16:27 taken outside the camp . . . to be burned up. See notes of 4:12; 6:30. Whenever the blood of a sin offering was applied inside the tabernacle tent, as it was here (vv. 14–17), and not just out at the altar of burnt offering in the court of the tabernacle, the carcass of the animal was burned outside the camp. This principle also applied to Christ, who “suffered outside the city gate” (Heb 13:12).

16:29 tenth day of the seventh month. The last month of the annual agricultural cycle (September/October). They planted grain crops in the fall season and harvested them in the spring. deny yourselves. See NIV text note; see also v. 31. Refers to various forms of self-denial, which includes but is not limited to fasting (see the emphasis in 23:27, 29, 32; cf. Ps 35:13; Isa 58:3, 10). Later Jewish tradition lists abstentions from food and drink, bathing, using oil as an unguent to moisten the skin, wearing leather sandals, and sexual intercourse (cf. 2 Sam 12:16–17, 20).

16:30 clean from all your sins. The full effect of the Day of Atonement. Nothing was left to hinder their relationship with the Lord. Sin was the source of both the uncleanness (vv. 14–19) and the wickedness (vv. 21–22) dealt with (vv. 16, 21).

16:33 make atonement for the Most Holy Place, for the tent of meeting and the altar. “Make atonement” basically means “purge” or “wipe clean.” The high priest purged all the uncleanness from the sanctuary on this day. This was the goal of the slaughtered sin offerings—the bull for the priest and his household and the goat for the people. for the priests and all the members of the community. The high priest purged the sanctuary (v. 33a) on behalf of the priests and the people (v. 33b).

17:1—27:34 Laws of the Community. The internal structure of the second half of Leviticus is more difficult to discern than that of chs. 1–16. In general, the focus shifts from the holiness and purity of the tabernacle, culminating in the Day of Atonement (ch. 16), to the holiness and purity of the community of Israel surrounding the tabernacle. As the pivotal chapter, ch. 16 actually looks both ways with its concern for both tabernacle and community holiness and purity (see note on 16:21). See note on 18:1—26:46.

17:1–16 Eating Blood Forbidden. On the one hand, ch. 17 looks back to chs. 1–16 in the sense that it emphasizes making offerings in the tabernacle (vv. 1–9) along with blood “atonement,” which therefore includes the prohibition against eating blood (vv. 10–16). On the other hand, the primary goal of the regulations in ch. 17 is to introduce one of the major concerns of chs. 18–26: the absolute exclusivity of Yahweh worship.

17:3–4 Slaughter at the tabernacle was to be under the supervision of the Aaronic priests (e.g., 1:5; 3:2; 4:5–7), so the sacrifice would be offered properly.

17:4 to the LORD. Contrast v. 7; see note there. bloodshed. Illegitimately shedding animal blood, similar to shedding the blood of an innocent human being (e.g., Deut 19:10; cf. Gen 9:4–6).

17:7 goat idols. May refer to demons (see NIV text note). Apparently they occupied the wilderness regions. Lev 16:8 says, “One lot [was] for the LORD and the other for the scapegoat,” which suggests that “Azazel” may be the proper name of one of the major goat idols in the wilderness (see note on 16:8, 10, 26). prostitute themselves. While on their way to the promised land, they needed to avoid worshiping other gods or demons. The same Hebrew term occurs in chs. 18–20 for Molek worship and for turning to mediums and spiritists (20:5–6; cf. 18:21; 19:31; 20:27). This would become a danger, especially after they occupied the land of Canaan, where such practices were common.

17:8–9 See note on vv. 3–4.

17:10 eats blood. Refers to eating blood or meat with the blood still in it (not properly drained out). See Gen 9:4; Deut 12:23–25.

17:11 the life of a creature is in the blood. This is a key verse for blood atonement in the Bible. The close association between the blood and the life of a creature is first noted in Gen 9:2–5 (if not Gen 4:10–11), where the Lord affirms the eating of meat, but with a warning: “You must not eat meat that has its lifeblood still in it” (Gen 9:4; see note on v. 10; see also notes on 3:17; 7:26–27). Blood is sacred because life is sacred, and the blood represents the life of the animal. In the NT the blood of Christ is what provides our eternal redemption (Heb 9:12). Heb 9:22 says, “Without the shedding of blood there is no forgiveness.” it is the blood that makes atonement for one’s life. This could mean either that the blood makes atonement for the life of the one who brings the offering, or perhaps the blood makes atonement by means of the life that is in it, since it represents the life of the animal (see NIV text note).

17:12–14 See note on v. 11.

17:15 anything found dead or torn by wild animals. The people could eat the meat of such animals, but doing so would make them ceremonially unclean for the remainder of the day (see note on 7:24).

17:16 they will be held responsible. If a person did not perform the prescribed cleansing procedures that day, they would not become clean that evening; they themselves would bear the consequences of their uncleanness (see note on 10:17). They would be responsible for spreading uncleanness in the camp, could not enter the tabernacle in their unclean condition, and could not eat sacrificial offerings in their unclean state (see note on 7:19–21) lest they be cut off from their people (see note on 7:20, 21).

18:1—26:46 Laws of Community Holiness. Chs. 17–26 are often called the “Holiness Code” because of the repeated formula: “Be holy because I, the LORD your God, am holy” (19:2; see also 20:7, 26; 21:6–8). It is the general principle of the Holiness Code. The recurring short form “I am the LORD (your God),” which occurs 47 times in these chapters, keeps the holiness principle active as the main point throughout (18:2, 4, 5, 6, 21, 30; 19:3, 4, etc., ending at 26:45; for the name “LORD,” see notes on Exod 3:14, 15).

18:1—20:27 Unlawful Sexual Relations, Various Laws, and Punishments for Sin. The correspondence between the introduction (18:1–5) and conclusion (20:22–27) sets this off as a distinct unit. The intervening statutes and ordinances, if Israel followed them, would distinguish them morally from the other nations. Ch. 18 focuses on boundaries for marriage and sexual relations; ch. 19 gives moral guidance that corresponds well to that of the Ten Commandments (Exod 20:1–17); ch. 20 includes penalties for various violations of the moral code.

18:2 I am the LORD your God. See note on 18:1—26:46.

18:5 live. A common OT theme is that keeping the Lord’s commands leads to a good life lived under God’s favor in the land. See, e.g., 26:3–13; Exod 20:12; Deut 4:1; Ezek 20:11. But keeping the law was never a way of eternal salvation for the lost (Rom 10:4–5, 10; Gal 3:10–12, where this verse is cited).

18:6 close relative. This general statement prohibiting sexual intercourse between close relatives serves as an opening summary statement for the following section, especially vv. 7–18.

18:8 your father’s wife. Not the man’s mother but another wife of the man’s father. The laws in the Pentateuch sometimes assumed the possibility that a man might have more than one wife (cf. Deut 21:15–17). Though not the ideal (Gen 2:24), it was not forbidden. The Lord’s concern was to manage polygamy in a way that did not devastate immediate or extended families, which it historically tended to do (see, e.g., Gen 16; 21; 29:28—30:24; 1 Sam 1:2–8).

18:9, 11 your sister. Verse 9 includes half sisters in the category of “sister,” so they were not marriageable. Verse 11 includes a daughter born to the father’s wife from a previous marriage as a sister, even though she was not a blood half sister. Though there were instances of marriage to a half sister before the giving of this law at Sinai (Gen 20:12), it was now prohibited. Sexual relations with one’s sister was, of course, prohibited (Ezek 22:11).

18:17 wickedness. The Hebrew term almost always carries a connotation of shameful deeds cunningly devised. It is closely associated with sexual and religious infidelity (cf. 19:29; 20:14; Job 31:11; Ezek 16:27; 22:9).

18:18 sister . . . rival wife. See the marriage of Jacob to two sisters, Leah and Rachel (Gen 29:16–30). Such marriages were naturally quarrelsome (see note on v. 8).

18:19 uncleanness of her monthly period. She was ceremonially unclean for seven days, and her uncleanness was ritually contagious (15:19–24). For a fuller discussion of ritual ceremonial impurity, see Introduction: Major Theological Themes (The Lord’s Presence; Holiness and Purity). Maintaining the purity of the Lord’s tabernacle required maintaining the ceremonial purity of the community that surrounded the tabernacle (see 15:31 and note).

18:21 children . . . sacrificed to Molek. This involved not only dedicating the child to Molek, which was idolatry, but perhaps also burning the child in sacrifice to Molek (or Baal in some instances). As here, this prohibition sometimes occurs in the midst of prohibitions about incest and other sexual violations because there is a natural connection between sexual relations and having children. profane. To treat someone or something that was holy as if it were common (see note on 10:10).

18:22 sexual relations with a man. This verse prohibits homosexual intercourse for men (cf. 1 Cor 6:9–10). Rom 1:26–27 describes unnatural homosexual intercourse for women and for men. Lev 20:13 prescribes the death penalty for such acts. detestable. Refers to repugnant practices, whether from the viewpoint of other peoples toward the Hebrews (Gen 43:32; 46:34; Exod 8:26) or from the viewpoint of the Lord toward the Israelites (cf. 20:13; Deut 14:3; 24:4; Isa 41:24) or other peoples (Lev 18:26–27, 29–30). All the practices forbidden in ch. 18 are repugnant according to the summary of the chapter (vv. 26–27, 29–30). Within ch. 18, however, the Hebrew term is used only here in v. 22, emphasizing how repulsive and shameful such sexual acts are. These acts are at odds with the basic creation design (Gen 2:18–25).

18:23 perversion. Related to a Hebrew verb that means “mix” or “confuse.” It refers to illegitimate mixtures of species or violation of the natural order of things. In 20:12 the term refers to incest with one’s daughter-in-law. For bestiality, see also 20:16.

18:24–28 Concludes the regulations in vv. 6–23. Verses 26–28 apply v. 25 as a lesson to the Israelites.

18:29 cut off. See note on 7:20, 21.

19:2 Be holy because I, the LORD your God, am holy. See notes on 11:44; 18:1—26:46.

19:3–18 The numerous parallels to the Ten Commandments suggest that ch. 19 focuses on the primary concerns of the covenant. Practices such as revering one’s father and mother, keeping the Sabbath, leaving the gleanings after the harvest, dealing justly in court, and loving your neighbor as yourself contributed to community holiness in ancient Israel.

19:3 See Exod 20:8–12.

19:4 See Exod 20:3–6.

19:5–8 See 7:15–21 and notes.

19:8 held responsible. See 5:1 and note on 10:17. cut off. See note on 7:20, 21.

19:10 foreigner. A person from another land who took up residence among the Israelites. Although not a native Israelite, they were accepted as a member of the host community, often a relatively disadvantaged member (vv. 33–34; cf. 23:22).

19:11–13 Do not steal. The eighth commandment (Exod 20:15). There are multiple ways to “steal,” whether by lying, deceiving, giving a false oath, fraud, robbery, or holding back someone’s wages overnight when they needed them for their daily provisions.

19:15 Do not pervert justice. Heads a series of prohibitions against such things as false testimony (Exod 20:16), which perverts justice by showing partiality to the poor or favoritism to the rich. Its concern is perjury in the law court (Exod 23:1, 6–7; Deut 17:6–7; 19:16–21).

19:16 spreading slander. Possibly cutthroat business dealings or spying on someone.

19:18 bear a grudge. Retain or maintain vengeful feelings toward someone (cf. Nah 1:2). love your neighbor as yourself. Do what is good for others just as you naturally love doing what is good for yourself. Such love contrasts with taking vengeance or bearing a grudge against someone. Therefore, v. 18 probably does not imply that people need to learn to love themselves in order to love their neighbors. Instead, in NT terms it amounts to fulfilling the “Golden Rule” (Matt 7:12). Do good for your neighbor since that is the way you would want them to treat you. This is the source for the second of Jesus’ two great commandments in Matt 22:36–40 and Mark 12:28–31. In Luke 10:25–37 Jesus clarifies that “neighbor” includes those whom a person does not know personally—even those with whom a person would not normally associate. Lev 19:34 anticipates this when it calls for such love toward the “foreigner” who lived among them, not just the native Israelite, and then supports this by reminding them that they were “foreigners” in Egypt. They would have wanted to be treated well there, so they should treat the foreigners among them well.

19:19 mate . . . plant . . . wear. These three “decrees” have a principle in common: do not mix two different “kinds” of animals, seeds, or clothing fabrics. Deut 22:11 uses the same terminology to prohibit weaving linen and wool together in a garment. The rationale for these prohibitions is uncertain. Such mixtures may violate God’s creation order, e.g., when he separated out the various species or “kinds” (Gen 1:11–12, 21, 24–25). Or these prohibitions may belong to the sacred sphere, not to the world of the common Israelite (see note on 10:10). The priestly garments and the tabernacle fabric, e.g., were a mixture of linen and wool (Exod 26:1), and cherubim (composite beings with a human form but with wings) were woven into the tabernacle curtains (Exod 28:6–8).

19:20 promised to another man. Betrothed but not yet married; therefore, still belonging to her master. due punishment. Damages and compensation determined by an investigation of the facts; e.g., in that day a man paid a bride-price for marrying a woman, but the bride-price for marrying a virgin was more than that for marrying a non-virgin (see Exod 22:16–17; cf. Deut 22:13–21). not to be put to death. There was no execution for adultery in this case because she was a slave, not a free woman (cf. Deut 22:23–27).

19:21 ram . . . for a guilt offering. In addition to the damages in v. 20 because the man violated another’s property (see 6:1–7 and note on 6:2).

19:26 Do not eat any meat with the blood still in it. See notes on 3:17; 17:11. This may refer to some kind of sacrificial practice related to divination with links to necromancy (i.e., communication with the dead). If so, this regulation closely relates to the following ones. practice divination or seek omens. For a more complete list of forbidden occult practices, see Deut 18:9–14. These terms occur together also in Deut 18:10; 2 Kgs 21:6; 2 Chr 33:6. Deut 18:9–14 prohibits such practices in favor of seeking a word from the Lord through his prophet (Deut 18:15–22). practice divination. Seems to indicate attempting to read signs from the surrounding environment. seek omens. May be a more active form of divination, but it is difficult to isolate the exact means by which they would do so.

19:27 cut . . . clip off. Based on Deut 14:1; perhaps this refers to certain kinds of pagan mourning practices. This fits the context of the occult practices in v. 26b.

19:28 cut your bodies for the dead. Another pagan mourning practice (see note on v. 27; cf. 1 Kgs 18:28). tattoo. Includes “writing,” so it refers to writing or inscribing some kind of “marks” on the body. The context suggests it is another pagan mourning practice of that day or perhaps a means of warding off the spirits of the dead (cf. 21:5).

19:29 degrade. Elsewhere translated “profane” (v. 12; 18:21) and “desecrated” (v. 8). The main theme of ch. 19 is: “Be holy because I, the LORD your God, am holy” (v. 2). To “degrade” (or desecrate or profane) one’s daughter by making her a prostitute was the opposite of maintaining her as “holy” (see notes on 10:10; 18:21).

19:31 turn to mediums or seek out spiritists. Seek special knowledge through the spirits of the dead, whether the dead in general or dead relatives in particular (i.e., familiar spirits). Cf. 20:6, 27.

19:33, 34 foreigner. See note on v. 10.

19:34 Love them as yourself. See v. 18 and note.

20:1–27 See note on 18:1—20:27. The severe penalties given here underline the seriousness of these offenses.

20:2 Molek. See note on 18:21.

20:3 cut . . . off. See note on 7:20, 21.

20:6 mediums and spiritists. See note on 19:31.

20:7–8 See 19:2 and notes on 11:44; 18:1—26:46.

20:10–21 These regulations add penalties to the prohibitions in ch. 18.

20:10 See 18:20; Deut 22:22.

20:11 See 18:8 and note. their blood will be on their own heads. The shedding of blood brought guilt on the one who shed it illegitimately (including even the blood of animals shed illegitimately, see notes on 17:3–4; cf. the background of Gen 4:10–11; 9:4–6). If the community performed a legitimate execution, the blood guilt rested on the person who had been legitimately executed.

20:12 See 18:15. perversion. This kind of sexual activity brought confusion to the community.

20:13 detestable. See 18:22 and note.

20:14 See 18:17. wicked. Equals “wickedness” in 18:17 (see note there). burned in the fire. An especially severe penalty. Perhaps they were executed before their corpses were burned (Josh 7:25; cf. Deut 13:15–16; Josh 6:21, 24).

20:15–16 See 18:23.

20:17 publicly removed. See 18:9, 29; see note on 7:20, 21. held responsible. He did not have the benefit of the priestly sacrificial system to make atonement and receive forgiveness for this act (see note on 10:17).

20:18 See 18:19.

20:19 See 18:12–13. held responsible. See note on v. 17.

20:20 See 18:14.

20:21 See 18:16.

20:22–23 See 18:24–28.

20:23 abhorred. Felt repugnance or disgust; especially suitable for a context in which the land might “vomit” out its inhabitants (v. 22).

20:24–26 set you apart . . . set you apart. Translates the same Hebrew verb rendered “make a distinction” in v. 25.

20:25 clean and unclean animals . . . birds. See note on 11:1–47. Because God distinguished them from the other peoples around them, the Israelites were to distinguish between clean and unclean creatures. This was one way the Lord made Israel a holy nation, separate from the other nations. Not being able to eat with other peoples made it difficult for the Israelites to establish and maintain marital and other social relations with them.

21:1—22:33 Rules for the Priests and Unacceptable Sacrifices. Chs. 21–22 are addressed to the priests. Variations of the holiness formula throughout this unit refer not to the sanctity of the community at large but to that of the priests (21:1, 8, 15), the precincts of the tabernacle (21:23), and the sacred offerings (22:9, 16). The unit then concludes with another reference to the entire nation as a holy nation that the Lord himself sanctified (22:32–33; see note on 18:1—26:46).

21:1 people who die. A corpse was severely defiling to the point that anyone who touched it would be “unclean for seven days” (Num 19:11). They needed to wash their body with the water containing the ashes of the red heifer on the third and seventh days to purify their body from the uncleanness (Num 19:12) so that they did not “defile the LORD’s tabernacle” (Num 19:13). Death was incompatible with holiness.

21:5 See notes on 19:27, 28.

21:7 not marry women defiled by prostitution or divorced. This kept priests holy to their God; i.e., set apart from any kind of desecration or defilement sexually (see note on 19:29).

21:10 hair . . . unkempt or tear . . . clothes. Regular and accepted mourning rites for the death of friends and relatives (cf. 10:6). The high priest’s head had been anointed, so it was not to be unkempt, and his garments were special priestly garments so they were not to be torn.

21:11 a place where there is a dead body. The high priest’s position did not allow him to participate in mourning rites, not even for his father or mother (contrast the other priests, v. 2).

21:12 desecrate. See notes on 10:10; 19:29.

21:13, 14 a virgin. The marriage regulations for the high priest were even more strict than those for the other priests (see v. 7 and note).

21:15 defile. See note on 19:29.

21:17 defect. Any birth defect or physical injury listed in vv. 18–20. The same Hebrew term describes animals that must not be offered to the Lord (22:20–25). Holiness was symbolized by wholeness.

22:3 ceremonially unclean. See vv. 4–8. cut off from my presence. Could no longer function as a priest in the tabernacle of the Lord’s presence. One of the main concerns was that someone might defile the Lord’s dwelling place in the midst of the people (see 15:31 and note).

22:9 perform my service. Priests needed to be more careful about contracting and cleansing uncleanness because they performed the service of the Lord and, therefore, had more occasion to defile the tabernacle or the sacred offerings, which was to be avoided at all cost (see v. 3 and note). become guilty and die. See notes on 10:2, 3. treating it with contempt. The same Hebrew term as “profane” (18:21) and “desecrate” (21:12). Holy things were to be treated in holy ways (see note on 10:10).

22:10 guest. Someone who lodged with the priest. The consecrated food was only for priests and their families.

22:14 by mistake. Translates the same Hebrew term rendered “unintentionally” elsewhere (see note on 4:2). A person might make such a mistake, e.g., by confusing a firstborn (and therefore consecrated animal, Exod 13:2) with one that was not. make restitution. The replacement of the offering plus one-fifth of its value could be made as a monetary payment (see notes on 5:15, 16).

22:27–28 remain with its mother . . . seven days . . . eighth day. The young animal is nursed by its mother for seven days, so it would not be accepted on the altar until the eighth day. A period of seven days is a full cycle, like the seven-day week ending with a Sabbath (Exod 20:8–11; cf. also other “sevens,” e.g., see 4:6 and note).

22:28 its young . . . same day. The compassionate treatment of animals is a regular theme in the OT law (e.g., Exod 23:5, 11–12; Deut 25:4), including the prohibition of taking a mother when killing her young ones for food (e.g., Deut 22:6–7). Some would apply the same principle to the interpretation of the rule “Do not cook a young goat in its mother’s milk” (Exod 23:19b; Deut 14:21b).

23:1—25:55 The Appointed Festivals, Sabbath Year, and Year of Jubilee. “Holy” or “sacred” repeatedly refers to the sabbatical regulations in chs. 23 and 25. Legislation about the weekly Sabbath and yearly festivals begins in ch. 23; the regulations about the sabbatical year and the Year of Jubilee conclude the sabbatical legislation in ch. 25. In between, ch. 24 emphasizes the daily and weekly practice of the presence of the Lord in the tabernacle and, in light of that, the importance of treating both the name of the Lord (24:10–16, 23) and his people (24:17–22) with due respect.

23:2 appointed festivals. Set forth in ch. 23. sacred assemblies. Although actual assembly may be included, the primary concern is that the Israelites set the day aside to sanctify it to the Lord by not doing any (regular) work on that day (e.g., on the weekly Sabbath day, v. 3). It sometimes fit within the context of a larger festival (e.g., the first and last days of Passover were sacred assemblies, vv. 7–8).

23:4 the LORD’s appointed festivals. See “The Lord’s Appointed Festivals.”

23:5 Passover. Jesus was crucified during the Passover Festival. He ate the Passover with his disciples and instituted the Lord’s Supper earlier on the same evening he was betrayed to be crucified (Luke 22:14–22). twilight. Designates the time between the setting of the sun and the true darkness of night.

23:6 Festival of Unleavened Bread. Belongs together with the Passover (indicated by the close sequence in vv. 5–6 and the next new introduction formula [“the LORD said to Moses]” not appearing until v. 9). bread made without yeast. Derives from the haste in leaving Egypt on the eve of the exodus, which allowed no time for the bread dough to rise in the leavening process (Exod 12:39). Rabbinic literature elaborates in great detail on the need to rid the Jewish household of leaven/yeast before the arrival of Passover (Exod 12:14–20). It is an important element in commemorating the exodus from Egypt. Jesus ate the Passover with his disciples the same evening he was betrayed to be crucified (see note on v. 5). As it relates to the church, Jesus, our “Passover lamb,” has already been sacrificed, so the church must rid themselves of any “old yeast” (1 Cor 5:7). See note on Num 28:17.

23:7, 8 sacred assembly. On both the first day and last day of the Festival of Unleavened Bread. See note on v. 2. regular. Refers to daily labor of the normal work day, whether agricultural work or other work by which they made their living. In other words, this was not to be treated as a regular work day; however, the more specific regulations for what one could or could not do on the weekly seventh day (the Sabbath) were not applied to these particular days of sacred assembly. For rules concerning the Sabbath, see, e.g., Exod 35:2–3; Num 15:32–36, where the point is that one could not even gather wood or light a fire to use for basic food preparation on the Sabbath. The food to be eaten on the Sabbath was to be prepared the previous day.

23:10 the first grain you harvest. Barley, not wheat (v. 16); see “The Lord’s Appointed Festivals.” Barley is a light grain that ripens earlier than wheat, which is a heavier grain that takes longer to grow and mature. So the barley harvest comes first (Ruth 1:22) and then the wheat harvest (Ruth 2:23). The climate in Israel is too dry for such grain crops to grow through the summer months (June–August), so they are planted in the fall (October) and grow through the rainy seasons, which come during the winter months (November–March). The grain is ready for harvest in the spring and early summer (May and June).

23:11 wave the sheaf. To dedicate the whole barley harvest to the Lord (see note on 7:30). sheaf. A bundle of stalks of grain that could be held in one’s hand. the day after the Sabbath. Either the day after the Sabbath day that followed immediately after Passover, during the week of Unleavened Bread (cf. v. 15), or the day after the Sabbath day at the end of the days of Unleavened Bread. The ambiguity may be intentional to allow for variations in the ripening of the crops from year to year.

23:13 two-tenths of an ephah. See NIV text note. The officiating priest consumed most of this grain (except a handful that was burned on the altar as the memorial portion) and the wine as payment for his work at the altar (see notes on 2:2, 3). hin. See NIV text note.

23:16 day after the seventh Sabbath. A total of 50 days after they offered the firstfruits of the barley harvest (v. 10). The NT refers to this as Pentecost, meaning “fifty.” new grain. From the wheat harvest (see note on v. 10).

23:21 sacred assembly. See note on v. 2.

23:22 gleanings of your harvest. See 19:9–10; Deut 24:19–22; Ruth 2. This was an important way of providing for the poor and foreigners in ancient Israel. The book of Ruth illustrates the importance of this provision.

23:24 seventh month. Particularly loaded with special occasions for the Lord and the people. sacred assembly. See note on v. 2. trumpet blasts. Probably from the šôpār, a trumpet made from a ram’s horn. The loud blasts announced the coming of the seventh month as a special month in which they observed the Day of Atonement and the Festival of Tabernacles (vv. 26–43). The religious year and, therefore, the first month of the year for the Jewish people began in the spring of the year with the month of Aviv, or Nisan, because the exodus from Egypt occurred in that month (Exod 12:2).

23:25 regular work. See note on vv. 7, 8.

23:26–32 See ch. 16 and notes.

23:27, 29, 32 deny yourselves/themselves. See note on 16:29.

23:29 cut off. See note on 7:20, 21.

23:34 Tabernacles. Not the same Hebrew term as that for the tabernacle of the Lord referred to in, e.g., Exod 25:9; 40:1–38. The Festival of Tabernacles commemorates the Israelites’ journey to Sinai after they left Egypt, so “tabernacles” here refers to temporary shelters made from tree branches (vv. 42–43).

23:35 sacred assembly. See note on v. 2.

23:37–38 required for each day . . . in addition to your gifts. This summary tells us that what has been listed as required offerings for the festival days in this chapter does not take into account the other offerings regularly required on the Lord’s Sabbaths and offered throughout the year.

23:39 after you have gathered the crops of the land. All the work of harvesting for the whole agricultural year was to be finished by that time so they could truly celebrate the Lord’s blessings at this festival (v. 41).

24:2, 3, 4 lamps. Seven lamps rested on top of the seven branches of the lampstand—one middle branch going straight up from the stem and three coming out from each side of the stem. They could be taken off the lampstand to add oil. continually . . . from evening till morning . . . continually. Through the night.

24:8 lasting covenant. Weekly exchanging the old loaves for new ones was part of their covenant obligations. The 12 loaves (symbolizing the 12 tribes) pointed to the actual presence of the Lord in the tabernacle, which is why they are sometimes called “the bread of the Presence” (Exod 25:30).

24:9 Since these loaves were to be edible after a week of sitting out on the table, they were most likely unleavened.

24:11 blasphemed the Name with a curse. The exact meaning is uncertain. There are three main views: (1) he pronounced the name “Yahweh,” (see Exod 3:14–15 and notes) in a way or with words that amounted to some sort of verbal aggression against Yahweh himself (v. 15); (2) he pronounced a curse against the man using the name “Yahweh”; or (3) he pronounced the name “Yahweh” and thereby blasphemed since “the Name” was never to be pronounced (a standard Jewish explanation). The offense violated the third commandment (Exod 20:7). The same verb for cursing is used explicitly in Exod 22:28 in a prohibition against “cursing” God (translated there as “blaspheme”; see also Lev 24:15).

24:14 lay their hands on his head. Two basic interpretations: (1) they testified against him or (2) they transferred their pollution back to the offender because they had become polluted by hearing the blasphemy.

24:16 Whether foreigner or native-born. See also v. 22. Whether blasphemy (vv. 13–16) or another offense such as murder, killing another person’s animal, or some kind of bodily injury (vv. 17–21), the same punishment applied to both the foreigner and the native Israelite. The issue probably arose here because the blasphemy was committed by the son of an Israelite mother and Egyptian father (vv. 10–11). they are to be put to death. The punishment for blasphemy was death, whether for the foreigner or the native Israelite.

24:17–21 The punishment should match the crime—no more, no less. Cf. Exod 21:23–25, the so-called lex talionis (Latin for “the law of the talon/claw”). This principle also occurs elsewhere in ancient Near Eastern law.

25:1–55 Regulations about the sabbatical year and the Year of Jubilee conclude the sabbatical legislation that began in ch. 23. The principle of the sabbatical year is that people get a Sabbath every seven days, so the land gets a Sabbath every seven years (vv. 2–7). The pattern is important, and it extends further into the Jubilee, which the people were to celebrate every 50 years—after every seven-times-seven years (vv. 8–55; see note on vv. 24–55).