Annotations for Isaiah

1:1—5:30 Introduction: The Problem of Servanthood. These chapters sharply contrast the rebellious, hypocritical, unjust Israel of the present (1:2–31; 2:6—4:1; 5:1–30) and the holy, purified remnant of the future (4:2–6) that will somehow draw the nations of the world to come to the holy mountain to learn the tôrâ (instructions) of God (2:1–5). These chapters do not spell out how God will effect this change. Strictly speaking, Isaiah speaks to Judah, but he seems to have in mind all of Israel—the nation as a whole.

1:1–31 Charges Against Rebellious Israel. These verses supply the basics of the introduction: the author is “Isaiah son of Amoz” (v. 1); the nation’s present condition is tragic (vv. 2–15, 21–25, 29–31); and the nation may experience cleansing and restoration in the future (vv. 16–20, 25–28).

1:1 Isaiah’s Vision Concerning Judah and Jerusalem Introduced. What follows is what Isaiah received from God; it is not merely Isaiah’s intellectual or artistic creation.

1:1 Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz and Hezekiah, kings of Judah. Isaiah is defining when he received from God the materials recorded in the book. It was during the reigns of these four kings. However, his ministry only began in the final year of Uzziah’s reign (740/39 BC) and did not necessarily extend entirely through Hezekiah’s reign.

1:2–9 Israel’s Condition. Here the prophet vividly describes Israel’s condition and explains the reasons for it. He compares them to someone who has been beaten and has untreated wounds (vv. 5–6) and to an abandoned shack in a field (vv. 7–9). The reason for this devastation is that they have rebelliously turned away from the Lord (vv. 2–4).

1:2–4 God’s charges against his people.

1:2 Hear me, you heavens! The call of a prosecutor for witnesses to hear charges. Isaiah calls upon nature, which obeys God’s commands, to witness how humans, the highest of God’s creatures, astonishingly refuse to obey him (see vv. 20, 23, 28; Deut 30:19; 32:1). the LORD. This name expresses God’s eternal self-existence; he is the “I AM” (see notes on Exod 3:13, 14, 15). rebelled. They are like “children” who have “rebelled against” their father. Rebellion is the most serious of all sins because it intentionally defies God’s revealed will (43:27; 46:8; 48:8; 57:4; 63:10; 66:24).

1:3 Another illustration from nature. Farm animals are intelligent enough to recognize their “master” who provides for them, but Israel is not that intelligent.

1:4 Woe. Transliterates a Hebrew word that expresses grief and consternation more than condemnation. It is associated with death and mourning. forsaken. The same Hebrew word used for divorce. the Holy One of Israel. A favorite title for the Lord in the book of Isaiah. It occurs 26 times in the book (counting one occurrence of “the Holy One of Jacob” [29:23]) and only 6 other places in the OT. Its frequency in Isaiah may reflect the impact of Isaiah’s call, in which the holiness of God is a central feature (ch. 6).

1:5–9 As a result of their rebellion, the people are in terrible condition. By this time, Assyria has already made devastating inroads into the northern kingdom of Israel. The nation is broken and bleeding. But they have rejected the only one who can heal them: the Lord.

1:8 Daughter Zion. Expresses the tender feeling that God has for his people. Zion is like a precious daughter to a loving father. Zion. Often refers to the city of Jerusalem but also may extend (as here) to the people as a whole. shelter . . . hut. Abandoned, deteriorating structures. Because the people normally lived in villages that were some distance from their fields, they often built temporary shelters in the harvest field to avoid walking back and forth during that busy time. After the harvest, these shacks were abandoned.

1:9 the LORD Almighty. That is, “the Lord of armies.” These armies are the angelic hosts of heaven. This title, which stresses Yahweh’s power, occurs 62 times in the book, 56 of them in chs. 1–39. survivors. A remnant (see “Exile and Exodus”). Sodom . . . Gomorrah. Cities completely destroyed (Gen 19:24–25). Only the undeserved grace of God (Rom 9:29) has prevented the nation of Israel from being destroyed.

1:10–20 Two Possible Solutions. Two alternate solutions to the problem of Israel’s rebellion and devastated condition are mentioned. The people could continue in their religious hypocrisy (vv. 10–15), to which the Lord vehemently objects, or they could stop doing evil and do what is right to the helpless (vv. 16–17). God would then make their scarlet sins “white” (v. 18), and they could “eat the good things of the land” (v. 19).

1:10 Heavy satire establishes the tone of what follows in vv. 11–15. rulers . . . people. Isaiah identifies them with Sodom and Gomorrah (see note on v. 9). They think of themselves as Yahweh’s special favorites, but this is how Yahweh sees them.

1:11 sacrifices . . . burnt offerings. Pagans thought the gods needed the meat and blood of sacrifices to keep them strong. God has no need for them. fattened animals. Kept in confinement for special feeding.

1:12–13 Yahweh commanded the people to appear before him three times a year (Exod 23:17; Deut 16:16). But that was to be in obedience and repentance. Clearly that is not the case here. These people see sacrifice and worship as a way of manipulating God while they continue to live in sin. So their offerings are “meaningless,” and their assemblies are “worthless.”

1:14 New Moon feasts. Celebrated on the first day of each Hebrew month (Num 28:11–15). Instead of lifting the weight of sin from the shoulders of the repentant offerers, the sacrifices and worship of the hypocrites simply became an intolerable “burden” to God.

1:15 Like sacrifice, prayer is not a device that allows sinful persons to continue in sin. Rather, it is a way that a repentant worshiper communicates with a gracious God. Prayer is useless without true repentance.

1:16–20 Here is the true remedy for Israel’s battered condition: genuine repentance (“repent” means “turn away [from sinful behavior] and turn toward obedience”).

1:17 oppressed . . . fatherless . . . widow. Represent the vulnerable, broken, downtrodden, and outcast. Godly behavior is most manifest in relation to those who cannot repay us in any way. God’s love is self-giving and self-denying, and we see that love most clearly when he extends it to the marginalized. See Exod 22:22–24.

1:18 This verse does not say that changed behavior (v. 17) causes forgiveness and restoration. Rather, such behavior shows the sincerity of intention (repentance) and the complete dependence on God (faith) that make these possible. Ultimately, cleansing is dependent on Christ’s sacrifice (Heb 10:1–10).

1:19–20 These are the results of the two ways of responding to vv. 16–17. eat . . . devoured. A wordplay on the Hebrew word: the obedient will “eat” the produce of the land, but those who rebel will be “devoured [‘eaten’] by the sword.”

1:21–23 The Perverse Character of the People. Their behavior is the opposite of what their covenant with God required of them.

1:23 rulers are rebels. Instead of promoting righteous living, they are promoting lawlessness.

1:24–31 The Results of Sin. Because of the people’s sinfulness, judgment is coming. But the purpose of the judgment is not destruction but purification. This is one of the main themes of the book.

1:24 the Lord, the LORD Almighty, the Mighty One of Israel. Isaiah frequently piles up epithets to convey to the people how serious their situation is (see 41:11–14; 43:14–15; 44:6–8; 49:26 and notes). The one they have offended, whose covenant they have broken, is the mightiest power in the universe. my foes . . . my enemies. The people of Israel, particularly those of Judah and Jerusalem.

1:25–26 The effect of Yahweh’s judgment will be to restore the people, the leaders, and “the City of Righteousness” to their former pristine condition.

1:27–28 While the intent of the judgment is not destruction, that will be the result for those “rebels and sinners . . . who forsake the LORD.”

1:29–31 The imagery of wilting trees and parched gardens describes the condition of those who persist in glorifying themselves while defying God. Isaiah elsewhere uses the images of trees and gardens to describe (1) pride in one’s own attainments, and (2) the rich results of depending on God (5:1–5; 10:33–34; 16:8; 19:5–7; 27:2–6; 30:23–26; 33:9; 35:1–2; 40:24; 41:19; 42:15; 44:4, 23; 51:3; 55:12–13; 58:11; 60:13; 61:3, 11; 65:3, 22; 66:17).

1:29 sacred oaks . . . gardens. Places of pagan worship (cf. 65:3 and note; 66:17). But these places have no power to give life, and those who look for life there will be “ashamed” and “disgraced” because what they trusted in will fail them (cf. 65:3). See photo.

1:30–31 Although a “mighty man” might seem to be self-created and self-perpetuating, it is not so. He is “like a garden without water,” unable to survive apart from God, who alone gives life.

2:1–5 The Nations Will Come to Jerusalem. In spite of Israel’s condition in Isaiah’s own time, Isaiah predicts that the nations of the earth would come to “the LORD’s temple” (v. 2) to learn God’s instructions, his tôrâ, for life. This mission to the nations is a recurring theme in the book (cf. 11:10; 19:23–25; 26:18; 42:1; 49:6; 56:6–8; 60:3; 62:10; 66:18–24). If those Gentiles would someday seek to “walk in his paths” (v. 3), should not Israel now “walk in the light of the LORD” (v. 5)?

2:2–4 Nearly identical to Mic 4:1–3. Scholars are divided over which is original or whether both use a common source. But whatever the intermediate source, “what Isaiah . . . saw” (v. 1) makes it plain that the Lord inspired Isaiah’s words; Isaiah did not merely copy them from someone else.

2:2 the last days. May be interpreted in one of three ways: the vague distant future (Gen 49:1), the Christian era (Hos 3:5; Acts 2:17; 2 Pet 3:3), or the end of the age (Jas 5:3). In one sense this prediction has been fulfilled since the coming of Christ, but there will be yet a greater fulfillment at the end of the age. See note on Amos 2:16. mountains. Thought to be the homes of the gods. By calling Mount Zion “the highest of the mountains,” Isaiah is saying that the nations will one day realize that Yahweh is the one true God.

2:3 walk. How the Bible describes our relationship with God; it is not a static position but a dynamic companionship that moves from its beginning to its appointed destination (see, e.g., Gen 5:22, 24; 17:1; 48:15; Deut 28:9; 1 Kgs 3:6 [“faithful”]; Ps 15:2; Jer 32:23 [“follow”]; Mal 2:6; John 8:12; Rom 6:4 [“live”]; Gal 5:16; Col 1:10 [“live a life”]). law. God’s instructions for life (not the negative sense: what condemns us when we try to use it as a means of justification). Zion. Jerusalem. The name expresses its theological significance. It represents the people of God, whether they are in a sinful present state, rebelling against their Lord (1:8; 3:16), or, more frequently, in their final redeemed state, living in fellowship with him (4:3–5).

2:4 Pictures a world in which genuine peace exists on the earth as the Holy Spirit enables people to live out God’s holy character. Some interpreters understand the reference to be to Christ’s millennial reign. See 11:1–10 for many of the same themes.

2:6—4:1 Israel’s Pride Brought Low. Isaiah, unwilling to let his hearers use a prophecy of a glorious future to escape from grim realities in the present, defines the present condition and the inevitable result of that condition. He shows how the people are enamored with human and earthly greatness (2:6–8, 12–16; 3:1–3, 16–23) and how that must necessarily result in desolation and humiliation (2:9–11, 17–22; 3:4–15; 3:24—4:1). As the textual unit progresses, there are more and more graphic illustrations of both (1) self-exaltation, and (2) desolation and humiliation. The people flee into “caves in the rocks” (2:19; see 2:21). Mere “youths” (3:4, 12) replace the falsely revered leaders “who have ruined [God’s] vineyard” (3:14). Finally, Isaiah compares Jerusalem to a haughty, exquisitely dressed woman who is stripped and brought down into the dust (3:16—4:1).

2:6–22 The Lord Alone Will Be Exalted. The people are “full” of things this world calls great (vv. 6–8). As a result, they will be “brought low” (v. 9). All the lofty things of creation (vv. 12–16) will be “brought low” (v. 17), and the people who trusted in them, making “idols” of them (v. 20), “will flee to caverns in the rocks” (v. 21).

2:6 The “descendants of Jacob” are “full” of pagan superstitions, magical customs that seem to make the powers of creation subject to human manipulation.

2:7 Their land is “full” of wealth and military armaments.

2:8 idols. Human hands made these gods in human form—the ultimate exaltation of humanity.

2:9–11 All human attempts to exalt themselves are doomed to failure because everything in creation is subordinate to Yahweh, the only one who is “exalted” (v. 11; see v. 17). He alone is self-existent, the only one who can say, “I AM” (see 1:2 and note). When humans try to make themselves ultimate in the universe, they render themselves meaningless.

2:12–17 God will humble (v. 12) every great thing on the earth in which humans tend to glory—whether natural (vv. 13–14) or man-made (vv. 15–16).

2:17 Almost identical to v. 11.

2:18–22 The idolatry by which humans attempt to make themselves equal to God can only humiliate them. In the day of judgment it will utterly fail them, and they will throw away all their idols—their human-made attempts to manipulate the universe—as they try to hide from God’s all-seeing eye (cf. Rev 6:15–17).

2:20 moles and bats. They were considered unclean. The people will consider their supposedly holy idols, made of precious metals, both worthless and unclean.

2:22 A powerful concluding statement. Humans are utterly dependent creatures who are only one breath away from death. Why put any trust in them?

3:1–15 Judgment on Jerusalem and Judah. Isaiah speaks of a day when Israel’s leaders, who exalt themselves while actually encouraging wickedness (cf. 1:23), will be taken away and replaced by weak, unworthy people.

3:1 the LORD Almighty. See note on 1:9. take from. God will take away all those who might have been expected to undergird the stability and moral order of the nation. supply and support. Both physical supplies and leadership. May be understood both metaphorically and literally. The prophet is probably envisioning the end of Judah, when the enemy armies are besieging the city.

3:4–12 Deprived of true leadership the nation will spiral into moral chaos. People who might undertake leadership refuse it, and those who do take it are unworthy of it.

3:4 youths . . . children. Probably metaphors: incompetents will replace the great men to whom the people of Judah give too much honor (cf. v. 12).

3:5 As a result of incompetent leadership, all social order breaks down.

3:6–7 Probably anticipates a scene during the exile when Jerusalem, the proud city, is only a “heap of ruins.” Things fall so far that merely possessing a cloak qualifies one for leadership. This graphically illustrates the point of this section: exalting humans must lead to humiliation (see note on 2:6—4:1).

3:8–15 The conditions in Jerusalem and Judah could not be laid solely at the feet of the rulers. It was ultimately the result of the people’s defying God. As a result, “disaster” (vv. 9, 11) lay ahead for them. But that should not discourage “the righteous” (v. 10). They could look forward to another result: enjoying the “fruit of their deeds” (v. 10) if they persevere in spite of the deteriorating conditions around them. As Christians know, this might be in eternity, but it will come.

3:9 Once again Isaiah compares Judah to Sodom (cf. 1:10). This must have been galling to many who considered themselves morally superior to those sinners of the past (cf. Ezek 16:49). Woe. See note on 1:4.

3:10 The promise of this verse seems to point to eternal life since “the righteous” suffered along with the wicked in the decline and eventual destruction of Judah and Jerusalem.

3:12 women rule. History (e.g., Athaliah and Jezebel) did not provide a good precedent.

3:13–15 Israel’s true ruler (“the LORD,” v. 13) judges the evil rulers (“elders and leaders,” v. 14), taking them to task in particular for mistreating the poor. Judah’s rulers succumbed to the great temptation of leaders everywhere: using their position as one of privilege instead of responsibility. They naturally preyed upon the weakest segment of society. But God’s instructions for leaders were the very opposite: give special care to the poor precisely to prevent others from abusing them (Deut 15:7–11; 16:18–20; 17:14–20).

3:14 vineyard. A metaphor for Israel (see chs. 5; 27; Luke 20:9–16). It was particularly meaningful to Judahite listeners, for whom one major agricultural crop was grapes.

3:15 crushing . . . grinding. Words of the grape and grain harvests. The rulers were treating the poor like the produce of the soil: to be used for the rulers’ own benefit. the Lord, the LORD Almighty. See notes on 1:9, 24.

3:16—4:1 The Humiliation of the Haughty Daughters of Jerusalem. Isaiah graphically illustrates that self-exaltation results in humiliation.

3:16–17 A summary statement of the cause and its effect: because these women are “haughty,” flaunting their dainty beauty as if it is their own to use as they wish, Yahweh will make them bald and scabbed. As in vv. 6–7 and 3:24—4:1, these conditions are a result of the enemy conquering them. No human greatness could defend Zion; only Yahweh could do that. If they insist upon glorifying that greatness, not only will Yahweh not defend them from the enemy, he will become their enemy (cf. 1:24).

3:16 women of Zion. Perhaps specifically directed against them; however, the Hebrew (which refers to “daughters of Zion”) is used metaphorically elsewhere, so the entire nation of Judah may be in view (cf. v. 26, which depicts Zion as a woman).

3:18—4:1 A more detailed statement of the cause (3:18–23) and effect (3:24—4:1), making the same point as 3:16–17 (see note there).

3:18–23 This lengthy list of finery drives the point home with ironic force: all these exterior accoutrements are worthless without inner integrity.

3:24 This sentence’s abruptness and structure (parallel clauses) reinforce the contrast.

3:25—4:1 The men of Zion will be killed by their enemies in battle so that the city and its women will be desolate (3:26—4:1). There will be so few men available that there will be “seven women” for every “one man” (4:1). In that society, a woman had to be attached to a man, either her father or her husband. For her to be detached from a man was a “disgrace” (4:1).

4:2–6 The Branch of the Lord. Much like ch. 1 abruptly transitions to ch. 2, so ch. 4 abruptly presents a note of hope. Both v. 1 and v. 2 begin with “in that day” but speak of two very different futures. The hope of vv. 2–6 is not that Israel will somehow escape judgment but that the judgment will result in purification instead of destruction.

4:2 Branch. This reference is uncertain. By capitalizing “Branch,” the NIV prefers a Messianic reference (see Jer 23:5; 33:15; Zech 3:8; 6:12, where “Branch” clearly refers to the Messiah). But this verse is somewhat ambiguous. The fact that “Branch” is paralleled with “the fruit of the land” suggests to some interpreters that the reference is to the remnant (see “Exile and Exodus”). In this case the verse is saying that after the desolation brought about by sin, God will cause his land to be spiritually fruitful again, something that would be impossible without him.

4:3–4 The prophet predicts that a day will come when the people who have just been described as arrogantly sinful will be called “holy” (see “Holiness”). Beyond that, the city’s “filth” and “bloodstains” will be washed away. The means of this surprising effect is “a spirit of judgment and a spirit of fire” (see note on v. 4).

4:4 women of Zion. See note on 3:16. spirit . . . spirit. The Hebrew word has a wide range of meanings, including “wind,” “breath,” “spirit,” and “Spirit.” Perhaps the sense here is a metaphoric one of a fiery wind. The exile certainly was that for the Israelite people. Only a remnant would emerge from the exile, but it would purify them.

4:5–6 Language reminiscent of the exodus with its pillar of “cloud” and “fire” that both directed and protected God’s people (Exod 13:21–22; 14:19–20). In a similar way, Ezekiel saw the return from exile as a new exodus (cf. Ezekiel’s use of the exodus motif “they will be my people, and I will be their God,” Ezek 11:20). Now the “glory” (v. 5) of God that the people once defied will be a much-appreciated “canopy” over them, affording both “shade” and “refuge.”

5:1–30 The Song of the Vineyard. As judgment (2:6—4:1) immediately follows hope (2:1–5) in 2:1—4:1, so here Isaiah is unwilling to let the people use future hope to blind themselves to the present reality. He calls them to face their present condition (vv. 1–24) and the necessary results of that condition should it continue unchanged (vv. 25–30).

5:1–24 Israel’s Condition. As in 3:14, Isaiah describes Israel as the Lord’s vineyard, but he does so in a greatly extended metaphor (vv. 1–7). The vineyard has produced “bad fruit” (v. 2; see v. 4), and vv. 8–24 detail what that bad fruit is in a series of woe messages (vv. 8–10, 11–17, 18–19, 20, 21, 22–24).

5:1–7 The Vineyard. Comparing Israel to a vineyard would be very compelling to Isaiah’s Judahite hearers because work in vineyards was their livelihood. He describes in detail the three-year effort to produce the first crop of grapes (vv. 1–2; see note on v. 2), rhetorically asks what should be done with a worthless vineyard (vv. 3–4), announces what will be done to it (vv. 5–6), and clarifies that he is talking about Israel and Judah (v. 7).

5:1 My loved one. Yahweh; expresses something of Isaiah’s deep feeling for the Lord.

5:2 Clearing the land of stones and using them to build walls and a watchtower would involve an entire season of labor. Planting “the choicest vines” would take a second season, during which a winepress would be hewn out of rock. Finally, in the third season the firstfruits of all that labor would be expected.

5:3–6 The response to the rhetorical question (v. 4) was probably a rousing one in which the hearers counseled Isaiah to destroy the vineyard. Whatever their response, Isaiah makes it clear that God will destroy it.

5:7 Isaiah explains the metaphor, which involves a Hebrew wordplay. bloodshed. The Hebrew (miśpah) sounds like the Hebrew for “justice” (mišpaṭ). cries of distress. The Hebrew (ṣĕ ʿ āqâ) sounds like the Hebrew for “righteousness” (ṣĕ ʿdāqâ).

5:8–24 Israel’s Bitter Grapes. There is perhaps an intentional progression from greed (vv. 8–10) to perversion of moral law (vv. 20–21).

5:8–10 Greed. The land in Israel was a gift from God to be held in trust by each family. But the rich had ways of skirting this requirement and dispossessing people, especially the poor, from their land. Isaiah says that the result will be that the land will produce only about a tenth of what might be expected (see NIV text notes for the amounts).

5:11–17 Self-Indulgence. Those who pay attention only to their own desires for wealth, pleasure, and entertainment (vv. 11–12) and have no time for the Creator and his work will be deprived of those very things as “exile” and “Death” come upon them (vv. 13–14). Verses 15–16 refer to arrogance and humiliation, reminiscent of ch. 2. The “lack of understanding” (v. 13) refers to these misplaced priorities. When people forget the place of God in the world in the rush to fulfill their own desires, they doom themselves because God’s “righteous acts” in the world will demonstrate his true holiness (v. 16).

5:18–19 Intentional Sin. The “cords of deceit” and “cart ropes” suggest that sinning is something they are consciously working at. Verse 19 confirms this: the sinners dare “the Holy One of Israel” to do something against them that they can see.

5:20 Perversity. The apparent progression reaches its climax: they turn moral reality on its head by reversing good and evil.

5:21 Self-Determination of Good and Evil. Instead of looking to the Creator of the universe to determine what moral reality is, these persons “are wise in their own eyes.” This is what Gen 3:5 refers to: the desire to determine good and evil for oneself. This seems to explain v. 20.

5:22–24 Link Between Self-Indulgence and Social Injustice. This final woe summarizes the previous ones. Self-indulgence and social injustice are linked (vv. 22–23), and they are the result of rejecting the revelation (“law . . . word”) of the universe’s transcendent (“Holy One”) powerful One (“LORD Almighty”). The only result can be the loss of the very permanence that self-exaltation pretends to give.

5:25–30 The Destruction of the Vineyard. Just as walls were torn down and wild animals were permitted to trample the vines, so God calls the enemy nations to punish Israel. The great powers of the day were only tools to accomplish Yahweh’s purposes.

5:25 Israel must come to terms with Yahweh, not the nations. Yet for all this . . . upraised. This refrain appears four more times: 9:12, 17, 21; 10:4.

5:26 banner. A characteristic term in the book, appearing nine more times: three, as here, calling destroyers (13:2; 18:3; 31:9 [“battle standard”]), four calling God’s people home (11:10, 12; 49:22; 62:10), and twice in more casual settings (30:17; 33:23 [translated “sail” in the latter case]).

6:1–13 Isaiah’s Commission. Chs. 1–5, the introduction of the book, raises a question: How can the arrogant, defiant, perverse people of Israel ever become the pure, undefiled people through whom the nations can learn God’s ways? The prophet seems to offer his own call experience as a model for this. This probably explains why he defers the call narrative to this point in the book. Isaiah sees God in all his glory (vv. 1–4), sees himself in all his uncleanness (v. 5), experiences cleansing (vv. 6–7), hears God’s concern and offers himself (v. 8), receives the commission (vv. 9–10), questions the commission (v. 11a), and hears God’s response to his question (vv. 11b–13).

6:1 the year that King Uzziah died. 740/39 BC. Probably included to show that Isaiah received the vision during a time of crisis. Though a strong and effective king, Uzziah had been struck with leprosy when he tried to play the part of a priest in the temple (2 Chr 26:16–21). His immediate successors were not strong and effective. high and exalted. Description occurs twice more in the book: 57:15 (referring to God again); 52:13 (referring to the servant). throne . . . temple. Conveys divine kingship. the train . . . filled the temple. Gives a sense of the immensity of God in Isaiah’s vision. It may also be a way of making visual the following statement that God’s glory filled the earth (v. 3). Note that no mention is made of the appearance of God himself (cf. Exod 33:20–23).

6:2 seraphim. The origin of the Hebrew word suggests that these beings had the appearance of flames. The word does not appear elsewhere in the Bible, but the “living creatures” of Rev 4:6–9 are also described as having six wings. six wings. Suggest supernatural power. covered their faces. Seems to say that even though they were supernatural beings, they could not look on the holy God. covered their feet. Implies their createdness.

6:3 Holy, holy, holy. In Hebrew, triple repetition expresses the superlative: absolutely holy. glory. Connotes significance and weightiness (cf. 2 Cor 4:17). All glory in the earth belongs ultimately to Yahweh, not to humans.

6:4 May suggest that everything in God’s creation joins in praise of him, even the inanimate objects (Luke 19:40).

6:5 unclean lips. A figure of speech for Isaiah’s life. Whatever he might claim about the nature of his inner life, his outer life refuted that when compared to God’s holy character. among a people of unclean lips. Reinforces Isaiah’s point about himself (cf. Judg 6:15; 1 Sam 9:21). seen the King. The earthly king has died, and Isaiah has seen the one who is truly King.

6:6 live coal. Probably came from the bronze altar just outside the temple. Live coals were brought into the Most Holy Place to ignite the incense on the Day of Atonement (Lev 16:12).

6:7 guilt is taken away and your sin atoned for. God has provided a way whereby the guilt and sin of humanity can be removed. The sacrifice on the altar symbolized the perfect sacrifice of God himself in Jesus Christ (John 1:29).

6:8 us. Also refers to God in two other important places that speak of his activity: Gen 1:26; 11:7. While the plural of majesty is possible, or a reference to the seraphim comprising his court, we cannot rule out a latent expression of the Trinity.

6:9–10 Given the spiritual condition of Isaiah’s own generation, the truth would only harden them in their sin. So Isaiah, having faithfully preached God’s message, sealed it up (8:16–18) to wait for another generation that would hear and respond. This passage is frequently quoted or alluded to in the NT (Matt 13:14–15; Mark 4:12; Luke 8:10; John 12:40; Acts 28:26–27; cf. Rom 11:8).

6:11 For how long, Lord? The answer is not encouraging. The only hope for Isaiah’s land was through destruction. Mere superficial deliverance would not cure the wounds (1:5–6); they required cauterization (see note on v. 13).

6:13 laid waste. Destruction is never Yahweh’s intended last word. From one of the burned-out “stumps” would spring up a “holy seed,” a remnant of faithful believers who, cleansed and purified (see 4:3–4), would continue to bear God’s word to the nations through the Messiah who would come through their line.

7:1—39:8 Trust: The Basis of Servanthood. If the nation of unclean lips could have the same experience as the man of unclean lips, then they could bear Yahweh’s message to the nations just as Isaiah did to them. Like Isaiah, they need to truly perceive Yahweh’s holiness, power, and reliability, bringing them to a place where they will trust him rather than humanity’s illusory power and glory. So this major division of the book is united around the question of divine versus human trustworthiness. Chs. 7–12 and 36–39 provide contrasting “bookends”: King Ahaz of Judah refuses to trust Yahweh, but his son, King Hezekiah, does trust Yahweh in a far more serious situation than his father had faced. Chs. 13–35 show why Ahaz’s decision was wrong and provide a basis for Hezekiah’s right decision.

7:1—12:6 Ahaz’s Refusal to Trust. This section has four parts: 7:1—9:7 deals with Ahaz’s bad decision and its immediate implications; the remaining three parts (9:8—10:4; 10:5—11:16; 12:1–6) explore the deeper causes of what was happening and the ultimate solution to the problem. Through it all is an underlying issue: Who is the real king and the nation’s ultimate hope?

7:1—9:7 Signs of the Promise. Yahweh declares his faithfulness to King Ahaz through Isaiah. He demonstrates this with a series of signs. The ultimate sign and proof is the child Immanuel.

7:1–25 The Sign and the Consequences of Its Rejection. Yahweh gave Isaiah a message for Ahaz: Ahaz could trust Yahweh to protect him from his enemies (vv. 1–9). God offered a sign to confirm the promise, but Ahaz, having already determined to trust Assyria (2 Kgs 16:7–9), rejected the sign (Isa 7:10–12). Isaiah gave the sign anyway, indicating that its immediate significance would be that the nation would shortly be all but destroyed (vv. 13–25).

7:1–2 Judah Pressured to Join Coalition Against Assyria. The Assyrian Empire, after about 50 years of relative quiescence, was pushing aggressively southward toward Egypt. The two smaller nations north of Judah—Aram and Israel (see note on v. 1)—were trying to compel Judah to join them in a coalition against Assyria. They threatened to depose Ahaz if he refused (see v. 6).

7:1 Aram. Syria. Israel. The northern kingdom of Israel, also identified as “Ephraim” (see note on v. 2).

7:2 house of David. Probably refers not only to Ahaz, a member of the Davidic dynasty, but also to the entire royal family of that time. Ephraim. The main northern tribe and thus another name for the northern kingdom of Israel.

7:3–9 A Challenge to Trust Yahweh. Ahaz had already made arrangements to send a large sum of money to the Assyrian emperor to attack Aram (i.e., Syria) and Israel, something the emperor was planning to do anyway (2 Kgs 16:7–9).

7:3 Shear-Jashub. See NIV text note. A judgment on Ahaz’s foolish plan (see note on vv. 1–25).

7:4 smoldering stubs of firewood. The two enemy kings have no real power to do anything. son of Remaliah. Contemptuously refers to Pekah, king of Israel (also in vv. 5, 9). He was a usurper, and his father was a nobody.

7:5–9 It does not matter what the two kings might be saying; it is what the Sovereign Lord says that counts. If he says that the threats will come to nothing, that is how it will be.

7:8 sixty-five years. It is not clear what this event refers to. It is probable that the encounter between Isaiah and Ahaz took place in 734 BC. The fall of Samaria (the capital of the northern kingdom of Israel) occurred in 722 BC. Possibly this reference is to the settlement in Israel of the foreign colonists who were, through intermarriage with the remaining Israelites, to become the later Samaritans.

7:9 stand firm . . . stand. Another wordplay; the same word is used for what Ahaz must do and what God would do. Ahaz must be firm in his faith if God would make him firm in the face of the enemy.

7:10–25 The Rejection of the Sign. Since Ahaz already decided to rely on Assyria, he did not welcome any confirmation that such reliance was not only unnecessary but wrong. Although Ahaz tries to cover his unbelief with hypocritical piety, Isaiah sees through it and gives the sign anyway. The sign’s significance is twofold: (1) Its immediate portent is quite negative: the Assyria Ahaz trusted would turn on him and threaten his nation far more seriously than Pekah and Rezin ever could. (2) But there is a positive sense as well, which 9:1–7 (see note) and 11:1–16 (see note) further expand upon.

7:10–17 The Sign of Immanuel. Isaiah offers Ahaz a sign of immense significance (“deepest depths [hell] . . . highest heights [heaven],” v. 11) that will prove God’s saving presence with his people. Ahaz attempts to refuse it, but Isaiah gives it anyway. It is a sign full of mystery, with the portents of near-term judgment and long-term salvation caught up in it.

7:12 put the LORD to the test. Disbelieve his promises (cf. Exod 17:2, 7).

7:14 virgin. Hebrew ʿ almâ, which means “young woman of marriageable age.” In Israelite society a young woman of marriageable age would have been a virgin (as the Septuagint, the pre-Christian Greek translation of the OT, makes plain). Otherwise, she would have been a prostitute. But the Hebrew word is not the technical term meaning “virgin.” Isaiah uses this more ambiguous term because of the double reference of this sign. In its immediate reference the virginity of the mother is not the most significant point. Rather, God is saying that before a child conceived at that time would reach age 12 or 13 (v. 16), the two nations of which Ahaz was so terrified would cease to exist. But in the long term, this sign, higher than heaven and deeper than hell (see note on vv. 10–17), referred to the coming of Jesus Christ, the true Immanuel (Matt 1:23), and the virginity of his mother was vitally important. This is why Isaiah did not use a simple word meaning “woman” or “young woman.” Immanuel. Means “God with us.” The Bible emphasizes the importance of God being “with” his people (e.g., 41:10; Gen 39:2, 23). God would be with his people to defend them from their enemies if they would stand with him in faith. But this is more than a figure of speech. In Jesus it has become a fact: God has become a human being and is with us in every respect except one: he has not committed sin (Heb 4:15).

7:15–17 Before the child conceived by the young woman would become 12 or 13 years old (“reject the wrong,” vv. 15, 16), both Syria and Israel would be “laid waste” by Assyria. But because of Ahaz’s faithlessness, Judah would feel the lash as well (v. 17).

7:15 curds and honey. A figure of speech for rich food. The land would be so depopulated that those who remained would have an abundance of food to eat (see v. 22).

7:18–25 The Coming Assyrian Attack. In his typical fashion (e.g., 5:26–30), Isaiah emphasizes his point with a graphic illustration. He pictures the enemies in their multitudes as “flies” and “bees” (vv. 18–19). He pictures Assyria as a “razor” disgracing the men of Israel by shaving off all their body hair (v. 20). He depicts the depopulation of the land as providing the few who remain with the amounts and kinds of food the nobility would eat (vv. 21–22). But at the same time, with only a handful of people left, the arable land would grow only briers and thorns (vv. 23–25), perhaps a reference to the situation in 701 BC when Sennacherib ravaged the land (36:1).

8:1–22 Isaiah and His Children as Signs. This segment of the larger section (7:1—9:7) continues to focus on the immediate portent of the sign in 7:14. God being with us is not a positive thing if we refuse to trust him. In that case, his presence will become a stumbling block rather than a sanctuary (vv. 14–15).

8:1–10 The Sign of Maher-Shalal-Hash-Baz. On the meaning of the name, see NIV text note. Clearly confirms the negative aspect of the Immanuel sign (see note on 7:10–25). The similarity in language between v. 3 and 7:14 has suggested to some that this child was the immediate fulfillment of that promise. In this case, it is before the child can speak clearly (three years of age?) that Damascus (the capital of Syria) and Samaria (the capital of Israel) would be plundered by the king of Assyria. Damascus fell to Assyria in 732 BC. Verses 5–8 explain this negative aspect further by predicting the attack of the Assyrians on Judah under the leadership of Sennacherib (see 36:1). However, as is common in the book of Isaiah, judgment is not Yahweh’s intended last word, and the passage ends (8:9–10) with the announcement that Assyria herself will be judged (see also 10:5–19).

8:5–8 Because Judah rejected Yahweh’s seemingly gentle promises and instead rejoiced over what the Assyrians were going to do to Syria and Israel, God was going to bring the great Assyrian Empire against them.

8:6 gently flowing waters of Shiloah. A metaphor for God’s promises. Shiloah. The meaning of the name is unclear.

8:7 mighty . . . Euphrates. A metaphor for the king of Assyria.

8:8 reaching up to the neck. Probably refers to Sennacherib’s future attack, which captured the rest of Judah except Jerusalem (chs. 36–37). your land, Immanuel! Suggests that, at the least, this is not ultimately an ordinary child, but one of royal lineage.

8:9–10 God’s presence with his people would prevent the nations from carrying out the total destruction they planned.

8:11–15 Yahweh: Sanctuary or Stumbling Block. These verses continue the thought of the section: if Yahweh is not made the central focus of one’s life, then he becomes an obstruction over which one must constantly fall.

8:11–13 Two different understandings of history: (1) Give God the central place that only the Holy One must have, or (2) explain historical events as the result of human conspiracy, with the constant dread of the unknown that this view engenders. Yahweh counsels Isaiah that if he is going to dread something, it ought to be the Lord Almighty (cf. Matt 10:28). But in the end, the fear of the Lord is not something defiling and demeaning; it is pure (Ps 19:9). It means ordering one’s life around the Holy One’s power, goodness, and reliability.

8:14–15 The same God will be either a sanctuary (“a holy place”) or “a snare,” depending on the place God’s people give him in their lives. For a similar thought, see Ps 18:24–26.

8:14 a stone . . . stumble . . . a rock . . . fall. See Rom 9:32, 33 and notes; 1 Pet 2:7, 8 and notes.

8:16–22 God’s Word or the Occult. Instead of seeking God’s revelation (“testimony” and “instruction,” v. 16) as given to Isaiah and his “disciples” (v. 16), the people turn to “mediums and spiritists” (v. 19), in whom there is “no light” (v. 20). As a result, they “curse their king” and, ironically, “their God” (v. 21). In so doing, they plunge themselves into “utter darkness” (v. 22).

8:17 wait. Hebrew ḥākâ (cf. 30:18; 64:4). put my trust in. Hebrew qāwâ, which the NIV translates in a variety of ways, depending on context: (cf. 25:9 [“trusted in”]; 26:8 [“wait for”]; 33:2 [“long for”]; 40:31 [“hope in”]; 49:23 [“hope in”]; 51:5 [“look to”]; 59:9, 11 [“look for”]; 60:9 [“look to”]; 64:3 [“expect”]). Trusting God involves not rushing ahead of him to solve our problems in our own time, in our own way, and with our own resources, but waiting for him to reveal how he plans to act.

8:18 signs and symbols. Isaiah and his children (which perhaps includes Isaiah’s disciples as well as his physical children Shear-Jashub and Maher-Shalal-Hash-Baz) were the evidence of the truth of all that Yahweh had said. They represented faithfulness to God, and when the exile of the northern tribes and the devastation of Judah by the Assyrians occurred, Isaiah’s words would be fully vindicated.

9:1–7 Light Through the Child. If a child born in Isaiah’s own time immediately fulfilled the sign to Ahaz, this child ultimately fulfills that sign: God promises to be with his people. Children (Shear-Jashub, Maher-Shalal-Hash-Baz, and Immanuel) are important in this entire segment (7:1—9:7) as a way of underlining that a child in God’s hands is more powerful than the powerful nations of this world.

9:1–2 This is another of Isaiah’s powerfully abrupt transitions. Although the people’s refusal to trust God plunged them into darkness (8:22), God is unwilling to leave them there but graciously brings light to them.

9:1 Zebulun . . . Naphtali . . . Galilee. The region in the far north of Israel’s territory, where the Assyrian depredations started. The people there will see the “great light” (v. 2). This is the place where much of the ministry of Jesus, Immanuel, the light of the world, took place (Matt 4:12–17). Way of the Sea. The great highway that ran from the Euphrates River to Egypt, the route of the conquerors.

9:3–5 This describes the results of the light’s coming in terms of deliverance from military oppression. The people “rejoice” (v. 3) because the slavery (“the yoke . . . the bar . . . the rod,” v. 4) that the various oppressors had imposed upon them has been removed and all the military accoutrements of oppression have been destroyed (v. 5).

9:4 Midian’s defeat. Gideon’s victory over a great horde with only a tiny army (10:26; Judg 7:22–25).

9:6 child. Surprisingly, the deliverer is a child. Some believe he is Hezekiah. But apart from dating problems, it is clear that no ordinary human is intended. The child’s names (“Wonderful Counselor, Mighty God, Everlasting Father, Prince of Peace”) were not for any Israelite king, no matter how arrogant. At the same time, this child is somehow a descendant of the human David (v. 7). Yet unlike many of the Davidic kings (especially Ahaz), he would rule “with justice and righteousness” (v. 7; see 16:5). All of these factors present conundrums that are finally satisfactorily resolved only in Jesus Christ, the true Immanuel. Wonderful Counselor, Mighty God, Everlasting Father, Prince of Peace. The combination of these four titles, or throne names, in one person represents the totality of this child’s royal power. Counselor. Just as God needed no other counselor when he created the world (40:12–14) nor any other to give him plans for the nations (14:26–27), so this child is his own counselor. Mighty God. This title, which belongs to Yahweh (10:20–21), also belongs to this child. Everlasting Father. The ideal king who provides for his people and protects them, in this case forever (63:16). Prince of Peace. Unlike the princes in the pagan pantheon who were always the source of trouble and upheaval, this child will be the source of “peace,” a biblical concept that includes much more than mere absence of conflict; it speaks of wholeness and integration with no issues left unresolved (26:3; 32:17; 52:7; 66:12).

9:8—10:4 The Lord’s Anger Against Israel. In four symmetrically constructed stanzas (9:8–12, 13–17, 18–21; 10:1–4), each of which ends with the same refrain, this poem focuses on the real issues that the inhabitants of Israel and Judah should be attending to: not the threat of Assyria but their relation to God and what he expected of them as his covenant partners. They were in mortal danger because they refused a trusting and obedient relationship with God. While the poem addresses specifically the northern kingdom, the issues are perennial ones facing both Judah and Israel.

9:8–12 Pride. As in chs. 2–3 and elsewhere in the book, the most basic human problem is our attempt to usurp God’s place and exalt ourselves over him. Perhaps by this time Damascus and its king, Rezin, have already fallen. Nevertheless, the people of Ephraim and Samaria arrogantly insist that they can survive and prosper in spite of what their enemies might do to them. Israel must come to terms with the anger of Yahweh, not of Assyria. They should be concerned about his threatening fist (“hand . . . upraised,” v. 12). This point is underlined four times in the repeated refrain (vv. 12, 17, 21; 10:4; see 5:25). Although Yahweh’s unfailing love is central to his nature, as Exod 34:6–7 makes clear, (echoed by John in 1 John 4:7–8), he is also righteous, and to presume on that righteousness by living wicked lives is ultimately disastrous (see Exod 34:7; 1 John 5:16; see “Wrath”).

9:13–17 Wicked Leaders. The leaders of the people have not led them to repent or seek the Lord after previous calamities (cf. Amos 4:6–11). Instead, they have “led [them] astray” (v. 16). So God will deprive them of any leaders at all (cf. 3:1–15; Hos 10:3).

9:18–21 Tribal Jealousy. Throughout the history of Israel, there had been a tendency among its leaders to subordinate the concerns of the people of God as a whole to those of the leader’s own tribe (e.g., Judg 8:1; 12:1–6; 20:12–16). That tendency only intensified after the division of Solomon’s kingdom. Under the pressure of Assyrian conquest, it was exacerbated still further. So Ephraim and Manasseh fought each other, and together they fought against Judah instead of uniting to combat the common wickedness facing them.

10:1–4 Social Injustice. In a sense this condition is the culmination of the previous three: because of pride, leaders mislead, civil strife prevails, and justice is perverted. So in many ways this latter element of justice to the poor is the touchstone of covenant faithfulness. If people give God his proper place, leaders will lead rightly, the common good will be more important than one’s own group, and all people will be treated fairly, especially the weak and vulnerable.

10:5—11:16 Redemption Through the Branch. This unit develops the thought of the previous two: the promise of Immanuel (7:1—9:7) and the sovereignty of Yahweh (9:8—10:4). It addresses these in reverse order: Assyria is only a tool in Yahweh’s hand (see 10:5–34 and note), and the Messiah is the ultimate fulfillment of the Immanuel promise (see 11:1–16 and note).

10:5–34 Assyria, the Tool in Yahweh’s Hand. If Israel and Judah would genuinely trust and obey Yahweh, they would have no reason to fear Assyria. This is a radical concept, assuming that the God of the small nation of Judah is actually Lord of the entire earth and that all nations, whether they know it or not, are simply instruments for accomplishing his will. The same point is made with the prediction of Cyrus, the Persian emperor who would free Judah from Babylon (44:28). The God of Judah controls the destinies of Babylon and Persia. The unit contains three segments: vv. 5–19, 20–23, 24–34. The first and third speak of God’s judgment upon his arrogant tool, Assyria, and the second predicts the return of a remnant from the impending exile.

10:5–19 Assyria’s Judgment. Since Assyria is no more than an “ax” or a “saw” in a craftsman’s hand (v. 15), its arrogance is completely unjustified. As in chs. 1 and 6, “trees” symbolize haughtiness and pride (v. 19). But even the mighty “forests” (vv. 18, 19) cannot withstand the “flame” that is Israel’s “Holy One” (v. 17). Another occurrence of “child” (v. 19; 9:6; 11:6–8; cf. 7:3, 14, 16; 8:4, 18) in this part of the book contrasts with pride and power.

10:6 godless nation. Israel is in no place to claim special favors from Yahweh (cf. 1:24; 58:1–2).

10:7–14 Assyria did not consider itself to be Yahweh’s tool; it believed itself to be carrying out its own “purpose” (v. 7), namely, to spoil the nations out of their own lust for power and domination. Looking at what it did to other nations and cities (up to and including Samaria), it expected to do the same things to Jerusalem.

10:10–11 The Assyrians do not understand the fundamental difference between Jerusalem and all the other cities they conquered, including Samaria. Given the ubiquity of “images” and “idols” everywhere else in the ancient world, they assume that Jerusalem has the same things. But that is the irony. The Judahites who remain faithful to God are not worshiping things they made; they worship the one who made both them and the Assyrians, and he will call Assyria to account.

10:12 his work against . . . Jerusalem. Speaks of the judgment that Yahweh was going to bring upon the nation and city through Assyria because of Ahaz’s refusal to lead them to trust Yahweh. pride. The most basic human sin: taking for oneself the place of God.

10:13–14 This poetically expresses the attitude of Assyria and all those who think they are self-sufficient. The world is simply a bird’s nest for the strong to plunder.

10:20–23 A Remnant Will Survive. Since Yahweh (not Assyria) is sending Israel into exile, Yahweh is completely capable of restoring them again if they will only turn back to trust (“rely on,” v. 20) him. The coming “destruction” (v. 23) is his work, and while “only a remnant” (v. 22) will survive (cf. 7:3 and the name of Isaiah’s son, “a remnant will return”), still there will be such a remnant, regardless of Assyria. Ahaz’s reliance on Assyria would result in only defeat and desolation, but reliance on Yahweh would mean that long-term hope would follow near-term judgment.

10:24–34 God to Strike Down Assyria. Given a correct perspective upon the relationship of Yahweh and Assyria, Judah should “not be afraid” (v. 24) even though the northern kingdom fell. If they would trust Yahweh, then Assyria’s depredations of them would be limited (vv. 24–25, 27). Yahweh would not allow Assyria to completely destroy the land but would strike down the Assyrians. This prediction was fulfilled when the Assyrian emperor, Sennacherib, was forced to withdraw from the final siege of Jerusalem because most of his army died in one night (37:36–37).

10:26 rock of Oreb. Recalls Gideon’s victory over the Midianites (9:4; Judg 7:25). Oreb was the enemy leader who was killed at that spot. Gideon did not prevail over Midian any more than Moses parted “the waters . . . in Egypt.” In both cases, it was really the work of God through his agents.

10:28–34 Isaiah again brings his point to a climax with a graphic illustration. He pictures the relentless march of an army moving southward along the central ridge toward Jerusalem. The poet depicts one village after another falling amidst increasing panic. Finally the army reaches Nob, the hill overlooking Jerusalem from the north. Surely there is nothing to prevent the fall of the city. But it is not to be. The Sovereign, Yahweh of Heaven’s Armies (“the Lord, the LORD Almighty,” v. 33; see vv. 16, 23; see also notes on 1:9, 24) will suddenly “cut down” Assyria’s mighty “forest thickets with an ax” (v. 34). The irony is heavy: Yahweh’s arrogant ax, Assyria (v. 15), will itself be cut down with an ax.

11:1–16 The Branch, Deliverer of His People. This unit seems to have two main parts: vv. 1–9 describe the Messiah’s nature (vv. 1–5) and kingdom (vv. 6–9), and vv. 10–16 describe his deliverance of his people.

11:1 A shoot . . . from the stump. The forest of arrogant human evil has been cut down, and here in contrast is a “Branch” coming out of a stump one would think lifeless. Yet this seemingly weak thing is clearly the king of a universal kingdom. Probably this Messianic use of “Branch” accounts for its similar use in Jeremiah (Jer 23:5; 33:15) and Zechariah (Zech 3:8; 6:12). stump. A different Hebrew word than that used in 6:13, but the sense is clearly the same: out of judgment comes hope, and the weakness of God is greater than the strength of humans (cf. 53:2). Jesse. Also in v. 10, may be used in place of David in order to push the promise back further than merely the house of David, which was at that moment corrupt. It implies a future “new David.”

11:2 Isaiah makes a special point of the relationship between the Messiah and the Spirit (see 42:1; 61:1). The Spirit of the LORD. The dynamic presence of God within creation (Gen 1:2), the empowerer (Judg 6:34), and the revealer (Mic 3:8). The Messiah’s qualities (wisdom, understanding, etc.) are divine both in their origins and in their outworking in his life (cf. Luke 2:47). fear of the LORD. Connotes an appropriate understanding of God and of one’s own relationship to him (cf. 8:13; John 4:24).

11:3–5 Verse 3a closes the previous thought and also introduces the following thought (vv. 3b–5), explaining how a ruler who fears God acts. Such a person will not be influenced by appearances (v. 3b) but will treat all persons with dignity and equity. He will not merely make pronouncements as human kings are inclined to do. As the divine Word of God, his speech will have the very weight of eternity behind it (v. 4; cf. Mark 1:27; John 1:1; Rev 19:15). “Righteousness” and “faithfulness” will be as intimate to him as a “sash around his waist” (v. 5; see note on vv. 6–9).

11:6–9 A description of the Messianic kingdom. Some interpreters take these conditions to be literal, describing those that will actually exist in the new heaven and the new earth (65:17–25). This would involve a radical change in the natures of the animals involved. But perhaps this is what Paul envisions when he speaks of the redemption of nature (Rom 8:19–22). Others see the descriptions as more poetic. The point is that of v. 9: where the Messiah rules, where “the knowledge of the LORD” prevails, there will be no place for violence or destruction. Precisely how that is to be realized must be left to the imagination; it will be utterly different from anything citizens of the present fallen creation know. It may now be realized person by person, but one day it will be universal.

11:10–16 The Messiah will make possible the final ingathering of Yahweh’s people. He will be the “banner” (vv. 10, 12; see note on 5:26; see also 49:22) to call them home. They will come from all corners of the earth (vv. 11–12), specifically from Mesopotamia (vv. 15–16). The tribalism of the past (see note on 9:18–21) will be forgotten as they are united against enemies on the west (“Philistia”) and east (“Edom,” “Moab,” and “the Ammonites,” v. 14). As with vv. 8–9, it is a mistake to make the only acceptable interpretation of such a poetic passage as this a literal one. That these predictions will be fulfilled is certain, but how they will be fulfilled will become plain only after the fact. Paul quotes the Septuagint (the pre-Christian Greek translation of the OT) of v. 10 to support his ministry to the Gentiles (Rom 15:12).

11:11 second time. The reference is unclear. Possibly it refers to the return from exile between 539 and ca. 450 BC, with the first being the exodus. But the mention of the Messiah in connection with this return has led some to think that it refers to a return after the incarnation, with the return from Babylonian exile being the first. remnant. An important biblical concept. Although the people as a whole fall into sin and disappear, yet God has a righteous remnant who will keep the faith and who will be purified, not destroyed, by the fires of adversity (v. 16; 10:20–22; 37:31–32; cf. Jer 23:3; Ezek 6:8; Mic 2:12; Zeph 3:12; Zech 8:12; Rom 9:27; 11:5).

11:15 gulf of the Egyptian sea. The specific referent of this phrase is unclear. Euphrates River. The context suggests the Euphrates, but the Greek translation takes the entire verse to refer to Egypt. Whatever the correct reading, the passage says that just as the sea was no barrier to Israel’s deliverance in the past, so no watery barrier can prevent deliverance in the future.

11:16 highway. Like “banner” (see note on 5:26) and “trees” (see notes on 1:29–31; 10:5–19), this is another characteristic term in Isaiah (7:3 [“road”]; 19:23; 33:8; 35:8; 36:2 [“road”]; 40:3; 49:11; 62:10). It speaks of the idea of easy access: God to us (40:3), and us to him and his blessedness (35:8).

12:1–6 Hymns of Deliverance. “In that day” (v. 1; i.e., the time of salvation) introduces both of these two songs of praise (vv. 1–3, 4–6). The appropriate response to God’s saving work is always song (26:1–6; 42:10–12; 49:13; cf. Exod 15:1–21; Rev 5:9–14).

12:1–3 This song includes one of the key themes of chs. 40–55: God’s unmerited grace motivates people to trust him. He satisfies his own anger, and instead of berating his suffering people, he encourages (“comforted”) them (v. 1; see 40:1; 49:13; 52:9). Instead of being the one who condemns, he becomes a “strength” and “defense” (v. 2). Chs. 7–12 begin with a refusal to trust and end with a declaration of trust.

12:1 I will praise you. The prophet speaks for the nation, praising God for his deliverance.

12:4–6 The second song includes one of the key themes of chs. 56–66: to “make known among the nations what [God] has done” (v. 4). God’s saving “name” (v. 4) must be declared “to all the world” (v. 5; see 2:1–5; 27:6; 37:20; 41:17–20; 49:5–6; 52:10; 62:2; 66:18–24).

13:1—35:10 Lessons in Trust. Ahaz, representative of his people, trusted humanity’s glory rather than Yahweh’s faithfulness. So this section shows that Yahweh can be trusted and that trusting humanity is folly. It begins with prophecies against the nations (chs. 13–23), continues with a more general statement of God’s sovereignty in the world (chs. 24–27), moves to a series of woes against those who trust Egypt rather than Yahweh (chs. 28–33), and graphically pictures the contrasting results of the two trusts: a desert or a garden (chs. 34–35).

13:1—23:18 Prophecies Against the Nations. Collections of such prophecies also appear in Jeremiah and Ezekiel, and their placement in each book reflects the particular thought structure of that book. Here they demonstrate the folly of trusting such nations since they are all under judgment from Israel’s God. It is difficult to determine any intentional organization of the prophecies except that they begin and conclude with the great political and military power on the east (Babylon, chs. 13–14) and the commercial power on the west (Tyre, ch. 23). Possibly this inclusio, representing the two gods of human security, suggests that all the nations of the earth are intended. Judah’s inclusion in the collection (22:1–25) shows that even though they were the people of God, he would treat them no differently if they acted like the other nations.

13:1—14:27 Babylon and Briefly Assyria. Although Assyria was the great power of Isaiah’s day, Babylon was always the center of glory and sophistication. That great city was always restive under Assyria’s control and always seeking allies in its effort to shake off that control (39:1). Finally, of course, it would be Babylon, not Assyria, that would bring Judah down. For all of these reasons, it is appropriate that Isaiah should begin his discussion of the folly of trusting all human glory with a treatment of Babylon. That treatment takes three parts: a prophecy against Babylon itself (13:1—14:2), a prophecy against the king of Babylon (14:3–23), and a prophecy against Assyria (14:24–27).

13:1—14:2 A Prophecy Against Babylon. While this prophecy explicitly addresses Babylon, much of the language is universal (especially 13:2–16), suggesting that Babylon represents the world. This is likely since a later prophecy (21:1–10) is more specific concerning historical Babylon.

13:1 Isaiah understands that Babylon, not Assyria, is the ultimate threat to Judah. God inspires him to predict the future.

13:2 banner. See note on 5:26.

13:3 those I prepared for battle. Or “my consecrated ones,” perhaps a reference to the Medes and Persians who would bring Babylon down (see 41:2).

13:4-5 kingdoms . . . nations . . . faraway lands . . . ends of the heavens . . . the whole country. Universal language for the whole earth (see vv. 10–13).

13:6 day of the LORD. Not a 24-hour day but a period of time when God would take direct action (v. 9; cf. Joel 1:15; Amos 5:20; Zeph 1:7; see note on Amos 2:16). Many of the Israelites believed that since they were God’s chosen people, that time would necessarily be one of blessing. The prophets declared that it could just as well be a time of judgment, as here, if a people, including God’s people, were living in disobedience.

13:11 arrogance . . . pride. One of the recurring issues of this part of the book (cf. 2:11): the earth is full of the glory of Yahweh (6:3), not the glory of humanity.

13:16 A picture of total war, as practiced in the ancient world (see Ps 137:8–9; Hos 10:14; Nah 3:10).

13:17—14:2 This seems to speak more specifically of the fall of the city of Babylon and the consequent return of the Jews from exile.

13:17 Medes. A warlike people from the Zagros Mountains east of Babylon. Initially, they teamed up with Babylon to destroy Assyria. But then they turned against Babylon and helped Persia wipe out the Babylonian Empire (note “Darius the Mede,” Dan 5:31). Nevertheless, although the Medes were the instrument, God brought Babylon down.

13:20 She will never be inhabited. A shocking statement about one of the greatest cities of the ancient world. But that is exactly what happened. By the end of the Roman Empire, the city of Babylon was almost forgotten, and by the time of the Muslim conquest, even its location was lost.

13:21–22 jackals . . . owls . . . Hyenas. Unclean animals living in wastelands (cf. 2:20; 34:11–15). In Rev 18:2 impure spirits and unclean birds and animals inhabit fallen Babylon (cf. Zech 5:5–11).

14:1–2 When the Persians conquered Babylon, the Persian emperor Cyrus decreed that any captive people could return home. The Jews accepted the offer and returned to their homeland (Ezra 1:1–5). The language of these two verses is reminiscent of chs. 60–62. This is the first expression of a theme that appears several times in these prophecies: Why trust in these nations when Yahweh will be not only Judah’s hope but ultimately the hope of these nations as well? On the other hand, any of these former oppressor nations that will not join in worship of Yahweh will be ruled over by Israel (v. 2; cf. 60:10–12).

14:3–23 A Prophecy Against the King of Babylon. The passage poetically describes creaturely pride and its inevitable humiliation. It is artfully developed in four stanzas, each from a different perspective: the earth (vv. 3b–8), the underworld (vv. 9–11), heaven (vv. 12–15), and a battlefield (vv. 16–21). Since the Assyrian emperor Sargon, who carried out the exile of the Israelites from Samaria, died on the battlefield, there is some reason to think that he might have been the model for this poetic figure of fallen pride.

14:4-8 relentless aggression . . . break into singing. Earth rejoices over the death of the “oppressor” (vv. 4–7). Even the trees rejoice (v. 8). The Mesopotamian emperors often boasted about all the trees they cut down.

14:9–11 The residents of the underworld sarcastically welcome the dead conqueror. All his accomplishments and “pomp” (v. 11) have come to nothing. All that is left to him is “maggots” and “worms” (v. 11).

14:12–15 Although it has been common in Christian literature to see this passage as a description of the fall of Satan (cf. Luke 10:18; Rev 12:9), the passage itself argues for a continued reference to creaturely pride. However, Satan is a creature, and application of these descriptions to him is not inappropriate.

14:12 fallen from heaven. A Canaanite myth that speaks of one of the lesser gods attempting to sit on Baal’s throne may be the background for this stanza. morning star. The Hebrew is translated “Lucifer” in the Latin Vulgate, which was carried over into many early English translations. Jesus is the true Morning Star (Rev 22:16; cf. Num 24:17; 2 Pet 1:19).

14:13 mount of assembly . . . Mount Zaphon. Canaanite terms for the place of the gods (see NIV text note). But this is not a god. It is a man who, because he “laid low the nations” (v. 12), thinks he can take the place of God (cf. 36:18–20; 37:11–12) in “the heavens.” Instead, like every other human, he will go down to the “realm of the dead” (v. 15; Ps 49:15 suggests that the righteous can be redeemed from this realm).

14:16–21 This arrogant man suffers the ultimate humiliation: he is left unburied (“cast out of [his] tomb”) among the “slain,” abandoned on the battlefield (v. 19). This seems to have happened to the Assyrian monarch Sargon (see note on vv. 3–23).

14:19 rejected branch. A miscarried child. In many ancient cultures, the miscarried fetus did not receive a respectful burial.

14:20–21 The Mesopotamian emperors in their pride imagined that their family line would rule forever. However, it was common for a dynasty to last only two or three generations before some other arrogant ruler wiped it out and took over the throne.

14:22–23 Babylon might exalt itself to the skies, but Yahweh would “sweep her with the broom of destruction” (v. 23; cf. 13:20–22). No human or human institution can stand in defiance of him.

14:24–27 A Prophecy Against Assyria. Having utilized Babylon as a figure for the human pride typified by the various Mesopotamian powers, Isaiah now turns to talk about Assyria, the specific Mesopotamian power that was threatening Judah in Isaiah’s own day, the power that Ahaz trusted to deliver him from Syria and the northern kingdom of Israel. It is not what Assyria may have “planned” or “purposed” (v. 24; see vv. 26–27) but what God has planned and purposed that matters (cf. 19:12; 23:9; 46:11). Assyria might plan to exterminate Judah, but God planned to break Assyrian power in his “land” (v. 25; see 10:26–27; 37:36–37; cf. Ps 2:8–9).

14:28—17:11 Judgments on the Nearer Neighbors. This section includes judgments against Philistia (14:28–32), Moab (15:1—16:14), and Syria and Israel (17:1–11).

14:28–32 A Prophecy Against Philistia. The Philistine cities on the coastal plain west of Judah will be destroyed, but Jerusalem (“Zion,” v. 32) will survive (see note on vv. 1–2).

14:28 year King Ahaz died. 716 or 715 BC.

14:29 rod. Apparently Ahaz, although the Bible does not report him as having achieved any victories over the Philistines. viper. Probably Hezekiah, who achieved such victories (2 Kgs 18:8).

14:31 cloud of smoke . . . from the north. The Assyrian armies. All the Mesopotamian forces came into Canaan from the north, because the desert prevented them from taking a straight route from east to west. Cf. 41:25.

14:32 envoys of that nation. Most likely the Philistines, but the circumstances of the visit are unknown. Perhaps the Assyrians.

15:1—16:14 A Prophecy Against Moab. The Moabites lived east of Judah across the Dead Sea. They were understood to be relatives of Israel through Lot (cf. Gen 19:36–37). The people of Judah apparently had a closer relationship with Moab than did the northern kingdom of Israel (cf. Ruth 1:1). That may be reflected in the prophet’s weeping over Moab’s fate (15:5; 16:9, 11). Here, as with Babylon, a central issue is Moab’s “pride” (16:6) with its associated “wealth” (15:7) and “splendor” (16:14).

15:1–9 Isaiah poetically describes Moab’s fate. He pictures refugees fleeing from the northern cities of Moab (e.g., Ar, Kir, Dibon, Nebo, Medeba, vv. 1–2), dragging their wealth southward away from the invading armies that would be coming south on the highway from Damascus. So they pass through Zoar and Nimrim (vv. 5–6) on their way to the “Ravine of the Poplars” (see v. 7 and note). But the sound of their weeping reaches all the way to the northern cities of Eglaim and Beer Elim (v. 8).

15:7 Ravine of the Poplars. May be the Zered River at the southern end of the Dead Sea; it formed the border between Moab and Edom.

15:9 Dimon. Location unknown; possibly it is a copying error for Dibon or a wordplay (see NIV text note).

16:1–14 This seems to have three segments: (1) vv. 1–5 apparently appeal to Judah for refuge; (2) vv. 6–12 lament over Moab’s pride and its destruction; and (3) vv. 13–14 predict the time of Moab’s destruction.

16:1 Sela. A place in Edom; perhaps the fugitives are seen as having reached that far and are sending gifts to Judah (“Daughter Zion”) with a request for help.

16:2 the Arnon. This river, which feeds into the Dead Sea, historically formed the northern border of Moab. It may have been a route for people to get to Judah.

16:3–4a Moab requests Judah to give them refuge.

16:4b–5 This seems almost like a parenthesis. Perhaps Isaiah intends it to be understood as coming from the mouths of the Moabite envoys. This would be in keeping with other parts of these prophecies, which predict that the other nations will end up worshiping the God of Judah and Israel (18:7; 19:18–25; 23:17–18). The oppression that has driven Moab to call to Judah for help will be brought to an end by someone “from the house of David” who will embody the four qualities most characteristic of Yahweh himself: “love,” “faithfulness,” “justice,” and “righteousness” (cf. 9:6).

16:6–12 A lament (v. 7) over the downfall of Moab caused by their pride.

16:7 Much of the imagery in this passage has to do with vines and grapes. raisin cakes of Kir Hareseth. While the exact significance is unknown, it does fit in with the general imagery.

16:8–10 This extended metaphor pictures Moab as a vine creeping northward to Jazer, located in the territory of Reuben that both Israel and Moab contested. It also reached eastward “toward the desert” (v. 8) and westward to the “sea” (v. 8; i.e., the Dead Sea). But “the rulers of the nations have trampled [it] down” (v. 8) so that there is no “ripened fruit” (v. 9) and no one treading out “wine” in the winepresses (v. 10). The weeping of desolation replaces the “joy” (v. 9) of a good harvest (cf. 5:1–7; 27:3–4).

16:12 high place. The “shrine” of the gods. Moab’s idolatrous religion was “to no avail.” It produced only weariness. Isaiah has an unspoken question: Why place any confidence in a nation doomed to destruction and whose gods cannot help it?

16:13–14 The prophet puts himself on record: “within three years”—as carefully reckoned as an indentured servant counting the days until his release—Moab will no longer be a force to be reckoned with. Their glory (“splendor”) will be of no significance at all. The precise date of Moab’s fall is unknown.

17:1–11 A Prophecy Against Damascus. Although this segment is labeled as a prophecy against Damascus (v. 1), by v. 3 it is also speaking of Ephraim (the northern kingdom of Israel), and vv. 4–11 seem to address the northern kingdom exclusively. Perhaps Syria and Israel receive dual treatment because they were so closely allied in their attempt to depose Ahaz (7:1–2, 5).

17:2 Aroer. In Moab but located on the Kings Highway, which ran from the Gulf of Elath to Damascus, and therefore perhaps was considered a colony of Damascus.

17:3–4 The “glory” of Syria (Aram) and Israel cannot survive.

17:5–6 After the invading armies have had their way, Israel will look like a harvested grain field with only a few heads of grain left on the ground or like a beaten olive tree with only a few olives left on the boughs (cf. 24:13).

17:7–8 A result of the destruction is that some will turn away from idolatry and back to “their Maker . . . the Holy One of Israel.”

17:8 Asherah poles. The Canaanite fertility goddess Asherah seems to have been worshiped in poplar groves (Hos 4:13). See photo. poles. May be a contemptuous reference to these trees, or perhaps poles could be substituted for trees (cf. Deut 16:21).

17:9 The Hebrew is obscure. An alternative rendering, based on the Septuagint (the pre-Christian Greek translation of the OT), reads, “In that day their strong cities will be deserted like the cities of the Hivites and the Amorites were deserted before the Israelites. They will be desolate.”

17:10–11 All of the efforts of Syria (Aram) and Israel to make themselves secure and prosperous will fail because they have “forgotten God” (cf. Hag 1:5–11).

17:12—18:7 A Prophecy Against Cush. The NIV includes 17:12–14 with the preceding verses, and 18:1, mentioning Cush, introduces a new section. However, 18:1 lacks the standard rubric “a prophecy against” (Hebrew maśśā ʾ ), which is found with all the other prophecies against nations in chs. 13–23. Instead, 18:1 uses “woe,” as does 17:12, which addresses “many nations.” Furthermore, there are some similarities between the language and thought of 17:12–14 and 18:1–7. Therefore, while the NIV follows one text indicator in its division, it is also useful to see that the material in 17:12–14 and 18:1–7 has a number of parallels. The point is that though the nations surge about “like the raging sea” (17:12), though they send “envoys” (18:2) from one end of the earth to the other (Cush-Ethiopia), “the LORD” (18:4) will bring all of that to nothing (7:14; 18:5–6). In fact, those envoys will come to “Mount Zion” with gifts for “the LORD Almighty” (18:7). Thus, this unit may summarize the main points of the larger section (chs. 13–23): Why trust hapless nations that will one day bring tribute to your God?

17:12–14 Cf. Ps 2:2–4. The “nations” may “rage” (v. 12), but at the rebuke of God, they fly away like “chaff” (v. 13).

17:14 evening . . . morning. Reminiscent of the deliverance from Sennacherib (37:36–37).

18:1 whirring wings. See NIV text note. It also may refer to the sails on the “papyrus boats” (v. 2) skimming up and down the Nile.

18:2 people. May be the Ethiopians themselves, but more likely some other people to whom the Ethiopian “envoys” are sent. (Ancient Ethiopia was located in modern Sudan.) They are possibly not a specific people but a composite of all the mighty, warlike people of the earth (v. 3).

18:3 The “people of the world” (cf. 17:12) must prepare for a signal, a “banner” (see note on 5:26). The signal will be a call to destruction (18:5–6).

18:4 God is not troubled by the raging of the nations but will “remain quiet” until the moment of “harvest”; he is an irresistible force, like “heat” and “dew.” Cf. Matt 13:24–30; see also Ps 2:1–4.

18:5–6 The tendrils of the vines will be cut off with the bunches of grapes still on them, and they will be left for the birds and animals to feed on. So it will be for the riches that the nations have accumulated.

18:7 The nations that Israel alternatively feared and trusted will come to serve Israel’s God (cf. Ps 68:31). If the nations will do that, why should Israel not do it? Cf. Isa 2:4–5.

19:1—20:6 A Prophecy Against Egypt. This prophecy has two parts: the message itself (ch. 19) and a specific prediction regarding an Egyptian defeat at the hands of the Assyrians (ch. 20; cf. 16:13–14).

19:1–25 The message to Egypt has both: words of judgment (vv. 1–17) and redemption (vv. 18–25).

19:1–17 The word of judgment focuses on three areas, all of which are reasons for Egyptian pride: Egypt’s religion (vv. 1–4), Egypt’s river (vv. 5–10), and Egypt’s wisdom (vv. 11–15).

19:1–4 Egypt, famous for its sophisticated and complex religion, had a god or a goddess for every conceivable force or function. But when Yahweh would come to them, all their idols would be useless, and as was typical of Egypt, their fragile political system would come apart in civil warfare, with each locality rejecting the national gods and turning back to the ancestral gods and practices of the past.

19:1 rides on a swift cloud. Probably boldly appropriates the language of myth (see Pss 68:4; 104:3; cf. Isa 27:1; 51:9–10). Baal was said to be the Rider on the Clouds, and in Egypt the storm-god Seth was often pictured in the same terms. Isaiah is saying that those two gods were only impostors.

19:4 The Assyrians achieved their goal of conquering Egypt for a brief time in the middle of the seventh century BC. After them, the Persians and then the Greeks ruled Egypt.

19:5–10 The Nile was the glory and lifeline of Egypt. The annual floods were quite predictable, washing away the debris of the previous year and depositing a fresh layer of fertile soil for the coming year. The Nile also provided fish for food and resources for various industries. But it is under the complete control of Israel’s God, who can dry it up at will.

19:11–15 Whereas the Mesopotamians were known for their law codes, the Egyptians were known for their wisdom. Their collections of proverbs extend back almost to the invention of writing. But none of those wise men will be able to divine what “the LORD Almighty [Yahweh of Hosts] has planned against Egypt” (v. 12). Their wisdom has its origins only on earth.

19:11 Zoan. Located in the Nile delta, it was the capital of Egypt during Isaiah’s time.

19:14 Cf. 44:25–26.

19:15 head . . . reed. Terminology for leadership (see 9:14–15).

19:16–17 This is transitional: it points back to judgment but forward to Egypt’s looking to Judah and their God. The language is metaphoric. The Egyptians do not dread Judah as much as they dread Judah’s God.

19:18–25 Egypt’s hope is in Judah’s God. Judah certainly should not look to Egypt for help (cf. chs. 28–33) when Egypt will one day be worshiping Yahweh. As with all people, God does not bring judgment with the intent that it is irreversible. Rather, he intends that the look of dread will be replaced with the look of adoration. It is a matter of conjecture as to how many of these predictions will be fulfilled in a literal sense. In one sense they have already been fulfilled in that for the first six centuries after Christ, Egypt was one of the main centers of Christendom. The main point, however, is to remind the Israelites that their God is God of all the world.

19:18 City of the Sun. Heliopolis, the center of worship of the sun-god, Re.

19:19–22 The Egyptians will fully integrate into the worship of Yahweh, experiencing him just as faithful Judahites did.

19:22 plague. The Egyptians would have the same opportunity as the Hebrews did: if Yahweh struck them with a natural disaster, they could turn to him and pray for deliverance This was one of the purposes to which Solomon dedicated the temple (1 Kgs 8:35–40).

19:23–25 This picture of a “highway” (see note on 11:16) extending “from Egypt to Assyria” (v. 23) is a striking statement of Yahweh’s universal lordship. Assyria was the great threat, and after the northern kingdom of Israel fell, Egypt seemed to be the only hope for Judah’s survival, humanly speaking. But Isaiah says that all of that is wrong. The oppressor and the ally will both be partners with the supposed victim in worshiping Israel’s God. Israel’s election was for the salvation of the world (see note on 2:1–5).

20:1–6 God calls Isaiah to symbolize by his own behavior what was going to happen to the Egyptians and all who trusted in them and in the Cushite (Nubian) dynasty ruling them. He was to go “stripped and barefoot” (v. 2) like those whom the “king of Assyria” (v. 4) would take into exile (cf. 2 Chr 28:14–15). At times God required his prophets to act out their messages in order to make the messages more striking (cf. 1 Kgs 18; Jer 13; 19; 27–28; 43; Ezek 3:22—5:17; 12:1–20; 24:15–27).

20:1 The particular incident reflected here is the Assyrian conquest of the Philistine city of Ashdod in 711 BC and the flight of its ruler, Yamani, to Egypt for refuge. As the dash at the end of the verse in the NIV indicates, it seems that God directed Isaiah to perform his action “three years” (v. 3) before the incident took place. When it did, Yahweh gave Isaiah the message recorded in vv. 3–5. It was an entirely appropriate message because when the Assyrian emperor Sargon demanded that Egypt give up Yamani, they did so, sending him all the way to Assyria. Clearly, it was folly to put any trust in Egypt. As throughout chs. 7–39, the challenge is not to put one’s trust in the nations, which will surely fail you and put you to shame, but to trust the Lord.

21:1–17 The three prophecies in this chapter seem to be grouped around the theme of travelers and watchers. Perhaps the thread is the trade route stretching across the desert from Babylon (vv. 1–10) to Edom (i.e., Seir, vv. 11–12) through Arabia (vv. 13–17). The mention of lookouts (vv. 6, 8), watchmen (v. 11), and fugitives (v. 14) suggest that the remnants of the population of Babylon are fleeing west along the trade route after the fall of the city.

21:1–10 A Prophecy Against Babylon. Although this passage does not name Babylon until v. 9, it is still clear that “the Desert by the Sea” (v. 1) refers to Babylon. This prophecy may be more specific than that in ch. 13, where Babylon seems to represent the glory of the world (see note on 13:1—14:2).

21:2 Elam. Persia, which united with Media to bring Babylon down (see note on 13:17).

21:3–4 The thought of Babylon’s fall would have been as shocking to citizens of the ancient Near East as was the fall of Rome to citizens of that empire.

21:5 This might speak of Belshazzar’s feast and the sudden fall of the city.

21:6–9 The shocking news spreads.

21:9 Babylon has fallen. These words are adapted in Rev 14:8; 18:2 to refer to the fall of the evil powers revolting against God at the end of time.

21:10 crushed on the threshing floor. How oppressed peoples sometimes thought of themselves: like grain being crushed under a heavy drag pulled by oxen. To them the news of an evil empire’s fall was good news.

21:11–12 A Prophecy Against Edom. This enigmatic prophecy perhaps relates to the foregoing verses.

21:11 Dumah. May be a wordplay on Edom (see NIV text note); it was also a very important oasis on the route between southern Mesopotamia and Edom.

21:13–17 A Prophecy Against Arabia. This is evidently a plea for help for fugitives, perhaps from Babylon, although that is not specified.

21:13–14 Tema and Dedan were two other important oases (see note on v. 11) in the northwest part of the Arabian desert known as Kedar (see v. 16). The last Babylonian king, Nabonidus, moved his capital to Tema, leaving Belshazzar in charge.

21:16–17 This specifically announces the end of the “splendor” of Kedar (northwestern Arabia) (cf. 16:13–14). This particular devastation occurred under the Assyrians Sargon (722–705 BC) and Sennacherib (705–681 BC) a century and a half before the fall of Babylon.

22:1–25 A Prophecy About Judah. Although the passage does not mention Judah until v. 9, it clearly addresses Judah throughout. This suggests that “the Valley of Vision” (v. 1) is ironic. One does not see anything from a valley, yet the people of Judah claim to see eternal reality clearly. The message has two parts: (1) Judah fails to repent (vv. 1–14), and (2) “Shebna the palace administrator” (v. 15) fails in his office (vv. 16–19), so Eliakim replaces Shebna (vv. 20–25). It is surprising that this series of prophecies against the nations includes Judah. Isaiah seems to be saying that they have all but forfeited their special relationship to Yahweh and are becoming just one more of the world nations.

22:1–14 A Prophecy About Jerusalem. It is not clear what specific events this refers to. Building a “reservoir” (v. 11) seems to point to the time of Hezekiah and Isaiah (2 Kgs 20:20). However, vv. 2–3 might be a predictive reference to the futile flight of Zedekiah and his troops from the Babylonians in 586 BC (2 Kgs 25:4–7). Perhaps a historical event such as the Assyrian attack on Philistia in 711 BC and its subsequent withdrawal provides the basis for the message that Isaiah then supplements with additional images. The point is that the nation experienced a deliverance (after many of the leaders fled), but instead of prompting repentance and renewed trust in God, it resulted in fatalistic partying and “revelry” (vv. 2, 13).

22:2–4 The leaders failed their people in the moment of crisis, fleeing to escape the enemy that was “still far away” (v. 3). But the leaders were captured anyway and without a fight. For Isaiah, this cowardly flight signals the rot that is at the core of the nation, which will lead to its eventual “destruction” (v. 4).

22:5–7 A vision of Jerusalem’s coming destruction.

22:6 Elam . . . Kir. The historical homeland of Persia; probably represents warlike peoples since there is no record of any Persian attack on Jerusalem.

22:8–11 looked . . . to the weapons. This condemns leaders who depended on physical defenses instead of Yahweh, “the One who planned [all these events] long ago” (v. 11). The book of Isaiah is ambivalent toward Hezekiah. It never criticizes him directly, and it holds up his eventual trust as a model in chs. 36–37; but here it criticizes some of the policies that he was heavily involved with that seem to reveal his trust in something other than the Lord (cf. 39:1–8).

22:8 Palace of the Forest. Part of the temple complex Solomon built (1 Kgs 7:2–6).

22:10 Houses abutting the city wall were torn down to provide both access to the wall for the defenders and materials to repair the walls both before and during an attack.

22:13 joy and revelry. Only a temporary cover-up for ultimate despair. The city and nation might have escaped immediately, but these people could not envision any final escape from Assyria’s seemingly irresistible strength. tomorrow we die! Reveals a fatalism that is the opposite of hope and trust. Sorrow over sin and a genuine turning to God could bring renewed hope in his universal power.

22:15–25 Judgment on Shebna. Isaiah graphically illustrates the folly of Judah’s leadership and the destruction it will lead to. Shebna’s main interest was constructing a fine rock-cut tomb for himself.

22:15 palace administrator. Apparently equivalent to prime minister (1 Kgs 4:6; 16:9; 18:3; cf. 2 Kgs 15:5).

22:17–18 While nothing is known of the circumstances of Shebna’s death, Isaiah says that Shebna will not be buried in that tomb, nor even in Judah. Instead of bringing honor to his king, he will bring “disgrace” upon the king through his misplaced priorities.

22:19–25 Eliakim will replace Shebna (see 36:3). Unlike Shebna, Eliakim will be trustworthy, “a father” to the people (v. 21), an “honor” to his family (v. 23), and a “peg” upon which people can depend (v. 23).

22:22 the key to the house of David. May indicate that Eliakim would function as prime minister. The “key” may have been the symbol of his authority. Cf. the expression of Christ’s authority in Rev 3:7 and his conferring authority upon his disciples in Matt 16:19.

22:25 the peg . . . will give way. Eliakim will eventually fail.

23:1–18 A Prophecy Against Tyre. Tyre and Sidon (25 miles [40 kilometers] north of Tyre) were for much of ancient history the principal seaports on the central east coast of the Mediterranean Sea. They were able to control trade up and down that coast and were the primary outlet to the West for Syria and the various peoples of Canaan and Transjordan. In this capacity both cities became wealthy. They tended to trade dominance, with Tyre prevailing more frequently than Sidon. By coming at the end of the sequence of nations in chs. 13–23, Tyre on the west may function as a bookend with Babylon on the east; together they express the heights of human glory (see note on 13:1—23:18).

23:1 Tarshish. See also vv. 6, 10, 14. It was probably located on the Mediterranean coast of Spain. As such it represents the farthest point west that the trade of Tyre might reach (see Jonah 1:3). Its ships, laden with merchandise from the West, land on the island of Cyprus (v. 12) and receive the news that their ultimate port of Tyre is destroyed (cf. v. 14).

23:2–5 The “merchants of Sidon” are “silent” (v. 2) because the lucrative grain trade from Egypt has come to an end. Like a person who is infertile, the sea can produce no “sons” or “daughters” (i.e., trade goods, v. 4). The Egyptians too “will be in anguish” (v. 5), having no outlet for their grain.

23:2 island. As part of the Tyre’s larger port complex, this island off the coast of Tyre formed a citadel to which the people could flee when Tyre’s city proper was attacked (also v. 6). This island resisted all attacks until it finally fell to Alexander the Great in 332 BC.

23:6–9 From Tarshish to the island of Tyre itself, the collapse of such a great commercial power would seem incomprehensible. Who could have planned such a thing (v. 8)? To Isaiah the answer is obvious: it is the Lord, the one who planned the downfall of Assyria (14:24) and Egypt (19:12). The nations of the earth might believe they are the masters of their own destiny, but it is not so. The one who made the earth is the one who determines the destiny of the nations of the earth (cf. 22:11; 40:15, 23–24).

23:9 Yahweh’s plans are directed against every expression, whether individual or national, of “pride” that would elevate its own glory (“splendor”) over that of its Maker.

23:10–14 Isaiah counsels Tarshish to give up its dreams as a seaport and to give itself to agriculture (“till your land,” v. 10) because its trading partner Phoenicia is destroyed (v. 11). For an alternate reading of v. 10, see NIV text note.

23:13 In 710 and 689 BC, the Assyrians devastated Babylon. Although Babylon would recover and go on to repay Assyria in kind, Isaiah’s point is that if even mighty Babylon could not escape destruction, the Phoenicians, with much less military potential, certainly could not do so.

23:15–18 It is difficult to pinpoint when this prediction was fulfilled.

23:15 forgotten for seventy years. No precise period of 70 years is known for Tyre’s being “forgotten.” Possibly the number simply conveys completion. There are several periods from the sixth to the second centuries BC when Tyre was in eclipse. The point is that, as elsewhere in this unit, Judah should not trust Tyre when in the end Tyre will serve Judah’s God.

23:16 Probably a stanza from a well-known song.

24:1—27:13 The Lord: Sovereign Actor in History. Chs. 13–23 might give the impression that the nations are the primary actors on the stage of history and that Yahweh merely reacts to them. These chapters clarify that this is a wrong impression. Yahweh is the sovereign actor on the world’s stage. He is the one in whose hand history unfolds. Chs. 24–27 are sometimes called “The Little Apocalypse” because, like the apocalyptic literature of the second and first centuries BC, they see God as dictating events behind the scenes so as to engineer his triumph at the end of time. But many of the usual characteristic features of apocalyptic literature are missing—including colors, numbers, and fantastic imagery, all of which have coded significance. Furthermore, apocalyptic literature tends to be pessimistic about history, seeing God as having to intervene at the end to redeem it. These chapters do not betray such pessimism; God is at work among his people now. Two themes dominate: city and song. And each develops by means of contrast: (1) the city of earth versus the city of God, and (2) the songs of the ruthless versus the song of salvation. The unit divides into two parts: (1) chs. 24–25 emphasize the destruction of the Earth City and the consequent deliverance of God’s people, and (2) chs. 26–27 focus on the City of God and the impact of that reality on the world’s destiny.

24:1—25:12 The Lord’s Devastation of the Earth. God will judge the earth and will produce a great feast on Mount Zion for all peoples who will recognize his lordship.

24:1–23 The book of Isaiah is notable for its transitions between sections. In some cases it is difficult to decide whether these transitional elements go more closely with the preceding or the following segments. This chapter is one of those. In one way its pronouncements of judgment on the earth as a whole may summarize the preceding series of judgments on particular nations. On the other hand, the recurrence of “song” and “city” and the reference to Mount Zion at the end unite ch. 24 more closely with ch. 25 (and chs. 26–27). In any case this chapter links chs. 13–23 closely to chs. 25–27.

24:1–6 This segment effectively repeats the word “earth.” There is no question of the Lord’s position in relation to the world: he alone is the one who has a right to call it to account. In the midst of this universal language, v. 2 is equally powerful in its particularity. Not only the whole earth but every single human on the earth is liable for judgment.

24:5 It is not only Israel but all people who are in a “covenant” relationship with Yahweh, who has “laws” and “statutes” that are to be obeyed. Isaiah holds that nature reveals enough about God and his plan for human behavior to bring all of us who violate that plan under condemnation (cf. Rom 1:18–32). everlasting covenant. May be that of Noah, with its prohibition of human bloodshed (Gen 9:4–6).

24:7–13 Earth is pictured as a “ruined city” (v. 10). Its “gate” (v. 12) is broken down, and the surrounding fields have been stripped bare (vv. 7–9; cf. 16:9–10). Where once there were drunken songs, now there is only “gloom” (v. 11). The vintage is dried up (v. 7), and all songs are “banished” (v. 11). Earth looks like a picked-over vineyard or olive orchard after harvest is complete (cf. 17:5–6).

24:14–16 Differing reactions to the Lord’s judgment. Verses 14–16a seem to be the song of the righteous in response to the earth’s judgment. The praise is universal: from “west” (v. 14) to “east” (v. 15) and reaching to the “ends of the earth” (v. 16). The God of Israel receives the glory due him (v. 15). But v. 16b gives a contrasting reaction that seems to come from the prophet (“I . . . I . . . I . . . me”). Perhaps this is Isaiah’s typical inability to allow a glorious promise to obscure the dark reality of the present (see notes on 2:6—4:1; 5:1–30). He cannot overlook the “treachery” that characterizes so much of human relations (v. 16).

24:15 islands of the sea. Represent the “ends of the earth” (v. 16).

24:17–23 This poem about the earth’s judgment and Yahweh’s reign perhaps comes the closest to having an apocalyptic flavor (see note on 24:1—27:13). The earth suffers a climactic judgment that is depicted in two ways: (1) vv. 17–18b picture human beings running from “terror” to “pit” to “snare,” with each escape leading to a worse disaster, and (2) vv. 18c–20 picture the earth as a mound of soil upon which a flood is let loose: it is “broken” and “shaken,” falling, “never to rise again.” The final stanza (vv. 21–23) highlights well the theme of chs. 24–27. It is Yahweh who brings this terrific punishment about. As is especially prevalent in chs. 7–39, the people who presume to stand on the same plane as God are brought down. So “the powers in the heavens above and the kings on the earth below” (v. 21) are brought down into “a dungeon” (v. 22).

24:23 The moon . . . the sun. Illustrate the heavenly powers (cf. Jer 4:28; Joel 2:30–31; 3:14–16; Zech 14:6–7; Rev 6:12–16; 8:12). It is not clear whether these images should be taken literally. Perhaps they should be. On the other hand, they may simply be an attempt to represent visually God’s sovereignty over things we think of as permanent. the LORD Almighty. See note on 1:9. The culmination of all things is that he alone will be glorified, reigning over his creation in Jerusalem without a rival (cf. Rev 19:4, 6).

25:1–12 The fortified city and the mountain of God. God is praised not only for his faithfulness and trustworthiness in redemption but also for his judgment. Verses 1–5 are a song of praise for deliverance; vv. 6–9 depict a divine feast prepared for all the world; but vv. 10–12 contain a reminder that God’s blessings are not for those who persist in their pride.

25:1–5 Yahweh is praised for destroying the cities of the ruthless and the strong, silencing their “song” (v. 5). Instead, he has made himself ‘a refuge for the poor [and] . . . the needy” (v. 4).

25:1 faithfulness. Complete reliability, one of the defining characteristics of Yahweh throughout the OT (Pss 36:5; 89:5; 119:90; Lam 3:23; Hos 2:20). The praise given him here because of this characteristic underlines the theme of this entire division of the book (7:1—39:8): divine trustworthiness (see note on 7:1—39:8). See also v. 9.

25:4–5 Compared to the roar of the “storm” and the intensity of the “heat,” some shelters, such as a great rock or a “cloud” may seem unimpressive. But the storm breaks on the rock, and the shadow of a cloud dissipates the heat. So God’s help may not call attention to itself, but it is more effective than whatever opposes it (see 18:4).

25:6–9 A description of God’s great Messianic banquet at the end of time (Matt 8:11; Luke 14:15; 22:16; cf. 1 Chr 12:38–40). It is remarkable for two reasons: (1) It unequivocally promises that Yahweh “will swallow up death forever” (v. 8; cf. Rev 7:17; 21:4). (2) Even more remarkably, he will do this for “all peoples” (vv. 6, 7; see note on vv. 10–12), not just the chosen people of Israel. This is especially poignant in that the ruthless peoples are twice identified as “foreigners” (vv. 2, 5), but clearly God intends to include those persons as well in his great “feast” (v. 6). Cf. 56:1–8; 66:18–24 and notes. This points to the work of Christ, whose resurrection is the crowning evidence that he is the Son of God and can give new life to all who come to him in repentance and faith (Rom 6:1–10).

25:8 his people’s disgrace. The shame that results from a failed trust (cf. Ps 25:2–3). When the Assyrians and then the Babylonians captured first Israel and then Judah, it seemed as though Yahweh had failed his people and that their vaunted trust in him had been worthless; they were shamed (cf. Ezek 36:20). But in the end, God’s people will be able to hold up their heads joyfully, their trust vindicated in every particular (v. 9; cf. 54:4; Ps 27:5–6).

25:10–12 In typical fashion, Isaiah does not allow a promise to be misinterpreted. “All peoples” (mentioned in vv. 6, 7) does not include everyone indiscriminately. Those who continue to defy God in their “pride” and “cleverness” (v. 11) will not feel his hand of deliverance. Instead, he will “bring them down to the ground” (v. 12).

25:11 it. Unclear; perhaps a manure pit (see v. 10).

26:1—27:13 The Lord’s Day. This section reflects on the meaning of the victory portrayed in the previous chapters. “In that day” appears four times (26:1; 27:1, 2, 12). The twin themes continue: “city” (26:1, 5; 27:10) and “song” (26:1; cf. 27:2). The section has five stanzas: a song of thanksgiving (26:1–6), longing for God’s judgments in the world (26:7–15), a lament over the people’s helplessness (26:16–18), Yahweh’s power (26:19—27:1), and God’s passion for his vineyard (27:2–13).

26:1–6 In contrast to the “song of the ruthless” (25:5), this is a “song” about “salvation” (v. 1). God has brought “the lofty city low” (v. 5), and in its place he has erected “a strong city . . . that the righteous . . . may enter” (vv. 1–2; see 54:11–12). As in 25:9, the response to this unmerited favor is a renewed declaration of trust (vv. 3–4). Why trust the arrogant human nations? God has brought them down and the feet of the oppressed walk on them (v. 6). Trust instead in Yahweh, “the Rock eternal” (v. 4).

26:3 perfect peace. Complete wholeness that God can bring into a nation or a person who will trust completely in him. It is not merely absence of conflict, but an integration of all the separate parts. See “Shalom.” minds. Cf. Gen 6:5; 1 Chr 28:9; 29:18.

26:7–15 The righteous person not only praises God for a smooth path to walk on (v. 7) but also prays that God will soon vindicate his people by punishing the wicked (v. 11). As long as God’s grace (v. 10) allows his enemies (v. 11) to continue their oppressive, evil ways, they will not turn from those ways. Isaiah then reflects on what God has done for his people in the past (vv. 12–15). Rulers who oppressed them in the past are “now dead” (v. 14), and Yahweh has gained glory for himself by extending “all the borders of the land” (v. 15). This might reflect the days of the judges (oppressive rulers) and the subsequent kingdom period (extended borders). Yahweh replaced the foreign rulers with the Davidic dynasty. That memory fortifies the righteous person to trust that it can happen again.

26:7–9 A description of the righteous life. Righteousness involves a walk, a pattern of behavior that is shaped by God’s regulations (“laws,” v. 8) for human life. It is behavior that is shaped by continual trust (“wait,” v. 8) in God and a passion for his reputation (“name and renown,” v. 8) in the world. It is characterized by a longing to know God personally (“my soul yearns for you,” v. 9).

26:11 put to shame. See note on 25:8.

26:12–15 Repeatedly referring to God as “you” underlines the point: “all that we have accomplished you have done for us” (v. 12). Neither the people of Israel nor anyone else can save themselves.

26:13 Israel did not always give “honor” to God’s “name alone,” which is made clear by the various prophets’ diatribes against the worship of idols. But there were those who did give God honor in every age, even when many others did not (e.g., Judg 6:25–28; 1 Kgs 19:18; Jer 26:24).

26:16–18 Underlines the thought of vv. 12–15: The people of Israel were helpless to bring “salvation to the earth” (v. 18) or even to themselves. They were like a “pregnant woman” (v. 17) unable to give birth. Cf. 37:3.

26:19—27:1 Three related statements assert God’s grace and power in spite of the helplessness in 26:16–18.

26:19 their bodies. This verse, like 25:7–8, asserts the reality of the resurrection. Yahweh can defeat every enemy, including the final one: death. Although some would say this refers only to the restoration of the people to the land, it is more likely that it refers to personal, bodily resurrection, particularly in light of 25:8 (see note there; cf. Dan 12:2; see “Death and Resurrection”).

26:20–21 Seems to answer the plea in vv. 9–11. Israel should continue waiting (cf. v. 8) in quiet faith (“enter your rooms”), confident in the assurance that God will act to vindicate their faith by bringing about the punishment of “the earth” (as ch. 24 predicted).

27:1 Graphically illustrates the point in 26:19–21 by utilizing the language of the Canaanite myth of origins. Leviathan. A “monster” (Ps 74:13) representing the chaotic watery matter from which people of the ancient Near East thought all things emerged and that threatened to plunge the natural order back into chaos (cf. Job 41; Ps 74:13–17). They believed that one of the gods (usually Baal) defeated Leviathan in primordial time, and they thought that performance of the myth would ensure the continuing effect of that victory in time and space. Scripture nowhere indicates that such a myth was ever normative for Israelite faith. The point here is that Yahweh has all power in the universe and can defeat the moral wickedness that constitutes the true threat to life. (See “Rahab” in 30:7; 51:9–10.)

27:2–13 This song of the Lord’s “vineyard” (v. 2), i.e., Israel, is reminiscent of ch. 5, but it depicts Israel positively rather than negatively. Like the earlier example, this passage begins with a metaphor (vv. 2–6) and then interprets it (vv. 7–13). It concludes chs. 24–27 by asserting that Yahweh is indeed sovereign over history.

27:2–6 Yahweh loves Israel and is determined to protect her. He wishes that there were “briers and thorns” (v. 4; see 5:6; 7:23–25; 9:18; 10:17; 32:13; cf. 33:12) that he might chop them out with his hoe and “set them all on fire” (v. 4). This contrasts with ch. 5, where Yahweh refuses to cultivate the vineyard because of its bitter grapes. Here Yahweh asserts again that the judgments are intended not to be final but to result in purification and new hope.

27:5 Continuing the theme from ch. 25, God’s anger against the oppressors of Israel is not implacable. He is not determined to destroy them. If they will “make peace” with him, they too can find “refuge” in him.

27:6 fill all the world with fruit. Israel’s election is not merely for itself but for the sake of the world (see note on 2:1–5; cf. Eph 3:6; Col 1:26–27).

27:7–13 This explains God’s work with his vineyard. If the people of Israel have suffered, it is not because God wishes to destroy them; in fact, they should not compare themselves to the enemy nations that will be removed from the earth. Rather, God intends to discipline (not destroy) them, to purify (not extinguish) them (vv. 7–9). The enemy nations (“the fortified city,” v. 10) are “desolate” (v. 10); denying their Maker, they receive “no compassion” from him (v. 11). The people of Israel, on the other hand, like kernels of grain that have endured the harsh experience of threshing, will be gathered up from the threshing floors of Assyria and Egypt and brought back to “the holy mountain in Jerusalem” (v. 13; see 24:23; 25:6, 7, 10; cf. 11:9; 65:25).

27:9 This suggests that either the punishment of “exile” (v. 8) or the work of removing “altar stones” and “Asherah poles” (see note on 17:8) will somehow atone for Israel’s sins. Exile is the result of sin, and removing idolatry is the appropriate response to the atonement, indicating that it has truly been received. But atonement is the work of God’s grace, as 52:13—53:12 makes clear (cf. 6:7; Rom 3:25; Heb 2:17).

27:11 a people without understanding. Applies to Israel in 1:3; here the context (the “fortified city,” v. 10) suggests that it applies to the nations. The prophet’s bold assertion is that Yahweh is the “Maker” and “Creator” of the whole world, including all the enemy peoples.

28:1—33:24 Woe to Those Who Will Not Wait. Chs. 13–23 present the particulars of Yahweh’s lordship over the nations; chs. 24–27 express this theme in a more generalized way; and chs. 28–33 return to a particular treatment, looking at the refusal of Ephraim (the northern kingdom of Israel) and Judah to trust God in the face of the Assyrian threat. They look to their human leaders to protect them, accepting their policy of Egyptian alliance instead of looking to their true leader, the divine King. The judgments on this failure to trust are expressed in a series of woe messages (28:1–29; 29:1–14, 15–24; 30:1–33; 31:1—32:20; 33:1–24).

28:1–29 Woe to False Leaders. Beginning to address “Ephraim’s drunkards” (v. 1), the message changes at v. 14 to speak to the “scoffers who rule this people in Jerusalem.” Given that the remainder of the section (chs. 29–33) seems to address Judah and Jerusalem, it is possible that vv. 1–13 are a message spoken to the people of Israel before the fall of Samaria in 722 BC; Isaiah reuses it here to try to make the point with the leaders of Jerusalem after that date: If Samaria could not escape its doom, what makes you think you can escape unless you turn back to trust in Yahweh?

28:1–13 The leaders of Ephraim are “drunkards” (v. 1). Incapable of pointing their people to their true hope in Yahweh (vv. 5–6), they rely on rote commands (v. 10). Consequently, God will have to teach them the truth through people who speak in “strange tongues” (v. 11) and who will also give commands.

28:1–4 “Wreath” (vv. 1, 3) is probably used with a double meaning: it can refer to party attire on the head of a drunken reveler, but the particular language of vv. 1, 4 suggests that it also describes the “city” (v. 1) of Samaria, whose crenellated walls around the top of the hill set in a “fertile valley” (v. 4) looked like a wreath on someone’s head. But the Lord will hurl that wreath “to the ground” (v. 2).

28:5–6 Chs. 28–33 alternate between representing the false leadership of humans and the true leadership of God. It begins here briefly and continues with larger and larger segments. Ephraim’s (and Judah’s) true “wreath” is “the LORD Almighty” (see notes on 1:9, 24). He can inspire both civil and military leaders.

28:5 remnant. See note on 11:11.

28:7–8 The drunkenness described here is probably both metaphoric and literal. Because these leaders are selfishly motivated, they are blind to the truth of God’s revelation (29:9), but they are also prone to the kind of self-indulgence that results in the abuse of alcohol.

28:9–10 Having no real experience or understanding of God, all the leaders can offer the people are prescriptions from the law to be learned by rote. The Hebrew of v. 10 may well be a mockery of the rote repetitions the leaders offer (see NIV text note on v. 10).

28:11–13 Since the people “would not listen” (v. 12) to the words of their true leaders, God would turn them over to the Assyrians, who spoke with “foreign lips” (v. 11). Their rote commands would lead to fall and capture.

28:14–29 Isaiah addresses the leaders of Jerusalem.

28:14 scoffers. One of the strongest words of condemnation in the OT. It speaks of one who knows the right but mocks it (v. 22; see also 5:18–20 and notes; cf. Ps 1:1; Prov 3:34; 21:24).

28:15 covenant with death. Perhaps mockingly refers to an alliance with Egypt (cf. 29:15 and note on 29:15–16; 30:1–2; 31:1). But whatever it is, it will do no good (v. 18). Yahweh will defeat death; Israel can do nothing to defeat it.

28:16–17 The “Sovereign LORD” (see note on 7:5–9) has established fixed standards of measurements that will show the falsity of all human pretenses. His Messiah (“cornerstone”; see Eph 2:20; 1 Pet 2:6) will reveal true “justice” and “righteousness” (cf. 16:5). In contrast to the injustice and oppression of the world, he will show the world how it was intended to be ruled. So “Zion” will be the true city of God, as opposed to the Jerusalem of human construction.

28:20 All human attempts to ensure one’s own security will fail.

28:21 Mount Perazim. Where Yahweh attacked the Philistines (2 Sam 5:20). Gibeon. Where Yahweh used hail against the Amorites (Josh 10:10–12). strange work. Now Israel has become God’s enemy (see 1:24).

28:23–29 A graphic illustration: an uneducated farmer understands the ways of nature according to the “plan” and “wisdom” of the Lord Almighty (v. 29), but Ephraim and Judah, led by drunkards and scoffers, do not understand that they should trust God, not human nations.

28:27 Caraway . . . cumin. Very small seeds that cannot be separated from their husks (as wheat and barley can) by threshing the stalks with a sledge or running over them with “the wheels of a threshing cart” (v. 28). They must be “beaten” with a “rod” or “stick.”

29:1–14 Woe to David’s City. This message is composed of two parts: vv. 1–8 promise judgment and redemption, and vv. 9–14 recall the theme of 28:1–13: an inability to understand what God is saying and the harsh consequences resulting from that failure.

29:1–8 On the one hand, Ariel (see note on v. 1) is going to be “brought low” (v. 4) by God (“I will besiege,” v. 2). On the other hand, all those “nations that fight against Ariel” (v. 7) will be defeated, becoming “like fine dust” (v. 5). Their dreams of conquest will be frustrated (v. 8). This could refer to (1) the attack of Sennacherib when his plan to conquer Jerusalem was frustrated or (2) the larger theme that God, using the nations, brings Israel down and for that very reason can finally defeat those nations and take his people out of their hands (cf. 49:24–26 and note).

29:1 Ariel. Jerusalem, as indicated by the reference to David and its description as the place where the festivals occurred. The exact significance of the name is unknown, though the two most likely are “city of God” and “lion of God.” It sounds like the word translated “altar hearth” (see NIV text note on v. 2).

29:3 towers. Used by besieging forces to fire missiles down into the besieged city.

29:4–5 Yahweh may bring his city down into the “dust,” but he will also make Jerusalem’s enemies “like fine dust.”

29:7–8 The “dreams” belong to both the attackers and the attacked. The attackers’ dreams of destroying the city will be just that: dreams. It will not actually happen. For the attacked, the siege will be like a bad dream that disappears at dawn.

29:9–14 God’s promises of deliverance to those who will trust him are perfectly clear, but the prophets of Judah are just as “drunk” and “blind” (v. 9) as their counterparts in the northern kingdom of Israel (cf. 28:7–8). God’s words are unintelligible to them; they are like children who “cannot read” (v. 12) or even open a scroll (v. 11). Their religion has no personal reality (“their hearts are far from me,” v. 13); it is merely a matter of carrying out human rules (cf. 28:9–10).

29:14 Quoted in part in 1 Cor 1:19.

29:15–24 Woe to Those Who Try to Hide Their Plans From Yahweh. The message has two parts: (1) Isaiah condemns refusing to trust Yahweh and planning to make an alliance with Egypt (vv. 15–16; see 30:1–2; 31:1). (2) But God promises that he will defend his people and that this alliance with Egypt is both unnecessary and futile (vv. 17–24).

29:15–16 Probably those who are urging an alliance with Egypt are trying to keep Isaiah from hearing about these “plans,” knowing he will disapprove. But trying to keep anything from the Lord and his man is like a “pot” telling the “potter” that he does not know what he is doing.

29:17–24 All the elaborate secret plans are unnecessary because God already determined that the Assyrians will not be victorious (cf. 30:31). The “deaf” and “blind” (v. 18) and the “humble” and “needy” (v. 19) will survive to worship “the Holy One of Israel” (v. 19; see note on 1:4), but the powerful and unjust (“ruthless” and “mockers,” v. 20) will be swept away.

29:17 This probably illustrates the reversal between humble and proud that the rest of the segment (vv. 18–24) is forecasting. The lush forest of Lebanon will be reduced to a plowed field, while the former lowly field will become a lush forest.

29:18 hear . . . see. Ordinary people, formerly “deaf” and “blind,” will perceive the truth that the intelligentsia cannot make out (cf. vv. 14, 24).

29:21 See 5:23.

29:22 ashamed. See note on 25:8.

29:23 children. Exiled Israel pictures herself as a widow whose children all died. But God promises that she will have more children than she can imagine (49:17–21; 54:1–8; cf. 47:8–9; 48:18–19).

30:1–33 Woe to the Obstinate Nation. Like the previous message, this divides into one of judgment (vv. 1–18) and salvation (vv. 19–33). The judgment falls because the people trust Egypt (v. 2), not Yahweh (v. 15). The salvation comes because Yahweh is “gracious . . . when you cry for help!” (v. 19). The proportion of the promises of salvation increases through the section (see note on 28:1—33:24).

30:1–18 This message of judgment has two parts: it is futile to trust in Egypt (vv. 1–7) and foolish not to trust the Lord (vv. 8–18).

30:1-2 carry out plans . . . without consulting me. Doing so is dangerous (cf. Gen 16; Josh 9:14; 1 Kgs 22:1–38; Prov 16:1; Jer 10:23; 42:19–22).

30:3 Pharaoh’s protection. Results only in “shame” and “disgrace” (see note on 25:8).

30:6–7 Isaiah graphically pictures a caravan laden with “riches” struggling through the Sinai desert (“Negev”) toward Egypt. Presumably the Assyrian armies closed the direct coast road. But even if the caravan survives all the difficulty, it will be for nothing.

30:7 Rahab the Do-Nothing. In 51:9–10 Rahab is the name given to a dragon (Hebrew tannîn), which Ezekiel particularly associated with Egypt (Ezek 29:3; 32:2). (The name of Rahab the Canaanite prostitute is spelled differently in Hebrew.) This seems to be another version of the tale of the chaos monster (see note on 27:1), but Isaiah says that this monster, Egypt, is really toothless.

30:8–18 The people refuse to trust Yahweh. The “rebellious people” (v. 9) tell the prophets to stop prophesying “what is right” (v. 10), and Isaiah tells them what will happen to them as a result (vv. 8–14). Verses 15–18 contrast what the Lord would like to do for them with what is actually going to happen to them.

30:8 Cf. 8:1; Hab 2:2.

30:9 rebellious people, deceitful children. Cf. 1:2; 65:2.

30:10–11 The people have become scoffers, people who know what is right but reject it (see note on 28:14).

30:11–12 The people demand to hear no more from “the Holy One of Israel” (see note on 1:4), but for that very reason they are going to hear what the Holy One of Israel has to say. Because they preferred coercion to fairness and deceit to truth, they constructed a fragile edifice that cannot stand.

30:13–14 Israel is like a high city wall with an inadequate foundation. Left unrepaired the wall develops cracks into which rainwater flows. The cracks weaken the wall, so that over time bulges appear, and suddenly, with no further warning, the whole wall collapses into pieces no bigger than a potsherd (pottery fragment) that is too small even to be used as a scoop.

30:15–18 Because the people refuse to trust God, preferring to put their trust in horses instead, they will be helpless in the face of the enemy. Since they will not “wait for him” (v. 18), he will have to wait for them to come to their senses.

30:16 horses. The most valuable military instrument of that time. They first pulled light chariots and were devastating in that role. But by this time, people began riding them, and the resulting cavalry detachments were even more fearsome. The Assyrian officer mockingly offers to give Judah horses if they only had people trained to ride them (36:8). Here the horses’ speed would not be used for fighting, but for flight.

30:18 longs. The same Hebrew verb is also translated “wait.” If the people will not wait trustingly for Yahweh to act on their behalf, then he will wait patiently for them to be brought down to the place (cf. v. 19) where they are willing to receive the grace and compassion that he continually extends to them.

30:19–33 Though the coming day may be one of “adversity” (v. 20), it will nevertheless be a day when people clearly hear God’s word (vv. 21–22). As a result, they will throw away old idols (cf. 17:8; 27:9). Furthermore, nature will respond to Israel’s salvation with great abundance (vv. 23–26). In the end, Yahweh will turn on the enemies of his people “like a rushing torrent” (v. 28) and hurl them into the “fire pit” (v. 33) that was prepared for them (v. 27–33).

30:19–22 This sounds like the time between the OT and NT, when teachers similar to Ezra proclaimed the Word (Neh 9:1–3) and idolatry ultimately became a thing of the past.

30:23–33 This uses language typically associated with the end of time; it is more apocalyptic than chs. 24–27 (see note on 24:1—27:13). Verses 23–26 seem to envision when God ultimately redeems nature as a result of finally redeeming humanity (cf. Rom 8:19–21). Destroying the enemy nations is similar to Ezek 38–39; Zech 12:1–9; 14:1–5 (cf. Rev 20:7–10).

30:23–24 In the Prophets, natural disasters were one of the chief judgments God delivered on his sinful people (cf. 5:10; Jer 9:10; Joel 1:11–12; Amos 4:6–9; Hag 2:16–17). So here the abundance of nature is a sign of his renewed blessing.

30:25 streams . . . will flow on every high mountain and . . . hill. Expresses God’s ability to do the impossible (cf. 35:6; see also Ezek 47:1), even redeem a sinful world (cf. John 7:37–39).

30:26 sunlight . . . seven times brighter. Since this would burn up the earth, we should understand this passage figuratively, not literally. God will finally and totally disperse the darkness of sin.

30:27–33 The destruction of the enemies that have threatened God’s plan of salvation for the world, as represented by Assyria, is a cause for worship (vv. 29, 32).

30:27–30 lips . . . tongue . . . voice. Cf. 11:4; Ps 29:1–9; Heb 4:12; Rev 19:15. God’s word accomplishes this destruction. Just as God’s word brought the world into existence (Gen 1), so it will be the instrument of the world’s final judgment.

30:33 Yahweh’s enemies are consigned to the fire (cf. Zech 12:6; Rev 20:9–10; see also Isa 31:9). Topheth. Mentioned frequently in Jeremiah (Jer 7:31–32; 19:6–14). It refers to the place in the Hinnom Valley at the south edge of Jerusalem where children were sacrificed in fire to the god Molek. It may have also been the place where refuse was burned. Here Isaiah uses the term figuratively to describe the total destruction of the Assyrian king and his army.

31:1—32:20 Woe to Those Who Rely on Egypt. Like the previous messages, this contains an opening prophecy of judgment (31:1–3) followed by a prophecy of salvation (31:4—32:20). As is characteristic in this section, the disproportion between the two is further increased over the previous oracles (see note on 28:1—33:24).

31:1–3 A Message of Judgment. This section increasingly brings to life the policy of trust in the “chariots” and “horsemen” of Egypt (v. 1) and explicitly attacks it. Israel has foolishly chosen humanity instead of deity, “flesh” instead of “spirit” (v. 3), and they will perish with their helper.

31:1 seek help from. Yahweh, the transcendent Creator of the universe, has graciously given himself to Israel. Yet Israel would rather rush into an alliance with their former captors than ask what Yahweh, their Savior, would like to do with them and for them (cf. the judgment on King Asa, 2 Chr 16:1–9).

31:4—32:20 A Message of Salvation. The alliance with Egypt is foolish not only because it will fail but also because Yahweh has glorious plans for his people. This message of salvation has four parts: Assyria will fall (31:4–9), the revelation of the true King (32:1–8), a warning against complacency (32:9–15), and the coming of the Spirit (32:16–20).

31:4–9 Much as Isaiah told Ahaz that his attempt to get Assyria to defend him from Israel and Aram (i.e., Syria) was unnecessary because God already had plans to do that for him (7:1–17), so here he tells the people of Judah some 30 years later that they need not depend on Egypt because Yahweh had already decreed Assyria’s defeat.

31:4, 5 LORD Almighty. See notes on 1:9, 24.

31:7 See 17:8; 30:19–33 and notes.

31:8–9 This predicts the decimation of the Assyrian army through a divine “sword,” not human military defeat (37:36; see also 14:25).

32:1–8 This reveals the true king. By implication it severely criticizes Judah’s leadership. Although it does not specifically name Hezekiah (see note on 22:8–11), it implies that judgment extends to the very top of the nation. Judah’s hope is not in any human leader, even if he personally might be a good man (see 38:1—39:8 and note). Judah’s ultimate hope lies in an ideal king and in the human transformation he will bring about.

32:1 righteousness . . . justice. See 11:4; 16:5; 42:1.

32:2 In this kingdom the leaders will see their relationship to their followers as one of responsibility, not privilege.

32:3–4 These leaders will themselves be able to discern truth (“see”) and receive guidance (“hear”) and will thus be able to lead even “the fearful” and “the stammering” into knowing and declaring the truth. This contrasts with the situation that 28:7–13 and 29:9–14 describe.

32:5 fool . . . noble. There is a wordplay between Hebrew nābāl (“senseless, disgraceful”) and nādĭb (“generous, willing, volunteering”). This contrasts foolish and noble leaders. The noble will make “plans” (v. 8) and perform “deeds” (v. 8) that seek the best for others, not for themselves; whereas fools and scoundrels, having exalted “evil” by speaking “error concerning the LORD” (v. 6), do not merely fail in their duties to the needy but actively mistreat them.

32:9–14 This is something of a parenthesis between revealing the king and announcing the Spirit’s coming. These verses represent a typical Isaianic feature: not allowing a promise of the glorious future to obscure present realities (e.g., 5:1–30; 9:8—10:4). Even if a king is promised, that does not relieve the people of the need to confront the terrible situation facing them in the present (cf. Amos 6:6). Repentance and deeds of righteousness should be the order of the day in the face of the desolation before them. Physical desolation was a part of what the Assyrian invasion would bring upon them, but the physical language was also a metaphor for the spiritual desolation that affected the nation (cf. 1:1–9).

32:9–11 The women could say that the condition of the nation was the men’s business while they pressed their husbands to provide them with more and more of the luxury goods that abundant harvests could make available (cf. Amos 4:1; 6:1–6). The prophet says that they cannot avoid their responsibility.

32:10 In little more than a year. Suggests that this judgment was pronounced in 702 BC, before the arrival of Sennacherib’s army the following year.

32:13 thorns and briers. See 7:23–24; see also note on 27:2–6.

32:15–20 The Spirit is poured out (v. 15). The Spirit’s particular fruit is “justice” and “righteousness” (v. 16) The repetition of these terms from v. 1 suggests that this passage connects with the revelation of the king in vv. 1–9 and thus continues the characteristics of the promised kingdom.