31:1–18 Pharaoh a Fallen Tree. This is the fifth of seven prophecies against Egypt, dated to early summer 587 BC. Rhetorical questions to Pharaoh frame the passage (vv. 2b, 18). An allegory provides the answer: Assyria was once a great cedar in Lebanon (vv. 3, 10, 17), but it was cut down because it was proud (vv. 10–12). It will be buried and mourned in “the realm of the dead” (v. 17). For trees symbolizing nations, see chs. 17; 19; Dan 4.

31:1 eleventh year . . . third month . . . first day. June 21, 587 BC.

31:3 Consider Assyria. Compares Egypt to Assyria, a beautiful cedar, another allegory (see ch. 17). As the cedar was well-known for its glory and majesty in the forest of Lebanon (Isa 35:2), so too Assyria’s glory and majesty was well-known among the nations. But Assyria was proud, forgetting that God was responsible for her creation and beauty (vv. 8–9; cf. Isa 10:15–19).

31:10 because it was proud of its height. Assyria’s pride caused God to hand that “great cedar” over to the Babylonians, “the most ruthless of foreign nations” (v. 12).

31:12 cut it down. Refers to the defeat of Assyria by Babylon in 612–605 BC.

31:15 the realm of the dead. The OT likeness of hell (also vv. 14, 16), a destiny of death. As Assyria was brought down (see v. 10 and note), so too will Egypt be “brought down” (v. 18).

31:16 the pit. The realm of the dead (see note on v. 15). all the trees of Eden . . . were consoled. Because the mightiest of trees had joined them in the realm of the dead.

31:18 Which of the trees of Eden can be compared with you . . . ? A repeated rhetorical question that frames the passage (cf. v. 2). you, too, will be brought down. As Egypt’s “splendor and majesty” (her arrogant pride) are compared to Assyria’s (and to any of Eden’s trees), so too Egypt’s fate will be like Assyria’s. uncircumcised. Those outside God’s community.

32:1–16 Lament Over Pharaoh. The sixth of seven prophecies against Egypt, dated to spring 585 BC. This highlights Ezekiel’s mourning role once again (see note on 3:1, 3) with the command to write a lament for Pharaoh king of Egypt (v. 2; cf. 28:11). The sea monster metaphor that describes Pharaoh and his end in 29:1–6 is developed more fully here. God will “catch” the sea monster with a net and bring it to its death on land (vv. 3–4). Pharaoh’s death will cause national mourning (v. 9); the sword of Babylon will devastate Egypt (v. 10).

32:1 twelfth year . . . twelfth month . . . first day. Mar. 3, 585 BC.

32:2 lion . . . monster. Two images for Pharaoh. Only descriptions of large animals could fit Pharaoh’s larger-than-life view of himself, Egypt, and its influence. The size of these animals is the point. The description here favors the sea-dwelling monster, perhaps the crocodile (29:3; Job 41).

32:3 cast my net. The “crocodile,” or monster (see note on v. 2), gets caught by God’s net and is left to die on land (cf. 12:13; 17:20; 19:8).

32:4 I will throw . . . and hurl you . . . let all the birds . . . settle on you. God’s violent action against the monster (see 29:3–5).

32:6 drench the land with your flowing blood. Language describing violent death.

32:7–8 The description is cataclysmic: a blood-soaked land covered with darkness. This is the day of the Lord for Pharaoh (see 30:3, 18 and note on 30:1–19; cf. Joel 2:2, 10, 31; Amos 5:18).

32:9 trouble the hearts. Describes how people feel about the monster’s death (see note on 32:2). As with Tyre (26:16–18; 27:35; 28:19), so with Egypt. Fear prevails as onlookers are horrified by the destruction Babylon will bring to Egypt and possibly to them.

32:11–15 The sword metaphor replaces the monster metaphor (see note on 32:2). The agent of destruction is the king of Babylon (cf. 29:8–9; 30:4, 11, 17, 20–26; 31:17–18; see also 21:3–5 and note on 21:3). The purpose of the sword is to shatter Pharaoh’s pride.

32:14 streams flow like oil. Their surface undisturbed by any form of life, the result after God finishes with Egypt.

32:15 strip the land of everything. A nakedness that leaves the land free of humans and animals.

32:16 daughters of the nations will chant. The end of Egypt, a military superpower, will be such that women worldwide will sing the lament song that Ezekiel writes.

32:17–32 Egypt’s Descent to the Realm of the Dead. The last of seven prophecies against Egypt, dated between spring 586 and spring 585 BC (see note on v. 17). As with Pharaoh in vv. 1–16, Ezekiel is now commanded to wail again, but this time for “the hordes of Egypt” (v. 18). This envisions the slain armies of nations that rejected God laid to rest in the pit. The list begins with Assyria (v. 22; cf. 31:16) and ends with Egypt (v. 31).

32:17 twelfth year . . . fifteenth day. The month is missing; therefore, this prophecy is dated between Apr. 13, 586, and Apr. 1, 585 BC.

32:21 within the realm of the dead. A welcoming committee awaits Egypt and her allies, assuring their arrival at the right place. This is not surprising given 26:20, which anticipated the occupancy of the pit.

32:22–30 Egypt’s destiny is shared (“surrounded by the graves of all her slain,” v. 22). The name of the deceased, previously deceased family members, cause of death (“killed by the sword,” v. 21), and specific burial places within the pit are mentioned.

32:22 Assyria. In northern Mesopotamia along the Tigris River (modern-day Iraq).

32:24 Elam. In the plains of Susa, lowlands of southern Mesopotamia (modern-day Iran).

32:26 Meshek and Tubal. Peoples and territories in Asia Minor (27:13; 38:2).

32:29 Edom. Southernmost region of Transjordan (modern-day Jordan).

32:30 Sidonians. Sidon was a coastal Phoenician city-state (modern-day Lebanon).

32:31–32 The entire collection of prophecies against the nations (chs. 25–32) climaxes with the death, mourning, and burial of Egypt, Israel’s archenemy.

33:1—48:35 A Time to Rejoice: Words of Restoration and Hope. After judgment against Israel (chs. 1–24) and the nations (chs. 25–32), a drastic transition occurs: the prophet offers mostly words of hope (chs. 33–48). In this section ch. 33 is key because Ezekiel gets word that the city has fallen (v. 21). This news provides a preface to the theme of restoration that follows in chs. 34–48, emphasizing that life will come out of death. See Introduction: Literary Features.

33:1–20 Renewed Responsibilities. Given that Ezekiel’s message shifts from death to life, his watchman role is renewed (see 3:16–21 and note).

33:3 sees the sword . . . blows the trumpet. The watchman must act and warn of danger. sword. See ch. 21 and notes.

33:4 if anyone hears the trumpet. The people are responsible to attend to the watchman’s warnings.

33:7–9 Parallels 3:17–19.

33:10 Our offenses and sins weigh us down . . . How then can we live? The Israelites recognize their sin and humbly acknowledge its consequences. For the first time in the book, they take ownership of their problem instead of blaming their ancestors (18:2) or God (18:19, 25).

33:11 As surely as I live. God’s sworn statement backing his word (see 5:11 and note). Turn! Turn from your evil ways! God’s answer to the question of v. 10. This is a possibility because God delights in life, not death (14:6; 18:23, 30).

33:12–20 Cf. 18:19–32 and notes.

33:17 The way of the Lord is not just. See note on 18:25. They are still skeptical about God’s ways, even after God’s statement in vv. 11–16. This contrasts their human ideas of justice with God’s.

33:21–33 Jerusalem’s Fall Reported: Ezekiel’s Speech Returns. From a chronological perspective, the reader does not expect to hear the news of Jerusalem’s fall and the return of Ezekiel’s speech after the literary interruption of the prophecies against the nations (chs. 25–32). The reader expects this news to immediately follow the death of Ezekiel’s wife (24:15–27). The news of Jerusalem’s fall marks a new phase for the remnant (see notes on 24:23, 26), a transition from mourning to joy. Joy and restoration could not be realized until Israel’s enemies were destroyed (chs. 25–32). The fact that Yahweh breaks Ezekiel’s “mourning silence” with the news he hears of the city’s end signals that the time to mourn has passed. See Introduction: Literary Features.

33:21 twelfth year . . . tenth month . . . fifth day. Jan. 8, 585 BC, five months after the temple was burned. The city has fallen! A fulfillment of 24:20–21, which indicates that Ezekiel is a true prophet (v. 33).

33:22 my mouth was opened and I was no longer silent. A fulfillment of 24:25–27. Yahweh does what he said he would do: he destroys the city and releases Ezekiel from the divine imposition of speechlessness (see 3:26–27) the night before the fugitive arrives (several months after Jerusalem’s destruction, due to travel from Judah to Babylon) with the news.

33:24 people living in those ruins. People living in Jerusalem who did not experience the 586 BC exile (2 Kgs 25:12). Abraham was only one man . . . But we are many. A slogan coined by those remaining in Jerusalem. By “name-dropping” they are expressing an arrogant entitlement to the land (Gen 12:1–3; 15; 17).

33:30–33 God informs Ezekiel about his exilic audience.

33:31 hear your words . . . do not put them into practice. Rather than do the hard work and apply God’s word to their lives, they are like classroom auditors. This is a sad reality now that Ezekiel has been proven to be a true prophet (see note on v. 21).

33:32 one who sings love songs with a beautiful voice. Metaphor that shows Ezekiel’s message is like entertainment to his audience.

34:1–31 Restoration of Righteous Leadership. Now that God has destroyed Israel’s local enemies (chs. 25–32) and Jerusalem has fallen (33:21), all threats are gone; restoration can take place. It starts with the promise of a true shepherd to lead Israel and encapsulates other elements of restoration that radiate throughout the larger section (chs. 35–48). Ch. 34 shows how Yahweh’s change in disposition will revitalize the religious life of his people. Indeed, he will cause Israel’s mourning to turn to joy. The failure of human shepherds (vv. 1–10) gives way to the success of Israel’s true shepherd, God, who will care for and hold the sheep accountable (vv. 11–24). Through a David-like human figure, a righteous ruler, the sheep will be saved (vv. 20–24), and the Lord’s gracious favors will flow, as the covenant of peace articulates (vv. 25–31).

34:2 shepherds of Israel. The leadership, especially the kings and their officials (see 2 Sam 7:7 and note; Jer 25:18–19) but also the prophets and priests (Isa 56:11; Jer 23:9–11). Ezekiel had earlier singled out the princes, priests, and prophets for special rebuke (ch. 22). To call a king a shepherd was common throughout the ancient Near East. For David’s rise from shepherd to shepherd-king, see Ps 78:70–72 and note. For condemnation of the shepherds, cf. Jer 23:1–4 and note on 23:1, 2.

34:3 eat the curds . . . slaughter the choice animals. The benefits of being a shepherd. Israel’s leaders benefited from their titles and official roles but did not do their job of caring for the flock.

34:4 have not . . . searched for the lost. Have had no concern for the good of the people. Cf. Jer 50:6; Zech 11:15–17; Matt 18:12–13; Luke 15:4–6; 19:10.

34:5 scattered. Because they were neglected; a term often used by Ezekiel to describe Israel’s exile and dispersion (11:16, 17; 12:15; 20:23, 34, 41; 22:15; 28:25). no shepherd. That is, no true shepherd (cf. Mark 6:34).

34:10 I am against the shepherds. God requires their removal.

34:11 I myself will search for my sheep. Reveals the Lord’s tender demeanor toward his lost flock. God is on a rescue mission. He uses forms of “I will,” 12 times in vv. 11–16, showing that God is taking the initiative.

34:12 from all the places. Reveals the far-reaching nature of God’s rescue mission. Babylonia was not the only place where the Israelites had gone in exile (Jer 43:1–7).

34:16 the sleek and the strong I will destroy. God will carry out justice among those who had fattened themselves by oppressing other “sheep” (vv. 17–22).

34:17 rams and goats. People of influence and power who were oppressing poor Israelites. Social justice within the covenantal community was not valued.

34:22–24 Yahweh will save and unite the scattered, whom he will gather under one new ruler.

34:23–24 one shepherd . . . my servant David will be prince. A ruler like David and from his line: the Messiah. He is a shepherd-servant and prince (37:24–28; Jer 23:5–6) who rules with justice. This points to Jesus the Messiah, the “good shepherd” (John 10:11–18), and a kingdom in which God will be King and the earthly Davidic king will be “prince” (cf. 37:25; 44:3; 45:7, 16–17, 22; 46:2–18; 48:21–22).

34:24 I the LORD will be their God. God’s commitment to Israel, first articulated when he rescued them from Egyptian bondage (Exod 6:7) and reaffirmed now that he has rescued them from the wicked shepherds.

34:25 covenant of peace. Cf. 37:26. God’s covenants aim at peace (Gen 26:28–31; Num 25:12; Isa 54:10; Mal 2:5). This covenant (the “new covenant” spoken of by Jeremiah in Jer 31:31–34 [see notes there]) looks to the final peace, initiated by Christ (Phil 4:7) and still awaiting final fulfillment. The “peace” (Hebrew šālôm) envisioned here is that of a restored relationship with God and the secure enjoyment of a life made full and rich through his blessings. None of the threats to life experienced under God’s judgments will mar this “peace” (cf. vv. 25–29 with 5:16–17 and note on 5:15).

34:26 showers in season. Autumn rains, which signal the beginning of the rainy season, and spring rains, which come at the end (cf. Jer 5:24). showers of blessing. Blessing, the power of life promised to God’s people through Abraham (Gen 12:1–3), is beautifully symbolized in the life-giving effects of rain.

34:27 break the bars of their yoke. Symbolizes freedom from foreign oppressors. bars. Wooden pegs inserted down through holes in the yoke and tied with cords below the animal’s neck (Isa 58:6) to form a collar (cf. 30:18; Lev 26:13; Jer 27:2; 28:10–13).

34:30 Then they will know that I . . . am with them. The true goal and result of the covenant of peace: the awareness of the divine presence, a reversal of divine abandonment due to the exile (see chs. 8–11). Jesus, the Prince of Peace, is the exact representation of God’s glory and presence (Heb 1:3).

35:1—36:15 The Mountains of Edom and Israel. Edom here is representative of the enemy (36:5). Edom (descendants of Esau) treated their twin brother, Israel (descendants of Jacob; Gen 25:21–30), with spite at the time Jerusalem fell (Obad 8). The outcome for Edom (Esau) is destruction (ch. 35), but the outcome for Israel (Jacob) is restoration (ch. 36).

35:1–15 Desolation for Mount Seir. Comfort and restoration will come to Israel when God ends the “ancient hostility” Edom has toward Israel (v. 5; cf. v. 11). God will do this by making Edom desolate (vv. 3, 7, 9, 14, 15). The hatred, anger, and jealousy Edom had toward Israel manifested itself as murder (v. 5). God “heard” Edom’s heart (vv. 12, 13) toward Israel, and the Sovereign Lord took it personally (vv. 1–3).

35:5 ancient hostility. Started with Jacob’s treatment of Esau (Gen 27) and continued well into their history (Num 20:14–21; 2 Sam 8:13–14; 1 Kgs 9:26–28). delivered the Israelites over to the sword. Edomites sat in waiting to kill Israelites fleeing the Babylonian siege of Jerusalem in 588–586 BC (Obad 10, 14).

35:6 bloodshed . . . will pursue you. God’s retaliation (Gen 9:6). This reveals his justice and anticipates his treatment of the enemy at the end of the age (Rev 20:11–15).

35:10 two nations and countries. Israel and Judah before they reunite.

36:1–15 Restoration for the Mountains of Israel. God swears to the mountains that he is against Israel’s enemy, the nations (v. 5), and announces renewal of the land’s prosperity in the future. This is the comforting counterpart to ch. 6.

36:2 Aha! . . . ancient heights . . . our possession. The temporary boast of those who conquered the promised land. They possessed the land only temporarily (vv. 8–15). ancient heights. The highlands sandwiched between the Jordan River and the Mediterranean Sea (vv. 3, 5; 35:10).

36:5 with glee and with malice . . . made my land their own. The enemy plundered God’s land, and he took offense at their mockery. Here Edom is singled out because of its history of hatred toward Israel (see ch. 35 and notes).

36:6–7 in my jealous wrath . . . the nations around you will also suffer. God is angry toward those who treated Israel badly (see also chs. 25–32).

36:7 with uplifted hand. God vows to deal with these enemies of Israel (see 20:5 and note).

36:9 look on you with favor. God’s new disposition (Lev 26:9). A favorable look leads to restoration; this contrasts God’s unfavorable look, which brought destruction. God’s favor translates into repossession of the land.

36:10 all of Israel. The rightful inhabitants (not only exiled Judah), who will repossess the land according to God’s promises (Exod 6:6–8).

36:11 be fruitful and become numerous . . . prosper more than before. A mark of God’s favor; terminology reminiscent of God’s blessing at creation (Gen 1:22, 28) and at Abraham’s covenant (Gen 17:6; cf. Exod 1:7). you will know that I am the LORD. The goal of God in restoration; corresponds to his goal in rendering his just judgment noted throughout the book (see Introduction: Theological Significance).

36:12 live on you. Live on the mountains of Israel. never again deprive them of their children. Fruitfulness. This is a poetic picture of the mountains having contributed to the depopulation brought by the exile and could refer to the influence of the Canaanites that led Israel astray.

36:16–38 Restoration Assured. Because sin and its consequence of exile negatively affected God’s reputation among the nations, he must act to restore his holy name (vv. 16–23). He does so by cleansing his people, with a life-giving outcome (vv. 24–38). This act ultimately brings him glory among the nations (v. 36). This is a key restoration passage in the book.

36:17 The nature of Israel’s ritual defilement is graphically compared to that of a woman’s monthly period (Lev 15:19–30).

36:20 the LORD’s people, and yet they had to leave his land. The nations that were looking on thought Yahweh was unable to protect his people, since another people’s god plundered God’s land and temple. But the nations did not know that the exile was God’s punishment for Israel’s idolatry.

36:22 It is not for your sake . . . but for the sake of my holy name. A statement that reveals why God is offering them restoration. The fundamental reason given is not grace and mercy (though it is gracious and merciful) but to uphold the sanctity and greatness of God’s reputation. God promises action to prove he is different from other deities. His goal is to reverse the false verdict about his character brought on by Israel’s exile. The reason given in ch. 20 for the withholding of divine punishment (see 20:9, 14, 22 and note on 20:9) is here given as the reason for divine restoration.

36:23 show the holiness of my great name. To hallow God’s great name (Matt 6:9). my great name . . . has been profaned. God’s name (and so he himself) was treated as not holy. Then the nations will know that I am the LORD. God’s goal in Israel’s restoration is to have worldwide recognition that he is the true God. Although this “recognition formula” is used repeatedly throughout the book of Ezekiel, its significance here is made plain. It is not just that Israel’s God is “great” and “holy”; it is also imperative that God be given the recognition and respect, indeed the honor, that he is due. See Introduction: Theological Significance.

36:24–27 Key elements to the promised restoration: (1) return of the exiles (v. 24), (2) cleansing from sin (v. 25), (3) renewal of heart (v. 26), and (4) enablement by God’s Spirit to live God’s way (v. 27).

36:25 sprinkle clean water on you. A ritual act of cleansing symbolizing a renewed readiness for worship (Exod 30:19–20; Lev 14:51; Num 19:18; Heb 10:22). I will cleanse you. A God-initiated act (v. 33; 37:23; Jer 33:8). Ezekiel does not highlight human participation or cooperation in this cleansing process (spiritual regeneration).

36:26–32 The outcome of the cleansing entails a surgery of sorts, a “new heart . . . of flesh” (v. 26); i.e., teachable, not hard like stone. This is “new covenant” terminology (see Jer 31:33–34 and note on 31:33).

36:26 new heart. See notes on 11:19; 18:31.

36:27 my Spirit. A bestowal of the divine presence to enable the human spirit to do God’s will (see 37:14 and note).

36:28 my people . . . your God. Covenant language (see 11:20 and note). Ultimately, the cleansing means a restored relationship between God and his people.

36:32 I am not doing this for your sake. Repeats v. 22 for emphasis (see note on v. 22). Yahweh’s motivation brings further disgrace to the “people of Israel.” Be ashamed and disgraced. Recalling their guilt will make them feel “disgraced” in light of God’s grace.

36:33 On the day I cleanse you. An unspecified time in the future that connects the promise of cleansing (vv. 24–32) with the promise of repopulation (vv. 33–36).

36:35 garden of Eden. Expresses a return to pristine conditions (cf. 28:13; 31:9).

36:36 the nations . . . will know. On the “day” (v. 33) of cleansing, the nations will feel the impact of Israel’s restoration (v. 23). The physical return in 539 BC will be only the beginning of the fulfillment of the restoration promised, as evidenced by the language that seems to go beyond ethnic Israel. The cleansing anticipates the inward work of God’s Spirit in the new covenant.

36:37 I will yield to Israel’s plea. Reverses God’s previous refusals to hear (14:3; 20:3, 31).

36:38 numerous as the flocks for offerings. A population increase that will allow for festivals unto God (1 Kgs 8:63; 1 Chr 29:21; 2 Chr 35:7). This summarizes Israel’s full restoration with God.

37:1–14 Restoration of People. This is the third of four visions Ezekiel sees (1:1; 8:4; 40:2). The imagery is that of a large slain army that miraculously comes to life on the battlefield; an open graveyard suggests an undignified “burial.” The imagery refers to the death-like nature of exile but promises the impossible: out of death comes life (see 36:26–27). God again commands Ezekiel to do something (vv. 1–10) and interprets the vision (vv. 11–14). The exiles’ hopelessness and detachment from the promises of God (v. 11) fuels this vision’s purpose.

37:2 many bones. The entire exiled community (see v. 11). very dry. Suggests they were long dead. The imagery of scattered bones on a battlefield magnifies hopelessness and the impossibility of change.

37:3 can these bones live? A rhetorical question whose logical answer is no. It challenges Ezekiel to look beyond the natural circumstances to God’s sovereignty.

37:4 Prophesy to these bones. This command, together with the notion that the bones can “hear” God’s word, strikes a hopeful note about the possibility of life. Ezekiel prophesies to lifeless bones and to “the breath” (v. 9).

37:8 but there was no breath. Bodies reassembled but without breath.

37:10 breath entered them. See NIV text note on v. 5. The dry bones will become bodies with breath, full of life. The divine breath (“wind” or “spirit”) will give new life to these bones. Breath and life are connected numerous times in the passage (vv. 5–6, 9–10). God re-creates, as he did with Adam, a twofold process (Gen 2:7). A “vast army” comes into formation on their feet. The vastness of the army matches the numerous slain bodies (vv. 1–2).

37:12 I am going to open your graves. The imagery changes from a battlefield to a cemetery. God causes life to come out of death (a resurrection of sorts). This speaks of the physical return from exile and the restoration under Cyrus in 539 BC, using resurrection language. In this sense, Ezekiel contributes to OT teaching on resurrection. Although clear statements of bodily life after death are not common in the OT, one of the clearest comes in Dan 12:2–3. In addition, there are hints in earlier texts that prepare the way. The influence of a number of these texts (e.g., Isa 26:19; Hos 6:1–2; 13:14) is immediately apparent in the NT. For the biblical-theological significance, see v. 14 and note.

37:14 I will put my Spirit in you and you will live. A clear connection between breath (vv. 5, 6, 8, 9 [twice],10) and God’s Spirit reflects the life-giving power of God. Without God’s presence there is no hope for God’s people. Although Israel’s national revival is in view, this act points beyond it to the resurrected life through the Spirit of Christ (John 11:25–26; Rom 8:9–17; Col 3:1–4).

37:15–28 Restoration of Unity. Connected to the promise of renewed life back in the land (vv. 1–14), restoration also includes unifying the nation under one king. Through another dramatic performance (vv. 15–17) and its subsequent interpretation (vv. 18–28), Ezekiel illustrates the unity God intends in the restoration.

37:16 take a stick. The last visual aid involves writing on a material object. Judah. Represents the entire southern kingdom. Joseph. Represents the entire northern kingdom. Joseph was the father of Ephraim (Gen 48:5, 8–20).

37:19 one in my hand. The interpretation of the visual aid: unity (see also vv. 17, 22). The two kingdoms have been separated since Solomon’s death (1 Kgs 12).

37:21-22 their own land . . . one king. The renewal includes a secure national homeland with a national leader, the future Messianic ruler (see v. 24; cf. “prince” in v. 25).

37:23 no longer defile themselves with their idols. The king will lead law-abiding citizens who are moral and pure (cf. 36:27) because of God. my people . . . their God. A repetition of the covenant formula (cf. v. 27; see 11:20 and note).

37:24–26 These verses echo the Davidic covenant (the promise of eternal kingship), the Sinaitic covenant (expectations of holy living), and the Abrahamic covenant (the promise of land)—all will be fulfilled in the covenant of peace (v. 26).

37:24 My servant David. See note on 34:23–24.

37:26 covenant of peace . . . everlasting covenant. Previously mentioned individually (16:60; 34:25); merged here as the charter for the renewed nation. David’s unified rule will be characterized by permanent peace (34:25; cf. Gen 9:16; 17:7; 2 Sam 23:5; Jer 32:40).

37:27 My dwelling place will be with them. God’s desire from the beginning of time (Gen 1–3). dwelling place. Recalls the wilderness tabernacle (see Lev 15:31 and NIV text note there).

37:28 sanctuary. Recalls Solomon’s temple. Mentioning the “dwelling place” (i.e., the tabernacle, see v. 27 and note) and the “sanctuary” (the temple) together anticipates the rebuilt temple (chs. 40–48) necessary for restored worship. Thus, restoration reaches a climactic point.

38:1—39:29 Restoration Permanent: Enemies Abroad Destroyed. Before the covenant of peace (34:25–31; 37:26–28) can become a reality and God’s permanent sanctuary can be rebuilt (chs. 40–48), God must destroy his enemies who live outside the promised land: Gog of Magog and all his hoards (38:2). Chs. 38–39 describe a major attack by Gog and his allies (38:4–6) on God’s restored people. The battle brings great peril to God’s people and upheavals in the natural world. Ezekiel predicts this army’s downfall at the Lord’s command (38:1–3, 7–13) with three prophecies (38:1–13, 14–23; 39:1–16). The number of the fallen warriors is such that this “sacrifice” provides a feast for predators (39:17–20). God’s victory over Gog will reveal God’s supremacy and sovereignty. The nations will know the real cause of Israel’s exile: God purposefully withdrew due to Israel’s unfaithfulness (39:21–24). The victory will also reveal that Israel’s God is truly the Holy One (39:25–29). For the exiled Israelites, their protection against an enemy even more perilous than the Babylonians will give them great assurance and hope as they anticipate the future. See Introduction: Particular Interpretive Challenges.

38:2 Gog. Apparently a leader or king. His name appears only in chs. 38–39; Rev 20:8. Several identifications have been attempted, notably Gyges, king of Lydia (ca. 660 BC). Possibly the name is purposely vague, standing for a mysterious, as yet undisclosed, enemy of God’s people. of the land of Magog. In Gen 10:2 and 1 Chr 1:5, Magog is one of the sons of Japheth, thus the name of a people. In Ezek 39:6 it appears to refer to a people. But since the prefix ma- can mean “place of,” Magog may here simply mean “land of Gog.” Israel had long experienced the hostility of the Hamites and other Semitic peoples; the future coalition here envisioned will include—and in fact be led by—peoples descended from Japheth (cf. Gen 10). chief prince. Military commander-in-chief. The NIV text note gives the possible translation “prince of Rosh,” and if it is correct, Rosh is probably the name of an unknown people or place. Identification with Russia is unlikely and in any case cannot be proven. Meshek and Tubal. Sons of Japheth in Gen 10:2 (see note); 1 Chr 1:5. Here they are peoples and territories probably located in eastern Asia Minor (see 27:13; 32:26 and notes), to the north of Israel (cf. vv. 6, 15; 39:2). As in the days of the Assyrians and Babylonians, the major attack will come from the north. See Introduction: Particular Interpretive Challenges.

38:4 I will . . . bring you out. A clear statement of God’s initiative and control over Gog in this battle. put hooks in your jaws. The manner in which God will bring Gog out (like Pharaoh in 29:4).

38:5 Cush. The upper Nile region (south of Egypt; modern-day Sudan). The invading forces from the north (v. 2) are joined by forces from the south. Put. Libya.

38:6 Gomer. Another northern ally (named as a son of Japheth in Gen 10:2; 1 Chr 1:5). Beth Togarmah. See note on 27:14. Togarmah is named as a child of Gomer in Gen 10:3 (see note); 1 Chr 1:6.

38:8 After many days . . . In future years. Not the near future but an unspecified time following the events of Israel’s restoration (chs. 34–37).

38:9 your troops . . . like a cloud. An enormous army from abroad that God summons. It is not possible to identify the invaders further. To attempt to associate the invaders with modern countries is to misunderstand the symbolism in this type of prophecy and miss what is certain: God will arouse a foe in the future from faraway places (vv. 4, 16) to spring a vicious attack on God’s people.

38:10 thoughts will come into your mind. Gog’s human action parallels divine initiative (v. 4). Cf. Cyrus in Ezra 1; Isa 45:1–13; and Assyria in Isa 10:6–7.

38:11 land of unwalled villages. An image of peace (see Zech 2:4–5 and notes); the Lord alone is sufficient protection.

38:12 center of the land. Where God’s people dwell. See NIV text note. This graphic image explains the belief that Israel is the vital link between God and the world (the idea occurs also in 5:5) and that Jerusalem is theologically both the center of the land of Israel and the center of the world.

38:13 Sheba. See note on 1 Kgs 10:1. Dedan. See note on Gen 10:7. Tarshish. See note on 27:12.

38:15 You will come from . . . the far north. The enemy typically comes from the north (v. 6; see 1:4, which describes the storm cloud of God’s presence; see also Jer 1:13–15 and notes).

38:16 I am proved holy. The military advance will reveal the divine purpose: the vindication of God’s holiness through Gog. The God of Israel is set apart from all other gods (see Exod 7:3–5; 14:4). God will use Gog as an agent of revelation to the world, not as a judgment on his people (vv. 16, 23; 39:6–7, 13, 21–29). God’s defeat of Gog will accomplish this (vv. 18–23).

38:17 You are the one I spoke of. Gog (see v. 2 and note). in former days by my servants. Perhaps a general reference to earlier prophetic messages of divine judgment on the nations.

38:19 great earthquake. The outpouring of divine rage on the enemies of God’s people causes upheavals in the natural world (see Jer 4:23–26).

38:20 fish . . . birds . . . beasts . . . every creature . . . all the people . . . of the earth. Corresponds to the total scope of nature affected by this cosmic manifestation of the divine presence.

38:22-23 I will execute judgment . . . with plague and bloodshed . . . I will make myself known. The ultimate purpose of the battle. Not unlike God’s use of Pharaoh in Exodus (see Exod 7–14), this battle reveals God’s supremacy over a powerful enemy. It anticipates the final judgment, when God reveals his sovereignty over all the forces of evil (Rev 19–20).

39:1–16 Opposition to Gog is reiterated but with more graphic details.

39:3 I will strike your bow from your left hand. Removal of a threat by disarming the enemy (cf. Jer 6:23).

39:4 food to all kinds of carrion birds. The sacrificial feast described in vv. 17–20 (see notes).

39:9 seven years. The number seven symbolizing completeness. for fuel. The enemies’ weaponry becomes useful for God’s people.

39:11–16 Gog’s burial finalizes the removal of the threat.

39:11 I will give Gog a burial place . . . in the valley. God’s control of Gog continues. He selects and names the burial site. valley. Probably that of Jezreel/Megiddo (the site of many epic battles in the history of the southern Levant, e.g., 2 Kings 23:29). It will be filled to the brim with dead bodies, blocking travel and underscoring the large threat this enemy posed.

39:12 seven months . . . burying them. The task requires all the people; it reflects the importance of the “holy land,” the task’s size, and the burial’s thoroughness. seven months. Cf. v. 9 and note. cleanse the land. The burial’s purpose. Dead bodies contaminated people and the land (Num 19:11–22). Cleansed people (36:24–32) need to live in a cleansed land.

39:13 the day I display my glory . . . a memorable day. The burial process (v. 12) and the site (v. 11) function as a permanent reminder of “the day” God defeated the enemy (v. 13), “the day” when God demonstrates who he is in all his splendor.

39:14 People will be continually employed. A special search party seeks any human remains to ensure a total and complete cleansing. Total ritual purity is the goal.

39:17 Assemble and come . . . to the sacrifice. A summons to a huge banquet meal for predators in celebration of Gog’s defeat. The metaphor of sacrifice suggests consecration, or devotion, to God in judgment (cf. Jericho in Josh 6:17; see NIV text note and note there).

39:18 You will eat the flesh of mighty men . . . as if they were rams. The corpses of the victims are compared to animals used for sacrifices (see note on Gen 22:13). This portrays an undignified end for the enemies of God (Isa 34:6–8; Zeph 1:7; Rev 19:17–21).

39:19-20 At the sacrifice I am preparing . . . At my table. The one preparing the sacrifice is God. His “table” represents the sacrificial altar.

39:19 eat fat . . . drink blood. When offering a sacrifice, these were reserved for God (44:15; Lev 3:16; 1 Sam 2:15; cf. Isa 34:6). Another indicator that this feast is for the Lord.

39:22-23 Israel will know . . . the nations will know. The theological significance of Gog’s defeat. For Israel it will reaffirm God’s commitment to them. For the nations, they will know why God exiled his people: his justice, not powerlessness or cowardice, sealed Israel’s fate (cf. Deut 31:16–18). Pharaoh’s demise and defeat functioned similarly (Exod 6:6–7; 7:5; 14:18).

39:23 I hid my face. An expression of divine abandonment (see note on Ps 27:9; contrast v. 29 and note).

39:25–29 God’s message to the exiles. His compassion will set the story line of restoration into motion. But his drive for glory fuels his grace (and fury). Thus, the exile is temporary, and a return home is their hope. The basis for confidence is the supernatural work of God.

39:25 restore the fortunes of Jacob. Conditions before their judgment, indicating a reversal of the judgment; cf. Sodom and Samaria in 16:53 and Egypt in 29:13–14.

39:26 They will forget their shame. The result of God’s compassion (v. 25). See 6:9; 20:43; 36:31, where remembrance of shame comes because of God’s judgment.

39:29 I will pour out my Spirit. Contrasts with God’s hidden face (v. 23) and reflects the reality of the divine presence in the restoration process (36:27; 37:14; see Joel 2:28).

40:1—48:35 Restoration of Worship in the New Spiritual Center. The book of Ezekiel ends on a powerful note. This is the last of four visions experienced by the prophet (see 1:1; 8:4; 37:1). Ezekiel sees familiar things but with new eyes. This section concludes with the return of the Lord to his temple, city, and land, an event that enables his people to worship him forever in an unhindered, unmediated, and undefiled relationship.

The book ends by summarizing this permanent ideal condition in 48:35b: “THE LORD IS THERE,” which reflects the fullness of the restoration due to God’s presence. The city of God is the seat of the divine presence. The re-creation of a new spiritual center (chs. 40–43), along with a renewed system of worship (chs. 44–48), is the subject of Ezekiel’s last vision.

Because the language of the vision merges well-known physical realities with idealized ones (for example, the description of tribal allocations), the meaning is not evident. Should one expect to see a literal temple constructed in the future, or is it figurative, or perhaps even both? A general rule when interpreting predictive prophecy is to look for the nearest fulfillment in history. Perhaps what Ezekiel saw was the post-exilic temple of Ezra’s day. However, the divine glory does not return to Ezra’s rebuilt temple at its dedication. From Ezra’s day to the present, there has been no temple built that matches Ezekiel’s vision. The next possible place to see this prophecy fulfilled literally belongs to what some have called a future millennial kingdom on earth based on Rev 20:1–6. In this millennial kingdom animal sacrifices will be offered at a rebuilt temple and will function as reminders of the sufficiency of Christ’s sacrifice (a different function from OT sacrifices). Figurative interpretations also exist. Some interpret the temple vision to predict the New Covenant and the presence of God through the Holy Spirit among his people (see 1 Cor 3:16–17). Others see Ezekiel’s temple as part of the new heavens and new earth (2 Pet 3:13; Rev 21:1) in the eschatological age. Accordingly, the physical details described in the vision (and their notable lack of direct correspondence with Pentateuchal legislation) are symbolic indications of the great blessings of that future age of worship.

Regardless of one’s interpretation, several things are clear. The vision describes future realities that cannot be fully expressed in terms of Ezekiel’s present realities. There are reminders throughout the vision that the future realities described are clearly intended for Ezekiel’s audience (Ezek 40:4; 43:9–11; 44:5–6). It is a vision of restoration that features the presence of God within the new worship community. The large scale nature of the “temple-city” complex also tells us something about the scale of restoration promised. Rather than focusing only on the building project itself (literal or figurative), the vision inspires us to anticipate unending worship of the Living God. See Introduction: Particular Interpretive Challenges.

40:1—43:27 Restoration of the Temple Area, Temple, Presence of God, and Altar. The guide shows Ezekiel the outer court and its gates and the inner court and its gates (six gates total) and the rooms for priests to do their work related to sacrifices. Only authorized personnel, “the sons of Zadok” (40:46), can lead people to the epicenter of worship and sacrifice. The guide then moves Ezekiel to the temple itself, with a description of its beauty, perfect symmetry (ch. 41–42), and courtyards. The climactic point of this building project, as it was with the tabernacle and then Solomon’s temple, is the presence of God. The glory comes from the east (the direction it moved when leaving the temple in the vision of abandonment in chs. 8–11) to make this habitation holy (43:1–11). The description of the new altar (43:13–27) ensures a God-given means for unbroken fellowship with him through the shedding of blood. The first phase of the new spiritual center is complete.

40:1 twenty-fifth year . . . beginning of the year . . . tenth of the month, in the fourteenth year after the fall of the city. Apr. 28, 573 BC.

40:2 In visions of God he took me to the land of Israel. Cf. 1:1; 8:3 and notes. What unfolds for Ezekiel is supernatural in light of the context of the fallen city. set me on a very high mountain. Height ensures visibility. Mount Zion is the earthly seat of God’s reign (17:22; Isa 2:2; Mic 4:1; Zech 14:10). buildings that looked like a city. The fact that he sees what appears to be a city complex 14 years after Jerusalem’s fall emphasizes hope in a future restoration.

40:3 I saw a man . . . with a linen cord and a measuring rod. An angelic guide similar to the one mentioned in chs. 8–11 (see also Dan 10:5–6; Rev 1:13–15). He carries standard measuring tools for construction purposes. This man contrasts with the “man clothed in linen” in 9:2, whose tools (a writing kit) were for destruction.

40:5–27 Description of the outer court and its gates.

40:5 a wall completely surrounding the temple area. The outer court had a defined space. The wall separating the area outside the temple from the holy area inside the wall was 11 feet (3.2 meters) high and 11 feet (3.2 meters) thick.

40:6 east gate. One of three gates (east, north, south) of the outer court. It was the most important gate, since it provided a direct path to the temple itself. East, not north, oriented ancient cultures of the Near East. God’s glory moved east when departing the temple, a sign of judgment (10:18–19; 11:22–23). God’s glory will return through the east gate (43:1–5), a reversal of the judgment.

40:9 The portico of the gateway. A porch-like structure leading to the building.

40:10 alcoves. Recesses in the wall of the gate (on each side) for the guards, which thus demonstrates their defensive importance.

40:17 he brought me into the outer court. Ezekiel’s guide takes him beyond the east gate and into the outer court proper, the main place of worship for an Israelite and the area farthest away from the temple proper. thirty rooms. Perhaps used by worshipers for various functions (see Jer 35:2, 4).

40:19 a hundred cubits. The width of the court. About 175 feet (about 53 meters) separated the outer wall from the inner wall.

40:20 north gate. Identical to the south (v. 24) and east gates (v. 6). These gates prohibited the unauthorized from approaching.

40:28 the inner court. A smaller version of the outer court, but it served a different purpose. The priests helped the worshipers with their sacrifices in this area; it was the area closest to the temple proper. the south gate. Provided access to the inner court (vv. 28–49).

40:38 A room . . . in each of the inner gateways. Places for preparing sacrifices. burnt offerings. One of the oldest kinds of sacrifice (Gen 8:20; 22:2; see note on Gen 22:13). As a consecration to God, the entire animal was burned (see Lev 1:3–17 and note; see also note on Lev 1:9).

40:39 sin offerings. See note on Lev 4:1—5:13. guilt offerings. See note on Lev 5:14—6:7. Offering sacrifices was the main function of this new temple. Restored fellowship is made possible between the worshiper and God. Ezekiel’s audience would have been comforted by this fact. Although Ezekiel’s visions were for the exiles (v. 4; 43:9–11; 44:5–6), the symbolism here points beyond that time to Christ’s sacrifice, which provides ultimate restoration of fellowship with God (see Heb 9:11–14 and notes).

40:46 the priests . . . the sons of Zadok. The stipulated personnel for proper worship. From the time of Solomon’s reign, only the relatives of Zadok were authorized to offer sacrifices (see note on 1 Kgs 4:4). All priests had to be descendants of Aaron (see notes on Num 3:1–51; 18:1–7; see also “Priest”).

40:47 the altar was in front of the temple. The altar, used daily for worship (43:13–17), takes center stage in the inner court.

40:48 He brought me to the portico of the temple. Ezekiel has finally arrived at the temple entrance, more specifically, the porch attached to the temple.

41:1 the main hall. The central part of the temple building, or the outer sanctuary, the largest of the three rooms comprising the temple (1 Kgs 6:3–5). The dimensions are the same as those in Solomon’s main hall (1 Kgs 6:17).

41:3 the inner sanctuary. The Most Holy Place (v. 4; Exod 26:31–35; 1 Kgs 6:19–28; 2 Chr 3:8; Ps 28:2; Matt 27:51; Heb 8:2; 9:3–5, 7; 10:19–20). Only the angelic guide, not Ezekiel, enters the Most Holy Place to measure it, which suggests restricted access as one approaches God, reminiscent of the restrictions in Lev 16 that forbid anyone but the high priest to enter it, and then only once a year (Lev 16:2, 32–34; Heb 9:7). Likewise, the decreasing width of the three openings (see 40:48; v. 2; here) to the inner sanctuary further illustrates the need for restricted and controlled access as one gets closer to God.

41:5 the wall of the temple. Verses 5–11 describe side storage chambers along the wall of the temple.

41:6 thirty on each level. These 90 side rooms stored the Lord’s treasures and utensils for worship (see Mal 3:10 and note). See v. 12 for a large storage building on the west side.

41:16 everything . . . was covered with wood. Ezekiel sees the overall beauty of the temple’s interior. wood. A costly material.

41:18, 20 cherubim and palm trees. Designs associated with peace and heavenly protection of the temple. See also 1:5–24; Gen 3:24 and notes.

41:22 wooden altar. The only furnishing inside the sanctuary. As the altar of burnt offering stood outside the temple proper (43:13–17), so a smaller altar (see NIV text notes) stood outside the Most Holy Place. It served as a table to hold the bread of the Presence, laid out daily by the priests (Exod 25:30; Lev 24:5–9; 1 Kgs 7:48). This table-like altar underscores the important role of sacrifice in these visions.

41:23 double doors. Possibly folding doors; suggests restricted or narrow access of entry.

42:1 rooms opposite the temple courtyard. Large chambers on the sides of the building; used by priests. Their purpose is stated in vv. 13–14 (see notes).

42:13 priests’ rooms. Used by the priest to store their clothing (see v. 14 and note) and to “eat the most holy offerings,” i.e., the sacrificial meal cooked on the altar (Lev 2:3; 5:13; 6:16, 26, 29; 7:6, 10).

42:14 the garments. The holy garments, which were exchanged for street clothes after serving the Lord in this holy place.

42:20 five hundred cubits long and five hundred cubits wide. The dimensions of the entire exterior temple area (875 feet by 875 feet or 270 meters by 270 meters); note the perfect symmetry of this sacred space. The construction of the sacred space is now complete; however, the climax of the building project follows in 43:5 (see note).

43:1 the man brought me to the gate facing east. Where the visions started (see 40:5–6 and note on 40:6). This is the primary temple entrance.

43:2 I saw the glory of the God of Israel coming from the east. Corresponds to the direction of God’s departure from Solomon’s temple (10:19; 11:23). Ezekiel experiences the divine presence approaching the new temple, similar to that of his first vision (1:27–28). God of Israel. An important designation: God is reclaiming ownership of his people, land, and temple (see note on 8:4). like the roar of rushing waters. The approach was not only loud but overpowering (1:24; Rev 1:15; 14:2; 19:6) and luminous, “the land was radiant with his glory” (10:4; Luke 2:9; Rev 21:11, 23).

43:3 the vision I saw . . . like the visions I had seen. A comparison with Ezekiel’s two previous experiences of God’s presence. when he came to destroy the city. When God appeared for purposes of judgment, he was the divine agent of destruction (see chs. 8–11). by the Kebar River. When God appeared to call Ezekiel into prophetic ministry (chs. 1–3). Now he appears for other purposes.

43:5 the glory of the LORD filled the temple. God appears for the purposes of restoration. He is reclaiming ownership of his land. This is the crowning moment in this building project. God occupies this architectural structure and gives meaning to it, analogous to the dedications of the tabernacle and Solomon’s temple (Exod 40:34; 1 Kgs 8:10–11; cf. Isa 6:4). This prepares us for God’s restoration work in us. When God builds the temple of his church corporately and individually (Eph 2:21), he fills us with his Spirit (Eph 1:13) and our bodies become temples of the Holy Spirit (1 Cor 6:19).

43:6 I heard someone speaking to me from inside the temple. As before (ch. 2) God’s speaks directly to the prophet.

43:7 the place of my throne . . . place for the soles of my feet. The restored temple is God’s palace. God is reclaiming his seat of kingship (1 Sam 4:4; Ps 47:8). God possesses this place; it marks his dominion and rule (1 Chr 28:2; Pss 99:5; 132:7; Isa 60:13; Lam 2:1). I will live among the Israelites forever. The longevity of his possession and dominion. God is reclaiming his eternal seat of sovereignty; thus this constitutes a renewal of the promise of 37:26–28 (see 43:9; 1 Kgs 6:13; Zech 2:11). funeral offerings. See first NIV text note. Fourteen kings of Judah were buried near the temple in Jerusalem (e.g., 2 Kgs 21:18, 26; 23:30). God’s presence brings correction to past behaviors. These memorials, not prescribed by God, were designed to honor human kings.

43:8 detestable practices. Practices that brought about Jerusalem’s destruction (e.g., 5:11; 18:10–12; and especially 22:1–15). God is without rivals; he alone reigns as king. This part of the vision prepares us for what is known about God’s reign in the book of Revelation (Rev 4; 7:9–17). In the new Jerusalem, when all things are fully restored, when God has made all things new (Rev 21:5), God’s possession of the Holy City and his rulership will be eternal. See Introduction: Theological Significance; see also “The City of God.”

43:10 describe the temple to the people of Israel, that they may be ashamed of their sins. God intends that Ezekiel’s visions convict Ezekiel’s audience of sin. Such conviction would make them ashamed and thus steer them away from the sins of the past. Ezekiel’s generation is not so much given a blueprint to build a temple as they are given a plan to keep them pure.

43:12 law of the temple. The requirement of holiness outlined in chs. 40–42.

43:13 the altar. First mentioned in 40:47 and now described in detail in vv. 13–27. It is square (vv. 13–17) and has stone projections at each corner (v. 15) to contain the wood and animal sacrifices (Exod 29:12; Ps 118:27). It emphasizes the importance of performing sacrifices in the new temple.

43:18 regulations . . . when it is built. The altar had to be consecrated to God before it could be used. This required cleansing with animal blood (Exod 29:16; Lev 4:7; 5:9). What begins as common, or ordinary, is consecrated to God and assigned a God-designated function.

43:21 bull for the sin offering . . . burn it. The animal meat was to be burned completely, not in part. Similar stipulations exist for the goat (v. 22) and the young bull and ram (vv. 23–24).

43:26 atonement for the altar. Required “seven days” of purification. Only after this would the people’s offerings be accepted by God. All is in place for people to approach God through sacrifice on this altar. Their offerings would ensure communion and peace with a holy God abiding in their midst. The new altar and the sacrifices made on it are a reminder that God provides a way for people to become holy. Christ’s blood sacrifice is God’s provision for our holiness (Heb 9:11–14; 10:12–14). Cleansing from sin through sacrifice (sin offering) produces peace (fellowship offering) with God.

44:1–31 Restoration of Restricted Access for People and Priests. Only the true people of God have access to worship a holy God (vv. 1–14). The priests, together with the other worshipers, must have clear lines of separation between the holy and unholy in their worship (vv. 15–31).

44:2 This gate is to remain shut. The gate facing east, the main entrance to the temple, was closed (v. 1). God entered through the east gate, thus making it holy. Human accessibility would defile it. Since God is living permanently with his people (43:7), he will not need access to this gate for exiting, as he did in the past (10:19; 11:23).

44:3 prince. Ezekiel’s word for king, used here for the first time in chs. 40–48 (see 34:24). Restricted access applies even to the king. He could only eat at this gate. The restriction emphasizes God’s character of holiness. eat. Presumably the prince’s part of the fellowship meal (Lev 7:15; Deut 12:7; see 43:27).

44:4 to the front of the temple . . . the glory of the LORD filling the temple. Another visible manifestation of the divine presence but now at the north gate, the gate used by the priests (40:44–45). As in 43:4–12, after the divine presence approaches, God gives a word of correction that Ezekiel is to speak.

44:5 look carefully, listen closely. Another reminder that these visions have implications for Ezekiel’s generation (see 40:4).

44:6 Say to rebellious Israel. Even 14 years after the fall of Jerusalem (see 40:1 and note), God still describes his people as law breakers (see Introduction: Audience). Owing to past abuses, correction is still needed.

44:9 foreigner uncircumcised. Non-Israelites. In the past the authorities had allowed uncircumcised foreigners access to the Lord’s temple (v. 7). As a result, the temple was not kept pure. Illegitimate temple access will not be tolerated in the new spiritual center.

44:13 They. The Levites (v. 10). are not to come near to serve me as priests. In the new order the Levites will serve only as gatekeepers and temple attendants (v. 14). This Levitical limitation is due to the fact that in the past, their sin of idolatry led the nation into sin (cf. Num 18:23; Ezek 8).

44:15 descendants of Zadok . . . are to come near to minister. The ministry distinction between the Levites and the priests. The ministry of serving at the altar and in the sanctuary, nearest to God, is to be carried out by the Zadokite priests. Zadok was a prominent priest during David’s reign (2 Sam 20:25). Later he supported Solomon, not Adonijah. In so doing he secured for himself and his descendants the honor of serving in the Jerusalem temple (1 Kgs 1:8, 32–35). Because of their faithfulness, the Zadokites receive special consideration in chs. 40–48.

44:16 They alone are to enter my sanctuary. An exclusivity based on God’s holy character and the concern to maintain this uncompromising standard.

44:17 they are to wear linen clothes. Linen breathes; wool does not. The point is to restrict perspiration (v. 18).

44:19 take off the clothes. Take off the sacred wardrobe for the sake of maintaining God’s distinction between the holy and the common (vv. 17–19).

44:20–27 This section restricts certain behaviors that threaten purity. The main concern for such restrictions is voiced specifically in v. 23.

44:20 must not shave their heads. This ritual mourning practice for the dead was to be avoided (7:18; see Lev 21:1–5).

44:23 difference between the holy and the common. By distinguishing between the holy and the common, the Zadokite priests would model to God’s people that a radical distinction exists between everyday things and the things of God. See Introduction to Leviticus: Major Theological Themes (Holiness and Purity).

44:28 I am to be the only inheritance the priests have . . . give them no possession in Israel. Another restriction. Priestly provisions (such as land and temporal needs) derive from and are met by God as the priests serve him (see Num 18:20, 23–24; Deut 10:9; Josh 13:14, 33; 18:7).

45:1—46:24 Restoration of Social Justice, Worship Calendar, and Procedures. The key elements for worship at the new spiritual center include fair land distribution (45:1–8), economic justice (45:9–12), offerings (45:13–17), keeping the new worship calendar (45:18–25), and the prince’s observance of law and order (46:1–18).

45:1–8 Allotment of land provides boundaries for service and work. The emphasis here is on the division of sacred districts in the holy land (v. 1). These districts include (1) a central piece of land given for the sanctuary (v. 2; see 42:16–20); (2) a parcel of land to the north of this for the priests to live on but not own (v. 5; cf. 44:28); (3) a parcel of land to the south for the city that belonged to “all Israel” (v. 6), not to one tribe; and (4) a generous portion that remained for the prince (vv. 7–8).

45:7 prince. The Messiah-like ruler in this new spiritual center.

45:9 You have gone far enough, princes of Israel! A reference to Israel’s past kings, who ruled without equity and justice. This contrasts the prince mentioned in v. 8.

45:10 accurate scales. Accurate measurements; a symbol of economic justice (Lev 19:35; Deut 25:13–16; Mic 6:10–12). Rather than “fix” the scales for personal benefit, the prince is to be honest.

45:13–17 A description of offering amounts. These are given as fees, or taxes, for temple services. The prince was responsible for these fees so that he might provide daily, weekly, and annual or seasonal offerings.

45:18–25 A calendar schedule to follow regarding distinctive festivals. This worship calendar indicates that everything belongs to God and that purification from sin is ongoing.

45:18 first month . . . first day. Early spring (March or April).

45:21 first month . . . fourteenth day. Late March or April.

45:25 seventh month . . . fifteenth day. Late September or October.

46:1 gate of the inner court facing east . . . is to be opened. While the east gate of the outer court was permanently closed (44:1–2), the east gate between the inner and outer court could be opened once a week (on the Sabbath), once a month (on the day of the New Moon), and for the prince to present his offerings (v. 12).

46:2 The prince is to . . . worship at the threshold of the gateway. He can enter the east gate but must keep his distance from the altar. He can only observe the priestly mediation being performed on the altar of burnt offering in the inner court.

46:3 the people of the land. A reference to lay Israelites, the common people. They may offer their worship on the Sabbath and on the first day of the month.

46:4–7 The new temple provides an opportunity for new regulations to be introduced. The prince provides and presents the offerings (45:17) for the weekly and monthly festivals.

46:9 whoever enters by the north gate to worship is to go out the south gate. An orderly way to circulate large groups of people coming for religious festivals.

46:10 The prince is to be among them. He leads the worshipers in procession and recession.

46:13, 14, 15 morning by morning. Suggests a commanded regularity to worship.

46:16–18 These verses describe legitimate land distribution to family and nonfamily members of the community as a demonstration of social justice. The gift of the land was to be in the hands of the prince and his descendants and was only a temporary gift to his servants (see note on v. 17).

46:17 the year of freedom. The Year of Jubilee, or every 50th year (see Lev 25:8–15, especially v. 13), when the original family owners had claims to the land once again. Inheritance issues were in the hands of the Lord, not the hands of the prince.

46:19–24 These verses describe the kitchens where the priests cooked the sacrifices offered by the people (see also 42:13–14).

47:1–12 Restoration of Land: Living Water. The prophet sees a water source that originates from the temple of God (vv. 1, 12) with a surprising increase in its depth—from a trickle (v. 2) to a river depth suitable for swimming (v. 5) as it flows out to the sea (v. 8). Verses 8–12 explain this supernatural water source. It is the means by which life comes out of death. This living water promises abundance of life, supernatural fruitfulness, and sustainability in the land (nutritionally and medicinally) for its inhabitants (Pss 36:8; 46:4; see Joel 3:18; Zech 13:1; 14:8; John 7:37–38; Rev 22:1–2).

47:1 back to the entrance to the temple. Ezekiel is back at the front of the sanctuary. water coming out from . . . the temple. The source of the water comes from the divine presence (Gen 2:10–14; Ps 46:4).

47:2 trickling. Initially a small amount of water.

47:3-5 water . . . ankle-deep . . . a river that no one could cross. The water source grows from a stream into a river. The river symbolizes fruitfulness and abundance (Ps 65:9; Isa 33:21; Joel 3:18; Zech 14:8; Rev 22:1–2).

47:7 great number of trees. Evidence of the river’s fruitfulness.

47:8 flows . . . goes down . . . enters the Dead Sea. The water’s movement indicates its capacity not only to bring life but to bring life to places devoid of life: to the salty waters of the Dead Sea. the Dead Sea. The lowest and saltiest substantial body of water in the world, incapable of sustaining life owing to its heavy salt and mineral content. The scene provides a vivid picture of life coming out death, as “salty water there becomes fresh.”

47:9 Swarms of living creatures . . . large numbers of fish. Language expressive of fruitfulness, reminiscent of the fruitfulness of creation in Genesis.

47:10 from En Gedi to En Eglaim. A stretch of land on the shores of the Dead Sea that will provide a thriving fishing industry—another picture of abundance.

47:11 swamps and marshes . . . left for salt. Although the salty water becomes fresh (v. 8), God graciously leaves some salt, perhaps for food preparation purposes and for use with sacrifices (43:24).

47:12 Fruit trees . . . Every month they will bear fruit . . . leaves for healing. An ongoing fruitfulness and abundance that never ends. The complete nature of this fruitfulness is seen in that even the leaves have a purpose. An extension of the promises in 34:27; 36:30; see also Amos 9:13. Thus, the supernatural source, growth, and stunning effects of this “river of life” anticipate Jesus as the believer’s source of life (John 7:38). Likewise, a supernatural water source, “the river of the water of life” (Rev 22:1), flows from God’s throne in the new Jerusalem. The water symbolizes the fruitful life of abundance enjoyed in God’s presence (Rev 22:1–2).

47:13–23 Restoration of Land Boundaries. This envisions the proper boundaries of the land in the new spiritual center.

47:13 two portions for Joseph. Each of Joseph’s sons, Ephraim and Manasseh (Gen 48:5, 17–20), receives a portion (48:4–5). This maintains 12 portions of land because the tribe of Levi receives none (44:28). Joseph. Understood to be the firstborn (1 Chr 5:1–2), he receives a double portion. Accordingly, he is honored among the patriarchs.

47:14 Because I swore. A reference to the covenant made with Abram (see Gen 15:9–21; cf. Ezek 20:5; 36:28). with uplifted hand. Reaffirms God’s unending relational loyalties to his people.

47:15–21 These boundaries are similar to but different from the original land boundaries mapped out in Num 34:1–12. The northern, eastern, southern, and western boundaries are described. The Transjordan boundaries are not mentioned. The northern border is marked by Lebo Hamath and the eastern is marked by the Jordan River and Dead Sea. The southern border is not entirely clear but is likely the Wadi of Egypt. The western border is the Mediterranean Sea.

47:22 an inheritance . . . for the foreigners residing among you. Territorial provisions are made for resident foreigners. You are to consider them as native-born Israelites. An amazing statement of inclusion. It assumes that they discard their national deities and embrace the Lord as their God, much like Ruth did (Ruth 1:16; 2:12; 4:13–22). The vision is understandable in light of v. 14 and the allusion to inheritance rights associated with the Abrahamic blessings (Gal 3:9, 14, 26–29; 4:28–31).

48:1–29 Restoration of Tribal Allotments. These verses describe distribution of the land in the new spiritual center. The land division for the tribes is a configuration meant to emphasize a new reality through the literary means of symmetry. For this reason, allotment of land is broken up into 12 horizontal (east-west) pieces running from north to south. The description here also emphasizes a nameless “city” (vv. 15, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22) attached to Levite territory (vv. 15–20) that has a flow of traffic from each of the 12 tribes, giving it prominence in the land. The name of the city, however, is not revealed until the final section of the chapter (vv. 30–35), in the last verse of the book (v. 35).

48:1–8 The northern frontier includes the tribes of Dan, Asher, Naphtali, Manasseh, Ephraim, Reuben, and Judah.

48:7 Judah. Has a prestigious location, bordering the central territory that contains the sanctuary (v. 8). This is so because the Messiah was promised to come from the tribe of Judah (Gen 35:23; 49:8–12).

48:9–22 Verses 9–14, 15–22 repeat and expand the material found in 45:1–8.

48:9–14 This section concerns territories for the Levites and priests.

48:15–22 In this section the “city” is given prominence. It is a visible hub (square in shape, v. 20) uniting the tribes. Together with the territory for the Levites and priests, this area could be considered centrally located. To the north of it are seven tribes (vv. 1–8) and to the south are the five remaining tribes (vv. 23–29).

48:22 Benjamin. Borders the temple area to the south. Judah and Benjamin flank the land’s spiritual center, the place where the sanctuary is located.

48:23–29 The southern frontier includes Benjamin, Simeon, Issachar, Zebulun, and Gad.

48:30–35 Restoration of God’s Sovereign Name. The universal, even personal, access to the city and the unfolding of its name bring the vision and book to a climactic end.

48:30–34 Providing access to the city are 12 gates that are associated with the 12 tribes, emphasizing the unity of the entire people of God. The gates are named after Jacob’s original sons, not the tribal territories. As a result, Levi’s name appears in the list (v. 31) when one does not expect it (the Levites were not granted tribal allotments, cf. Num 1:49; Deut 10:9; Josh 13:14). Likewise, Joseph’s name appears (v. 32) instead of Ephraim and Manasseh (vv. 4–5). This maintains the number 12 and may emphasize the city’s accessibility to all (cf. Rev 21:12–14). The number 12, because of its origin with Israel and God’s promises to him and his family (Gen 49:28), is used repeatedly in the OT (Exod 24:4; Num 13:1–16; Josh 3–4; 1 Kgs 10:20; etc.). The NT writers make great use of its symbolism (Matt 19:28; Mark 4:10; Jas 1:1; Rev 7:1–8; 21:12). Thus, Ezekiel’s audience would be reminded of God’s character. God will fulfill his promises of redemption.

48:35 the city. The new spiritual center is a city. By the end of the vision, Ezekiel is finally able to make a clear identification of what he sees and initially identified as “buildings that looked like a city” (40:2). THE LORD IS THERE. The name of the city; it is pregnant with significance. The Hebrew for this clause is yhwh šāmmâ and means “The LORD is there” or “Yahweh is there.” The reality of God’s permanent presence in Israel’s midst is the ultimate covenantal blessing. Ezekiel’s audience would be reminded of God’s gracious and merciful character. God’s blessing awaits them. Without the divine presence the city, people, and temple were destroyed (chs. 8–11); there was no hope for the people of God. With the divine presence the city, people, and temple are restored (chs. 40–48); there is hope again for God’s people. From Genesis to Revelation, from Eden to eternity, the promise of the divine presence thematically unites the Bible. His presence guarantees that life will come out of death. The name of the city, the city of God, reflects the fullness of the restoration due to the divine presence. Restoration is complete (cf. Rev 21:9–27). See Introduction: Theological Significance; see also “The City of God.”