1. Fields, Slavery and Freedom, 193.
2. For analyses of Reconstruction-era struggles over land, labor, and the meaning of freedom, see Du Bois, Black Reconstruction, 431–636, 670–710; Woodward, Origins of the New South, 205–34; Foner, Nothing but Freedom, 39–73; Fields, Slavery and Freedom, 167–93; Saville, Work of Reconstruction, 5–31, 102–41; and Ortiz, Emancipation Betrayed, 9–32. Black southerners’ experiences in the Jim Crow era are examined in McMillen, Dark Journey; Daniel, Shadow of Slavery; Litwack, Trouble in Mind; and Woodruff, American Congo.
3. Daniel, Breaking the Land, 168–83, 239–55; Aiken, Cotton Plantation South, 119–32, 228; Kirby, Rural Worlds Lost, 51–79, 334–48; de Jong, “Staying in Place,” 388–90.
4. Ezra Cunningham quoted in Bethell, Sumter County Blues, 5.
5. Cunningham interview, 1–7, 10–11, 30, 32; John Zippert, “Inspiring Histories of Two Black and White Civil Rights Heroes in Alabama,” 15 Feb. 2007, FSC/LAF website, http://www.federationsoutherncoop.com/press/feb1507.htm (last modified 15 Feb. 2007).
6. Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract: 1960, 216 (table 278); Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract: 1970, 236 (table 353). Census statistics for the South include the District of Columbia and the following states: Alabama, Arkansas, Delaware, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maryland, Mississippi, Oklahoma, North Carolina, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, Virginia, and West Virginia.
7. Lawrence Guyot quoted in Key List Mailing No. 7, 5 Feb. 1966, 6, item 2, reel 2, MFDPR; Robert Patterson quoted in “Reverse Freedom Ride Impact Told,” Jackson Daily News, 14 June 1962, 2.
8. See Department of Labor, Economic Adjustment and Worker Dislocation, 145 (Appendix C, p. 1); Esposito, “Evaluating the Displaced-Worker/Job-Tenure Supplement,” 1; and the glossary of terms on the Bureau of Labor Statistics website at www.bls.gov/bls/glossary.htm.
9. For background on the political economy of the plantation South before the 1960s, see Mandle, Roots of Black Poverty, 16–51; Wright, Old South, New South, 81–123, 156–97; Cohen, At Freedom’s Edge, 23–43, 201–47; Woodman, New South—New Law, 95–115; McMillen, Dark Journey, 111–53; Aiken, Cotton Plantation South, 29–62; Woods, Development Arrested, 40–71, 88–120; and Woodruff, American Congo, 8–37. Useful overviews of the struggle for racial equality in Alabama, Louisiana, and Mississippi include Meier and Rudwick, CORE; Carson, In Struggle; Dittmer, Local People; Payne, I’ve Got the Light of Freedom; Fairclough, Race and Democracy; Eskew, But for Birmingham; and de Jong, A Different Day.
10. Definitions of the South’s cotton plantation regions vary across sources and changed over time with the transformations in the agricultural system that occurred between the 1930s and 1970s. The shaded areas on Maps 1, 2, and 3 represent those counties that historically had significant black populations (typically 40 percent or more) and economies based on plantation agriculture and cotton production, according to census data from the early to mid-twentieth century. Statistical data for the plantation regions cited in this book refer to these counties. The archival research for the book focused primarily (though not exclusively) on counties that retained black majorities in 1960 and became centers for social justice activism in the decades after 1965. Because the archival sources sometimes refer to the Mississippi Delta, a subset of Mississippi’s larger plantation region, counties making up that area are also indicated on the map for Mississippi. All of the Delta counties had black majorities in 1960.
11. Crosby, A Little Taste of Freedom; Moye, Let the People Decide; Fleming, In the Shadow of Selma; Jeffries, Bloody Lowndes; Hamlin, Crossroads at Clarksdale.
12. Crespino, In Search of Another Country; Kruse, White Flight; Lassiter, Silent Majority; Bobo, Kluegel, and Smith, “Laissez-Faire Racism”; Bonilla-Silva, Racism without Racists; de Jong, Invisible Enemy.
13. Peake, Keeping the Dream Alive; Newman, Divine Agitators; Tuck, We Ain’t What We Ought to Be; Danielson, After Freedom Summer; Minchin, Hiring the Black Worker; Minchin and Salmond, After the Dream; de Jong, “From Votes to Vegetables”; de Jong, “Scholarship, Education and Defense Fund for Racial Equality.”
14. Wilson, Communities Left Behind, 103–20; Schulman, From Cotton Belt to Sunbelt, 185.
15. Orleck, Storming Caesars Palace; Ashmore, Carry It On; Clayson, Freedom Is Not Enough; Korstad and Leloudis, To Right These Wrongs; de Jong, “Staying in Place.” See also Orleck and Hazirjian, War on Poverty, and Bailey and Danziger, Legacies of the War on Poverty.
16. See, for example, Crosby, A Little Taste of Freedom, xv, 155–57, 258–62; Sokol, There Goes My Everything, 1, 304–8; and Asch, Senator and the Sharecropper, 66–73.
17. As discussed in later chapters of this book, the idea that these developments were inevitable was promoted by plantation owners and accepted by many other people outside the South in the late twentieth century. It is also suggested in Asch, Senator and the Sharecropper, xiv, 225–30.
1. Johnson, Public Papers, 1965, bk. 2, 840, 842.
2. “Eviction Victims Holiday Cheerless,” Louisiana Weekly, 8 Jan. 1966, sec. 2, p. 5; George Lardner Jr., “Negro Tenants Lose Cotton Farms; Wouldn’t Surrender Federal Checks,” Washington Post, 20 June 1966, A1; Dorsey interview, 12.
3. Plantation owner quoted in Robert Sherrill, “It Isn’t True That Nobody Starves in America,” New York Times Sunday Magazine, 4 June 1967, 107.
4. Bureau of the Census, Fifteenth Census, Agriculture: 1930, vol. 2, pt. 2, pp. 1004–9 (Alabama), 1242–47 (Louisiana), 1083–89 (Mississippi) (county table 5); Bureau of the Census, Census of Agriculture: 1959, vol. 1, pt. 32 (Alabama), pp. 206–11; pt. 33 (Mississippi), pp. 215–21; pt. 35 (Louisiana), pp. 232–37 (county table 11).
5. Wright, Old South, New South, 244; Heinicke and Grove, “ ‘Machinery Has Completely Taken Over,’ ” 70.
6. Schulman, From Cotton Belt to Sunbelt, 153, 156; Asch, Senator and the Sharecropper, 229.
7. Bonnen, “Distribution of Benefits,” 461, 483–86, 501–4; Commission on Civil Rights, Equal Opportunity in Farm Programs, 99–108, and Decline of Black Farming, iii–iv, 1–13, 175–81 (land loss statistic on p. 2); “The Mess in Agriculture,” clipping from unknown source, 6 Mar. 1965, 1, encl. in Thomas R. Hughes to Heads of Department Agencies, memorandum, 10 Mar. 1965, file “Civil Rights Jan. 1–Apr. 2, 1965,” box 4255, GC, RG 16 (quotation). For a comprehensive account of how racist assumptions and practices permeated federal farm programs, see Daniel, Dispossession.
8. Roger Beardwood, “Southern Roots of Urban Crisis,” Fortune, Aug. 1968, 84; Statement of Orville L. Freeman, in Hunger and Malnutrition in America, 140.
9. Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics, pt. 1, 95; “State’s Loss by Migration Shown in Census Study,” Bolivar County Democrat, 18 Nov. 1965, 2; Hodding Carter III, “The Negro Exodus from the Delta Continues,” New York Times Sunday Magazine, 10 Mar. 1968, 119; Brown interview, 4; Greene County Economic Development Commission, “A Proposal for Funding the Comprehensive Economic Development of Greene County, Alabama,” 2 Oct. 1972, 1, cons. with Spiver W. Gordon to Leslie Dunbar, 29 Nov. 1972, file “Scholarship, Education and Defense Fund, Inc., 1970–1972,” box 433, series 3, RBFA.
10. Bureau of the Census, Fifteenth Census, Population: 1930, vol. 3, pt. 1, pp. 99–103 (Alabama), 980–84 (Louisiana), 1282–87 (Mississippi) (table 13); Bureau of the Census, Census of the Population: 1960, vol. 1, pt. 2 (Alabama), pp. 24–25; pt. 20 (Louisiana), pp. 24–25; pt. 26 (Mississippi), pp. 24–25 (table 13).
11. Bureau of the Census, Census of the Population: 1950, vol. 2, pt. 2 (Alabama), pp. 73–83; pt. 18 (Louisiana), pp. 67–77; pt. 24 (Mississippi), pp. 60–73 (table 41); Bureau of the Census, Census of the Population: 1970, vol. 1, pt. 2 (Alabama), pp. 109–25; pt. 20 (Louisiana), pp. 103–18; pt. 26 (Mississippi), pp. 87–107 (table 35); “Old farmer” quoted in “Evaluation—SWAFCA Board of Director [sic] Workshop Conducted at Selma, Alabama, June 7 and 9, 1969,” 26 June 1969,” 1, file 11, box 18, SEDFREP.
12. Southeastern Area Office, “Area Policy Paper for Lowndes County, Alabama,” 1 June 1967, 1–3, 6–7, file “1967—EDA Area Policy Papers,” box 5, SFPP, RG 378.
13. Southeastern Area Office, “EDA Strategy Paper for Wilcox County,” [1967], 1, 3, encl. in Robert M. Rauner to Assistant Secretary, memorandum, 7 Apr. 1967, file “1967—EDA Area Policy Papers,” box 5, SFPP, RG 378.
14. Southeastern Area Office, “EDA Strategy Paper for Sunflower County, Mississippi,” 17 Apr. 1967, 1, 4, file “1967—EDA Area Policy Papers,” box 5, SFPP, RG 378; Carol Stevens, “Hope in Sunflower,” Southern Patriot, Mar. 1966, 4.
15. Bureau of the Census, Fifteenth Census, Population: 1930, vol. 3, pt. 1, pp. 1299–1309 (table 20); Bureau of the Census, Census of the Population: 1970, vol. 1, pt. 26 (Mississippi), pp. 297–303 (table 123); Hodding Carter III, “The Negro Exodus from the Delta Continues,” New York Times Sunday Magazine, 10 Mar. 1968, 119.
16. Wofford, Preliminary Report, 1141; W. P. Smith, “Site Visit Report, Anti-Poverty Coordinating Committee, Camden, Alabama,” 7 Sept. 1968, 7, file “Evaluations Alabama 8539,” box 3, GFMD, RG 381. For job loss statistics see table 1 in the appendix of this book.
17. Schulman, From Cotton Belt to Sunbelt, 88; Bolivar County Area Development Association, Bolivar County Development Plan (OEDP), 1967, 118–19, file 3, box 1, LBP; W[illiam] J. Nagle to Mr. Harvey, Dr. Nixon, Mr. Eaton, Mr. Jeffers, Mr. Coss, Mr. Williams, and Miss Conway, memorandum, 17 Mar. 1966, 1, cons. with Eugene P. Foley to [name unreadable], 21 Mar. [1966], file “Mississippi,” box 6, SFES, RG 378; Theo. James Pinnock, Site Visit Report, 11–17 June 1968, 2, file “Huntsville-Madison Co. CAC—Evaluations,” box 2, GFMD, RG 381.
18. Dorsey interview, 12; “Briefing Memorandum on Employment Agencies and Equal Employment Opportunity,” n.d. [ca. 1964], 4, file “1965—Commission—Equal Employment Opportunity (November–December),” box 237, WWW, RG 174; “Progress against Discrimination Reported by Labor Department,” DOL news release, 2–3, file “Equal Opportunity in MA Programs (Title VI—CRA) 1968,” box 628, WWW, RG 174. For a thorough examination of persistent employment discrimination and black activists’ efforts to integrate southern industry, see Minchin, Hiring the Black Worker.
19. Monroe E. Price to Secretary [Willard Wirtz], memorandum, 20 Dec. 1965, 1, file “1965—Conference—White House Conference on Civil Rights,” and Carl Holman, Berl Bernhard, and Harold Fleming to Lee C. White, memorandum, 3 Dec. 1965, 9, file “1965—Conference—White House Conference To Fulfill These Rights,” both in box 240, WWW, RG 174; “Eviction Victims Holiday Cheerless,” Louisiana Weekly, 8 Jan. 1966, sec. 2, p. 5; Commission on Civil Rights, Cycle to Nowhere, 12 (Sadie Allen quotation), 29 (Shambray).
20. “ ‘Inferior’ Education Barring Negroes from ‘Good’ Jobs,” Louisiana Weekly, 26 Feb. 1966, 1, 7; Eric Blanchard, “Negro Seen Hindered by Job Aptitude Tests,” Washington Post, 2 Jan. 1967, B5; Unidentified source quoted in William H. Brown III, “The ’64 Civil Rights Act: A Promise Unrealized?,” Jan. 1972, reprinted in EEOC Newsletter, 15 Feb. 1972, 5, file “Clippings 1971,” box 6, CFC, RG 403.
21. “Report from Mississippi,” 29 Oct. 1965, 4, item 2, reel 2, MFDPR; “New School Desegregation Order,” Louisiana Weekly, 14 Jan. 1967, sec. 2, 4. Efforts to desegregate rural southern schools and the fierce opposition this generated are examined in Fleming, In the Shadow of Selma, 187–281; Moye, Let the People Decide, 171–99; Crespino, In Search of Another Country, 173–204; and Jeffries, Bloody Lowndes, 81–116.
22. James E. Allen Jr. to Garvin H. Johnston, 9 July 1969, 2–3, file “State Department of Education—Title I School Funds—School Compliance,” box 169, TGAP; Cascio and Reber, “K–12 Education Battle,” 66–67, 71–73; Rims Barber, “A Report to the Commission on the Delta Ministry,” June 1968, 3–4, file 2, box 4, DMP; Jake Ayers Sr. and Rims Barber, “Title I as Remedial Education,” 13 Dec. 1969, 1–2, file 14, box 11, DMP.
23. Wilson, Communities Left Behind, 103–20. Cobb also discusses white opposition to industrial employment for black workers in Selling of the South, 115–17.
24. “Council Drops Plans for Expanding Farm Machinery Training Program,” Delta Council News, Jan. 1962, 1; H. L. Mitchell to Daniel L. Goldy, 27 Mar. 1962, 1, file 11, box 3A, AECC. For more on the Delta Council and planters’ responses to labor problems, see Woodruff, “Mississippi Delta Planters.”
25. John D. Pomfret, “First Projects to Retrain Unemployed Approved,” New York Times, 9 Sept. 1962, 1, 67.
26. “Negro Group Hits U.S. Job Training,” New York Times, 6 May 1963, 29; Carl Holman, Berl Bernhard, and Harold Fleming to Lee C. White, memorandum, 3 Dec. 1965, 7, file “1965—Conference—White House Conference To Fulfill These Rights,” box 240, WWW, RG 174; Kenneth W. Munden, “The Office of Economic Opportunity in the Nixon Administration,” unpublished manuscript, 1973, 188–89, unfoldered, box 107, HOEO, RG 381; Theodore James Pinnock to Tom Karter, 16 Feb. 1967, 1, cons. with Theodore James Pinnock, Progress Report, Lowndes and Wilcox Counties, Alabama, 15 Nov. 1966–15 Jan. 1967, file “Lowndes Co. Christ. Mvmt.,” box 6, GFMD, RG 381; “Staff Report on Employment,” [1968], 2, encl. in Robert W. Saunders to Maurice A. Dawkins, 6 May 1968, file “Saunders—Civil Rights Commission Hearings, Montgomery, Ala.,” box 9, PRADCR, RG 381.
27. Segalman and Basu, Poverty in America, 91–108, 317; Slesinger and Pfeffer, “Migrant Farm Workers,” 138–39, 153 (n. 2); Statement of Orville L. Freeman, in Hunger and Malnutrition in America, 121.
28. See, for example, Gordon, Pitied but Not Entitled, 253–306; Quadagno, Color of Welfare, 8–15, 19–25; and Neubeck and Cazenave, Welfare Racism, 41–65.
29. Ida Mae Lawrence quoted in “We Ain’t Got Nothin’ but Needs,” Delta Ministry Reports, Feb. 1966, 6, file 7, box 142, PBJFP; “Statement of Mississippi Freedom Labor Union Members, Supporting Minimum Wage Coverage of Farm Laborers and Sharecroppers before the House Subcommittee on Education and Labor,” 15 July 1965, 3, file 18, box 1, MFDPR (Jessie Atkins quotation); Mrs. X (2 of 2) to Orville Freeman, affidavit, Sept. 1965, 1, cons. with William M. Seabron to Lawrence Guyot, 3 Dec. 1965, file “Civil Rights Nov. 24–Dec. 7, 1965,” box 4254, GC, RG 16; Key List Mailing No. 5, 7 Jan. [1966], 3, item 2, reel 2, MFDPR; Statement of Raymond M. Wheeler, in Hunger and Malnutrition in America, 10.
30. “Welfare Cut Hits All Parts of La.,” Louisiana Weekly, 30 July 1960, 1, 7; “Example of States Rights . . . Southern Style,” ibid., 17 Sept. 1960, 11; “Starving Tots No Distortion of Fact—Kerns,” ibid., 1 Oct. 1960, 1, 7; “Child Welfare League Asks Probe of La. Welfare Laws,” ibid., 1 Oct. 1960, 2.
31. Morris J. Priebatsch to Fred A. Ross, 30 Oct. 1962, 1, memorandum, file 3, box 42, WSP.
32. Walter Goodman, “The Case of Mrs. Sylvester Smith,” New York Times Sunday Magazine, 25 Aug. 1968, 29, 62 (Alabama substitute father law); Joseph Brenner, Robert Coles, Alan Mermann, Milton J. E. Senn, Cyril Walwyn, and Raymond Wheeler, “Children in Mississippi: A Report to the Field Foundation,” June 1967, 7, encl. in William Ling to Jule Sugarman, memorandum, 27 June 1967, file “Administrative—Mississippi—1967,” box 16, StFDCAP, RG 381. For more on the ways racism shaped southern (and national) welfare policies, see Cobb, “ ‘Somebody Done Nailed Us on the Cross,’ ” 914–20; Quadagno, Color of Welfare, 8–15, 19–25, 117–34; and Neubeck and Cazenave, Welfare Racism, 41–65, 117–44.
33. “Staff Report on Public Assistance in Alabama,” [1968], 8, encl. in Robert W. Saunders to Maurice A. Dawkins, 6 May 1968, file “Saunders—Civil Rights Commission Hearings, Montgomery, Ala.,” box 9, PRADCR, RG 381; Arundell, “Welfare Rights,” 94; Garland L. Bonin to N. P. Himbert, 9 Oct. 1968, 1–2, file 1, box 371, RBLC.
34. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, A Constructive Public Welfare Program, 3; Hosek, AFDC-Unemployed Fathers Program, 2; Robert B. Choate, “Summary Statement to the House Agriculture Committee,” 27 Sept. 1967, 10–11, cons. with W. Willard Wirtz to Mrs. Roberts B. Owen, 5 Oct. 1967, file “Agriculture 1967,” box 499, WWW, RG 174.
35. Commission on Civil Rights, Cycle to Nowhere, 7; Walter Rugaber, “In the Delta, Poverty Is a Way of Life,” New York Times, 31 July 1967, 1.
36. Schulman, From Cotton Belt to Sunbelt, 112–34; “Rich Farmers Get Huge Handouts while the Poor Go Hungry,” Rural Advance, Summer 1968, 3 (Abernethy); Bolivar County Area Development Association, Bolivar County Development Plan (OEDP), 1967, 106–7, file 3, box 1, LBP; Bureau of the Census, Census of the Population: 1970, vol. 1, pt. 26 (Mississippi), p. 332 (table 128).
37. Subcommittee on Employment, Manpower and Poverty to President, 27 Apr. 1967, 2, file “Mississippi—Clark Sub-cte,” box 3, GRPR, RG 381; Joseph Brenner, Robert Coles, Alan Mermann, Milton J. E. Senn, Cyril Walwyn, and Raymond Wheeler, “Children in Mississippi: A Report to the Field Foundation,” June 1967, 3–6, encl. in William Ling to Jule Sugarman, memorandum, 27 June 1967, file “Administrative—Mississippi—1967,” box 16, StFDCAP, RG 381; “The Agricultural Co-operative as a Possible Means of Providing Food for Needy Persons,” n.d. [ca. 1966], 1–2, file 16, box 1, LBP (Bolivar County). Other studies of the hunger crisis included Hunger and Malnutrition in America; Citizens’ Board of Inquiry, Hunger, U.S.A.; and Commission on Civil Rights, Cycle to Nowhere.
38. Supplemental Statement of Raymond M. Wheeler, in Hunger and Malnutrition in America, 62; “NAACP: Starvation Fighter,” [fund-raising pamphlet, 1968], 1, file “59th Annual NAACP Convention, Atlantic City, New Jersey, June 24 1968,” box 10, PRADCR, RG 381.
39. Charlotte Devree, “Draft for a Fact Sheet, for CORE SEDF Education Project in Mississippi,” 24 Oct. 1963, 2, file 1, box 74, series 5, CORER; “The People Who Make History,” Southern Patriot, Feb. 1963, Special Supplement, 2 (Delta town); Dorsey interview, 31, 32–33.
40. “What’s New in Mississippi,” Delta Ministry, Jan. 1966, [3], file 6, box 2A, AECC; “Notes on the Condition of the Mississippi Negro—1966,” 3, file 5, box 1, FISR (“final solution” quotation); Frank Millspaugh, “Black Power,” Commonweal, 5 Aug. 1966, 502 (Lowndes County); Percy McShan quoted in J. M. McFadden, “U.S. Official Denies Farm Bias in Ala.,” Washington Post, 28 May 1967, A2; Theo. James Pinnock, Site Visit Report, 11–17 June 1968, 2, file “Huntsville-Madison Co. CAC—Evaluations,” box 2, GFMD, RG 381.
41. Nan Robertson, “Stennis and Eastland Reject ‘Libel’ on Mississippi,” New York Times, 12 July 1967, 22; Charles C. Jacobs Jr. to William Colmer, 13 July 1967, 1, cons. with Thomas Abernethy to Jacobs, 20 July 1967, file “Poverty in Mississippi,” box 182, TGAP; George H. Lipscomb Jr. to Paul B. Johnson, 24 July 1967, 1, file “Poverty Hearings, 1967,” box 7, series 25, JCSC; Erle Johnston Jr., form letter, n.d. [ca. 1967], 1, file 6, box 141, PBJFP.
42. Lonnie Hudkins and O. D. Wilson, “Delta in Distress,” Houston Post, 8 Mar. 1964, 1; Statement of Raymond M. Wheeler, in Hunger and Malnutrition in America, 11; Robert Sherrill, “It Isn’t True That Nobody Starves in America,” New York Times Sunday Magazine, 4 June 1967, 103, 107.
43. Wofford, Preliminary Report, 1095, 1097; National Education Association, Wilcox County, Alabama, 78, 82; Southeastern Area Office, “Area Policy Paper for Tunica County Mississippi,” 25 Aug. 1967, 9, encl. in Edwin W. Webber to Area Directors, Deputy Assistant Secretaries, and Office Directors, memorandum, 20 Oct. 1967, file “1967—EDA Area Policy Papers,” box 9, SFPP, RG 378.
44. Development official quoted in Cobb, Selling of the South, 116; “Resolutions Adopted at Meeting of Citizens’ Councils of America in New Orleans, May 19, 1962,” and “Negro Surplus or Deficit for Each State,” Citizen, May 1962, 4, 8.
45. Paul Harvey, “Living in Glass Houses,” Citizen, May 1962, 2; “Reverse Freedom Ride Impact Told,” Jackson Daily News, 14 June 1962, 2 (Patterson quotation); Congressional Record, 88th Cong., 2nd sess., 1964, 110, pt. 4: 5338, 5578.
46. Shirley Till Russell to John Sparkman, 31 Mar. 1965, 5, cons. with Eleanor Ballentine to Sparkman, 3 Apr. 1965, and Mrs. A. P. Brooks to John Sparkman, 1 Apr. 1965, 2, cons. with Sparkman to Aklin Lwmmond [sic], 9 Apr. 1965, both in file “Robo Civil Rights,” box 9, 1963–64 series, JJSSP; Ellett Lawrence to Friend, n.d. [1960s], 1, file 2, box 105, WSP.
47. Annie Denman to Governor [Paul] Johnson, 29 Mar. 1965, 1, file 7, box 110, PBJFP; C. R. Singletary to Russell Long, 21 Feb. 1968, 1, file 8, box 110, RBLC; Joseph Miller to John Sparkman, 12 Apr. 1965, 1, cons. with Sparkman, form letter, 14 Apr. 1965, file “CR Voting Bill,” box 16, 1965 series, JJSSP.
48. Mrs. Merritt quoted in Al From to Bob Emond, memorandum, 23 Jan. 1968, 29, file “Anti-Poverty Coordinating Committee (Wilcox County)” (2 of 2), box 6, GFMD, RG 381; Fred Ross, “Racial Amalgamation Propaganda versus Segregation and Racial Cooperation,” 16 Apr. 1963, 4, 6, file 11, box 134, PBJFP.
49. Thomas G. Abernethy, “In the News,” 12 Mar. 1964, 1, file “Newsletters, 1964,” box 128, TGAP; Mrs. Robert L. Jefferson Sr. to W. R. Poage, 17 June 1968, 1, cons. with John Sparkman to Jefferson, 20 June 1968, file “Health and Welfare (Poverty Programs),” box 6, 1968 series, JJSSP; Janet Williams to Bill Nichols, 25 June 1974, cons. with Nichols to Williams, 12 July 1974, 1, file “22-Q Pensions and Security (Ruben King),” box 19, series 81-1, WFNP.
50. Charles B. Shuman, “What Kind of Poverty?,” clipping from Nation’s Agriculture, n.d. [ca. Nov. 1966], 6, file 20, box 229, RBLC; Bolivar County Area Development Association, Bolivar County Development Plan (OEDP), 1967, 132–33 (quotations), 138, file 3, box 1, LBP; American Farm Bureau Federation, Farm Bureau Policies for 1967, 8 Dec. 1965, 48, unfoldered, box 2, series 86-97, AFBFR; Louisiana Department of Public Welfare, news release, 24 Apr. 1968, 1–2, file 1, box 371, RBLC.
51. Mrs. B. G. Burton to John Sparkman, 13 Sept. 1965, 2, cons. with Sparkman to Burton, 18 Sept. 1965, file “States and Human Rights” (1 of 2), box 7, 1965 series, JJSSP; Roger Samson to Russell Long, 3 Oct. 1966, 2, file 46, box 97, RBLC; Robert Norman McKnight to R. B. Long, 24 Sept. 1967, 1, file 4, box 103, RBLC; Bill Nichols to J. H. Robison, 10 May 1968, 1, file “7-B Civil Rights, Riots, etc.,” box 15, series 81-4, WFNP.
52. Hamner Cobbs quoted in Ashmore, Carry It On, 131; Sam H. Jones, “Louisiana, The Optimistic View,” speech to Rotary Club, New Orleans, Louisiana, 31 Mar. 1965, 11, file “Speeches—January–May 21, 1965,” box 57, WWJC.
53. Donald C. Mosley and D. C. Williams Jr., “An Analysis and Evaluation of a Community Action Anti-Poverty Program in the Mississippi Delta,” July 1967, 31–32, file “Community Action Program” (1 of 6), box 150, GFMD, RG 381; “Sims Lockett” [Semmes Luckett] quoted in Howell, Freedom City, 18.
54. “DP’s in the Delta,” Newsweek, 14 Feb. 1966, 28.
55. American Taxpayers Association, “E.D.A.: Something Borrowed, Nothing New,” Tax Information Series No. 65-11, 30 Nov. 1965, 2, encl. in B. Parrette to Gene Foley, memorandum, 8 Dec. [1965], file “Clippings,” box 5, SFES, RG 378; American Farm Bureau Federation, Farm Bureau Policies for 1964, 12 Dec. 1963, 24–25, unfoldered, box 2, series 86-97, AFBFR.
56. Aaron Shirley quoted in Homer Bigart, “Hunger in America: Mississippi Delta,” New York Times, 18 Feb. 1969, 18.
1. George Lardner Jr., “Negro Tenants Lose Cotton Farms; Wouldn’t Surrender Federal Checks,” Washington Post, 20 June 1966, A1.
2. Unknown author to John F. Kennedy, 1 Mar. 1961, 2, file 3, box 1, 1974 Addendum, AECC; Brown interview, 4, 6; Lonnie Hudkins and O. D. Wilson, “Delta in Distress,” Houston Post, 8 Mar. 1964, 19; John Bradford quoted in Victor Ullman, “In Darkest America,” Nation, 4 Sept. 1967, 180; Commission on Civil Rights, Cycle to Nowhere, 47.
3. Theo. James Pinnock and G. W. Taylor, “Tuskegee Institute–OEO Seasonally Employed Agricultural Workers Educational Project, Summary of Accomplishments and Disappointments,” 1 Nov. 1966–31 Oct. 1967, 4, 23, file “Miscellaneous Alabama 8539,” box 3, GFMD, RG 381. For studies of the challenges that racism posed for African Americans in the North, see Grossman, Land of Hope; Massey and Denton, American Apartheid; and Sugrue, Origins of the Urban Crisis.
4. Hatch interview, 31, 33, 34; “Proposal Submitted by Southern Rural Action Incorporated for a Comprehensive Enterprise and Community Development Program for the United States Southeast,” n.d. [1968], 11, cons. with Maurice A. Dawkins to Harding, Perrin and Templeton, memorandum, 29 Aug. 1968, file “Rural Affairs Proposal Project 1968 w/ Civil Rights Implications (SCLC),” box 13, SFDD, RG 381; James Joliff Jr. quoted in Phyl Garland, “A Taste of Triumph for Black Mississippi,” Ebony, Feb. 1968, 32.
5. “The People Who Make History,” Southern Patriot, Feb. 1963, 2; [Stephen Arons], “Memorandum Re: Thanksgiving Fast for Freedom, 1964–65,” 1, cons. with Ben Steele to John V. Lindsay, 12 Nov. 1965, file “Food Stamp Program Nov. 9–12, 1965,” box 4300, GC, RG 16; Newman, Divine Agitators, 95–97; Guyot and Thelwell, “Toward Independent Political Power,” 252.
6. Joseph Wheatley, Sue Geiger, and Robert Strickland quoted in Nick Kotz, “In the Deep South, the Enemy Is Poverty,” Minneapolis Tribune, 14 May 1967, 1B (Wheatley and Strickland), 4B (Geiger).
7. Southwest Alabama Self-Help Housing, Inc., Application for Community Action Program, n.d. [ca. 1966], 2, file “Southwest Alabama Self-Help Housing, Inc.—Miscellaneous” (1 of 2), and Southwest Alabama Self-Help Housing, Application for Community Action Program, n.d. [1968], Attachment CAP 7, 1–2, file “Southwest Alabama Self-Help Housing, Inc.—Miscellaneous” (2 of 2), both in box 7, GFMD, RG 381.
8. [SCDP], “Small Farmers Increased Income Program,” n.d. [ca. 1966], 6–7, file 1, box 29, SEDFREP; R. M. Stevens quoted in Kotz, “In the Deep South, the Enemy Is Poverty,” Minneapolis Tribune, 14 May 1967, 4B.
9. Unita Blackwell and Annie Devine, “Congressman Resnick’s Visit to Mississippi,” n.d. [Dec. 1965], 1–2, cons. with Thomas Abernethy to Joe T. Patterson, 16 Dec. 1965, file “Freedom Democratic Party,” box 272, TGAP; Joseph Y. Resnick to Orville L. Freeman, 4 Dec. 1965, cons. with William M. Seabron to Resnick, 17 Dec. 1965, 2, file “Civil Rights Dec. 8, 1965–,” box 4254, GC, RG 16; Ben Steele to John V. Lindsay, 12 Nov. 1965, 1, file “Food Stamp Program Nov. 9–12, 1965,” box 4300, GC, RG 16 (identical letters to other congressional representatives who expressed interest in the issue are in the same file).
10. “We Ain’t Got Nothin’ but Needs,” Delta Ministry Reports, Feb. 1966, 3, 5, file 7, box 142, PBJFP; Ora D. Wilson quoted in Howell, Freedom City, 67.
11. “We Ain’t Got Nothin’ But Needs,” Delta Ministry Reports, Feb. 1966, 1–3, file 7, box 142, PBJFP; Howell, Freedom City, 29–30 (quotations).
12. Key List Mailing No. 7, 5 Feb. 1966, 5, item 2, reel 2, MFDPR; “Government’s ‘No’ to Squatters,” New York Times, 6 Feb. 1966, E2; Victoria J. Gray to Friends and Supporters of the MFDP, 10 Feb. 1966, 2, item 2, reel 2, MFDPR; Ida Mae Lawrence quoted in “We Ain’t Got Nothin’ but Needs,” Delta Ministry Reports, Feb. 1966, 6, file 7, box 142, PBJFP. For more on the Greenville protest, see Cobb, “ ‘Somebody Done Nailed Us on the Cross,’ ” 928–31; Dittmer, Local People, 366–68; and Newman, Divine Agitators, 104–5.
13. “DP’s in the Delta,” Newsweek, 14 Feb. 1966, 28, 30; “ ‘Secret’ Crisis in the Delta,” Newsweek, 7 Mar. 1966, 28; Thomas Karter to Noel H. Klores, 21 Feb. 1966, 1–2, file “Mississippi Food Demonstration Project 1966” (2 of 3), box 28, SuFDCAP, RG 381; Orville Freeman quoted in Wayne D. Rasmussen and Gladys L. Baker, “The Department of Agriculture during the Administration of President Lyndon B. Johnson, Volume II,” 1969, 119, unfoldered, box 8, JAS, RG 16.
14. Foster Davis, “Kennedy and Clark Tour Anti-Poverty Facilities,” Delta Democrat-Times, 11 Apr. 1967, 1; Comment by Jacob Javits, in Hunger and Malnutrition in America, 4.
15. The Delta Ministry, Aug. 1965, 3, file 6, box 2A, AECC; “Food Assistant Program in All Counties of State,” Madison County Herald, 17 Mar. 1966, sec. 3, p. 4; Orville L. Freeman to Edith Green, 7 Dec. 1965, 1, file “Civil Rights Nov. 10–Nov. 23, 1965,” box 4254, GC, RG 16.
16. “USDA Food Programs Expanding to All 1,000 Lowest Income Counties,” USDA news release, 8 July 1968, 1, file “Civil Rights May 14, 1969,” box 4949, GC, RG 16; “USDA Family Food Programs Aided 10.4 Million Needy Persons in June,” USDA news release, 3 Aug. 1970, 1, in “USDA Civil Rights Report, August 1970,” encl. in Joseph M. Robertson to Robert J. Brown, 4 Sept. 1970, file “Civil Rights August 24–September 30, 1970,” box 5160, GC, RG 16; “Statement by Secretary of Agriculture Orville L. Freeman on Recommendations of the Board of Inquiry into Hunger and Malnutrition in the United States,” 23 Apr. 1968, 1, file 3, box 1, JHP.
17. “What Happens to All the Surplus Food?” n.d. [1965/66], 1, file 5, box 1, FISR; Brown interview, 18.
18. Hatch interview, 52; Lucille Dukes, “Marion County News,” Freedom Information Service Mississippi Newsletter, 5 Apr. 1968, 4, file 21, box 3, VGAP; Marjorie Baroni, Daily Journal entry, 20 July 1966, no page numbers, file 1, box 7, MBC.
19. Dorothy Beith, “Hopes of Migrant Workers Overflow Tunica Meeting,” clipping from Memphis Commercial Appeal, [12 Apr. 1967], file “Mid-State Oppor., Inc.” (1 of 2), box 153, GFMD, RG 381; Geiger interview, 76–77 (Bolivar County); South Delta Community Action Association, “CAP Narrative Progress Report,” 1 Oct.–30 Dec. 1966, 3, file “5156 La.,” box 836, NPR, RG 381.
20. W. Willard Wirtz to Mrs. D. O’Reilly, 5 July 1967, 2, file “Intergration [sic] and Civil Rights July–September 1967,” box 530, WWW, RG 174; Office of Economic Opportunity, As the Seed Is Sown, 15; “Statement of Reverend Ralph David Abernathy to the Secretary of Labor,” n.d. [2 June 1967], 1–2, cons. with George P. Shultz to Ralph D. Abernathy, 17 June 1969, file “Integration, Civil Rights, Voting Rights and Negro Family April–May (Except May 13) 1969,” box 123, GPS, RG 174.
21. “OEO, Labor Join in Mississippi Job Training,” OEO news release, 21 Feb. 1966, 1, file “Mississippi—Clark Sub-cte,” box 3, GRPR, RG 381; “Discussions with William Seabron of the Dept. of Agriculture,” 25 Mar. [1966], 1, file 5, box 1, MFDPR.
22. Dick Hausler to Theodore M. Berry, routing slip, 16 Mar. 1966, 1, cons. with Eugene P. Foley to [name unreadable], 21 Mar. [1966]; “Mississippi Progress Report,” n.d. [9 Mar. 1966], encl. in W[illiam] J. Nagle to Emanuel Boasberg, 9 Mar. 1966, cons. with Eugene P. Foley to [name unreadable], 21 Mar. [1966], 1–2; and W[illiam] J. Nagle to Eugene P. Foley, memorandum, 29 Mar. 1966, 4, all in file “Mississippi,” box 6, SFES, RG 378.
23. Congressional Record, 88th Cong., 2nd sess., 1964, 110, pt. 4: 5578; SCLC, “Poor People in America,” 1968, 2–5, file 31, box 5, VGAP.
24. Congressional Record, 88th Cong., 2nd sess., 1964, 110, pt. 4: 5197.
25. United States Department of Agriculture, Office of the Secretary, “Agriculture in the Sixties,” Oct. 1966, 11, cons. with Secretary of Labor [W. Willard Wirtz] to Orville Freeman, 25 Oct. 1966, file “Farm Labor, October 1966,” box 372, WWW, RG 174; “U.S. Seeks to Cut Negro Migration,” Washington Post, 12 Nov. 1966, A4 (Foley); Maurice Dawkins to Sargent Shriver and Bertrand Harding, memorandum, 11 May 1967, 2, file “Civil Rights” (4 of 4), box 2, PFDD, RG 381 (OEO officials); Economic Opportunity Amendments of 1967, Pub. L. No. 90–222, Statutes at Large 81 (1967): 691; President’s National Advisory Committee on Rural Poverty, People Left Behind, xiii.
26. Marshall interview, 22; Wilfred C. Leland to John B. Morris, memorandum, 7 Dec. 1965, 2, file “Minority Groups,” box 2, GSCF, RG 378; A. J. Foster to Orville L. Freeman, 4 Apr. 1966, 2, cons. with John Stennis to Foster, 4 May 1966, file “Agriculture—Farmers Home Administration, 1966,” box 9, series 8, JCSC.
27. Jennie T. Burrell to John Sparkman, Mar. 1968, 1–2, cons. with Sparkman to Burrell, 8 Mar. 1968; Claire L. Benjamin to John Sparkman, 9 Apr. 1968, 1, cons. with Sparkman to Benjamin, 18 Apr. 1968; and Charles S. Watson to John Sparkman, 7 Apr. 1968, cons. with Sparkman to Watson, 10 Apr. 1968, all in file “Civil Rights, Jan. thru April, 1968,” box 1, 1968 series, JJSSP; J. F. Ingram to John Sparkman, 17 Feb. 1965, 1–2, cons. with Wiley Messick to Ingram, 26 Feb. 1965, file “Vocational Education,” box 8, 1965 series, JJSSP.
28. Paul B. Johnson, manuscript of article written for American Banker, n.d. [mid-1960s], [4], file 3, box 108, PBJFP; “Mississippi Progress Report,” n.d. [9 Mar. 1966], 1, encl. in W[illiam] J. Nagle to Emanuel Boasberg, 9 Mar. 1966, cons. with Eugene P. Foley to [name unreadable], 21 Mar. [1966], 1, and William J. Nagle to Eugene P. Foley, memorandum, 29 Mar. 1966, 1, both in file “Mississippi,” box 6, SFES, RG 378; “Mississippi Tries to Narrow the Gap,” Business Week, 29 June 1968, 80–82 (quotation on p. 82).
29. Crespino, In Search of Another Country, 135–36; Hamlin, Crossroads at Clarksdale, 214–22; Ben A. Franklin, “Race Issue Snags Aid to Louisiana,” New York Times, 5 Mar. 1965, 1; Jack Gonzales to Bill Haddad, 5 Mar. 1965, 1, cons. with Haddad to Sargent Shriver, memorandum, 14 Mar. 1965, file “Mississippi—Personnel—1965,” box 5, StFDCAP, RG 381.
30. Frederick O’R. Hayes to Theodore M. Berry, memorandum, 20 Mar. 1965, 1–2, and “Conclusions,” 1, encl. in Jack Gonzales to Bill Haddad, memorandum, 9 Mar. 1965 (quotation), both in file “Alabama—Personnel—1965” (1 of 2), box 1, StFDCAP, RG 381.
31. Robert L. Martin to Edgar May, memorandum, 4 Aug. 1966, 3–4, file “Lowndes County, Alabama 1966 (Inactive)” (3 of 5), box 27, SuFDCAP, RG 381; Reginald Albritton quoted in Al From to Bob Emond, memorandum, 5 Feb. 1968, 16, file “Anti-Poverty Coordinating Committee (Wilcox County)” (2 of 2), box 6, GFMD, RG 381.
32. Dorsey interview, 3; Steve Reed to Sargent Shriver, 17 Nov. 1966, 1, file “Administrative Mississippi 1966” (1 of 2), box 12, StFDCAP, RG 381; Hazel Brannon Smith, “The War on Poverty,” excerpt from editorial in Lexington Advertiser, 24 Nov. 1966, in Saints Junior College Migrant Farmers Educational Project, “Project Report to the Office of Economic Opportunity: Second Start 1967,” Apr. 1968, [Preface], file “Migrant Farmers Educational Project (Publication),” box 149, GFMD, RG 381.
33. Bennie Gooden and Andrew Carr quoted in Kotz, “In the Deep South, the Enemy Is Poverty,” 5B; Hamlin, Crossroads at Clarksdale, 215; Donald C. Mosley and D. C. Williams Jr., “An Analysis and Evaluation of a Community Action Anti-Poverty Program in the Mississippi Delta,” July 1967, 8, 36 (quotation), file “Community Action Program” (1 of 6), box 150, GFMD, RG 381.
1. Johnson, Public Papers, 1963–64, bk. 1, 113–15 (quotation on p. 114).
2. Congressional Record, 88th Cong., 2nd sess., 1964, 110, pt. 13: 16743 (Magnuson quotation); Moynihan, Maximum Feasible Misunderstanding, 83–87, 90–91 (Kennedy quotation on p. 90); “President’s War on Poverty Seen as Boon to ‘Poor Folks,’ ” Louisiana Weekly, 28 Mar. 1964, 10. For general background on the origins, achievements, and limits of the War on Poverty, see Levine, The Poor Ye Need Not Have with You; Quadagno, Color of Welfare; Clark, The War on Poverty; and Cazenave, Impossible Democracy.
3. Katz, Undeserving Poor, 98–101; National Advisory Council on Economic Opportunity, “Perspectives on Poverty: First Draft of the 1968 Report to the President,” 5 Jan. 1968, 49–50, file “National Advisory Council” (1 of 2), box 3, PFDD, RG 381.
4. Jordan, “Fighting for the Child Development Group of Mississippi,” 290; Dorsey interview, 33–34, 36–37 (quotations on p. 36); Andrews, “Social Movements and Policy Implementation,” 80 (Bernice Johnson); Jeffries, Bloody Lowndes, 117–25, 134–39; Al From to Bob Emond, memorandum, 23 Jan. 1968, 2, 13, file “Anti-Poverty Coordinating Committee (Wilcox County)” (2 of 2), box 6, GFMD, RG 381.
5. Lillian McGill quoted in Al From to Bob Emond, memorandum, 23 Jan. 1968, 13, file “Anti-Poverty Coordinating Committee (Wilcox County)” (2 of 2), box 6, GFMD, RG 381; Dorsey interview, 14; “CORE Summer Project Orientation—Educational Program Workshop,” June 1965, frame 00826, reel 124, pt. 5, COREP; Marian McBride, “Fear Is for Real in Ferriday, La.,” Milwaukee Sentinel, 25 Aug. 1965, pt. 3, p. 3.
6. Black, People and Plows against Hunger, 23–24; Geiger, “Community Control,” 139; Miller, Light on the Hill, 355; Hatch, “Community Shares in Policy Decisions,” 109; Geiger, “A Life in Social Medicine,” 15 (quotation).
7. Geiger, “A Life in Social Medicine,” 16 (quotation); Geiger interview, 50–54.
8. Simpson, Sister Stella’s Babies, 87.
9. L. C. Dorsey, “Dirt Dauber Nests, Socks Nailed over Doorways, Salts, Prayer and OTC’s: Space Age Medicine in the Poor Community,” n.d. [1990], 10–12, 14, file 252, box 12, JWHP; Dorsey interview, 36–37; Nelson, “Hold Your Head Up,” 104–5; Williams interview.
10. Leon E. Kruger, “The Role of the Comprehensive Health Center in Social Change,” n.d. [1969], 5, file 10, box 1, LBP; Kelly, “Health Care in the Mississippi Delta,” 760.
11. Sandra Blakeslee, “To Rural Negroes, Health Center Is Hope,” New York Times, 28 Aug. 1970, 30; “Progress Report,” Feb. 1970, [14], file “Health Assoc. Council Progress Reports etc. 1969–70,” box 39, DHCR; Geiger, “A Life in Social Medicine,” 17.
12. “The Agricultural Co-operative as a Possible Means of Providing Food for Needy Persons,” n.d. [ca. 1967], 1–3 (quotations on p. 1), file 16, box 1, LBP.
13. Black, People and Plows against Hunger, 2–3; H. Jack Geiger, “Statement Presented to the Subcommittee on Employment Manpower and Poverty, United States Senate,” 21 May 1969, 14–15, file 15, box 1, LBP; Geiger interview, 59–61; John Hatch, “My Experience and Feeling toward O.E.O. Health Center,” 6 May 1971, 2, file 69, box 3, JWHP.
14. John Hatch, “My Experience and Feeling toward O.E.O. Health Center,” 6 May 1971, 3, file 69, box 3, JWHP; Hatch, “Community Shares in Policy Decisions,” 111; “Negroes Urged to Stay on Delta Farms,” New York Times, 10 Nov. 1968, 120 (OEO grant); “Tufts-Delta Health Center,” n.d. [1969], 7–8, file 10, box 1, LBP (employment and production statistics).
15. John Hatch, “Historical Sketch and Progress Report on the North Bolivar County Farm Cooperative AAL,” n.d. [1969], 6–8, cons. with “Tufts-Delta Health Center,” n.d. [1969], file 10, box 1, LBP; Black, People and Plows against Hunger, 75; L. C. Dorsey, “1969 Progress Report,” 4–6, 9 (quotation), file “Farm Coop—1969 Progress Report—L. C. Dorsey,” box 39, DHCR.
16. Simpson, Sister Stella’s Babies, 121; “Progress Report,” Feb. 1970, [4], file “Health Assoc. Council Progress Reports etc. 1969–70,” box 39, DHCR; Geiger interview, 56, 73.
17. Geiger interview, 64, 85–86; Simpson, Sister Stella’s Babies, 79, 100.
18. Rosedale Black Community to Merchants of Rosedale, 25 Aug. 1970, 1–2, encl. in Rosedale Health Association to Tufts-Delta Center Staff, n.d., file “Rosedale, Town of,” box 22, DHCR; Minutes, North Bolivar County Health Council Meeting, 27 Sept. 1970, 2, file “North Bolivar County Health and Improvement Council” (1 of 2), box 13, DHCR; Theodore Parrish to Andrew B. James, memorandum, 16 Mar. 1971, 1, file “1971—January–June,” box 25, DHCR; [John Hatch], “Mound Bayou Revisited,” n.d. [Aug. 1990], 9, file 68, box 3, JWHP; Geiger interview, 98–99.
19. “Sad Nurse” to A. B. Albritton, 31 July 1972, 2, file “March–December 1972,” box 25, DHCR.
20. Geiger interview, 77–81, 88. For more on the TDHC’s impact on class relationships within the black community, see de Jong, “Plantation Politics,” 267–75.
21. Joseph F. Mooney Jr. to Gus Roessler, 2 Oct. 1967, 1, cons. with Thomas G. Abernethy to Roessler, 12 Oct. 1967, file “Office of Economic Opportunity—General, 1967–,” box 161, TGAP; Chickasaw County Board of Supervisors to Thomas G. Abernethy, telegram, 6 June 1972, 1, cons. with Clair Stevens to DeVan Hill, 13 June 1972, file “Manpower Development and Training Act, Department of Labor,” box 135, TGAP.
22. Donald C. Mosley and D. C. Williams Jr., “An Analysis and Evaluation of a Community Action Anti-Poverty Program in the Mississippi Delta,” July 1967, 41, 45–46, 49, file “Community Action Program” (1 of 6), box 150, GFMD, RG 381; Thomas L. Threadgill to Sargent Shriver, 10 June 1967, 1–2, file “Wilcox County SCLC” (1 of 2), box 6, GFMD, RG 381; G. T. Dowdy, “A Descriptive Study of Extra Activities in Conjunction with an Educational Program for Seasonally Employed Agricultural Workers,” 1966, 1, 7–8, encl. in G. T. Dowdy to Don Derman, 19 Apr. 1967, file “Administrative Alabama 1967,” box 14, StFDCAP, RG 381.
23. National Education Association, Wilcox County, Alabama, 80; Geiger interview, 63; Donald C. Mosley and D. C. Williams Jr., “An Analysis and Evaluation of a Community Action Anti-Poverty Program in the Mississippi Delta,” July 1967, 35, file “Community Action Program” (1 of 6), box 150, GFMD, RG 381 (COI); Bill Nagle to Gene Foley, memorandum, 31 Mar. 1966, 1, file “Mississippi,” box 6, SFES, RG 378 (Greenville); Fred E. Romero, “Position Paper,” [Mar. 1976], 3, cons. with Robert O. Aders to John Read, memorandum, 2 Apr. 1976, file “Farm Labor, Feb–April 1976,” box 51, WJU, RG 174.
24. Unita Blackwell quoted in National Advisory Council on Economic Opportunity, “Perspectives on Poverty: First Draft of the 1968 Report to the President,” 5 Jan. 1968, 59, file “National Advisory Council” (1 of 2), box 3, PFDD, RG 381; “Office of Economic Opportunity Response to Poor People’s Campaign,” n.d. [3 May 1968], 1, file “PPC: Demands on OEO, May 1, 1968,” box 11, PRADCR, RG 381.
25. “OEO: A Self-Evaluation,” n.d. [1969], section titled “Community Action—Overview,” [2–4], and section titled “The Community Action Agency,” [5] (quotation), file “OEO—Self-Evaluation 1969,” box 3, GRPR, RG 381; Coahoma Opportunities, Inc., “Adult Basic Education [Grant Application],” n.d. [late 1960s], 16, file “Office of Economic Opportunity,” box 148, GFMD, RG 381.
26. Irving Lazar, “A Report of Consultation of the STAR Centers,” 22–28 May 1966, 26, encl. in Robert L. Martin to Edgar May, memorandum, 5 Aug. 1966, file “Proposals—Related Papers” (2 of 2), box 151, GFMD, RG 381.
27. Bill Nagle to Gene Foley, memorandum, 31 Mar. 1966, 1, file “Mississippi,” box 6, SFES, RG 378; Mid-State Opportunity Inc., Application for Community Action Program, n.d. [ca. 1967], [4], cons. with Mid-State Opportunity Inc., Adult Education and Prevocational Training, file “Community Action Program” (4 of 4), box 152, GFMD, RG 381; “Excerpt from FY 1968 Appropriation Hearings,” 12 Dec. 1967, 49, file “Mary Holmes Junior College: Board of National Mission, Jackson, Mississippi” (1 of 2), box 9, IIF, RG 381.
28. Louis H. Anderson, “Narrative,” 7 Nov. 1967, 2, file “Lowndes Co. Christ. Mvmt.,” box 6, GFMD, RG 381; Quarterly Narrative Report, OEO-SEAW, Tuskegee Institute, Alabama, Jan.–Mar. 1968, Attachment A, 5, encl. in G. W. Taylor to CAP Headquarters, 7 May 1968, file “Correspondence Alabama 8539,” box 3, GFMD, RG 381.
29. Saints Junior College Migrant Farmers Educational Project, “Project Report to the Office of Economic Opportunity: Second Start 1967,” Apr. 1968, 38, file “Migrant Farmers Educational Project (Publication),” box 149, GFMD, RG 381; Wilmer Hunt, “Trip Report—Counties in Mississippi June 6 through 8, 1967,” 8, file “D/T Mississippi June 6, 7, 8, 1967,” box 10, PRADCR, RG 381 (Bolivar and Sunflower CAPs).
30. “Can Our Children Grow Healthfully,” n.d. [ca. 1966/1967], 1–2, file 12, box 1, LBP.
31. Bureau of the Census, Census of the Population: 1950, vol. 2, pt. 24 (Mississippi), p. 60 (table 41); Census of the Population: 1960, vol. 1, pt. 26 (Mississippi), p. 62 (table 27); Census of the Population: 1970, vol. 1, pt. 26 (Mississippi), p. 88 (table 35); Census of the Population: 1980, vol. 1, pt. 26 (Mississippi), chap. C, p. 29 (table 59); H. Jack Geiger, Statement Presented to the Subcommittee on Employment Manpower and Poverty, United States Senate, 21 May 1969, 17, file 15, box 1, LBP; Al From to Bob Emond, memorandum, 5 Feb. 1968, 4, 29 (quotation), file “Anti-Poverty Coordinating Committee (Wilcox County)” (2 of 2), box 6, GFMD, RG 381.
32. Thurman Sensing, “Patronage Pork-Barrel: The Poverty Political,” Sensing the News, Madison County Herald, 2 Sept. 1965, sec. 1, p. 6; American Farm Bureau Federation, Farm Bureau Policies for 1967, 8 Dec. 1965, 48, unfoldered, box 2, series 86-97, AFBFR; Leon Bramlett quoted in Donald C. Mosley and D. C. Williams Jr., “An Analysis and Evaluation of a Community Action Anti-Poverty Program in the Mississippi Delta,” July 1967, 26–27, file “Community Action Program” (1 of 6), box 150, GFMD, RG 381; Mr. and Mrs. C. H. Grimes to John Sparkman, 26 June 1966, 1–2, cons. with Sparkman to Grimes, 30 June 1966, file “Health and Welfare—Poverty Program,” box 6, 1966–67 series, JJSSP.
33. George Andrews to G. P. Brock, 28 July 1964, 1, file “Correspondence, July 28, 1964,” box 27, GWAP; Thomas G. Abernethy to C. B. Curlee, 29 July 1965, 1, cons. with Abernethy to Curlee, 2 Aug. 1965, file “Office of Economic Opportunity, General, 1965–1966,” box 161, TGAP; Joseph A. Loftus, “South Is Lagging in Requests for Federal Antipoverty Money,” New York Times, 2 Jan. 1966, 48; Mrs. N. E. Roberts to Russell Long, 27 Aug. 1966, 1, file 46, box 97, RBLC; Neil Maxwell, “Rural Dixie’s Plight: Poor Southern Negroes’ Life Worsens Despite the War on Poverty,” Wall Street Journal, 8 Oct. 1968, 1.
34. “The Leader,” anonymous flyer included in “Harassment and Negative Attitudes,” n.d., 1, unfoldered, box 1, 1998 Addition, HCP; Germany, “Poverty Wars,” 234–37; “St. Helena School Aud. Burned Down,” Louisiana Weekly, 11 June 1966, sec. 1, p. 7; Selma Inter-Religious Project, Newsletter, 12 Apr. 1967, 2, file “Southwest Ala. Farmers Co-op (Shirley Mesher),” box 12, series 81-4, WFNP.
35. Robert L. Martin to Edgar May, memorandum, 4 Aug. 1966, 1, file “Lowndes County, Alabama 1966 (Inactive)” (3 of 5), box 27, SuFDCAP, RG 381; Theo. James Pinnock and G. W. Taylor, Tuskegee Institute–OEO Seasonally Employed Agricultural Workers Educational Project, Summary of Accomplishments and Disappointments, 1 Nov. 1966–31 Oct. 1967, 20, file “Miscellaneous Alabama 8539,” box 3, GFMD, RG 381.
36. Robert Hoskins and Joe D. Edmondson to Theodore Berry, 26 July 1965, 1, file “Mississippi—Correspondence—1965,” box 5, StFDCAP, RG 381; Al From to Edgar May, memorandum, 6 Sept. 1967, 2, cons. with Theodore M. Berry to Director [Sargent Shriver], memorandum, 29 Sept. 1967, file “Administrative Alabama 1967,” box 14, StFDCAP, RG 381 (Wilcox County problems); Nick Kotz, “In the Deep South, the Enemy Is Poverty,” Minneapolis Tribune, 14 May 1967, 1B (Francis X. Walter).
37. Chambers-Tallapoosa Community Action Agency, “Narrative Progress Report,” 1 Jan.–31 Mar. 1967, 3, unfoldered, box 825, NPR, RG 381; South Delta Community Action Association, “CAP Narrative Progress Report,” 1 Oct.–30 Dec. 1966, 3, file “5156 La.,” box 836, NPR, RG 381; “Rose Hill Center,” CDGM Newsletter, 28 Aug. 1967, 8, file “Child Development Groups of Mississippi,” box 1, TCHRC; National Education Association, Wilcox County, Alabama, 81.
38. Robert W. Saunders to Frank K. Sloan, memorandum, 5 Apr. 1967, 1, file “CR Robert W. Saunders—1967” (1 of 2), box 8, PRADCR, RG 381; [Minutes], General Staff Meeting, Mississippi Action for Progress, 5 June 1967, 1–2, unfoldered, box 2, 1998 Addition, HCP (Leflore County).
39. Robert W. Saunders to Maurice A. Dawkins, memorandum, 6 June 1967, 2, file “CR Robert W. Saunders—1967” (1 of 2), box 8, PRADCR, RG 381; “All-Negro City Set in Alabama,” Baltimore Sun, 29 May 1967, A4; Kenneth Vallis to Fran Scott, memorandum, 5 June 1967, 1, file “Southwest Alabama Self-Help Housing,” box 7, GFMD, RG 381.
40. Lee Bandy, “Anti-Poverty Blasted by John Bell,” Jackson Daily News, 7 Apr. 1966, 1, 16A; Edwin Strickland to [William F. Nichols], 21 Mar. 1967, 1–2, file “Office of Economic Opportunity, General, March–June 1967,” box 10, series 81-4, WFNP; Thurman Sensing, “Watching the Poverty Warriors,” Sensing the News, Madison County Herald, 31 Mar. 1966, sec. 1, 6; Vant Neff, “The American Taxpayer: Casualty in the War on Poverty,” Comment from the Capital, Bolivar County Democrat, 20 Jan. 1966, 4.
41. Thomas W. Herren to George Andrews, 11 Aug. 1967, 1, cons. with Andrews to Herren, 14 Aug. 1967, file “Correspondence, August 10–14, 1967,” box 39, GWAP; Unknown author to Bill [Nichols], n.d., file “OEO 1969 General,” box 26, series 81-4, WFNP; John D. Morrow to John Sparkman, 25 May 1966, 1, and Sargent Shriver to Sparkman, 24 June 1966, 1, both cons. with Sparkman to Morrow, 8 July 1966, file “Health and Welfare—Poverty Program,” box 6, 1966–67 series, JJSSP.
42. Sargent Shriver to John R. Rarick [draft], n.d. [ca. Mar. 1967], 1, encl. in Peter Spruance and Ed Terrones to C. B. Patrick, memorandum, 24 Mar. 1967, file “Administrative—Louisiana—1967,” box 15, StFDCAP, RG 381; “Myths and Facts about OEO,” n.d., 7–8 (taxpayer savings quotation and alcohol/tobacco comparisons), 10–12 (return on investment, agency size comparisons, and Job Corps costs), cons. with Damon Holmes to Ken Sparks, memorandum, 11 July 1968, file “Public Affairs,” box 4, PFDD, RG 381.
43. Bradley H. Patterson Jr., cover letter for National Advisory Council on Economic Opportunity, “Perspectives on Poverty: First Draft of the 1968 Report to the President,” 5 Jan. 1968, 2–3, and Morris I. Leibman to President, 15 Aug. 1967, 1–2, both in file “National Advisory Council” (1 of 2), box 3, PFDD, RG 381.
44. National Advisory Council on Economic Opportunity, “Perspectives on Poverty: First Draft of the 1968 Report to the President,” 5 Jan. 1968, 10, 81 (quotation), file “National Advisory Council” (1 of 2), box 3, PFDD, RG 381.
45. Comptroller General of the United States, Review of Economic Opportunity Programs, 5–7; John Herbers, “Congress Is Told Drive on Poverty Is Badly Managed,” New York Times, 19 Mar. 1969, 1, 25; Attorney General to George P. Shultz, 30 Jan. 1969, 2, file “1969—Justice Department,” box 17, GPS, RG 174.
46. Kenneth W. Munden, “The Office of Economic Opportunity in the Nixon Administration,” unpublished manuscript, 1973, 55, unfoldered, box 107, HOEO, RG 381; Thomas Abernethy to Dorothy E. Fanyo, 22 Mar. 1966, 1, file “Office of Economic Opportunity, General, 1965–1966,” box 161, TGAP; John Stennis, “Address to Joint Session of Mississippi Legislature,” 27 Jan. 1966, 8, file 10, box 119, PBJFP; Jack Raymond, “Budget, Too, Feels the Impact of the Growing War in Vietnam,” New York Times, 26 Dec. 1965, E4.
47. Carter, Music Has Gone Out of the Movement, 133–63; McKee, “ ‘This Government Is with Us,’ ” 54.
48. Cazenave, Impossible Democracy, 166–69; Al From to Bob Emond, memorandum, 23 Jan. 1968, 35, file “Anti-Poverty Coordinating Committee (Wilcox County)” (2 of 2), box 6, GFMD, RG 381.
49. “Statement by Sargent Shriver before the House Appropriations Committee,” 28 Nov. 1967, 2–3, encl. in Maurice A. Dawkins to Friend, 15 Dec. 1967, file “Mailings to CR Leaders 1967,” box 10, PRADCR, RG 381; Sargent Shriver to President, memorandum, 25 Jan. 1968, 2, file “Reports: Bi-Weekly Report to the President—April ’67–April ’69,” box 12, SFDD, RG 381.
50. “CAA Closings,” 1, encl. in William H. Bozman to Record, memorandum, 8 Oct. 1968, cons. with “FY 1970 Budget, Office of Economic Opportunity,” file “Regional Directors Conf. NYC—10/24–25/68” (1 of 3), box 4, PRADCR, RG 381; Clark, War on Poverty, 59; William H. Bozman to Record, memorandum, 8 Oct. 1968, 1, cons. with “FY 1970 Budget, Office of Economic Opportunity,” file “Regional Directors Conf. NYC—10/24–25/68” (1 of 3), box 4, PRADCR, RG 381; Aaron W. Crawford Jr. to Lyndon B. Johnson, n.d. [1967], 1, file “Southwest Ala. Farmers Co-op (Shirley Mesher),” box 12, series 81-4, WFNP.
51. Comptroller General of the United States, Review of Economic Opportunity Programs, 27; Richard W. Boone, “Reflections on Citizen Participation and the Economic Opportunity Act,” paper prepared for the National Academy of Public Administration Conference on Crisis, Conflict and Creativity, n.d. [1970], 15–16, encl. in Joe P. Maldonado to Donald Rumsfeld, Wes Hjornevik, and Frank Carlucci, 23 June 1970, file “Citizen Participation in EO Act Program—Richard Boone Comments—1970,” box 1, SFDD, RG 381.
52. STAR, Inc., “CAP Narrative Progress Report,” 1 Oct.–31 Dec. 1966, [7], unfoldered, box 811, NPR, RG 381; Gustave T. Roessler to [Participants], 13 Mar. 1967, 1, cons. with Stanley H. Ruttenberg to Theodore M. Berry, 21 Mar. 1967, file “Administrative—Mississippi—1967,” box 16, StFDCAP, RG 381; Quarterly Narrative Report, OEO-SEAW, Tuskegee Institute, Alabama, Jan.–Mar. 1968, 3–4, encl. in G. W. Taylor to CAP Headquarters, 7 May 1968, file “Correspondence Alabama 8539,” box 3, GFMD, RG 381; H. Jack Geiger, Statement Presented to the Subcommittee on Employment Manpower and Poverty, United States Senate, 21 May 1969, 20, file 15, box 1, LBP; National Advisory Council on Economic Opportunity, “Perspectives on Poverty: First Draft of the 1968 Report to the President,” 5 Jan. 1968, 84, file “National Advisory Council” (1 of 2), box 3, PFDD, RG 381.
53. Erika Duncan, “Long After ’65, Still Fighting to Overcome,” New York Times, 10 Sept. 1995, LI17; Dittmer, Local People, 371–82; Dunbar interview, 25; A. C. Krumlauf to Edgar May, memorandum, 16 Nov. 1966, 2, 4, encl. in May to Jule Sugarman and Ted Berry, memorandum, 19 Nov. 1966, file “Mississippi—Administrative—1965,” box 5, StFDCAP, RG 381; Clay Salvant and Social Service Staff, “Parent Participation,” 1, unfoldered, box 2, 1998 Addition, HCP (quotation).
54. Al From to Bob Emond, memorandum, 23 Jan. 1968, 6, file “Anti-Poverty Coordinating Committee (Wilcox County)” (2 of 2), box 6, GFMD, RG 381; “Revised Draft of Mr. Shriver’s Statement on Wilcox and Lowndes Counties, Alabama,” 12 Aug. 1966, 2, file “Wilcox County SCLC” (1 of 2), box 6, GFMD, RG 381.
55. “Minutes of the Director’s Executive Staff Meeting,” 30 Aug.1968, 2, file “Executive Staff Meetings,” box 3, SFDD, RG 381; Mississippi Council on Human Relations, “Meeting on Poverty,” 24 Feb. 1970, 1, file 56, box 8, DMP.
56. John Zippert, “Report on Conference for a Southwide Co-op Training Program,” 9–11 June 1966, [2], file 1, box 1, JZP; Francis X. Walter to Sargent Shriver, 19 Sept. 1966, 2, cons. with Shriver to Walter, 10 Oct. 1966, file “CAP—Lowndes County and Wilcox County,” box 3, GRPR, RG 381; Robert W. Saunders to Maurice A. Dawkins, memorandum, 6 June 1967, 3, file “CR Robert W. Saunders—1967” (1 of 2), box 8, PRADCR, RG 381; C. Erskine Smith (CCR chairman) quoted in Commission on Civil Rights, Cycle to Nowhere, 45.
1. Lawrence Guyot, Arthur Thomas, and Isaac Foster to President Lyndon Baines Johnson, 29 Jan. 1966, 1, item 2, reel 2, MFDPR.
2. Cowling and Warbasse, Co-Operatives in America, 34–40, 45–47; Voorhis, American Cooperatives, 18–22; Charles O. Prejean to Bryant George, 4 Aug. 1971, 2, file 23, box 17, FSCR. For a useful overview of cooperative efforts among African Americans from the nineteenth century to the present, see Nembhard, Collective Courage.
3. Cunningham interview, 2; Nannette Sachs to Society of Brothers, 2 July 1963, 1, and Nannette Sachs to Lynn Rohrbaugh, 12 July 1963, 1, both in file 2, box 14, SEDFREP.
4. Bob Bass quoted in “Poor People’s Coop,” As Is, [July 1967], 3, file 33, box 5, VGAP.
5. Minutes, Special Meeting of the Board of the Directors, CORE Scholarship, Education and Defense Fund Incorporated, 12 Sept. 1963, 3, and Minutes, Special Meeting of the Board of the Directors, CORE Scholarship, Education and Defense Fund Incorporated, 7 Oct. 1963, 2, both in file 5, box 1, SEDFREP; Charlotte Devree, “Draft for a Fact Sheet, for CORE SEDF Education Project in Mississippi,” 24 Oct. 1963, 3, file 1, box 74, series 5, CORER; Charlotte Devree to Ezra Levin, Fay Bennett, Andrew Norman, Nanette Sachs, and Marvin Rich, 7 Nov. 1963, 1–3 (quotation on p. 3), file 1, box 7, SEDFREP; Nannette Sachs to Members of the Board, memorandum, n.d. [1963], 1, file 1, box 74, series 5, CORER.
6. CORE Scholarship, Education and Defense Fund to James N. Mays, memorandum, 15 May 1964, 1–2; James N. Mays, Application for the Job of Rural Field Worker, 10 Mar. [1964], 1–3; Scholarship Education and Defense Field Representative [James Mays], “A Summary of Four Months Work,” n.d. [Nov. 1964], 1–6, all in file 9, box 10, SEDFREP.
7. “Panola County Okra Co-op,” reprint from Vicksburg Citizens’ Appeal, n.d. [1966], [1]–[4] (quotations on pp. [2] and [4]), file 5, box 1, FISR.
8. “In Canton: A New Business,” Vicksburg Citizens’ Appeal, 20 Sept. 1965, 3.
9. “The Story of Freedomcrafts,” n.d. [ca. 1970], 1–2, file 9, box 6, DMP; “How ‘Freedomcrafts’ Came to Be,” n.d., 1, file 5, box 6, DMP.
10. William A. Carhart to Irving Jay Fain, 24 Oct. 1966, 1, file 2, box 13, SEDFREP; [Delta Ministry], This Land Is Our Land . . . , n.d. [early 1967], 1, file 10, box 2, SEDFREP; Ida Mae Lawrence quoted in “Radio Delta Reporting, This Week in Mississippi,” [draft of transcript], n.d. [July 1966], 1, file 7, box 1, FISR.
11. Gene Roberts, “Negro Co-op Opens Jobs in Mississippi,” New York Times, 5 Mar. 1967, 78; “Minutes of the First Membership Meeting of the Poor People’s Corp.,” 29 Aug. 1965, 1, cons. with Wilfred C. Leland to Jesse Morris, 2 Nov. 1965, file “Minority Groups,” box 2, GSCF, RG 378 (quotation); Lucy Komisar, “Poor People’s Corporation Lets the Poor Speak Out,” Village Voice, 22 July 1965, 3.
12. “Minutes of the First Membership Meeting of the Poor People’s Corp.,” 29 Aug. 1965, 1–4, cons. with Wilfred C. Leland to Jesse Morris, 2 Nov. 1965, file “Minority Groups,” box 2, GSCF, RG 378; Elizabeth Sutherland, “Mississippi: Summer of Discontent,” Nation, 11 Oct. 1965, 214.
13. Poor People’s Corporation, Application for Community Action Program, 15 Mar. 1966, 1–2, cons. with D. S. Rosen to Community Action Program, 2 Mar. 1966, file “Mississippi Housing” (2 of 2), box 28, SuFDCAP, RG 381; Gene Roberts, “Negro Co-op Opens Jobs in Mississippi,” New York Times, 5 Mar. 1967, 78; Phillip H. Wiggins, “Poor People’s Corporation Builds Jobs for Negroes in Rural Mississippi,” New York Times, 21 July 1968, F16.
14. “The Selma Inter-Religious Project,” Alabama Council Bulletin, 30 June 1966, 2 (quotations), AC; Selma Inter-Religious Project, Newsletter, 12 Apr. 1967, 4, file “Southwest Ala. Farmers Co-op (Shirley Mesher),” box 12, series 81-4, WFNP.
15. “Green-Hale Sewing Cooperatives,” 23 Aug. 1971, 1–2, encl. in Dorothy Bryant to SCDP, 9 Nov. 1971, file 89, box 49, FSCR; “History and Background of the Cooperative,” 1–2, encl. in Lewis Black to Episcopal Church, 26 Dec. 1977, file 89, box 49, FSCR.
16. Cunningham interview, 2–4; William Chapman, “$1-a-Bushel Bright Spot in Poverty War,” Washington Post, 20 Aug. 1967, B5; “SWAFCA Membership Education,” n.d. [1969], 1, cons. with “Evaluation—SWAFCA Board of Director Workshop Conducted at Selma, Alabama, June 7 and 9, 1969,” 26 June 1969, file 11, box 18, SEDFREP; SWAFCA to Sargent Shriver, n.d. [1967], 1–2, 6 (quotation on p. 1), file “Orrville Cooperative (SNCC) 1967,” box 10, series 81-4, WFNP.
17. Southwest Alabama Farmers Cooperative Association, The SWAFCA Story, pamphlet, n.d. [1969/1970], 3, file 11, box 18, SEDFREP; “The Southwest Alabama Farmers Cooperative Association (SWAFCA),” n.d. [1967], 1–3, file “Orrville Cooperative (SNCC) 1967,” box 10, series 81-4, WFNP; “What Ye Sow—Ye Shall Reap!,” Alabama Council Bulletin, 29 Apr. 1967, 3, AC.
18. “Farm Cooperative Grant to Ten Alabama Counties,” OEO news release, 11 May 1967, 1, file “SWAFCA (Southwest Alabama Cooperative Association 5–11–67,” box 6, GRPR, RG 381; Comptroller General of the United States, “Review of Certain Activities of the Southwest Alabama Farmers Cooperative Association under a Grant from the Office of Economic Opportunity,” 27 Jan. 1969, 5, file “SWAFCA 1969,” box 27, series 81-4, WFNP.
19. Zippert interview (quotation); “History of Grand Marie Co-op,” n.d., 1–3, file 3, box 1, JZP; John Zippert to Marvin Rich, 2 Aug. 1966, 1–2, file 11, box 23, SEDFREP; “Sweet Potato Alert Proposal, Progress Report, 30 May–3 July 1966,” 2, file 3, box 1, JZP.
20. McKnight, Whistling in the Wind, 21–22; “The Quiet Revolution of a Parish Priest,” Ebony, May 1968, 52–53, 57 (quotation on p. 57).
21. McKnight, Whistling in the Wind, 24–27 (quotation on p. 24).
22. John Zippert to Ed Schwartz, 2 Feb. 1968, 1, file 8, box 68, FSCR; “The Quiet Revolution of a Parish Priest,” Ebony, May 1968, 54.
23. “The Quiet Revolution of a Parish Priest,” Ebony, May 1968, 52–54; Zippert interview.
24. McKnight, Whistling in the Wind, 29, 32.
25. Zippert interview; Charles O. Prejean to Robert Brown, 14 Nov. 1969, 1, file 12, box 28, FSCR; John Zippert to Norman Hill, 6 July 1967, 1, file 12, box 42, FSCR; “A Proposal for the Development of a Cooperative Education Program in the South,” 1, encl. in A. J. McKnight to Ronnie Moore, 6 Oct. 1967, file 1, box 29, SEDFREP.
26. “Southern Groups Get Ford Foundation Grants,” Southwest Louisiana Register, 14 Sept. 1967, 2.
27. John Zippert to SCDP Field Staff, memorandum, n.d. [Aug. 1967], 2, file 1, box 29, SEDFREP; David L. Noflin, “Organizer’s Report Form, West Feliciana, Louisiana,” n.d. [June 1968], cons. with A. J. McKnight to Noflin, 18 June 1968, file 8, box 68, FSCR; Cunningham interview, 9; Henry Hatches, “ ‘It’s New!’ Southern Consumers,” Hinds County FDP News Letter, 6 Oct. 1967, 2, item 12, reel 3, MFDPR.
28. “Field Perspective, Southern Cooperative Development Program,” n.d. [Nov. 1967], 7–11, file 1, box 29, SEDFREP.
29. Ibid., 2, 8.
30. Mike Piere to Mr. [Jac] Wasserman, 10 Sept. 1964, 1–2, cons. with Jac [Wasserman] to Ann [Singer], 18 Sept. 1964, and Scholarship Education and Defense Field Representative [James Mays], “A Summary of Four Months Work,” n.d. [Nov. 1964], 9–10, both in file 9, box 10, SEDFREP.
31. Guillory interview; Frank P. Graham to Friend, 29 Mar. 1967, 1, file 1, box 2, series 29, JCSC; John Zippert to Hilary Feldstein, 19 Sept. 1969, 3, file 10, box 68, FSCR.
32. Margaret Lauren to [Wilfred C.] Leland, 7 Oct. 1965, cons. with Leland to Jesse Morris, 2 Nov. 1965, file “Minority Groups,” box 2, GSCF, RG 378; “Fact, Fiction Fill West Point Fish Pot; But Which Is Which?,” Mississippi Freelance, Feb. 1970, 1.
33. “The Quiet Revolution of a Parish Priest,” Ebony, May 1968, 57; McKnight, Whistling in the Wind, 27–28.
34. Citizens’ Council newsletter quoted in “The Quiet Revolution of a Parish Priest,” Ebony, May 1968, 57; McKnight, Whistling in the Wind, 32–33.
35. “Sweet Potato Alert Program Progress Report,” 1 June 1966, 2, and GMVPC newsletter, 16 Apr. 1966, 1, both in file 3, box 1, JZP; Burt Schorr, “Tapping the Green Side of Black Power,” Wall Street Journal, 4 June 1968, 20; “Chronology of Events in the Formation and Development of the Grand Marie Vegetable Producers Cooperative,” n.d. [ca. June 1966], 2, file 11, box 23, SEDFREP.
36. John Zippert, “Memo on the Necessity of Immediate Operating Capital for the Grand Marie Vegetable Producers Cooperative, Inc., Pending Processing of Farmers Home Administration Loan,” n.d. [July 1966], 1–2, file 3, box 1, JZP; Joseph Lee Marlbrough to Marvin Rich, 19 July 1966, file 11, box 23, SEDFREP.
37. Guillory interview; Schorr, “Tapping the Green Side of Black Power,” Wall Street Journal, 4 June 1968, 20; John Zippert to Howard Moore, 19 Sept. 1969, 1, file 13, box 42, FSCR; John Zippert to [Marvin] Rich, 20 July 1966, 2, file 11, box 23, SEDFREP.
38. Selma Inter-Religious Project, Newsletter, 12 Apr. 1967, 2, and Walter C. Givhan to Bill Nichols, 24 Mar. 1967, 1, both in file “Southwest Ala. Farmers Co-op (Shirley Mesher),” box 12, series 81-4, WFNP; “Notes on Shirley Mesher,” n.d. [early 1967], 1, 3 (quotation), file “SWAFCA,” box 22, series 81-4, WFNP.
39. L. B. Whitfield Jr. to John [Sparkman], 2 June 1967, 1, file “Fed. Gov—Agri.” (2 of 4), box 3, 1965–68 series, JJSSP; Orzell Billingsley Jr. to Ira Kaye, 3 Apr. 1967, 1, file “CR Robert W. Saunders—1967” (1 of 2), box 8, PRADCR, RG 381; Joe T. Smitherman, B. A. Reynolds, and Leigh Pegues to John Sparkman, telegram, 28 Apr. 1967, 1–2, cons. with Sparkman to Smitherman, 2 May 1967, file “Fed. Gov—Agri.” (2 of 4), box 3, 1965–68 series, JJSSP.
40. Mary Y. Grice and Taylor Wilkins to Whom It May Concern, 28 Apr. 1967, 1–2, file “Fed. Gov—Agri.” (2 of 4), and Mary Y. Grice to John Sparkman, 22 May 1967, 1, cons. with Sparkman to Grice, 25 May 1967, file “Fed. Gov—Agri.” (2 of 4), both in box 3, 1965–68 series, JJSSP; Roy Reed, “Leaders of Negro Farm Co-op in Alabama Go to Washington to Seek Funds,” New York Times, 13 Apr. 1967, 30.
41. Walt Robbins to Maurice Dawkins, memorandum, 11 May 1967, 1–2, file “CVR: Robbins’ Corres. (Gen.) 1967–July 1968” (1 of 2), box 7, PRADCR, RG 381; “Cooperative Funded after NAACP Protest,” Crisis, May 1967, 211; Selma Inter-Religious Project, Newsletter, 12 Apr. 1967, 3, file “Southwest Ala. Farmers Co-op (Shirley Mesher),” box 12, series 81-4, WFNP.
42. Selma Inter-Religious Project, Newsletter, 12 Apr. 1967, 4, file “Southwest Ala. Farmers Co-op (Shirley Mesher),” box 12, series 81-4, WFNP; “Statement by Miss Mary Grice, Program Director, Little River Community Action Program, Daphne, Ala.,” 18 May 1967, 1, cons. with John Sparkman to Grice, 25 May 1967, file “Fed. Gov—Agri.” (2 of 4), box 3, 1965–68 series, JJSSP; Bertrand M. Harding to Joseph S. Knight, 9 May 1967, 1–5 (quotation on p. 5), file “Civil Rights Leaders—June 1 Mtg [1967],” box 1, PRADCR, RG 381.
43. Ethel Overby to Mr. Berry, Don Hess, John Clark, and Gerson Green, memorandum, 17 Jan. 1968, 1, file “Alabama—SWAFCA—1968” (3 of 3), box 70, SuFDCAP, RG 381; Bill Nichols to Orville Freeman, 9 Feb. 1968, 1–2, file “SWAFCA,” box 22, series 81-4, WFNP.
44. Bill Nichols to Ernest Johnson, 6 Mar. 1968, 1, file “SWAFCA,” box 22, series 81-4, WFNP; John A. Baker to Theodore H. Berry, 15 Feb. 1968, 1, file “Memo of Understanding Re: SWAFCA 1968,” box 70, SuFDCAP, RG 381; Gerson M. Green to Theodore M. Berry, memorandum, 19 Jan. 1968, 2–3, and Gerson M. Green to Theodore M. Berry, memorandum, 10 Jan. 1968, 1, both in file “Alabama—SWAFCA—1968” (3 of 3), box 70, SuFDCAP, RG 381.
45. Howard Bechel to Bill Nichols, 24 Jan. 1969, 1, cons. with “SWAFCE [sic] Expenditures from June 1967–June 1968,” n.d., file “SWAFCA,” box 22, series 81-4, WFNP; Edward A. Tenenbaum to Kate Jackson, 8 May 1968, 1–2, cons. with Richard M. Saul to [no name given], n.d. [May 1968], and Olga Boikess and William Kopit to Theodore M. Berry, memorandum, 3 Apr. 1968, 1–3, 7, 12 (quotation on p. 2), both in file “Alabama—SWAFCA—1968” (3 of 3), box 70, SuFDCAP, RG 381.
46. Southwest Alabama Farmers Cooperative Association, “SWAFCA Stalled by the Department of Agriculture,” n.d. [May 1968], 6–7, encl. in Stanley Zimmerman to Theodore Berry, 31 May 1968, file “Alabama—SWAFCA—1968” (2 of 3), box 70, SuFDCAP, RG 381.
47. William H. Harrison and Calvin S. Orsborn to Orville L. Freeman, 13 May 1968, 1, file “Alabama—SWAFCA—1968” (3 of 3), box 70, SuFDCAP, RG 381.
48. John A. Baker to William H. Harrison and Calvin S. Orsborn, 28 May 1968, 1–2, ibid.; William Steif, “Black Farm Co-op Is Making Solid Progress,” clipping from Washington D.C. News, 14 June 1968, [16], file “Alabama—SWAFCA—1968” (2 of 3), ibid.; Roger Beardwood, “Southern Roots of Urban Crisis,” Fortune, Aug. 1968, 151; Stanley Zimmerman quoted in “$852,000 Loan to SWAFCA Sets Major Precedent,” Rural Advance, Summer 1968, 5.
49. Bill Nichols to George Andrews, 14 Mar. 1968 (2 of 2), 1, file “SWAFCA,” box 22, series 81-4, WFNP; Comptroller General of the United States, “Review of Certain Activities of the Southwest Alabama Farmers Cooperative Association under a Grant from the Office of Economic Opportunity,” 27 Jan. 1969, 3, file “SWAFCA 1969,” box 27, series 81-4, WFNP; Bill Nichols to Ross D. Davis, telegram, [6 May 1968], 1, cons. with Mary Elva Rice to R. C. Bamberg, 3 May 1968, and Arnold H. Leibowitz to Bill Nichols, 7 May 1968, 1, both in file “SWAFCA,” box 22, series 81-4, WFNP.
50. Gerald J. Stout to Tom [Theodore] Berry, 4 Jan. 1968, 3, 5–6, file “Alabama—SWAFCA—1968” (3 of 3), box 70, SuFDCAP, RG 381; “$852,000 Loan to SWAFCA Sets Major Precedent,” Rural Advance, Summer 1968, 5 (vegetable spoilage); Theodore Berry to Bob Emond, memorandum, 20 May 1968, 1, file “SWAFCA—Alabama Inspection Reports 1968,” box 70, SuFDCAP, RG 381.
51. Continental-Allied Co., “Monthly Evaluation Report on SWAFCA,” 24 June 1968, 27–28, file “Alabama—SWAFCA—1968” (2 of 3), box 70, SuFDCAP, RG 381.
52. Selma Times Journal, 31 Mar. 1967, quoted in SWAFCA, The SWAFCA Story, pamphlet, n.d. [1969/1970], 3, file 11, box 18, SEDFREP; “Barron’s Weekly Article on SWAFCA,” 21 Apr. 1969, 3, file “SWAFCA (Southwest Alabama Cooperative Association 5-11-67,” box 6, GRPR, RG 381.
53. George D. McCarthy to Bill Nichols, 20 Mar. 1968, 1, file “SWAFCA,” box 22, series 81-4, WFNP; Jerry Hornsby to Calvin Orsborn, 25 Mar. 1968, 1–3, file “Alabama—SWAFCA—1968” (3 of 3), box 70, SuFDCAP, RG 381.
54. Al From to Bob Emond, memorandum, 25 Mar. 1968, 2, encl. in Bob Emond to Acting Director, memorandum, 26 Mar. 1968, file “SWAFCA—Alabama Inspection Reports 1968,” box 70, SuFDCAP, RG 381.
55. Comptroller General of the United States, “Review of Certain Activities of the Southwest Alabama Farmers Cooperative Association under a Grant from the Office of Economic Opportunity,” 27 Jan. 1969, 10, file “SWAFCA 1969,” box 27, series 81-4, WFNP; Gerson M. Green to Acting Director, 30 Sept. 1968, 1–2, file “Alabama—SWAFCA—1968” (1 of 3), box 70, SuFDCAP, RG 381.
56. “Negroes in Alabama Appeal Court Order Blocking Farm Aid,” New York Times, 31 October 1968, 78; “Barron’s Weekly Article on SWAFCA,” 21 Apr. 1969, 2, file “SWAFCA (Southwest Alabama Cooperative Association 5-11-67,” box 6, GRPR, RG 381.
57. Gerson M. Green to Theodore M. Berry, memorandum, 19 Jan. 1968, 1, file “Alabama—SWAFCA—1968” (3 of 3), box 70, SuFDCAP, RG 381 (inexperienced board members); Comptroller General of the United States, “Review of Certain Activities of the Southwest Alabama Farmers Cooperative Association under a Grant from the Office of Economic Opportunity,” 27 Jan. 1969, 34, file “SWAFCA 1969,” box 27, series 81-4, WFNP (Orsborn’s other interests); K. D. English to D. L. Chewning, memorandum, 29 May 1968, 2–4, encl. in Theodore M. Berry to John A. Baker, memorandum, 12 June 1968, file “Alabama—SWAFCA—1968” (2 of 3), box 70, SuFDCAP, RG 381 (Orsborn’s deficiencies and farmers hedging bets).
58. Gerson M. Green to Theodore M. Berry, memorandum, 15 Aug. 1968, 1, cons. with Berry to Robert Perrin, memorandum, 16 Aug. 1968, file “Alabama—SWAFCA—1968” (2 of 3), box 70, SuFDCAP, RG 381; Milo Dakin, “Federal Audit Questions SWAFCA’s Use of Funds,” Montgomery Advertiser, 6 Nov. 1968, 17.
59. Comptroller General of the United States, “Review of Certain Activities of the Southwest Alabama Farmers Cooperative Association under a Grant from the Office of Economic Opportunity,” 27 Jan. 1969, 34, file “SWAFCA 1969,” box 27, series 81-4, WFNP; “Barron’s Weekly Article on SWAFCA,” 21 Apr. 1969, 2–3, file “SWAFCA (Southwest Alabama Cooperative Association 5-11-67,” box 6, GRPR, RG 381; “SWAFCA Training Evaluation,” 15 Mar. 1969, 2, 7–9, file 11, box 18, SEDFREP.
60. John Zippert, “Report on Alabama Co-op Trip: December 3–9, 1966,” 1, 3, cons. with John Zippert to [Ronnie] Moore, 11 Nov. 1966, file 4, box 20, SEDFREP; Unknown author, [Notes on sewing cooperative], n.d. [Dec. 1968], file 2, box 1, LBP.
61. Rudy Frank to Girson [Gerson] Green, memorandum, 30 July 1969, 2, file “Coop,” box 3, DHCR; Black, People and Plows against Hunger, 33, 35, 58.
62. Black, People and Plows against Hunger, 37–38; Mohamed A. Mohamed to Ronald Thornton, 12 July 1975, 3, file 29, box 60, FSCR.
63. Minutes, Delta Ministry Staff Meeting, 23–24 Feb. 1967, 6, file 35, box 3, DMP.
64. McKnight, Whistling in the Wind, 35; “Background Information on Cooperative Development Financial Institution,” 1, cons. with Charles Prejean, form letter, n.d. [ca. Feb./Mar. 1969], file 11, box 28, FSCR; Jake Ayers, “Preliminary Proposal from Freedomcrafts to the Presbyterian Inter-racial Council,” n.d. [1967], 1, file 8, box 6, DMP.
65. “Full Board Meeting,” 28 June 1968, 3, file “Alabama—SWAFCA—1968” (2 of 3), box 70, SuFDCAP, RG 381; “Evaluation—SWAFCA Board of Director Workshop Conducted at Selma, Alabama, June 7 and 9, 1969,” 26 June 1969, 5, 8–9, file 11, box 18, SEDFREP; Cunningham interview, 14.
66. “Wanted: Manager for Coop,” Alabama Council Bulletin, 29 Mar. 1967, 4, AC; Ronnie Moore to Child Development Group of Mississippi, 31 Aug. 1967, 4, file 19, box 22, SEDFREP.
1. A. Q. Weaver to George W. Andrews, 12 Sept. 1963, 1, cons. with Andrews to Weaver, 18 Sept. 1963, file “Correspondence, September 17–20, 1963,” box 23, GWAP; G. M. Ogle to John Sparkman, 6 Sept. 1965, 1, cons. with Sparkman to Ogle, 9 Sept. 1965, file “States and Human Rights” (1 of 2), box 7, 1965 series, JJSSP; Martha L. Kilgore to Russell Long, 18 May 1966, 1–2, file 47, box 97, RBLC.
2. Carter, Politics of Rage, 202–22 (quotation on p. 207).
3. Editorial, “Let’s Don’t Play With Fire!,” Jackson Clarion-Ledger, 4 Nov. 1963, 1; W[illiam] B. Alexander to Walter Sillers, 28 Mar. 1964, 1, file 5, box 41, WSP.
4. Strom Thurmond quoted in Charles Mohr, “Thurmond Joins Goldwater Drive,” New York Times, 18 Sept. 1964, 1, 16; Scammon and Wattenberg, Real Majority, 309; Roy V. Harris, “What Does the Election Prove?,” Citizen, Nov. 1964, 6.
5. Thomas O’Neill, “Two-Party System in South of Little Help to Negroes,” Newark Sunday News, 18 Sept. 1966, sec. 2, p. C1; Novak, Agony of the G.O.P., 179, 201; William Miller quoted in Thurber, Republicans and Race, 184. For more on the Republican Party’s “southern strategy,” see Phillips, Emerging Republican Majority, 203–32, 461–74; Edsall, Chain Reaction, 3–31; Carter, Politics of Rage, 326–34; and Wyman, Review of The Two-Party South, 30–31. Debates within the party over the use of racism to win elections are discussed in Crespino, In Search of Another Country, 205–22, and Thurber, Republicans and Race, 241–54.
6. See, for example, Crespino, In Search of Another Country, 235–66; Lassiter, Silent Majority, 3–7, 251–75; Shafer and Johnston, End of Southern Exceptionalism, 2–3, 11–18, 92–133; Nash and Taggart, Mississippi Politics, 7; Asch, Senator and the Sharecropper, xiii–xiv, 74, 90–95, 241–42; and Thurber, Republicans and Race, 32, 77, 122, 144.
7. Christian Conservative Communique, 27 May 1965, 2, file 4, box 19, WSP; James T. Wooten, “Private Schools Thrive in South, but Finances Restrict Quality,” New York Times, 1 Feb. 1970, 1, 34 (private school student quotation); “Notes from the State Office,” Council Newsletter, Jan. 1971, 3, file “Mississippi Council on Human Relations—Newsletters, 1970–1972,” box 4, TCHRC. Crespino analyzes the racist motivations behind the private school movement in In Search of Another Country, 240–48.
8. News Release, 6 Sept. 1966, 1, file “Press Releases, Statements and Speeches, 1965–1966,” box 127, TGAP; “Award for Abernethy,” 1, n.d., file “News Releases, 1971–1972,” box 127, TGAP; “Notes for Speech before National Association of Real Estate Boards,” 17 Nov. 1966, 1, file 29, box 559, RBLC; Henry Brisbay to Strom Thurmond, 18 Sept. 1971, 1–2, file 17, box 136, RBLC; Robert B. Patterson, “Right to Bear Arms Not Just for Rabbit-Hunters,” Citizen, Jan. 1977, 4–6.
9. “Resolutions Adopted at Meeting of Citizens’ Councils of America in New Orleans, May 19, 1962,” Citizen, May 1962, 1; Medford Evans, “The Future of Private Education,” Citizen, Apr. 1966, 14.
10. See, for example Robert B. Patterson, “Right to Bear Arms Not Just for Rabbit-Hunters,” Citizen, Jan. 1977, 4–6; George W. Shannon, “U.S. Blacks on Relief Shun Work; Jamaicans Take Jobs,” Citizen, Nov. 1977, 11–12; and George W. Shannon, “New Welfare Queen’s Story Spotlights National Fraud,” Citizen, May 1979, 4–6.
11. “Random Glances at the News,” Citizen, May 1972, 12 (hospital robbery); June 1972, 28 (rape); and Dec. 1973, 26–27 (food stamp fraud); “Integration in Housing,” Citizen, Nov. 1972, 2; Editorial, “Where We Stand,” Citizen, Dec. 1979, 2.
12. James E. Perkins to Thomas G. Abernethy, 19 June 1968, 1, cons. with Abernethy to Perkins, 24 June 1968, file “Poor People’s March,” box 309, TGAP; Robert P. Griffin to Bill Nichols, 14 Mar. 1973, 1, cons. with Nichols to Griffin, 4 Apr. 1973, file “O.E.O. 32-B-4,” box 26, series 81-4, WFNP; W. C. Watson to Dear Sir, 10 Feb. 1970, 1, and Thomas G. Abernethy to Watson, 24 Feb. 1970, 1, both in file “Civil Rights,” box 272, TGAP.
13. American Farm Bureau Federation, Farm Bureau Policies for 1967, 8 Dec. 1965, 48, and American Farm Bureau Federation, Farm Bureau Policies for 1968, Dec. 1967, 44 (quotations), 48, both unfoldered in box 2, series 86-97, AFBFR; Walter Flowers, “1970 Legislation and Inflation,” Greene County Democrat, 5 Feb. 1970, 1.
14. Ben A. Franklin, “Agnew Makes Bid for ‘Protest’ Vote,” New York Times, 8 Oct. 1968, 33; Richard Nixon quoted in “Nixon Raps Government Renewal Aid,” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, 7 Oct. 1968, 4; “Republican Platform 1968,” 752–56; Richard S. Franzen to Conference Body, memorandum, 17 Oct. 1968, 6, cons. with Harold R. Sims to Executive Staff and Regional Directors, 21 Oct. 1968, file “Regional Directors Conf. NYC—10/24–25/68” (1 of 3), box 4, PRADCR, RG 381.
15. Alabama politician quoted in Frady, Wallace, 6–7. See also Carter, Politics of Rage, 10–12, 195–225, 324–70.
16. Lassiter, Silent Majority, 234; white man quoted in “At the Crossroads,” Newsweek, 6 Oct. 1969, 45; Scammon and Wattenberg, Real Majority, 167 (polls).
17. “Minutes of the Commission on the Delta Ministry,” 5–6 Mar. 1969, 3, file 5, box 4, DMP; Skrentny, Ironies of Affirmative Action, 189–91; “Excerpts from Speech by N.A.A.C.P. Head Calling Administration Anti-Negro,” New York Times, 30 June 1970, 25; “The Black Caucus in Congress Protests Nixon’s Indifference to ‘The Black Nation,’ ” Voice, 31 Aug.–15 Sept. 1970, 2; Mrs. Jack F. Patton to John Stennis, 21 Mar. 1972, 1, cons. with Stennis to Mr. and Mrs. John Sharp, 18 Apr. 1972, file 3, box 3, series 29, JCSC.
18. “Why Mayors Complain They Can’t Do Business with Washington,” U.S. News and World Report, 27 Mar. 1967, 64–66; National Governors’ Conference, [Resolution] VI, 20 Oct. 1967, 1, encl. in Ross D. Davis to Deputy Assistant Secretaries and Office Heads, memorandum, 29 Nov. 1967, file “National Governor’s Conference,” box 9, SFES, RG 378; Robert Perrin to Donald Rumsfeld, memorandum, 19 May 1969, 1–2, file “Donald Rumsfeld,” box 5, PFDD, RG 381; John Stennis to Holace Morris, 18 July 1966, 1, file “Economic Opportunity, General Correspondence,” box 2, series 25, JCSC; Matthew C. Coller to Bill Nichols, 19 Mar. 1969, 1, file “SWAFCA 1969,” box 27, series 81-4, WFNP (“responsible people” quotation).
19. “Transcript of Nixon’s Address to Nation Outlining Proposals for Welfare Reform,” New York Times, 9 Aug. 1969, 10.
20. Robert Perrin to Donald Rumsfeld, memorandum, 19 May 1969, 2, file “Donald Rumsfeld,” box 5, PFDD, RG 381; “Federal-State Employment Service Called ‘High on Rhetoric, Low on Performance,’ ” EEOC News Digest, 2 June 1970, 15, file “News Digest May 1970 to June 1970,” box 4, CFC, RG 403 (Urban League concerns); Roy Batchelor (regional director) quoted in Harold M. Bailin to Record, 4 Feb. 1971, 4, file “Regional Directors of CAP Directors Meeting,” box 5, SFFCD, RG 381; John Zippert to FSC Membership and Staff, 30 Jan. 1973, 3, file 2, box 43, FSCR; Gerald LaBrie to John Zippert, 5 Apr. 1972, 2, file 24, box 21, FSCR.
21. Thurber, Republicans and Race, 363; F. C. Doyal Jr. to George P. Shultz, 4 Aug. 1969, 1, cons. with Shultz to Doyal, 7 Aug. 1969, file “1969—State Correspondence, Alabama-Louisiana,” box 18, GPS, RG 174; “North Bolivar,” encl. in Charles O. Prejean to Robert J. Brown, 16 Jan. 1970, 1, file 16, box 28, FSCR.
22. John Iglehart, “Poverty Units Facing Pressures,” clipping from Newark News, 25 Nov. 1970, 1, file “Head Start,” box 7, SFFCD, RG 381 (Carlucci); “Statement by Frank Carlucci, Director of Operations and Assistant Director of the Office of Economic Opportunity, before the House of Representatives Committee on Education and Labor,” 2 Dec. 1970, 1, file “Head Start,” box 7, SFFCD, RG 381 (CAA reviews); Harold M. Bailin to Ted Jones, memorandum, 3 Dec. 1970, 1, file “Head Start,” box 7, SFFCD, RG 381 (regional director complaints).
23. Ray Collins to Donald Rumsfeld, memorandum, 14 Jan. 1970, 1–2, file “Office of Program Development” (2 of 3), box 8, SFDD, RG 381; H. Jack Geiger to Andrew James, 26 Jan. 1971, 3, file “OEO Grant Correspondence 1971–72,” box 43, DHCR.
24. “FY 74 Budget Proposes End to OEO, Community Action,” Economic Opportunity Report, 29 Jan. 1973, 1, file “Memos from Mr. Owen Brooks,” box 2, DHCR; John Berbers, “Budget Chief Affirms Plan to Abolish Poverty Office,” New York Times, 27 Jan. 1973, 1, 26; Jack Rosenthal, “Poverty Agency Faces More Cuts,” New York Times, 13 Jan. 1973, 14 (Phillips’s background); Howard Phillips quoted in “Acting O.E.O. Chief Discerns Marxism in Poverty Agency,” New York Times, 4 Feb. 1973, 37.
25. “Report for the President: An Assessment of the Community Services Administration,” n.d. [early 1977], 1, encl. in Joseph W. Aragon, “Report for the President on the Community Services Administration: An Overview and Six Recommendations,” n.d. [early 1977], file “Arragon [sic] Report on CSA,” box 5, GRSF, RG 381 (“staff vacancies” quotation); Wilbert C. Russell and Cleveland Gilcrease to Joseph Aragon, 4 Feb. 1977, 2, file “National Center for Community Action,” box 10, GRSF, RG 381 (“dumping ground” quotation).
26. Ben A. Franklin, “Suits to Oppose O.E.O. Dispersal,” New York Times, 26 Feb. 1973, 18; Philip Shabecoff, “4 Senators Seek to Oust Head of O.E.O.,” New York Times, 15 Mar. 1973, 29; Marjorie Hunter, “House and Nixon Act to Aid O.E.O.,” New York Times, 27 June 1973, 27; William E. Farrell, “Poverty Agency Is Seen as Entity,” New York Times, 23 Apr. 1975, 25; “Report for the President: An Assessment of the Community Services Administration,” n.d. [early 1977], 1, encl. in Joseph W. Aragon, “Report for the President on the Community Services Administration: An Overview and Six Recommendations,” n.d. [early 1977], file “Arragon [sic] Report on CSA,” box 5, GRSF, RG 381.
27. “Report for the President: An Assessment of the Community Services Administration,” n.d. [early 1977], 2, encl. in Joseph W. Aragon, “Report for the President on the Community Services Administration: An Overview and Six Recommendations,” n.d. [early 1977], file “Arragon [sic] Report on CSA,” box 5, GRSF, RG 381; John Macomber quoted in William L. Chaze, “After 15 Years of ‘Great Society’ Spending,” U.S. News and World Report, 30 June 1980, 36.
28. Gerson Green to Dick Blumenthal, memorandum, 26 May 1969, 5, file “OEO Review Task Force, 1969—General Comments, Reports, Correspondence—‘Working Notes’ ” (2 of 4), and L. S./B. K., “Delegation Strategy,” 15 June 1969, 1, file “OEO Review Task Force, 1969—General Comments, Reports, Correspondence—‘Working Notes’ ” (3 of 4), both in box 7, SFDD, RG 381.
29. Daniel, Dispossession, 231–32; “Farmers Home Administration Discriminates against Blacks,” ELF Newsletter, Nov. 1976, 1–2, file 12, box 14, MBC; Unknown author to Art Campbell, 22 Mar. 1979, 1, file 53, box 9, FSCR; [Fred Romero to Ray Marshall, memorandum, 6 Feb. 1977], 2, file “Memo 2/6/77 to the Secretary from Fred Romero regarding Meeting with Farmworker Representatives,” box 84, RM, RG 174 (“generally ignored” quotation); Wilbert C. Russell and Cleveland Gilcrease to Joseph Aragon, 4 Feb. 1977, 6, file “National Center for Community Action,” box 10, GRSF, RG 381.
30. [“A New Life for the Country: Report of the Presidential Task Force on Rural Development,” 4 Jan. 1970], chap. IV, p. 1, cons. with John R. Price to Members of Rural Affairs Council, memorandum, 26 Feb. 1970, file “White House—Rural Affairs Council—1970,” box 154, GPS, RG 174; Office of Economic Opportunity, “Actions and Plans Directed toward Cooperation and Coordination with Local Governments,” June 1970, title page (Rumsfeld quotation), 1–2, file “State Involvement in Poverty Programs,” box 7, GRPR, RG 381; “OEO’s Efforts to Increase State Involvement in Fiscal Year 1970,” June 1970, 1, ibid.
31. “OEO Testimony on Department of Community Development,” n.d. [ca. May/June 1971], 22, file “Proposed Reorganization—Dept. of Human Resources—OEO/Dept. of Community Development—1971” (1 of 3), box 10, SFDD, RG 381 (SEOO budget); Department of Labor, Manpower Technical Exchange, 18 May 1973, 1, file “Departmental Releases May 1973,” box 68, PJB, RG 174; Charles Culhane, “Manpower Report/Revenue Sharing Shift Set for Worker Training Programs,” National Journal Reports, 12 Jan. 1974, 51, file “Administration of State Programs December 1975,” box 66, JTD, RG 174 (CETA).
32. Huttie, “New Federalism,” 25; “Minority Elected Officials Learn to Play the New Federal Game: A Report on the Economic Development Conference, Atlanta, Georgia, June 29–July 1, 1973,” 3–6, file “Scholarship, Education and Defense Fund, Inc., Sept. 1973–Dec. 1974,” box 433, series 3, RBFA.
33. Danny Mitchell quoted in Huttie, “New Federalism,” 26.
34. William E. Farrell, “Poverty Agency Is Seen as Entity,” New York Times, 23 Apr. 1975, 25; Southeast Region Equal Opportunity Association, Resolution, 2nd Annual Session, 19–22 Feb. 1975, 1–2, encl. in Olan Faulk to John T. Dunlop, 18 Apr. 1975, file “Equal Employment Opportunity 1975,” box 64, JTD, RG 174; Hubert H. Humphrey and Dick Clark to John Dunlop, 28 Mar. 1975, 1, 5, cons. with Dunlop to Humphrey, 5 May 1975, file “Farm Labor March–August 1975,” box 69, JTD, RG 174.
35. Fred E. Romero, “Position Paper,” [Mar. 1976], 1–8, cons. with Robert O. Aders to John Read, memorandum, 2 Apr. 1976, file “Farm Labor, Feb–April 1976,” box 51, WJU, RG 174.
36. John F. Adams, Vernon M. Briggs Jr., Brian Rungeling, Lewis H. Smith, and Roosevelt Steptoe, “Labor Markets in the Rural South: A Study Based on Four Rural Counties,” 31 Mar. 1977, 335–37 (quotation on p. 335), file “Articles about and by the Secretary, Labor Markets in the Rural South: A Study Based on Four Rural Southern Counties, 1977,” box 122, RM, RG 174. The counties studied were Dodge County, Georgia; Natchitoches Parish, Louisiana; Starr County, Texas; and Sunflower County, Mississippi.
37. William H. Harrison, “Progress Report for March, April, May, and June 1972,” 13 July 1972, 2–4 (quotation on p. 4), and William H. Harrison to Bill Nichols, 6 Dec. 1972, 1–2, cons. with Nichols to Willie J. Williams, 15 Nov. 1972, both in file “12-T Office of Economic Opportunity—SWAFCA—Community Action,” box 10, series 85-1, WFNP.
38. Black, People and Plows against Hunger, 76–78 (L. C. Dorsey quoted on p. 76 and Brenton Creelman on p. 78).
39. Rudy Frank to Girson [Gerson] Green, memorandum, 30 July 1969, 2, file “Coop,” box 3, DHCR; “Minutes of Meeting at OEO Called by Rudy Frank,” 6 Aug. 1969, 11, file “Mtg. Minutes w/ R. Frank OEO and Farm Coop Board about Cannery,” box 38, DHCR.
40. Rutherford Associates, “Food-Processing in the Mississippi Delta,” 1 Oct. 1970, Part II, Continental-Allied Study (no page numbers), file “Rutherford and Continental Reports: Farm Coop Cannery,” box 39, DHCR; Black, People and Plows against Hunger, 58.
41. Herbert Black to Charles O. Prejean, 7 May 1974, 1, cons. with Prejean to Black, 15 May 1974, file 11, box 29, FSCR; Geiger interview, 74.
42. “Sad Nurse” to A. B. Albritton, 31 July 1972, 2–3, file “March–December 1972,” box 25, DHCR.
43. Geiger interview, 90–93; Huttie, “New Federalism,” 21.
44. Richard Polk quoted in Huttie, “New Federalism,” 23.
45. Center for Community Change, “Revitalizing the Nation’s Anti-Poverty Programs,” n.d. [November/December 1976], 3, 6–7, 20, file “Anti-Poverty Program,” box 5, GRSF, RG 381; John F. Adams, Vernon M. Briggs Jr., Brian Rungeling, Lewis H. Smith, and Roosevelt Steptoe, “Labor Markets in the Rural South: A Study Based on Four Rural Counties,” 31 Mar. 1977, 293–96, file “Articles about and by the Secretary, Labor Markets in the Rural South: A Study Based on Four Rural Southern Counties, 1977,” box 122, RM, RG 174; [Problem Analysis prepared by Human Services Study Staff], n.d. [before Apr. 1978], 1, encl. in Patricia A. Gwaltney to Grace Olivarez, memorandum, 19 Apr. 1978, file “President’s Reorganization Project” (1 of 2), box 13, GRSF, RG 381.
46. Senate Committee on Agriculture and Forestry, Rural Development Act of 1972, ix–xii; Cunningham interview, 29; Woodrow Keown, Statement to the Subcommittee on Rural Development, United States Senate, 6 Mar. 1975, 4, file 15, box 43, FSCR.
47. Robert A. Levine to Leon Sullivan, 14 July 1967, 1, cons. with Ira Kaye, Elmer Moore, and Maurice Dawkins to Director, memorandum, 1 Aug. 1967, file “Civil Rights—thru FY 1967,” box 1, IIF, RG 381; “Inventory of Actions Taken to Implement the Intent of the Recommendations of the President’s Commission on Rural Poverty,” section listing recommendations and agency responses, 1, cons. with W. Willard Wirtz to Orville L. Freeman, 19 June 1968, file “1968—Commission—National Advisory Commission on Rural Policy,” box 581, WWW, RG 174.
48. Ross Davis (official) quoted in “Minutes of Sub-Committee Meeting on Internal Migration,” 31 Jan. 1969, 4, file “1969—White House—Sub-Committee on Internal Migration,” box 28, GPS, RG 174; “Internal Migration,” n.d. [Mar. 1969], 8–11, cons. with Memorandum for the Record, 10 Mar. 1969, file “1969—White House—Sub-Committee on Internal Migration,” box 28, GPS, RG 174; Lynn M. Daft to Albert E. Abrahams, memorandum, 21 Dec. 1970, 1–3, encl. in Wesley L. Hjornevik to Joe Maldonado, memorandum, 22 Dec. 1970, file “Office of Program Development” (2 of 3), box 8, SFDD, RG 381.
49. Delta Ministry report quoted in “City Development Controlled,” Center Light, 26 Jan. 1973, 1, 8, file “Revenue Sharing,” box 6, TCHRC.
50. John B. Mitrisin, “The Economic Adjustment Act—A Discussion and Analysis of the President’s Economic Adjustment Program,” 25 Feb. 1974, 25–27, 31, file 4, box 83, RBLC.
51. Elbert Jones Jr. to Executive Staff, memorandum, 12 July 1973, 1, file 19, box 38, FSCR.
52. “Background on Office of Economic Opportunity Relations with Regional Economic Development Commissions,” 26 Jan. 1970, 2, encl. in Carol Khosrovi to Donald Rumsfeld, memorandum, 10 Apr. 1970, 2, file “Interagency and White House Related—Boards, Panels, Committees, Task Forces (1967–1970)” (1 of 2), box 4, SFDD, RG 381.
53. Henry Rogers to Secretary of Labor, 15 Feb. 1971, 4–6, file “Committee—Interagency Committee on Minority Business Enterprise, 1971,” box 106, JDH, RG 174; “The Freeze,” The Drummer, 2 Dec. 1971, 14–15, file 3, box 2, LBP (Pat Patterson); William E. Simon to Pete [Brennan], 26 Apr. 1973, 1, cons. with Pete [Brennan] to Simon, 10 May 1973, file “Integration, Civil Rights, Voting Rts, Negro Family, Poor People’s Campaign, Viet Nam, Student Riots, Moratorium, 1973,” box 80, PJB, RG 174.
54. Jeanne McFarland, “The Relationship between Minority Business Enterprise and Minority Economic Development,” 8 Feb. 1978, 2–4 (quotation on p. 2), file “Interagency Council for Minority Business Enterprise Participation,” box 9, GRSF, RG 381.
1. Charles O. Prejean to Robert Brown, 14 Nov. 1969, 1–2, file 12, box 28, FSCR; Charles O. Prejean to Member Cooperatives, memorandum, 23 Jan. 1969, 1, file 11, box 28, FSCR.
2. Prejean interview, 1–9 (quotation on p. 7).
3. “Excerpts from the Minutes of the Board of Directors Meeting of October 11, 1969,” 1, encl. in Howard Moore Jr. to Charles Collins, 11 June 1970, file 51, box 19, FSCR; FSC, Annual Report, 1978, 5, file 13, box 83, FSCR; Prejean interview, 14–17, 28–30 (quotation on p. 17).
4. Ruth P. Field, Morris B. Abram, and Leslie W. Dunbar to Wilbur D. Mills, 9 June 1969, 1–3, encl. in Dunbar to Charles Prejean, 9 June 1969, 1–3, file 2, box 48, FSCR; “Undermining the Foundations,” New York Times, 14 June 1969, 32; James M. Naughton, “Foundations Gain in Fight against Curbing Tax-Free Status,” New York Times, 13 Oct. 1969, 28; M. A. Farber, “Foundation Tax Plan Is Attacked,” New York Times, 21 Sept. 1969, 66; McGeorge Bundy to Ford Foundation Grantees, 31 Dec. 1969, 1–2, file 49, box 48, FSCR.
5. Charles O. Prejean to Leslie W. Dunbar, 10 July 1968, 1–2, file 9, box 28, FSCR.
6. “Background Information on Cooperative Development Financial Institution,” cons. with Charles Prejean, form letter, n.d. [ca. Feb./Mar. 1969], 1–3 (quotation on p. 3), file 11, box 28, FSCR.
7. McKnight, Whistling in the Wind, 35–36; John Zippert to State Supervisors, Department Heads, Etc., memorandum, 1 Oct. 1971, 1–2, file 18, box 42, FSCR (loan details); “The Southern Cooperative Development Fund, Inc.,” encl. in Michael Darnell to Sir/Madam, n.d., 1, file 20, box 68, FSCR (loan amounts).
8. Charles O. Prejean to Grant Revels, 22 Apr. 1968, 1, and Prejean to Jacob M. Kaplan, 29 Apr. 1968, 1 (quotation), both in file 9, box 28, FSCR; Charles O. Prejean to James Henry, 26 June 1972, 1, file 6, box 29, FSCR.
9. “Executive Director’s Report on Staff Activities,” FSC Annual Meeting, 19–20 Apr. 1969, 2, and “Executive Director’s Report,” [Apr. 1969], 2–7 (quotation on p. 7), both in file 3, box 83, FSCR.
10. Charles O. Prejean to FSC Membership, 10 June 1969, 3, file 11, box 28, FSCR; Charles O. Prejean to James Henry, 26 June 1972, 1–2, file 6, box 29, FSCR.
11. Prejean interview, 18–19; Charles O. Prejean, Annual Report to the Board and Membership of FSC, 1971, 1–2, file 6, box 83, FSCR; FSC, “Report to the Ford Foundation,” [Oct. 1971], 9, 11–12, 25 (quotation on p. 25), encl. in Charles Prejean to Mitchell Sviridoff, 15 Oct. 1971, file 26, box 28, FSCR.
12. Charles O. Prejean to John Price, 11 Nov. 1970, 1, file 18, box 28, FSCR; Guillory interview; Daniel, Dispossession, 156–95; Charles O. Prejean to J. M. Kaplan, 16 Nov. 1970, 2, file 16, box 28, FSCR (quotation).
13. Charles O. Prejean, Annual Report to the Board and Membership of FSC, 1971, 4, 7–9 (quotation on pp. 8–9), file 6, box 83, FSCR.
14. John Zippert to Herb Calender, 8 July 1968, 1–2, file 12, box 42, FSCR.
15. Lewis Black to Rev. St. Paul Epps, 11 June 1971, 1, file 7, box 62, FSCR; Allen J. Dunn to Virginia H. Knever, 2 May 1972, 2, file 1, box 29, FSCR; FSC, Annual Report, 1972, 5, file 7, box 83, FSCR.
16. Allen J. Dunn to Virginia H. Knever, 2 May 1972, 1, file 1, box 29, FSCR; “Overview of FSC Membership Success in 1971–1972,” 1, file 7, box 83, FSCR (quotation); Charles O. Prejean to James O. Jones, 6 July 1972, 2, file 6, box 29, FSCR (self-sufficiency); Prejean interview, 22 (white southerners see value).
17. Charles O. Prejean to Leslie W. Dunbar, 7 May 1968, 1, file 9, box 28, FSCR; Lillie Dunn Johnson to Howell Heflin, 16 Feb. 1980, 1, cons. with John Zippert to Johnson, 21 Feb. 1980, file 2, box 76, FSCR; John Perkins to Charles Prejean, 6 Apr. 1971, 1, file 23, box 19, FSCR; George M. Paris to Alfred Brooks, 2 Feb. 1973, 1, file 9, box 40, FSCR.
18. Michael Depp, “The Legacy of a Family Farm,” 9 Sept. 2001, American Profile, http://americanprofile.com/articles/ben-burkett-family-farm-legacy/ (last modified 2015); Nic Paget-Clarke, “Interview with Ben Burkett of the National Family Farm Coalition in the U.S.,” In Motion Magazine online, 25 May 2009, http://www.inmotionmagazine.com/global/b_burkett_int.html (last modified 2015).
19. Heather Gray, “Melbah Smith Inducted into the Cooperative Hall of Fame in May 2009,” 26 May 2009, FSC/LAF website, http://www.federationsoutherncoop.com/press/pr2009/may2609.htm (last modified 26 May 2009); “Melbah Smith,” [May] 2009, FSC/LAF website, http://www.federationsoutherncoop.com/press/pr2009/Melbahbio.pdf (last modified 26 May 2009). (McAfee married in 1985 and became Melbah McAfee Smith.)
20. “History from the 35th Annual Report (2002),” 1, FSC/LAF website, http://www.federationsoutherncoop.com/files%20home%20page/fschistory/fsc35hist.pdf (last modified 25 May 2015); Nic Paget-Clarke, “Interview with Ben Burkett of the National Family Farm Coalition in the U.S.,” In Motion Magazine online, 25 May 2009, http://www.inmotionmagazine.com/global/b_burkett_int.html (last modified 2015).
21. Jerry Voorhis quoted in John Zippert to Cooperative Foundation, 20 Sept. 1972, 1, file 22, box 42, FSCR; Leslie Dunbar to Charles O. Prejean, 16 Dec. 1971, 1, file 2, box 48, FSCR; Timothy Halnon to Charles Prejean, 3 Feb. 1972, 1, file 29, box 74, FSCR; FSC, Annual Report, 1972, 4, 6, file 7, box 83, FSCR.
22. Charles O. Prejean to Roger Wilkins, 5 May 1970, 1, file 17, box 28, FSCR; B. P. Atterbury to Charles O. Prejean, 20 Dec. 1968, 1, file 49, box 48, FSCR; Hilary S. Feldstein to Mitchell Sviridoff, memorandum, 11 Feb. 1969, 8, cons. with Charles O. Prejean to Feldstein, 10 July 1969, file 20, box 17, FSCR.
23. Charles O. Prejean to Roger Wilkins, 5 May 1970, 2, file 17, box 28, FSCR.
24. Charles O. Prejean to McGeorge Bundy, 14 June 1971, 1–2, and Prejean to Bryant George, 1 June 1971, 1, both in file 23, box 17, FSCR; Prejean interview, 56–57.
25. Charles O. Prejean to McGeorge Bundy, 14 June 1971, 1–2 (quotation on p. 2), file 23, box 17, FSCR.
26. A. J. McKnight to Mitchell Sviridoff, 24 June 1971, 1, ibid.
27. McGeorge Bundy to [Charles] Prejean, 1 July 1971, 1, file 51, box 48, FSCR; Charles O. Prejean to Bryant George, 15 July 1971, 1, and Prejean to George, 4 Aug. 1971, 1, both in file 23, box 17, FSCR.
28. Charles O. Prejean, A. J. McKnight, and John Zippert to Individuals and Organizations Who Support the Activities of the Federation of Southern Cooperatives, memorandum, 3 Dec. 1969, 1–2, file 10, box 68, FSCR; Charles O. Prejean to Robert Brown, 14 Nov. 1969, 3, file 12, box 28, FSCR (quotation).
29. Elmer J. Moore to Joseph A. Kershaw, memorandum, 1 Mar. 1966, 1, encl. in Kershaw to Eugene P. Foley, memorandum, 12 Mar. 1966, and Kershaw to Foley, memorandum, 12 Mar. 1966, 1, both in file “Mississippi,” box 6, SFES, RG 378; “Conclusion” [to Ford Foundation study, encl. in Bryant George to Charles Prejean, 24 July 1971], [1], file 51, box 48, FSCR.
30. Charles O. Prejean to Bryant George, 5 Aug. 1971, 1, file 23, box 17, FSCR; “Southern Rural Cooperative Economic Development,” n.d. [1971], 1, cons. with Gene Bradford to Carol Khosrovi, memorandum, 10 Sept. 1971, file “Office of Program Development” (1 of 3), box 8, SFDD, RG 381; William H. Peace III to All Co-op Managers, memorandum, 5 Nov. 1971, 2, file 28, box 28, FSCR.
31. Charles O. Prejean to FSC Membership, 26 May 1970, 1–2, file 51, box 19, FSCR.
32. John M. Brazzel to Charles O. Prejean, 17 Aug. 1971, 1, file 53, box 61, FSCR; John Brown Jr. to William H. Peace III, 22 Oct. 1971, 2, file 43, box 22, FSCR.
33. “Southern Rural Cooperative Economic Development,” n.d. [1971], 2, cons. with Gene Bradford to Carol Khosrovi, memorandum, 10 Sept. 1971, and William H. Peace III to Hubert H. Humphrey, 23 Aug. 1971, 1, encl. in Bradford to Khosrovi, memorandum, 10 Sept. 1971, both in file “Office of Program Development” (1 of 3), box 8, SFDD, RG 381.
34. Carol Khosrovi to Charles O. Prejean, 9 Nov. 1971, 1, and Phillip V. Sanchez and Carol Khosrovi to John Brown Jr., 20 Dec. 1971, 1–2, both in file 53, box 61, FSCR.
35. A. J. McKnight to Charles O. Prejean, 20 Jan. 1972, 1–2, file 13, box 68, FSCR; Charles O. Prejean to Carol Khosrovi, 22 Dec. 1971, 1, and Prejean to Phillip V. Sanchez, 22 Dec. 1971, 1, both in file 52, box 19, FSCR.
36. Charles O. Prejean to Phillip V. Sanchez, 11 Jan. 1972, 1–2, and Prejean to Carol Khosrovi, 11 Jan. 1972, 1, both cons. with Prejean to FSC Staff Members, memorandum, 11 Jan. 1972, file 3, box 29, FSCR.
37. Carol M. Khosrovi to Robert Freeman Jr., 8 June 1972, 1, file 54, box 61, FSCR; A. J. McKnight to Charles O. Prejean, 3 Apr. 1972, 1–2, file 13, box 68, FSCR.
38. Bryant George to Charles O. Prejean, 26 Apr. 1972, 1, file 52, box 48, FSCR.
39. Lewis Black to McGeorge Bundy, 22 July 1972, 1–2, file 24, box 17, FSCR; Charles O. Prejean to Bryant George, 26 Apr. 1972, 1–3 (quotation on p. 2), file 24, box 17, FSCR.
40. Mitchell Sviridoff to Charles O. Prejean, 15 June 1972, 1–2, file 52, box 48, FSCR.
41. Prejean interview, 56–57.
42. Charles O. Prejean to Mrs. J. A. Blakslee, 28 July 1972, 1, file 6, box 29, FSCR; FSC, Annual Report, 1972, unnumbered page titled “Gratitude,” file 7, box 83, FSCR.
43. FSC, Annual Report, 1972, 6–7, file 7, box 83, FSCR; Charles O. Prejean to Andrew Young, 10 Apr. 1974, 2, file 11, box 29, FSCR (BDO information); Charles O. Prejean to Paul Adkins, 4 Mar. 1974, 1, file 10, box 29, FSCR.
44. “Tennessee-Tombigbee Inland Waterway Project,” news release, 15 July 1959, 1, file “Tennessee-Tombigbee Waterway 1959,” box 67, TGAP; Pat Broocks-Ross, “Tenn-Tom: Water-Borne Potential,” Mainstream Mississippi, Winter 1982–83, 5, file 2, box 1, DCC.
45. “A Statement to the President of the United States by Tennessee-Tombigbee Waterway Development Authority in Support of a Budget Allocation to Allow Construction of the Tennessee-Tombigbee Waterway,” Nov. 1967, 3–4, cons. with “Joint Statement to the President of the United States by Members of the United States Senate and House Representatives in Support of a Budget Allocation to Allow Construction of the Tennessee-Tombigbee Waterway,” Nov. 1967, file 4, box 120, PBJFP (quotation); “Why Tennessee-Tombigbee Now,” [1967], 1, file 4, box 120, PBJFP; Pat Broocks-Ross, “Tenn-Tom: Water-Borne Potential,” Mainstream Mississippi, Winter 1982–83, 5, file 2, box 1, DCC.
46. John Zippert to James O. James, memorandum, 16 Nov. 1973, 1–2, file 5, box 43, FSCR.
47. Lamond Godwin quoted in Donna Myhre, “Notes on First Peoples Conference on the Tennessee-Tombigbee Waterway,” 19 Jan. 1974, 3, file “Tennessee-Tombigbee Waterway,” box 6, TCHRC; MPC, “Report of the Committee Goals and Objectives,” cons. with Wendell Paris to Members, memorandum, 19 Mar. 1974, 1–4, file “Tennessee-Tombigbee Waterway,” box 6, TCHRC.
48. Anthony Griggs, “How Blacks Lost 9,000,000 Acres of Land,” Ebony, Oct. 1974, 98, 102 (quotation); Wolfgang Saxon, “Robert S. Browne, 79, Dies; Economist and Advocate,” New York Times online, 15 Aug. 2004, http://www.nytimes.com/2004/08/15/us/robert-s-browne-79-dies-economist-and-advocate.html (last modified 2015); MPC, Minutes of Meeting, 31 Aug. 1974, 2–3, cons. with Wendell Paris to Council Members, memorandum, 18 Sept. 1974, file “Tennessee-Tombigbee Waterway,” box 6, TCHRC; FSC, Annual Report, 1974–75, 37, file 10, box 83, FSCR.
49. Wendell Paris to Committee Members, memorandum, 17 May 1974, file “Tennessee-Tombigbee Waterway,” box 6, TCHRC; MPC, Minutes of Meeting, 31 Aug. 1974, 3, cons. with Wendell Paris to Council Members, memorandum, 18 Sept. 1974, ibid.; FSC, Annual Report, 1974–75, 36–37, file 10, box 83, FSCR; “Training Men for a Better Life,” Ebony, Dec. 1973, 94–100 (quotation on p. 100).
50. “Stennis Hosts Meeting on Area-Wide Affirmative Action Plan,” MPC TTW Newsletter, Oct. 1975, 1, file “Tennessee-Tombigbee Waterway,” box 6, TCHRC; MPC, Minutes of Meeting, 26 Apr. 1975, 1, ibid.
51. “Stennis Hosts Meeting on Area-Wide Affirmative Action Plan,” MPC TTW Newsletter, Oct. 1975, 1, 3, file “Tennessee-Tombigbee Waterway,” box 6, TCHRC; Lamond Godwin to Bryant George, Robert Schrank, Ernest Osbourne, Tom Wahman, and Hugh Burroughs, memorandum, 20 Sept. 1976, 1–2, encl. in John Zippert to Charles Prejean, memorandum, 4 Oct. 1976, file 2, box 30, FSCR; “Management Report to FSC Membership,” n.d. [1976], [10], file 11, box 83, FSCR.
52. Pat Broocks-Ross, “Tenn-Tom: Water-Borne Potential,” Mainstream Mississippi, Winter 1982–83, 8, file 2, box 1, DCC; Wilbur O. Colom to Franklin Thomas, 5 Oct. 1983, cons. with Franklin A. Thomas to Pearl G. Long, 20 Oct. 1983, file 53, box 48, FSCR (“important voice” quotation); FSC, Annual Report, 1984–85, 28, file 20, box 83, FSCR (MPC contribution recognized).
53. Lamond Godwin to Bryant George, Robert Schrank, Ernest Osbourne, Tom Wahman, and Hugh Burroughs, memorandum, 20 Sept. 1976, 2, encl. in John Zippert to Charles Prejean, memorandum, 4 Oct. 1976, file 2, box 30, FSCR; John Zippert to Ernest Green, 8 Aug. 1975, 1–2, file 22, box 15, FSCR (TTW training project); Charles O. Prejean to Jack Ravan, 16 July 1976, 1, file 5, box 30, FSCR.
54. Ramon E. Tyson Jr. to Reginald L. Dunn, 30 Dec. 1974, 1–2, file 16, box 31, FSCR.
55. Charles O. Prejean to Parren Mitchell, 7 May 1975, 1–2, file 21, box 29, FSCR.
56. [Fred Romero to Ray Marshall, memorandum, 6 Feb. 1977], 2–4, file “Memo 2/6/77 to the Secretary from Fred Romero regarding meeting with Farmworker Representatives,” box 84, RM, RG 174.
57. Marshall interview, 1–3, 21–22, 39, 51, 55; Gordon Cavanaugh to National Office Staff, State Directors, District Directors, and County Supervisors, memorandum, 18 Sept. 1978, 1–2, encl. in Karl S. Wright to Extension Specialists, memorandum, 3 Nov. 1978, file 27, box 22, FSCR.
58. Robert C. Altman quoted in FSC, Annual Report, 1978, 7, file 13, box 83, FSCR; Charles O. Prejean to Mitchell Sviridoff, 13 Mar. 1979, 1, file 26, box 17, FSCR.
59. Charles O. Prejean to Robert Smith, 7 Mar. 1978, 2, file 18, box 15, FSCR (CSA grant); John Zippert to William McKinley Branch, 4 May 1978, 1, file 57, box 17, FSCR (CETA project); John Zippert to Freddie Washington, 14 Oct. 1977, 1, file 17, box 15, FSCR (VISTA volunteers); Charles O. Prejean to Leslie Dunbar, 9 Aug. 1978, 1, file 10, box 30, FSCR (total federal funding).
60. Cunningham interview, 17, 30.
61. FSC, Annual Report, 1972, 11, file 7, box 83, FSCR; Harold Turner to Alex Armendaris, 27 Dec. 1974, 1, and Adell Williams to Armendaris, 31 Dec. 1974, 1, both cons. with Ramon E. Tyson Jr. to Reginald L. Dunn, 30 Dec. 1974, file 16, box 31, FSCR.
62. Gordon Crowe to Gene Sally, 7 Feb. 1969, 1, file 51, box 19, FSCR.
63. Charles O. Prejean to John Price, 23 Apr. 1971, 1, file 23, box 28, FSCR.
64. Charles O. Prejean to Thomas K. Goines, 6 Dec. 1971, 2, file 27, box 28, FSCR.
65. Frank Cook and Annie B. Williams to James F. Neville, 8 Feb. 1973, 1–2, file 26, box 22, FSCR; John Zippert to Supporters of PLBA, memorandum, 16 Apr. 1973, 1–3, file 8, box 62, FSCR; Frank L. Cook to Gordon Cavanaugh, 17 Jan. 1980, 1–2, file 9, box 62, FSCR; John Zippert to Art Collings, 4 Feb. 1981, 1, file 2, box 46, FSCR.
66. Charles O. Prejean to Larry Tyner, 20 Jan. 1977, 2, file 6, box 30, FSCR; Bethell, Sumter County Blues, 9, 12–13 (John Neel quoted on p. 9).
67. Bethell, Sumter County Blues, 12–14 (Home Record quoted on p. 12); John Zippert to Michael Darnell, 1 Nov. 1979, 1–2, file 4, box 10, FSCR.
68. Wilbur O. Colom to Thad Cochran, 21 Jan. 1980, 1, file 1, box 76, FSCR.
69. Charles O. Prejean to Friends, 31 Jan. 1980, 1–2, file 1, box 76, FSCR.
70. Bethell, Sumter County Blues, 15.
71. FSC, Annual Report, 1980–81, 6, file 16, box 83, FSCR; Charles O. Prejean to Vernon Jordan, 4 Dec. 1980, 1, file 14, box 30, FSCR; Bethell, Sumter County Blues, 16; FSC, Annual Report, 1980–81, 6, file 16, box 83, FSCR.
72. Charles O. Prejean to Carl Holman, 5 Aug. 1980, 1, file 4, box 76, FSCR.
73. Leslie W. Dunbar, Tom Wahman, George Patterson, Elridge McMillan, David Ramage, Diane Leslie, and Patricia Hewitt to Benjamin Civiletti, 25 Mar. 1980, 1, file 3, box 76, FSCR; Howard Moore Jr. to J. R. Brooks, 9 Jan. 1981, 1, 5–6, file 6, box 76, FSCR.
74. John Paul Dalsimer to Howard Moore Jr., 2 Feb. 1981, 1–3, and John Paul Dalsimer to Howard Moore Jr., 2 Feb. 1981 (private note), 1, cons. with Dalsimer to Moore and Others, 2 Feb. 1981, both in file 15, box 30, FSCR.
75. Charles Prejean and Leslie Dunbar quoted in Bethell, Sumter County Blues, 16; J. R. Brooks to Howard Moore [Jr.], 20 May 1981, 1, encl. in Moore to Charles Prejean, 27 May 1981, file 7, box 76, FSCR.
1. Untitled, CSA news release 78-17, n.d. [1978], 1, file “Press Releases, 1978,” box 1, PR, RG 381.
2. Berman, America’s Right Turn, 21–22; Bernard Sloan quoted in Dorothy Gilliam, “Is Recession Society Mean toward Poor?,” Washington Post, 13 Sept. 1980, C1.
3. Charles Evers, “When Elected Officers Must Be Trained First,” Washington Sunday Star, 30 Nov. 1969, D2; Wilbert C. Russell and Cleveland Gilcrease to Joseph Aragon, 4 Feb. 1977, 13, file “National Center for Community Action,” box 10, GRSF, RG 381; Gilliam, “Is Recession Society Mean toward Poor?,” Washington Post, 13 Sept. 1980, C1.
4. “Attention: Inflation, Budget Cuts, and the Rural Poor,” Rural Coalition Update, Mar. 1980, 3, and “Review: The Carter Administration’s Small Community and Rural Development Policy,” Rural Coalition Update, July 1980, 2, both in file “Rural Coalition,” box 14, GRSF, RG 381.
5. Governor’s Office of Human Resources, “Annual Report, State Office of Economic Opportunity,” 1973, 5, file “Miss. Governor’s Office of Human Resources,” box 12, DHCR; “Mississippi Children,” Council Newsletter, June 1977, 3, and “Ten Years Later,” Council Newsletter, May 1977, 1–2, both in file “Mississippi Council on Human Relations—Newsletters, 1975–1978,” box 9, TCHRC.
6. Robert Bamberg quoted in “The Seven Fat Years of Red,” Alabama Magazine, July 1978, 2, file “22-B Alabama Development Office 1978,” box 1, series 82-2, WFNP; William L. Chaze, “After 15 Years of ‘Great Society’ Spending,” U.S. News and World Report, 30 June 1980, 36; William Raspberry, “What Would We Do without Poverty?,” Washington Post, 11 July 1980, A13.
7. Paul Delaney, “Black Supporters of President under Fire,” New York Times, 17 Oct. 1972, 29; “McKissick Calls on Blacks to Join Two-Party Politics,” New York Times, 10 Aug. 1972, 25; Howell Raines, “Reagan Suggests Ban on Soviet Trade,” New York Times, 23 Oct. 1980, B12 (Evers’s endorsement of Reagan); “Evers and the IRS,” Newsweek, 26 Aug. 1971, 21–22; “Will This Man Be Mississippi’s Next Senator?,” People, 25 Sept. 1978, 32–34; George Goodman, “Mayor Evers Visits College Here Named for Brother,” New York Times, 13 May 1973, 51 (quotation). For some analysis of Evers’s political philosophy and the controversial role he played in the freedom movement, see Crosby, A Little Taste of Freedom, 189–223.
8. Edsall, Chain Reaction, 137–39; 189; Thurber, Republicans and Race, 261; Ronald Reagan, “A Time for Choosing,” national television address, 27 Oct. 1964, in Balitzer, A Time for Choosing, 43, 46.
9. Ronald Reagan, “Government and the Family,” national television address, 6 July 1976, in Balitzer, A Time for Choosing, 169, 171; George Wallace quoted in Sokol, There Goes My Everything, 252; O’Reilly, Nixon’s Piano, 350, 357 (Klan endorsement); Editorial, “New Hope for America,” Citizen, Dec. 1980, 2. For more on the ways Reagan manipulated white voters’ racial resentments, see Klinkner, Unsteady March, 300–305, and Marable, Crisis of Color, 134–36.
10. Ronald Reagan quoted in O’Reilly, Nixon’s Piano, 359; Marable, Crisis of Color, 135; Sloan, Reagan Effect, 104–18.
11. Sloan, Reagan Effect, 139; Robert Pear, “U.S. Welfare Plan to Require Check on Family Assets,” New York Times, 4 Sept. 1981, A1, A7 (public assistance); Edsall, Chain Reaction, 192 (food and nutrition); Sara Rosenbaum, “Administration ‘Testament’ to Children’s Poverty,” Letter to the Editor, New York Times, 25 Feb. 1984, 22 (Medicaid).
12. Commission on Civil Rights, Civil Rights, 77–81, 83–88, 90–93, 101–2; Aaron E. Henry to Delegates, Program, 36th Annual Convention, Mississippi State Conference NAACP, 5–7 Nov. 1981, 4, file 2, box 4, CDP; Charles O. Prejean to Frederic Walls, 2 July 1981, 2, file 17, box 30, FSCR.
13. “Statement of Alabama Department of Pensions and Security on the Administration’s Public Assistance Policies,” n.d. [Aug. 1983], 2, 4, cons. with Bill Nichols to Leon Frazier, 1 Sept. 1983, file “22Q Pensions and Security,” box 5, series 89-10, WFNP.
14. Charles Austin, “U.S. Budget Cuts Strain Church Aid Programs,” New York Times, 2 Jan. 1982, 1 (quotation), 9; David Shribman, “Death Comes to a Federal Agency,” New York Times, 19 Sept. 1981, 7.
15. Department of Labor, “Information Sheet: National Rural Development Strategy,” 1, encl. in Raymond J. Donovan to John R. Block, 8 Sept. 1982, and Donovan to Block, 8 Sept. 1982, 1, both in file “Rural Development,” box 125, RJD, RG 174; Gerald Hambleton to Russell B. Long, 21 Apr. 1983, 1–2, file 18, box 471, RBLC.
16. Southern Growth Policies Board, Halfway Home, 7.
17. Colclough, “Uneven Development,” 73, 84; George Howard (Industrial Development director) quoted in Commission on Civil Rights, Fifteen Years Ago, 14.
18. Eckes, “The South and Economic Globalization,” 55–57; Southern Growth Policies Board, Halfway Home, 7–8, 23; Friedman, “ ‘Trail of Ghost Towns,’ ” 43 (Schwinn and Boeing examples); William Harrison to Bill Nichols, 9 Apr. 1984, 4, cons. with Nichols to Harrison, 15 May 1984, file “2-B Economic Development Administration,” box 12, series 89-10, WFNP; William E. Schmidt, “Rural Southern Towns Find Manufacturing Boom Fading,” New York Times, 21 Mar. 1985, A1, A20 (quotation).
19. Speech by William F. Winter in The Mississippi River Delta: Its People, Its Problems, Its Potential, proceedings of a symposium sponsored by the East Arkansas Higher Education Economic Development Consortium, 24 Oct. 1988, 14, unfoldered, box 4, LMDDCF; Lower Mississippi Delta Development Commission, Body of the Nation, 12.
20. George Paris and John Zippert, “State Coordinators Meeting Summary,” 16 Mar. 1981, 1, encl. in Paris and Zippert to FSC State Coordinators, memorandum, 17 Mar. 1981, file 16, box 30, FSCR; George Paris to Alabama CETA Title VI Employees, 15 Apr. 1981, 1, file 32, box 15, FSCR.
21. John Zippert to Robert L. Paterson, 27 Apr. 1981, 1–2, file 4, box 15, FSCR; John Zippert to Karl N. Stanber, 23 Dec. 1981, 1–2, file 5, box 46, FSCR.
22. FSC, Annual Report, 1980–81, 6–8, 10–11, 13 (quotation on p. 8), file 16, box 83, FSCR.
23. John Zippert to Karl N. Stanber, 23 Dec. 1981, 2, file 5, box 46, FSCR; FSC, Annual Report, 1980–81, 8, file 16, box 83, FSCR; Charles O. Prejean to Franklin Thomas, 23 Sept. 1983, 2–3, file 21, box 30, FSCR; J. D. Brown to John Hatch, 5 Feb. 1986, file 254, box 12, JWHP; [Ezra Cunningham] to Henry Sanders and SWAFCA Board Members, 9 Aug. 1986, 1–2, encl. in Ezra Cunningham to SWAFCA Board Members, 1 Aug. 1986, file 9, box 35, FSCR.
24. Melbah McAfee to John Zippert, 19 July 1982, 1–2, file 28, box 21, FSCR; Bill Peace to Joseph Brooks, Charles Prejean, and A. T. [A. J.] McKnight, 1 Mar. 1979, 2–5, file 11, box 30, FSCR.
25. Karl S. Wright to Julius Robinson, 8 Apr. 1980, 1, file 4, box 16, FSCR; FSC, Annual Report, 1981–82, 6, file 17, box 83, FSCR; John Zippert to Janet Michaud, 13 July 1983, 2, file 20, box 30, FSCR.
26. John Zippert and Jerry Pennick to Joe Brooks and Charles O. Prejean, memorandum, 9 Nov. 1981, 1–3, file 36, box 13, FSCR; FSC, Annual Report, 1984–85, 21, file 20, box 83, FSCR; “Federation/LAF History from the 25th Annual Report (1992),” 15–16, Federation of Southern Cooperatives/Land Assistance Fund website, http://www.federationsoutherncoop.com/fschistory/FSC25hist.pdf (last modified 8 Apr. 2015); John Zippert to Jack Litzenberg, 8 Nov. 1985, 1, file 3, box 47, FSCR.
27. FSC, Annual Report, 1984–85, 13–14, file 20, box 83, FSCR; FSC/LAF, Annual Report, 1990–91, 2, 12, 14–16, file 3, box 84, FSCR.
28. FSC, Annual Report, 1984–85, 30, file 20, box 83, FSCR; FSC/LAF, Annual Report, 1990–91, 4, 15, 17 (quotation), file 3, box 84, FSCR.
29. FSC, Annual Report, 1984–85, 21–23, file 20, box 83, FSCR; C. Scott Graber, “A Blight Hits Black Farmers,” Nation, 11 Mar. 1978, 269–72.
30. Richard Porter, “The Emergency Land Fund,” 40 Acres and a Mule, Dec. 1979, 2, file “Black Community, 1979,” box 1, series 5, DRBC; Ralph Paige quoted in FSC/LAF, Annual Report, 1990–91, 28, file 3, box 84, FSCR.
31. FSC, Annual Report, 1984–85, 21–23, file 20, box 83, FSCR; FSC/LAF, Annual Report, 1990–91, 25, file 3, box 84, FSCR; FSC/LAF, Annual Report, 1987–88, 46, file 23, box 83, FSCR (land losses reduced).
32. FSC, Annual Report, 1984–85, 24–25, file 20, box 83, FSCR.
33. FSC/LAF, Annual Report, 1990–91, 26–27, file 3, box 84, FSCR.
34. FSC, Annual Report, 1984–85, 29, file 20, box 83, FSCR.
35. FSC/LAF, Annual Report, 1987–88, 4, 35, file 23, box 83, FSCR; FSC/LAF, Annual Report, 1990–91, 33, file 3, box 84, FSCR.
36. “Letter of Intent, Targeted Jobs Demonstration Program for Greene County and Selected Adjoining Areas in Pickens County, Alabama Impacted by the Tennessee-Tombigbee Waterway,” n.d. [July 1979], 1, encl. in John Zippert to Jack Dickinson, 2 July 1979, file 18, box 15, FSCR; Charles O. Prejean to Franklin Thomas, 10 Feb. 1984, 2, file 26, box 17, FSCR.
37. Charles O. Prejean to Franklin Thomas, 23 Sept. 1983, 2, file 21, box 30, FSCR; FSC, Annual Report, 1984–85, 26, file 20, box 83, FSCR; FSC/LAF, Annual Report, 1987–88, 31, file 23, box 83, FSCR.
38. FSC/LAF, Annual Report, 1990–91, 1, file 3, box 84, FSCR.
39. FSC, Annual Report, 1984–85, 7–10, file 20, box 83, FSCR; FSC/LAF, Annual Report, 1990–91, 1, file 3, box 84, FSCR (quotation); Aiken, Cotton Plantation South, 327–39; Austin, Transformation of Plantation Politics, 61–94.
40. Newman, Divine Agitators, 216; Lower Mississippi Delta Development Commission, Body of the Nation, 1, Appendixes, ii, xxxiv.
41. LMDDC Public Hearing, Human Services Section, Monroe, Louisiana, 24 Jan. 1990, 79–80, 84, file 45, box 2, LMDDCF (“world of despair” quotation p. 79; Joseph George quotation p. 84).
42. LMDDC Public Hearing, Education Section, Monroe, Louisiana, 24 Jan. 1990, 58–61 (quotation on pp. 59–60), file 44, box 2, LMDDCF.
43. LMDDC Mississippi Public Hearing, Itta Bena, Mississippi, 28 Nov. 1989, 118–20 (quotation on p. 120), unfoldered, box 4, LMDDCF.
44. LMDDC Public Hearing, Economic Development Section, Monroe, Louisiana, 24 Jan. 1990, 2–3, file 46, box 2, LMDDCF.
45. Ibid., 89–90.
46. LMDDC Public Hearing, Education Section, Monroe, Louisiana, 24 Jan. 1990, 64–71, 75, file 44, box 2, LMDDCF.
47. Ibid., 69.
48. LMDDC Agriculture/Environmental Hearings, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, 23 Jan. 1990, 5–6, 11, file 4, box 1, LMDDCF (quotations); Guillory interview.
49. LMDDC Mississippi Public Hearing, Itta Bena, Mississippi, 28 Nov. 1989, 72–77, unfoldered, box 4, LMDDCF.
50. LMDDC Hearing, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, 23 Jan. 1990, 5 (Arnold Lincove), 115–20 (Dewitt Jones, quotation on p. 119), file 21, box 1, LMDDCF.
51. LMDDC Agriculture/Environmental Hearings, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, 23 Jan. 1990, 8, file 4, box 1, LMDDCF (Webb Franklin); LMDDC Hearing, Baton Rouge, 23 Jan. 1990, 123–24, file 21, box 1, LMDDCF (tax incentives).
52. LMDDC Agriculture/Environmental Hearings, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, 23 Jan. 1990, 11–14, file 4, box 1, LMDDCF; LMDDC Public Hearing, Education Section, Monroe, Louisiana, 24 Jan. 1990, 70–73, file 44, box 2, LMDDCF; LMDDC Mississippi Public Hearing, Itta Bena, Mississippi, 28 Nov. 1989, 11–15 (quotation on p. 15), unfoldered, box 4, LMDDCF.
53. Lower Mississippi Delta Development Commission, Delta Initiatives, 4 (“Handbook for Action” quotation), 24–25 (health care), 34 (Head Start), 75, 77, 121 (small farms and economic development).
54. Newman, Divine Agitators, 216; Joan I. Duffy, “Center to Help Delta Sinks into Poverty,” Memphis Commercial Appeal, 29 July 1991, A1 (“little interest” quotation); L. G. Brooks quoted in Christopher Sullivan, “Plan Has Brought Only Hope to the Delta,” Baton Rouge Advocate, 7 July 1991, 14A.
55. James W. Brosnan, “Clinton Owes Delta Two Things: Apology, and Help,” Memphis Commercial Appeal, 4 July 1999, B5; Roland Klose, “Bluer Blues,” Memphis Commercial Appeal, 8 Nov. 2009, V1.
56. Eckes, “The South and Economic Globalization,” 56–60.
57. Chris Frink and Steven Ward, “Lake Providence ‘Dwindling Away,’ ” Baton Rouge Advocate, 25 Aug. 2002, 10A.
58. Klose, “Bluer Blues,” Memphis Commercial Appeal, 8 Nov. 2009, V1.
1. Department of Labor, Economic Adjustment and Worker Dislocation, 123, 134–37 (Appendix B, pp. 8, 19–22, tables 6 and 7); Sassen, Global City, 200 (New York); High, Industrial Sunset, 115 (Detroit), 122 (steel mill closings); O’Hara, “Envisioning the Steel City,” 229 (U.S. Steel).
2. Stiglitz, Globalization and Its Discontents, 10–12; Schaeffer, Understanding Globalization, 53–57, 68–72, 217–50; Sassen, Global City, 2–15; Krippner, Capitalizing on Crisis, 27–57.
3. Krippner, Capitalizing on Crisis, 30–33 (figs. 1 and 3); Bluestone, Foreword, xii.
4. Bluestone and Harrison, Deindustrialization of America, 9.
5. Larry Koker, Sharon Harmon, and Gary resident quoted in O’Hara, “Envisioning the Steel City,” 229–30; Russo and Linkon, “Collateral Damage,” 202 (Youngstown).
6. Bruce Springsteen, “My Hometown,” Born in the USA (Columbia Records, 1984).
7. Margaret McPherson to John Sparkman, 31 Mar. 1965, 1, cons. with Eleanor Ballentine to Sparkman, 3 Apr. 1965, file “Robo Civil Rights,” box 9, 1963–64 series, JJSSP; F. E. Lucius and W. C. Butler to John C. Stennis, 1 Dec. 1967, 1, file 3, box 2, series 29, JCSC; Janet Williams to George W. Andrews, 4 Feb. 1970, cons. with Andrews to Mr. and Mrs. Walter Chesser, 12 Feb. 1970, file “Correspondence, February 10–12, 1970,” box 51, GWAP.
8. Young Johnston to John Sparkman, 26 May 1966, 1, cons. with Sparkman to Johnston, 4 June 1966, file “Civil Rights—Discrimination,” box 1, 1966–67 series, JJSSP; “Statement of Frank W. Grigsby, President, Louisiana Realtors Association,” n.d. [ca. 1966], 1, and L. Heidel Brown to Russell B. Long, 19 July 1966, 1, both in file 47, box 97, RBLC.
9. For analyses of the origins and impact of affirmative action policies, see Davies, From Opportunity to Entitlement; Skrentny, Ironies of Affirmative Action; Anderson, Pursuit of Fairness; MacLean, Freedom Is Not Enough; and Yuill, Richard Nixon and the Rise of Affirmative Action.
10. John L. Edgar to Russell B. Long, 13 Dec. 1971, 1, file 36, box 136, RBLC; Arthur James Elliott to John Sparkman, 6 Sept. 1972, 1, cons. with Stephen C. Blakeslee Jr. to Sparkman, 9 Nov. 1972, file “Civil Rights,” box 6, 1972 series, JJSSP; Martin P. Broderick Jr. to John R. Rarick, 22 May 1972, 1, file 31, box 146, RBLC.
11. Mrs. Enos Cormier to Senator [Russell] Long, 8 Sept. 1969, 1, file 27, box 115, RBLC; Mr. and Mrs. A. E. Huckabay to Russell B. Long, 2 Nov. 1971, 1–2, file 1, box 135, RBLC; Leroy J. Cooper to Senator [Russell] Long, 10 Dec. 1974, 1, file 21, box 164, RBLC.
12. For a helpful overview of racial discrimination in federal programs, see Katznelson, When Affirmative Action Was White.
13. Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract: 1980, 407 (table 682) (unemployment rates), 451 (table 745) (incomes), 465 (table 773) (poverty rates).
14. Hillson, Battle of Boston, 13, 29, 35–36, 54; Dewey Burton quoted in Cowie, Stayin’ Alive, 4.
15. Iver Peterson, “Parents of Whites Believe Homes Are at Stake,” New York Times, 22 Oct. 1972, 95 (Ralph Vitol quotation). For more on the ways that racism permeated housing policies and home valuation practices, see Jackson, Crabgrass Frontier, 195–218; Massey and Denton, American Apartheid, 26–59; and Freund, “Marketing the Free Market.”
16. Louis Harris, “The ‘Backlash’ Issue,” Newsweek, 13 July 1964, 25; Jack Rosenthal, “Angry Ethnic Voices Decry a ‘Racist and Dullard’ Image,” New York Times, 17 June 1970, 49; National Confederation of American Ethnic Groups, ’72 Convention Report, [June 1972], 1–4 (quotations on pp. 2 and 4), file “PI-6-3-6, 1972,” box 240, JDH, RG 174.
17. Jack Rosenthal, “U.S. Urged to Aid Blue-Collar Man,” New York Times, 30 June 1970, 1, 20; Rosow, “Problem of the Blue Collar Worker,” 2–4, 8, 11–13 (quotation on p. 8); Jack Rosenthal, “U.S. Aide Asks Blue-Collar Gains,” New York Times, 30 Oct. 1970, 69.
18. Cowie, Stayin’ Alive, 133–34, 146–51, 220–27; Stein, Pivotal Decade, 111–17, 219–20, 227–37.
19. Richard Nixon quoted in Cowie, Stayin’ Alive, 124.
20. Cowie, Stayin’ Alive, 97; Frank Lynn, “Many Unions in the State Expected to Support Nixon,” New York Times, 21 July 1972, 18; Tom Wicker, “Maybe the Voters Are Overlooking Some Things,” New York Times, 5 Nov. 1972, E15; Paul Delaney, “Nixon Held Likely to Drop Program of Minority Jobs,” New York Times, 4 Sept. 1972, 1, 16.
21. Jack Rosenthal, “The ‘Secret’ Key Issue,” New York Times, 6 Nov. 1972, 47; Louis Harris, “Two Ethnic Groups Indicate Shift from Dem. Column in ’72,” Harris Survey news release, 12 Oct. 1972, 1, The Harris Poll online archive, http://media.theharrispoll.com/documents/Harris-Interactive-Poll-Research-TWO-ETHNIC-GROUPS-INDICATE-SHIFT-FROM-DEM-COLUMN-IN-72-1972-10.pdf (last modified 2015).
22. “Presidential General Election, All States, 1972 Summary,” CQ Voting and Elections Collection (Website), Washington, D.C.: CQ Press, 2003, retrieved from http://library.cqpress.com.unr.idm.oclc.org/elections/avg1972–1us1 (last modified 2015); Thurber, Republicans and Race, 358.
23. Richard Nixon quoted in Kenneth W. Munden, “The Office of Economic Opportunity in the Nixon Administration,” unpublished manuscript, 1973, 369, unfoldered, box 107, HOEO, RG 381; Scammon and Wattenberg, Real Majority, 20–22, 37–40, 207–9 (quotation on p. 207); Thurber, Republicans and Race, 345.
24. Carter, Public Papers, 1978, bk. 1, 91, 93.
25. Stein, Pivotal Decade, 158–59, 200–204; Edsall, Chain Reaction, 18, 130–31.
26. “ ‘Welfare Queen’ Becomes Issue in Reagan Campaign,” New York Times, 15 Feb. 1976, 51; Jon Nordheimer, “Reagan Is Picking His Florida Spots,” New York Times, 5 Feb. 1976, 29; Ronald Reagan, “Rebuilding a Prosperous America,” speech to the American Trucking Association Board of Directors, 16 Oct. 1974, in Balitzer, Time for Choosing, 154–56.
27. Douglas E. Kneeland, “Reagan Campaigns at Mississippi Fair,” New York Times, 4 Aug. 1980, A11; Crespino, In Search of Another Country, 1.
28. O’Reilly, Nixon’s Piano, 357, 377; Crespino, In Search of Another Country, 1; John Herbers, “Cracks in No-Longer-Solid South Could Cause a Carter Defeat in Close Election,” New York Times, 16 Oct. 1980, B8; Wyman, Review of The Two-Party South, 30–31.
29. Steven V. Roberts, “Blue-Collar Democrats Slipping to Reagan,” New York Times, 20 Apr. 1980, 30.
30. Greenberg Research Inc., Democratic Defection, 13–22 (quotation on pp. 14 and 16).
31. Stein, Pivotal Decade, 267; “Statement of Alabama Department of Pensions and Security on the Administration’s Public Assistance Policies,” n.d. [August 1983], 3, cons. with Bill Nichols to Leon Frazier, 1 Sept. 1983, file “22Q Pensions and Security,” box 5, series 89-10, WFNP; Cowie, Stayin’ Alive, 17 (Dewey Burton first quotation), 311 (Dewey Burton second quotation), 362–63.
32. Phillips-Fein, Invisible Hands, 264–65.
33. Congressional Record, 104th Cong., 2nd sess., 1996, 142, no. 53—Daily Edition: H3705 (Tom DeLay), and no. 73—Daily Edition: H5386 (John Duncan Jr.); Congressional Record, 105th Cong., 1st sess., 1997, 160, no. 160—Daily Edition: E2363–64 (Philip Crane).
34. Todd S. Purdum, “Clinton Recalls His Promise, Weighs History, and Decides,” New York Times, 1 Aug. 1996, A1, A22; Congressional Record, 104th Cong., 2nd sess., 1996, 142, no. 124—Daily Edition: H11220 (Roger Wicker); Jim McCrery quoted in Celia W. Dugger, “Displaced by the Welfare Wars,” New York Times, 26 Feb. 1995, E1.
35. William Julius Wilson, “Work: Work Work,” New York Times Sunday Magazine, 18 Aug. 1996, 27–31, 40, 48, 52–54 (quotation on p. 30).
36. Congressional Record, 104th Cong., 1st sess., 1995, 141, no. 54—Daily Edition: H3723–27 (quotation on H3724).
37. R. W. Apple Jr., “Poll Shows Disenchantment with Politicians and Politics,” New York Times, 12 Aug. 1995, 1, 8; Editorial, “The Quality of Mercy in 1995,” New York Times, 1 Jan. 1995, E8; Russell Baker, “Those Vital Paupers,” Observer, New York Times, 17 Jan. 1995, A19.
38. Todd S. Purdum, “Clinton Recalls His Promise, Weighs History, and Decides,” New York Times, 1 Aug. 1996, A1; Peter T. Kilborn and Sam Howe Verhovek, “Clinton’s Welfare Shift Ends Tortuous Journey,” New York Times, 2 Aug. 1996, A1, A18, A19; Robert Pear, “Overhauling Welfare: A Look at the Year Ahead,” New York Times, 7 Aug. 1996, A8; Mink and Solinger, “1990–2002,” 536.
39. Peter T. Kilborn and Sam Howe Verhovek, “Clinton’s Welfare Shift Ends Tortuous Journey,” New York Times, 2 Aug. 1996, A1, A18, A19 (quotations on pp. A19 and A18). For scholarly analyses of the ambiguous impacts of welfare reform, see Marchevsky and Theoharis, Not Working, and Brush, “Impacts of Welfare Reform.”
40. Stiglitz, Freefall, 1–26; ACORN Fair Housing, Impending Rate Shock, 3–5; Keeley and Love, From Crisis to Recovery, 18–28; Goodman and Mance, “Employment Loss and the 2007–09 Recession,” 3, 5.
41. Opening Statement of Carolyn B. Maloney, in Challenge of Creating Jobs, 1–2; Bureau of Labor Statistics, BLS Spotlight on Statistics: The Recession of 2007–2009, Feb. 2012, 2, http://www.bls.gov/spotlight/2012/recession/pdf/recession_bls_spotlight.pdf (last modified Feb. 2012); Public Broadcasting Service, NewsNite, 26 Nov. 2010, http://video.pbs.org/video/1661498782/ (last modified 2015); Jason DeParle, “Hunger in U.S. at a 14-Year High,” New York Times online, 16 Nov. 2009, http://www.nytimes.com/2009/11/17/us/17hunger.html (last modified 2009); Anna Shoup, “USDA: 1 in 7 U.S. Households Struggle for Food,” PBS NewsHour, 17 Nov. 2009, http://www.pbs.org/newshour/updates/health-july-dec09-hungerreport_11-17/ (last modified 2015) (quotation).
42. “Renewing America’s Promise,” 2008 Democratic Party Platform, 25 Aug. 2008, The American Presidency Project website, http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=78283 (last modified 2015); Opening Statement of Kevin Brady, in Challenge of Creating Jobs, 3; Thomas B. Edsall, “The War on Entitlements,” New York Times online, 6 Mar. 2013, http://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2013/03/06/the-war-on-entitlements/ (last modified 2015).
43. Jim Rutenberg and Jackie Calmes, “False ‘Death Panel’ Rumor Has Some Familiar Roots,” New York Times online, 13 Aug. 2009, http://www.nytimes.com/2009/08/14/health/policy/14panel.html (last modified 2009); Brian Montopoli, “S.C. Lt. Gov. Andre Bauer Compares Helping Poor to Feeding Stray Animals,” CBS News, 25 Jan. 2010, CBSNews.com, http://www.cbsnews.com/news/sc-lt-gov-andre-bauer-compares-helping-poor-to-feeding-stray-animals/ (last modified 2015); “Fox News Reporting: The Great Food Stamp Binge,” The Daily Bret Blog, 8 Aug. 2013, http://www.foxnews.com/on-air/special-report-bret-baier/blog/category/food+stamps/ (last modified 24 June 2015); “What Not to Buy,” The Daily Show, 4 Mar. 2014, http://thedailyshow.cc.com/videos/elvsf4/what-not-to-buy (last modified 2014); Rush Limbaugh, “Trouble Brews on Sharpton Show,” 22 July 2009, transcript, http://www.rushlimbaugh.com/daily/2009/07/22/trouble_brews_on_sharpton_show (last modified 2015). For more examples and analysis of the racist attacks on the Obama administration, see McCamey and Murty, “A Paradigm Shift in Political Tolerance,” and Fishman, “Racial Attacks on President Obama.”
1. Maria Newman, “Beard Foundation Presents Leadership Awards,” New York Times online, 17 July 2014, http://www.nytimes.com/2014/07/17/dining/beard-foundation-presents-leadership-awards.html (last modified 2015); Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 2014 International Year of Family Farming, 1.
2. See, for example, Schaeffer, Understanding Globalization, 153–90; Global Campaign for Agrarian Reform, Working Document, 4–9; Lyson, Civic Agriculture, 2–7, 30–83; and Merrett and Walzer, Cooperatives and Local Development.
3. Ben Burkett quoted in “And the 2015 Winners Are . . . ,” 2 Sept. 2015, U.S. Food Sovereignty Alliance website, http://usfoodsovereigntyalliance.org (last modified 30 Sept. 2015).
4. Maria Newman, “Beard Foundation Presents Leadership Awards,” New York Times online, 17 July 2014, http://www.nytimes.com/2014/07/17/dining/beard-foundation-presents-leadership-awards.html (last modified 2015); Nic Paget-Clarke, “Interview with Ben Burkett of the National Family Farm Coalition in the U.S.,” In Motion Magazine online, 25 May 2009, http://www.inmotionmagazine.com/global/b_burkett_int.html (last modified 2015); Wendell Paris, Speech to Staff Meeting of FSC/LAF, video recording, 2009, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=22rSvRAGQq8#t=63 (last modified 2014).