The book of Ezekiel highlights Israel’s unrelenting sins of rebellion and idolatry that lead to Yahweh’s unrelenting anger and culminates in the fall of Jerusalem. Sin results in death, and Ezekiel repeatedly portrays the death and destruction that await Israel. Ultimately, death brings lamentation, mourning, and woe; yet out of death restored life will come. In both the death and the life of his people, God will get the glory he desires and deserves.
Author
A dominant autobiographical style suggests that Ezekiel is the author of the book bearing his name. Besides the reference in 1 Chr 24:16 of another Ezekiel (called “Jehezkel”) who existed in an earlier generation, the designation does not occur elsewhere in the Bible. The name in Hebrew means, “may God strengthen” or “God strengthens.” Although his given name is Ezekiel, he is designated as “son of man” 93 times (e.g., 2:1) and as Ezekiel only twice (1:3; 24:24). Ezekiel is Israel’s prophet (2:5; 33:33), watchman (3:17; 33:7), sign (12:6, 11; 24:24, 27), judge (20:4; 22:2), and funeral director (19:1; 27:1–11, 26–36; 28:11; 32:1). He comes from priestly stock (1:3), is a married exile (1:1–3; 3:11, 15; 24:15–24), and is grief-stricken (2:9—3:15).
Date
The biblical record does not often give dates. Ezekiel contains more dates (see “Dates in Ezekiel”) than any other OT prophetic book. Its prophecies can be dated with considerable precision. This is so because modern scholarship, using archaeology (Babylonian annals on cuneiform tablets) and astronomy (accurate dating of eclipses referred to in ancient archives), provides relatively precise modern calendar equivalents. Of the 13 dates mentioned, 12 specify times when Ezekiel received a divine message. The other is the date of the arrival of the messenger who reported Jerusalem’s fall (33:21). Ezekiel’s call came on July 31, 593 BC, and he ministered for 22 years; his last dated message was received on April 26, 571 BC (see 29:17). Ezekiel’s ministry began 7 years before Jerusalem’s 586 BC destruction and continued for 14 years after the city’s fall.
Audience
Ezekiel’s preaching targeted those whom Nebuchadnezzar exiled to Babylon in 597 BC (2 Kgs 24:10–16; Dan 1:1). A few years into their exile, God called Ezekiel, who was among those exiled at that time, to speak to his fellow exiles concerning unfolding events back in Jerusalem (1:1—3:15). The Kebar River locates him and his audience (1:1), but he probably preached and shared the visions from his house (3:24–27; 8:1). Ezekiel and the exilic community (at the Kebar River) were within a close suburb of Nippur, a city that for centuries was a renowned hub of Mesopotamian religion.
In preparation for commencing his ministry, God repeatedly communicated important information about Ezekiel’s audience. The Israelites in exile (2:3; 3:1, 4–5, 7) were rebellious, obstinate, stubborn, and hardened (2:3–8; 3:7). They were like their stiff-necked (stubborn) ancestors who rebelled (2:3; cf. Exod 32:1–12). Ezekiel’s audience, after some 800 years of blatant, stubborn misconduct, was no better: they had not only stiff necks but also stiff hearts (3:8).
Particular Interpretive Challenges
Among the challenges of reading any prophetic book, but especially Ezekiel, is the identification of certain places and figures. Gog and Magog (chs. 38–39) and the new temple (chs. 40–48) are the two examples that most interest readers in this regard. When will these prophecies be fulfilled? And by whom?
Chs. 38–39, along with parts of Isaiah, Daniel, Zechariah, and Revelation, are apocalyptic literature. By nature this type of literature is highly figurative, symbolic, and futuristic (see Introduction to Revelation: Literary Genre [Apocalypse]). When reading these texts, one must keep the larger meaning in mind rather than strive to interpret their details. Reading the book in this way, chs. 38–39 teach that in order for God’s glory to be revealed, he must act decisively and powerfully against all opposition to that goal. The battle that unfolds in the Gog narrative represents such a reality and should be the interpreter’s prime focus. Chs. 38–39 would have encouraged the exiles to know that their enemies would be dealt with by God in the future. Although the starting point of God dealing with his enemies unfolds in the prophecies against the nations (chs. 25–32) and begins in 539 BC with the defeat of Babylon by Persia, the Gog narrative points beyond this time frame to future realities. The battle points to the end of the age, when God will destroy the “Babylon” of this age, along with the beast and the devil (Rev 18–20).
Likewise, the vision of restored worship in a new “temple-city” (chs. 40–48) describes worship in terms familiar to a Judahite, but it does not demand literalism. The worship that unfolds through the rebuilt “temple-city” envisions a relationship with God, one even better than past experiences, and it should be the interpreter’s focus. Chs. 40–48 would have encouraged the exiles to have hope in the character and promises of God for an even better future. The reader should realize that although the starting point for the fulfillment of restored worship is 539 BC (when the exiles began to return to Jerusalem), the vision points beyond this to future realities. The picture of restored worship that unfolds in chs. 40–48 points to the covenantal promises of God realized in Jesus. In Jesus one finds complete restoration. The vision of restored worship points to the age to come, when worship of God will be unhindered, undefiled, and unmediated—the ultimate restoration.
Historical Setting, Purpose, and Occasion
In 593 BC, God’s people were living out the consequences of their failures. Because they chose to turn away from the Lord and not trust in him, Judah experienced a military takeover. The Babylonians had already displaced two waves of Judahites from the promised land to Babylon (605 BC and 597 BC), and they soon would reduce the temple in Jerusalem—the object of Judah’s affection—to rubble when they besieged and destroyed Jerusalem in 586 BC. All of this would lead to many people of Judah living on foreign soil for 70 long years. Their markers of identity as God’s people (the temple and the land) were being stripped away before their very eyes. They seemed separated from God and his promises. Thus, Judah was paying a price for sins and idolatry that could have been avoided. Years later Ezra would look back on the sum of these events and conclude that their guilt had mounted to the heavens; for their sins, Israel’s and Judah’s kings, priests, and people were subjected to the sword, captivity, plundering, and utter humiliation (Ezra 9:6–7).
In the middle of this mess, God raised up Ezekiel not merely to warn that the siege and fall of Jerusalem were inevitable but also to help those in exile interpret these events. Through Ezekiel, God placed a corrective lens on their faulty interpretation of the Babylonian invasions of Jerusalem. The situation back in Jerusalem demanded that the exiles in Babylon be anchored in reality. It was not a time to deny the death of the community (12:27), heed false prophets assuring the community’s preservation (ch. 13), pass blame for their suffering on to others (18:1–4), question Yahweh’s justice (18:25, 29), or hope for the city’s preservation or for the safety of loved ones. It was a time to sigh, groan, and mourn (21:6–7, 12–13; 24:17).
But hardened, disobedient people such as the exiles in Babylon were unable to grasp the gravity and theological realities of their circumstances. They were incapable of mourning because they believed God would rescue them; indeed, they thought he was obliged to rescue them. After all, they were his people, Jerusalem was his holy dwelling, and the land was theirs due to divine promise. They failed to recognize that their suffering was not because God had faltered but because they had faltered. They thought that God would save and shield them even from the consequences of their own rebellion. Death and destruction of this religious community, as Ezekiel predicted, did not fit their theological grid.
For this reason, Ezekiel’s prophetic act of mourning was crucial. By his mourning he prophetically indicated the coming and necessary mourning God’s people would experience. By eating a scroll containing lamentation, mourning, and woe, Ezekiel became what he ate (2:8–10). His posture of mourning immediately expressed this: sitting in stunned silence for a period of seven days (3:15). Many of his actions in chs. 3–24 also showed that he had become a mourner. For example, his sentence to house confinement and a speechlessness that persisted until the city fell could indicate an extended mourning period (3:24—4:17). Various gestures that God had commanded—e.g., cutting hair from his beard and head (5:1), clapping his hands, stomping his feet, and saying “alas” in response to the people’s “detestable practices” (6:11)—further indicate mourning. On two occasions Ezekiel utilized words associated with grief and mourning when asking God to spare Israel further destruction (9:8–10; 11:13). He mourned for Jerusalem’s princes (ch. 19). He mourned for the city of Jerusalem by striking his hands together (21:17). Ezekiel symbolically reenacted Israel’s funeral procession and mourned inwardly when his wife died (24:15–24). He even mourned the downfall of the kings of Tyre and Egypt (27:1—28:19; 32:1–16). In this way, the man became the message and the means by which the exiles were to interpret their circumstances. God’s aim through Ezekiel was for the exiles to lament over their situation before the events of 586 BC. Such an attitude would have led them to acknowledge wrongdoing. But had they adopted such a posture, not even mournful pleas and petitions by Ezekiel could have reversed Yahweh’s decision, one secured by the scroll. Thus, Ezekiel’s actions communicated to the exiles that it was a time to mourn (see 21:6–7, 12–13; 24:17).
Literary Features
The book of Ezekiel follows the pattern of other prophetic books (i.e., Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Zephaniah) in that it contains prophecies of judgment and restoration. Particular to Ezekiel, however, is how the book is patterned after the well-known city lament genre in the ancient Near East. As that genre title indicates, Ezekiel laments for the city of Jerusalem throughout the book (see Historical Setting, Purpose, and Occasion). Important elements of the genre include the themes of death and destruction and the anger of God manifested by his abandonment of the temple because of the people’s sin and guilt. Also included in the city lament genre is the theme of restoration. The imprint of this genre for the entire collection of Ezekiel’s prophecies, dated over a period of years, is illustrated in how the mourning theme unfolds in the book.
Chs. 1–24 (see Outline: A Time to Mourn: Prophecies Against Israel) begin with the scroll incident (2:8—3:3) and end with the death of Ezekiel’s wife (24:15–18). The section starts with a prediction of the city’s siege (4:1–17) and closes with a prediction of its fall (24:20–27). Responsibility for Jerusalem’s fall is assigned to God’s people. Ezekiel’s repeated use of terms for guilt and abominations, the repeated “because . . . therefore” indictment pattern (e.g., 5:9–12), and the recollection and description of Israelite history unpack Israel’s guilt. This explains the book’s numerous demonstrations of God’s seemingly unrestrained anger that leads to divine abandonment (God physically leaves the temple in ch. 10). Accordingly, Yahweh will destroy the city. Yahweh himself will call for his agents of destruction, the Babylonians, who through the sword will destroy Jerusalem in 586 BC. These chapters repeatedly show how Yahweh, together with his authorized agents, will bring wide-scale destruction and devastation to Jerusalem.
The finale to this fate is the death of Ezekiel’s own wife (24:15–27). Her death was an immediate sign of the city’s fall. However, embedded in this tragedy was another sign. The command to put on festive garments at a time of grief indicated that mourning would come to an end. The death of Ezekiel’s wife and the associated symbolism of wearing festive garments at an unexpected time created anticipation among the exiles (24:19). Once the city fell, there would be no reason to mourn because God would have dealt with the problem; his anger would be spent. Putting on festive garments, therefore, would be a sign to anticipate a hopeful future.
In chs. 25–32 (see Outline: Signs Mourning Will End: Prophecies Against the Nations), the prophecies of Yahweh’s punishment of Israel’s neighbors are other signs that mourning would end. The prophecies against these cities and nations (those who made Israel’s grief worse) provide Israel with necessary comfort and represent a necessary first step in Israel’s forthcoming restoration. When Israel’s oppressors received their punishment, Israel would be comforted. The mourning period would cease when comfort came, giving way to restoration.
In chs. 33–48 (see Outline: A Time to Rejoice: Words of Restoration and Hope), the sequence of events moves from death to life. When the fugitive brought word that Jerusalem had fallen (33:21–22), mourning would officially end and restoration would be possible. This is so because Yahweh would have a change of heart. He would provide new and faithful leadership (ch. 34), cleansing Israel and giving life (chs. 36–37), cleansing the land from the enemy both near and far (chs. 35; 38–39), rebuilding his sanctuary, and dwelling once again in a new temple-city where his seat of sovereignty would be firmly established (chs. 40–48). Ezek 48:35 best summarizes this permanent and ideal condition: “And the name of the city from that time on will be: THE LORD IS THERE.” The name of the city reflects the fullness of the restoration due to Yahweh’s presence. Accordingly, Yahweh will be exalted as sovereign over all the earth (37:28). Thus, it is a time to rejoice; out of death comes restored life.
Theological Significance
The driving force behind the city’s fall and rise is Yahweh’s desire and intention to be known and acknowledged as sovereign over all. Approximately 65 occurrences or variations of the clause “they will know that I am the LORD” (e.g., 6:10, 13, 14) testify to this divine desire and intention. In fact, the phrase punctuates the vast majority of Ezekiel’s prophecies. Yahweh’s desire is to vindicate his glory and character, the holiness of his name, as he interacts with people.
The book reveals that both internal and external challenges threaten this purpose. With respect to the internal threat, God’s own people are guilty of idolatry: “you continue to defile yourselves with all your idols to this day” (20:31) and “I had concern for my holy name, which the people of Israel profaned among the nations where they had gone” (36:21). More than any other prophet, Ezekiel helps us understand how idolatry arouses God to anger. Idolatry diminishes the glory that is Yahweh’s due. God is utterly opposed to sharing his glory with idols (Isa 48:11). To ignore this is to bring judgment: “When I have spent my wrath on them, they will know that I the LORD have spoken in my zeal” (5:13). This divine word formula, coupled with his merciless gaze (“I will not look on you with pity” [5:11; 7:9]), is lethal for Israel.
The outpouring of Yahweh’s fury on Israel requires divine abandonment, God turning his face away in judgment (39:24). The results are death and destruction through exile, the promised covenantal curses. This judgment, however, is, ironically, accompanied by deeper knowledge of God: “then you will know that it is I the LORD who strikes you” (7:9c) and “they will know that I am the LORD, when their people lie slain among their idols” (6:13).
But once Yahweh’s wrath is poured out, once justice is served through the exile, God’s anger subsides (24:13). This produces another divine confrontation: as part of the restoration, divine compassion (39:25) confronts Israel’s uncleanness acquired from idolatry (24:13). Ezekiel promises that God will “save” Israel from her uncleanness by performing heart surgery (36:25–26), a supernatural act requiring no human assistance. In so doing hardened hearts become pliable—a heart surgery that with God’s Spirit enables a spiritually transformed life. This transformation entails keeping God’s law, enjoying the promises of God (the land as an inheritance), and a renewed relationship with him forever. Indeed, Ezekiel uses resurrection language (the return from exile) to describe this transformation from death to life. This act too, Ezekiel says, is driven out of concern for Yahweh’s own reputation: “It is not for your sake, people of Israel, that I am going to do these things, but for the sake of my holy name, which you have profaned . . . I will show the holiness of my great name . . . Then the nations will know that I am the LORD . . . I will gather you from all the countries and bring you back into your own land . . . I will cleanse you . . . from all your idols” (36:22–25). Thus, through a divine confrontation of compassion, God cleanses his people and resolves the internal threat.
There is also an external threat to God’s desire and intention to be known and acknowledged as sovereign, namely, the surrounding nations. God must confront all of Israel’s enemies. He must make a public spectacle of them because of their gross misunderstanding of his character (chs. 25–32; 38–39). Israel’s idolatry, which led to exile, mars God’s reputation among the nations; i.e., negative and false views about Yahweh exist as long as Israel remains in exile. The nations view Yahweh as impotent. But as outside observers, the nations are not aware of the human causation (idolatry) that led to the exile. In this way, idolatry robs God of the glory due his name. Hence God invites a battle on his land in Israel and defeats the enemy (39:21–24). Thus, through another divine confrontation of judgment God guarantees that his power and uniqueness will never again be questioned; he proves his holiness among the nations.
From a biblical-theological point of view, Ezekiel points forward to the bigger picture of redemptive history. The driving force behind humankind’s fall and restoration is God’s desire to be known and acknowledged as sovereign over all. Humankind’s idolatry and guilt continued to pose an internal threat to God’s purposes of achieving glory. As Paul says, “All have sinned and fall short of the glory of God” (Rom 3:23). In this condition people lack the ability to live holy lives and to demonstrate God’s holy character to the world. People rob God of his glory, reputation, and character. This angers God, resulting in divine judgment, for only divine intervention can put a stop to this ongoing problem. The cross ultimately confronts this internal threat: God intervenes and pours out his wrath on Jesus rather than on us. Jesus experienced divine abandonment from the Father, the ultimate covenantal curse.
The cross also confronts our uncleanness. Jesus’ blood cleanses us from all sin and unrighteousness (1 John 1:9); in so doing he saves us by performing heart surgery, fills us with the new life of his Spirit, who empowers us for holy living to enjoy his promises forever in a renewed relationship. Indeed the resurrection enables the supernatural transformation from death to life. This saving act of cleansing and restoration requires no human assistance. For it is “in Christ” that we are holy and blameless before God (Rom 8:1; 1 Cor 1:30). As a direct result of this act, God receives all the glory, “to the praise of his glorious grace” (Eph 1:6).
The cross and resurrection confront the external threat to God’s desire to be known and acknowledged as sovereign over all. Jesus triumphs over the devil and the powers of darkness, humiliating the enemy and revealing God’s holiness and sovereign power over sin and death (Col 2:13–15). This decisive victory ensures his glory for all time, something that he will fully secure at the end of the age.
Ultimately, Ezekiel points us to the consummation of God’s kingdom (see “The Consummation”). Judgment and restoration of the city in Ezekiel prepare us for the restored city that culminates in Revelation (see “The City of God”). John sees “the Holy City, the new Jerusalem, coming down out of heaven from God” (Rev 21:2). The new Jerusalem is the true spiritual center of God’s eternal kingdom (Rev 21:1–3). In the new Jerusalem, mourning has turned to joy and death becomes life (Rev 21:4). The new Jerusalem is the seat of Yahweh’s sovereignty, which is no longer challenged but stands forever. Idolatry is no longer a threat. The new Jerusalem is holy and pure (Rev 22:3–5). Through the praise and adoration of those present, Yahweh will receive continual glory and honor. The new Jerusalem is the seat of the divine presence (Rev 21:3–4, 22). Yahweh has provided a way for our mourning to turn to joy. Is it any wonder that the heavenly anthem that resounds in Revelation is all about proclaiming God’s glory? The four living creatures, the 24 elders, myriads of angels, and people from every tongue and language are around the throne of God, his seat of sovereignty over the universe, giving him unending praise and adoration (Rev 4:8–11). Thus, in this respect, Ezekiel anticipates the cross, the resurrection, and the consummation of God’s kingdom, when at long last God’s desire to be known and acknowledged will be fulfilled (Phil 2:9–11).
Outline
I. A Time to Mourn: Prophecies Against Israel (1:1—24:27)
A. Ezekiel’s First and Formative Vision (1:1—3:27)
1. Ezekiel Experiences God’s Presence in Babylon (1:1–28)
2. Ezekiel’s Call as Prophet and Mourner (2:1—3:15)
3. Ezekiel’s Call as Watchman (3:16–21)
4. Ezekiel’s Confinement and Speechlessness (3:22–27)
B. Visual Aids of Jerusalem’s Upcoming Siege (4:1—5:17)
1. Ezekiel’s Drawing, Posture, and Dietary Restrictions (4:1–17)
2. Shaving as a Sign of Humiliation and Mourning (5:1–17)
C. Descriptions of Upcoming Total Destruction (6:1—7:27)
1. Doom for the Mountains of Israel (6:1–14)
2. The End for the Entire Land (7:1–27)
D. The Temple Vision (8:1—11:25)
1. Tour of Temple Violations (8:1–18)
2. Temple Owner’s Response (9:1–11)
3. God’s Presence Departs the Temple (10:1–22)
4. God’s Certain Judgment on Jerusalem (11:1–13)
5. Those in Exile to Be Restored (11:14–21)
6. Conclusion of Temple Vision (11:22–25)
E. Ezekiel Symbolizes the Exile of Jerusalem (12:1–28)
1. Packed and Ready to Go (12:1–16)
2. Unfavorable Outcomes (12:17–28)
F. False Prophets and Idolatry (13:1—14:23)
1. Condemnation of False Prophets (13:1–23)
2. Condemnation for Consulting Prophets (14:1–11)
3. Inescapable Judgment (14:12–23)
G. Three Allegories (15:1—17:24)
1. Jerusalem a Useless Vine (15:1–8)
2. Jerusalem an Adulterous Wife (16:1–63)
3. Two Eagles and a Vine (17:1–24)
H. Individual Responsibility (18:1–32)
1. The One Who Sins Will Die (18:1–18)
2. Objections to God’s Justice (18:19–32)
I. Lamenting Leadership (19:1–14)
1. Lament Over Jerusalem’s Kings: A Lament for the Lion (19:1–9)
2. Lament Over David’s Dynasty: A Lament for the Vine (19:10–14)
J. History of Idolatry (20:1–44)
1. Cycles of Rebellion (20:1–32)
a. Guilty in Egypt (20:1–12)
b. Guilty in the Wilderness (20:13–26)
c. Guilty in Canaan and Exile (20:27–32)
2. A Shocking Exodus (20:33–38)
3. Holy on My Holy Mountain (20:39–44)
K. The Lord’s Sword of Destruction (20:45—21:32)
1. Forest Fire Parable and Interpretation (20:45—21:7)
2. God’s Sharpened and Polished Sword (21:8–17)
3. The King of Babylon’s Sword (21:18–27)
4. The Sword Wielded Against Ammon (21:28–29)
5. The Lord’s Sword Returned to Its Sheath (21:30–32)
L. History of Bloodshed (22:1–31)
1. Indictment of the City (22:1–16)
2. The Furnace of God’s Fury (22:17–22)
3. Corruption Across Classes (22:23–31)
M. Story of Two Depraved Sisters (23:1–49)
1. Samaria: Oholah’s Story (23:1–10)
2. Jerusalem: Oholibah’s Story (23:11–21)
3. The End of the Story for Oholibah (23:22–35)
4. The End of the Story for Both Sisters (23:36–49)
N. Jerusalem’s Siege and the Fall Vividly Predicted (24:1–27)
1. City Under Siege: Jerusalem Cooked Over the Fire (24:1–14)
2. Ezekiel’s Wife Dies (24:15–27)
II. Signs Mourning Will End: Prophecies Against the Nations (25:1—32:32)
A. Prophecy Against Ammon (25:1–7)
B. Prophecy Against Moab (25:8–11)
C. Prophecy Against Edom (25:12–14)
D. Prophecy Against Philistia (25:15–17)
E. Prophecy Against Tyre and Sidon (26:1—28:26)
1. Tyre’s Destruction Announced (26:1–21)
2. Lament Over Tyre the Ship (27:1–36)
3. Lament Over Tyre’s King (28:1–19)
4. Prophecy Against Sidon (28:20–24)
5. Israel’s Restoration (28:25–26)
F. Prophecy Against Egypt (29:1—32:32)
1. Egypt a Doomed Monster (29:1–16)
2. Egypt a Payment to Nebuchadnezzar (29:17–21)
3. The Day of the Lord for Egypt and Her Allies (30:1–19)
4. Pharaoh’s Arms Broken (30:20–26)
5. Pharaoh a Fallen Tree (31:1–18)
6. Lament Over Pharaoh (32:1–16)
7. Egypt’s Descent to the Realm of the Dead (32:17–32)
III. A Time to Rejoice: Words of Restoration and Hope (33:1—48:35)
A. Renewed Responsibilities (33:1–20)
B. Jerusalem’s Fall Reported: Ezekiel’s Speech Returns (33:21–33)
C. Restoration of Righteous Leadership (34:1–31)
D. The Mountains of Edom and Israel (35:1—36:15)
1. Desolation for Mount Seir (35:1–15)
2. Restoration for the Mountains of Israel (36:1–15)
E. Restoration Assured (36:16–38)
F. Restoration of People (37:1–14)
G. Restoration of Unity (37:15–28)
H. Restoration Permanent: Enemies Abroad Destroyed (38:1—39:29)
I. Restoration of Worship in the New Spiritual Center (40:1—48:35)
1. Restoration of the Temple Area, Temple, Presence of God, and Altar (40:1—43:27)
2. Restoration of Restricted Access for People and Priests (44:1–31)
3. Restoration of Social Justice, Worship Calendar, and Procedures (45:1—46:24)
4. Restoration of Land: Living Water (47:1–12)
5. Restoration of Land Boundaries (47:13–23)
6. Restoration of Tribal Allotments (48:1–29)
7. Restoration of God’s Sovereign Name (48:30–35)
