Page numbers refer to the print edition but are hyperlinked to the appropriate location in the e-book
Abercrombie, Thomas, 95n49
Acosta, José de, 88
Agape, see Love feast
Albala, Ken, 67
Alexander VI (Rodrigo Borgia) (pope), 45
American Protestantism: diets and, 206; late-nineteenth- and early-twentieth-century, 149–50; secular society appropriation by, 217; see also Brethren in Christ Church
American Protestant sects: metaphysics of, 171, 186; see also Unity Protestants
America of sixteenth century: Benzoni and, 83–102; Spanish colonialism in, 83–84, 97, 98–99, 101, 102; see also Native Americans
America of late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries: Brethren in Christ Church in, 147–66; food culture, 156–57; meat and, 157; Protestant denominations of, 149–50; Protestant sects of, 171; vegetarianism during, 176–78
Andry de Boisregard, Nicolas, 116, 117, 118–19, 121, 123n32
Apocalypse, and Christian vegetarianism, 12, 13
Apostles, 43
Asceticism, 14; see also Christian asceticism
Ash Wednesday, 16
Banqueting, and sumptuary laws on food, 60–65, 73, 76, 78n10
Basel, see Switzerland
Bearss, Asa, 164
Beauty: Christian view of, 216, 219n53; Christian weight loss programs and, 213–15, 216, 219n53
Benedict (saint), 15, 224, 225, 228, 235; see also specific English Benedictine topics
Benedictine monks, 4, 223; community and, 225, 226, 235; see also English Benedictine monks
Benedictine Rule: English Benedictine food practices and, 223, 224, 226; English Benedictine monks and, 223, 224, 225–26, 227, 229; humility in, 226, 227; meat and, 31, 40n95, 224–25; moderation of, 224, 225; monastic food practices and, 3, 4, 15, 110, 224–25; monks and, 229; Santa Trinità monastery and, 21, 22, 24, 31, 33, 34
Benzoni, Girolamo: Christian identity and, 86–87, 102; History of the New World of, 84–85, 97, 98, 102, 104n57; Native American bread and wine, and, 83, 84, 86–90, 91, 93, 97–98, 101, 102; Native Americans and, 83, 84, 86–90, 91, 93–95, 97–98, 99–102; Protestants and, 98, 101; sixteenth-century America and, 83–102; Spanish colonialism and, 83–84, 97, 98–99, 101, 102
Bianchi, Maria, 27
Bible: Reformation and, 48; see also Christ, Jesus; Genesis; New Testament; Old Testament
Black Death of 1348, 23
Bodily health, 2; Christian diets and, 212–13; dietary approach of medicine, and, 112–14, 119–20; fasting and, 4, 112–13; fat bodies and, 208–9, 213, 216, 219n53; meat and, 113–14, 177–78; Native American, 96–97; Unity and reformation of, 175; vegetarianism and, 178, 181, 183, 184, 187n17; see also Christian bodily health
Body: image and Christian food practices, 17; see also Physical body
Body politic: humors of, 70, 72; physical body and, 69–70, 72; Protestants on luxury and, 72–73
Bordo, Susan, 208
Bougeant, Guillaume-Hyacinthe, 120–21
Bread: Christian food practices and, 120–30, 132, 133, 134–35, 136; Eucharist and, 85, 86, 90–93, 94, 130; Greek Orthodox food practices and, 194; Maori and, 126, 128, 130–31, 132, 133, 136–37, 141, 142–44, 145; Maori spiritual sanctions to food, and, 142, 143–44; wheat and, 125, 128, 129–30, 132, 133, 136
Bread and wine: Eucharist and, 85, 86, 90–93, 94, 185; Galenism and, 89; see also Native American bread and wine
Brethren in Christ Church, 168n17; late-nineteenth- and early-twentieth-century, 147–66; overview, 148, 149–50
Brethren in Christ Church love feast: communion meal, 147, 148, 150, 151, 155–56, 159, 160–62; cultural reflection of, 162–66; Eucharist and, 148, 151; feet washing, 147, 148, 151, 155; fellowship meal, 147, 148, 151, 156–58; grace and, 150–51; hospitality and evangelization by food, 159–60; hygiene and, 163–64; lay reflections on, 152–65; lay reports on, 152–54; as ordinance, 150–52; overview and summary, 147–50, 166, 166n2, 167n3; participants, 152–53, 159–60; preparations, 148, 151, 154–56; sacraments and, 150–51; spiritual feasting, 158–59; young people and, 148, 153, 167n10
Britain, see England
Brucker, Gene, 25
Butler, John, 130
Butter, and Catholic fasting practices, 46, 47
Bynum, Caroline Walker, 106, 233–34
Calvinism, 48, 49; sumptuary laws on food, and, 74–75
Calvinist fasting practices: Dallaeus and, 53–55; during Reformation, 48, 49, 50, 51, 53–55
Calvinist food practices: Dallaeus, 53–55; frugal diet in, 54–55
Cannibalism: Eucharist and, 92–93; Native Americans and, 92, 93, 94, 99, 100, 103n44
Catholics: Eucharist differences of Protestants and, 85–86, 90–91, 92–93, 103n41, 185; on French luxury, 66–67, 69–70, 74, 75, 80n73; French Wars of Religion and, 65, 66; on luxury foods and overeating, 66–67, 69–70; Native American bread and wine, Eucharist, and, 91–92; on Protestantism and luxury, 69, 70; sumptuary laws and, 59, 60, 61, 70, 73, 74, 75–77, 78n7; sumptuary laws on food, and, 59, 60, 62–63, 65, 73, 74, 75–77; see also French Catholic reform; Jesuits
Catholic asceticism: monks and, 15, 222, 223, 224, 225; salvation and, 73
Catholic fasting practices: Apostolic Constitution (1966) effect on, 222; butter in, 46, 47; dairy products in, 46, 47; dietary approach of medicine, and, 112, 114, 118, 119; dispensations and, 41, 43, 45; early 254 modern France, 105–7, 108–9, 110–11, 112; fish in, 46, 47; French Catholic reform and, 108; Lent and, 41, 42, 45–46, 47, 48, 50, 53, 54, 55, 105–7, 108–9, 110–11, 112, 116, 118, 121; meat in, 41, 42, 43, 54, 55; during Reformation, 41–47, 50–53, 55; salvation and, 42–43, 44, 46, 48, 73; sumptuary laws on food and, 75; see also Christian fasting practices; Greek Orthodox fasting practices; Jesuit fasting practices; Lent
Catholic food practices: dispensations and, 41, 43, 45; during Reformation, 41–47, 50–53, 55; see also Christian food practices; English Benedictine food practices; Eucharist; Greek Orthodox food practices; Jesuit food practices
Catholicism: Galenism and, 74; see also
Christianity; Greek Orthodoxy
Catholic Reformation, 50, 51, 53
Chapian, Marie, 206, 207, 210, 213, 214, 219n53
Chapman, Thomas, 134, 136, 137, 138
Charity, and Christian food practices, 11
Cheese, and Santa Trinità monastery, 31
Christ, Jesus, 1, 11–12, 43, 48, 155; communion meal and, 150; Eucharist and, 85, 91, 92–93, 103n41, 130, 151, 185; Unity beliefs in, 171–72, 173, 174, 180, 182, 185–87
Christian: beliefs about fat bodies, 206, 209, 211, 215–16; view of beauty, 216, 219n53
Christian asceticism: Christian food practices and, 14–15, 49, 233; heroic, 15; monks and, 15, 222, 223, 224, 225; see also Catholic asceticism
Christian bodily health: Christian identity and, 97; gluttony and, 97
Christian bodily health practices: diet in, 4–5; see also Christian weight loss programs; Unity bodily health practices
Christian commensal practices, 2–3; of English Benedictine monasteries, 230, 233, 234, 235; see also Sacraments
Christian culture: eating and, 1; food and, 1–2; food customs and, 1–2
Christian diets: American Protestantism, 206; bodily health practices and, 4–5; bond creating with, 176; Christian identity and, 206, 215; cultural analysis of, 205–17; food and exercise in, 207; frugal, 14, 49, 52–56; Genesis and, 207, 217n8; healing and, 207; health and, 212–13; prominent, 206–7, 209–17; secular diets and, 205, 206, 209, 210, 211, 212, 213–14, 215, 216; typology, 206–7; see also Christian food practices; Christian vegetarianism; Christian weight loss programs; Monastic diet
Christian fasting practices, 4; historical background of, 12, 15–16; of medieval women, 233–34; of monks, 15, 110; New Testament and, 43; Old Testament and, 45, 54; Reformation and, 41–56; see also Catholic fasting practices; Monastic fasting practices; Protestant fasting practices
Christian feasting practices: Carnival celebrations, 16, 47; historical background of, 16–17; Mardis Gras (Fat Tuesday), 16, 47; during Reformation, 42, 47; see also Love feast
Christian food customs: Christian culture and, 1–2; historical background, 7–18; themes, 2–5; see also Christian food practices; Eucharist
Christian food practices: asceticism and, 14–15, 49, 233; body image and, 17; bread in, 120–30, 132, 133, 134–35, 136; charity and, 11; Christian identity and, 96; excessive drinking and, 95, 96; festivities in, 12; gluttony and, 14, 43, 53, 55, 66, 67, 68, 79n49, 96–97; Greco-Roman food practices and, 13, 14; historical background, 7–18; Jewish food practices and, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13; meat and, 68; moderation in, 96; New Testament and, 12, 41, 55; Old Testament, 12, 45, 54; overeating and, 96–97; in Reformation, 41–56, 77; Sabbath and, 11; sacrifice and, 13; uses of, 172; wheat and, 125, 132, 133, 136, 138; 255 see also Calvinist food practices; Catholic food practices; Christian diets; Christian fasting practices; Christian feasting practices; Christian food customs; Love feast; Monastic food practices
Christian identity: Benzoni and, 86–87, 102; Christian bodily health and, 97; Christian diets and, 206, 215; Christian food practices and, 96; Native American bread and wine, and, 89, 93, 103n7; Native Americans and, 83, 86–87, 90–91, 92, 99–100, 102
Christianity: eating and, 17–18; pagan holidays and, 17; see also Catholicism; Protestantism
Christian missionaries: Maori and, 129, 130–39, 142–43, 144, 145; New Zealand, 129–39; trade and, 129
Christian Orthodoxy, see Greek Orthodoxy
Christian Science, 173
Christian vegetarianism: apocalypse and, 12, 13; Radical Reformation and, 49–50
Christian weight loss programs: beauty (internal and external) in, 213–15, 216, 219n53; choice, will and discipline in, 209–10; cultural analysis of, 205–17; emptiness and, 211–12, 215; food and exercise in, 207; gender and, 216–17; God and faith in, 207, 210, 211–12, 214–15; health and, 212–13, 214, 215, 216; prominent, 206–7, 209–17; psychology and spirituality of, 209–12, 214, 215; race and, 219n59; Shedd’s influence on, 205; sin and, 210; women and, 216–17; see also Christian diets; Fat bodies
Church Missionary Society (CMS), 128, 132, 133
Church suppers, 2
Ciompi Revolt, 23
CMS, see Church Missionary Society
Commensal, 2, see also Christian commensal practices
Commensality: definitions and overview, 2; of families, 234; in Jewish food practices, 11; social bonds and, 2; see also Love feast
Communion, see Eucharist
Communion meal: Brethren in Christ Church love feast, 147, 148, 150, 151, 155–56, 159, 160–62; Christ and, 150; Eucharist and, 148, 151; hygiene and, 163–64; love feast differences from, 151; wine in, 165–66
Community: of Benedictine monks, 225, 226, 235; English Benedictine monasteries, 230, 233, 234, 235; see also Commensality
Congregation of Saint Maur, 109–10
Cook, James, 125
Counter-Reformation, see Catholic Reformation
Coyle, Neva, 206, 207, 210, 213, 214, 219n53
Crozet, Julien Marie, 126
Culture: analysis of Christian diets and weight-loss programs, 205–17; Brethren in Christ Church love feast and reflection of wider, 162–66; eating and, 1; food and, 1, 192; see also Christian culture; Food culture
Dairy products: in Catholic fasting practices, 46, 47; Santa Trinità monastery and cheese, 31
Davidson, Henry, 153, 154, 164, 165, 166n2
Day of Atonement, 10
De Bry, Theodor, 85, 98, 102n7
De La Mare, Nicolas, 59
Desert Fathers, 224
Diets: Christian and secular, 205, 206, 209, 210, 211, 212, 213–14, 215, 216; fasting and, 4, 106–7; gender and, 216; Jesuit, 120–21; Maori, 135–37; taste and, 120–21; Unity, 175–76, 185; women and, 216; see also Christian diets; Fasting; Frugal diets; Vegetarianism
Dietary approach of medicine: bodily health and, 112–14, 119–20; Catholic fasting practices and, 112, 114, 118, 119; debates over, 116–20, 123n32; fasting and, 112, 114, 117, 118, 119, 120; Galenism and, 112–14; humors and, 114; Lent and, 106–7, 111–12, 114, 116, 118, 119, 121–22, 122n17, 123n32; meat and, 111–12, 113–14, 115, 117, 122n17; medical understanding of digestion, and, 116–17
Dispensations: in Catholic fasting practices and, 41, 43, 45; in Catholic food practices, 41, 43, 45; Lent and, 41, 45
Dom Lorenzo di Guidotto Martini, 22–23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 32, 33, 34, 34n4, 36n23
Donville, Godard de, 77n5
Downside Abbey monastery, 221, 229; see also English Benedictine monasteries
Drexel, Jeremias, 51–53, 55–56
Drinking, see Excessive drinking
Drugs, and sumptuary laws, 64, 79n28
Eastern Orthodoxy, see Greek Orthodoxy
Eating: Christian culture and, 1; Christianity and, 17–18; culture and, 1; identity and, 7–8; see also Commensality; Food; Overeating
Eden, Trudy, 86
Elizabeth I, 80n79
Elwood, Christopher, 85
England: food culture of, 222, 223, 234; Maori and colonial, 131–45, 146n59; New Zealand colonization by, 131–45, 146n59; sumptuary laws on food in, 63, 74, 75, 76, 80n79
English Benedictine fasting practices, 223, 233; Friday, 221, 222; Lent in, 221, 222; Wednesday, 222
English Benedictine food practices, 221; Benedictine Rule and, 223, 224, 226;
English food culture and, 222, 223, 234; moderation of, 223, 224, 233; outside catering and, 229, 230; see also English Benedictine meals
English Benedictine meals, 221, 234, 235; book reading and listening during, 231–33, 237 nn 46–47; ritual and prayer in, 226–30, 236 nn 30–31; silence and sign language during, 230–33; typical, 222–23; see also English Benedictine food practices
English Benedictine monasteries, 221; commensality and community of, 230, 233, 234, 235; guests and hospitality of, 227–28, 236n32; moderation in, 223–24; timetable of shared prayer, work and eating, 221, 235; women and, 228; see also Downside Abbey monastery
English Benedictine monks, 221–22, 228, 231–33, 234, 235; Benedictine Rule and, 223, 224, 225–26, 227, 229; work of, 228–30; see also specific English Benedictine topics
English Church, and Lent, 49
Eucharist, 1, 11–12, 48; bread and, 85, 86, 90–93, 94, 130; bread and wine in, 85, 86, 90–93, 94, 185; Brethren in Christ Church love feast and, 148, 151; cannibalism and, 92–93; Christ and, 85, 91, 92–93, 103n41, 130, 151, 185; communion meal and, 148, 151; love feast and, 151; Native American bread and wine, and, 90–93, 94; Native American bread and wine, Catholics and, 91–92; Native American bread and wine, Protestants and, 91; Native American women and, 92; Protestant and Catholic differences over, 85–86, 90–91, 92–93, 103n41, 185; Unity vegetarianism and, 185–86; see also Communion meal
Evangelical Visitor, 149, 151, 152, 153, 154, 156, 158–59, 160–61, 162, 163, 164
Excessive drinking: Christian, 95, 96; Native American, 94–95, 97
Explorers: French, 126; Maori and, 125–26, 127–28
Faith, and Christian weight loss programs, 207, 210, 211–12, 214–15
Farms, of Santa Trinità monastery, 27–29, 30, 33, 39n62
Fasting, 2; bodily health and, 4, 112–13; dietary approach of medicine, and, 112, 114, 117, 118, 119, 120; diets and, 4, 106–7; in Jewish food practices, 10–11; overview, 3–4; social benefits of, 4; spirituality of, 3, 69, 192; vegetarianism as, 3; see also Christian fasting practices
Fat bodies: Christian beliefs about, 206, 209, 211, 215–16; discrimination against, 208–9, 216, 219n53; health and, 208–9, 213, 216, 219n53; psychology and sociology of, 205, 208, 211, 215, 216, 219n53; secular assumptions about, 206, 207–9, 211, 215–16; see also Christian weight loss programs; Gluttony; Overeating
Feasting: spiritual, 158–59; see also Christian feasting practices
Fillmore, Charles, 172, 173–74, 178, 179, 182–84, 185–86
Fillmore, Lowell, 174
Fillmore, Myrtle, 172, 173, 179, 182
Fillmore, Rickert, 174
Fillmore, Royal (Veg), 174, 175–76, 178–79, 180, 181, 182, 185
Fillmores, 172, 173, 174–75, 176; see also specific Unity topics
Fisch, Andrea, 91
Fish: in Catholic fasting practices, 46, 47; in Greek Orthodox fasting practices, 195; Lent and, 46, 47, 49, 105–6, 107, 110–11; Santa Trinità monastery and, 32, 33
Flandrin, Jean-Louis, 120
Florence, 21, 23; city and countryside relationship, 27, 38n55; Santa Trinità monastery and, 25–26
Florence markets, shops, and vendors: Santa Trinità monastery and, 22–23, 24–25, 26–27, 28, 30–33, 36n23; wine and, 30
Flour, see Wheat
Food: Christian culture and, 1–2; culture and, 1, 192; identity and, 7–8; see also Eating; Meals; specific food topics
Food culture, 216; American, 156–57; English, 222, 223, 234; English Benedictine food practices and, 222, 223, 234; Reformation, religion and, 77
Food customs: religion and, 2, 7–8; see also Bodily Health; Christian food customs; Commensality; Fasting; Food practices; Sacraments
Food practices: of ordinary people and Greek Orthodox fasting practices, 193, 194, 195–96, 197, 198, 199–202; see also Christian food practices; Food customs; Greco-Roman food practices; Jewish food practices
France: Catholic fasting practices of early modern, 105–7, 108–9, 110–11, 112; Lent and early modern, 105–7, 108–9, 110–11, 112, 116, 118, 121, 122n17; meat and early modern, 111–12; mercantilism of, 71, 75, 80n68; sumptuary laws in, 60, 61, 73, 75–76, 77n5; sumptuary laws on food in, 59, 61–62, 65–73, 75
Free to Be Thin diet, 206, 207, 210, 213, 214
French Catholic reform: Catholic fasting practices and, 108; Jesuits and, 109; Lent and, 108–9; overview, 108, 109
French explorers, and Maori, 126
French luxury: Catholics on, 66–67, 69–70, 74, 75, 80n73; clothing, 71, 72; mercantilism and, 71, 80n68; Protestants on, 65, 70–73, 74, 75, 80n73; sumptuary laws and, 75–76; Wars of Religion and, 65, 66, 70
French Wars of Religion: Catholics and, 65, 66; French luxury and, 65, 66, 70; Protestants and, 65, 70, 71–72; sumptuary laws and, 65
Fresne, Marion de, 126
Freudenberger, Herman, 77n5
Froschauer, Christoph, 41
Frosini, Giovanni, 33
Frugal diets: Calvinist, 54–55; Christian, 14, 49, 52–56; Greco-Roman, 13–14; Jesuit, 52–53
Fruits, and Santa Trinità monastery, 32–33
Galenism: bread and wine, and, 89; Catholicism and, 74; dietary approach of medicine, and, 112–14; humors and, 67, 69, 72, 74, 112, 113; meat and, 67–68, 74, 113–14; Native American bread and wine, and, 86, 89; overeating and, 67, 69, 74, 95–96; Protestantism and, 74
Garden of Eden diets, 206, 207, 212, 214
Gender: Christian weight loss programs and, 216–17; diets and, 216
Genesis, 125; Christian diets and, 207, 217n8
Germany, and sumptuary laws on food, 64, 74, 76
Gianfigliazzi family, 26, 37n40
Giovanni Visdomini, 23
Gluttony, 13; Christian bodily health and, 97; Christian food practices and, 14, 43, 53, 55, 66, 67, 68, 79n49, 96–97; see also Fat bodies; Overeating
God: Christian weight loss programs and, 207, 210, 211–12, 214–15; see also Christ, Jesus
Grace, and Brethren in Christ Church love feast, 150–51
Greco-Roman food practices: Christian food practices and, 13, 14; frugal diet in, 13–14
Greek Mediterranean diet: Greek Orthodox fasting practices and, 199–200; Seven Countries Study, 198, 199–200; Survey of Crete, 198–99, 200
Greek Orthodoxy: influence on food habits, 189; religious calendar, 192
Greek Orthodox fasting practices: extended periods of, 192; fish in, 195; foods prohibited, permitted and used in, 192, 194–98, 199, 200, 201, 202; Greek Mediterranean diet and, 199–200; Lent and, 192, 194, 195–96, 201; meat in, 192, 202; olive oil in, 191, 195, 202n3; ordinary people food practices and, 193, 194, 195–96, 197, 198, 199–202; spiritual and physical aspects of, 192; studies of, 200–202; vegetarianism in, 192, 203n7; voluntary, 189–91; wine in, 191, 192, 195, 202n3
Greek Orthodox food practices: bread in, 194; late-twentieth- and early-twenty- first-century, 200–2; meat in, 192, 196–97, 202; mid-twentieth-century, 198–200; nineteenth-century, 192–98, 202; see also Greek Orthodox fasting practices
Greenfield, Kent Roberts, 78n7
Grossi, Maria, 27
Hallelujah Diet, 206, 207, 212–13
Healing: Christian diets and, 207; Unity mental, 172, 173, 182–83
Health, see Bodily health
Hecquet, Philippe, 116, 117–18, 119, 123n32
History of the New World (Benzoni), 84–85, 97, 98, 102, 104n57
Holt, Mack, 77
Humors: of body politic, 70, 72; dietary approach of medicine, and, 114; Galenism and, 67, 69, 72, 74, 112, 113
Hunt, Alan, 78n7
Hygiene: Brethren in Christ Church love feast and, 163–64; communion meal and, 163–64; vegetarianism and, 181
Identity: eating and, 7–8; food and, 7–8; see also Christian identity
Iscariot, Judas, 1
Italy, and sumptuary laws on food, 76 Jesuit fasting practices, 116, 118; Drexel and, 51–53; during Reformation, 50, 51–53
Jesuit food practices: Drexel and, 51–53; frugal diet in, 52–53
Jesuits: diet, 120–21; French Catholic reform and, 109
Jewish food practices: Christian food practices and, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13; commensality in, 11; fasting, 10–11; food prohibitions, 10–11; historical background of, 9–11, 12, 13; kosher laws, 10, 11; Passover in, 11
Joannitius, 69
John (apostle), 12
Judaism: historical background, 9–11; sacrifice in, 9–10
King, Peter, 25
King George III, 128
Knowles, David, 229
Konstantinos log, 193, 194, 195, 196
Kumara: Maori and, 125, 126–27, 143; Maori spiritual sanctions to, 126–27, 143
Laffemas, Barthelemy de, 71–72, 80n68
L’Alouette, Françoise de, 59
La Noue, François de, 71, 72, 73
Lawrence, Clifford, 25
Leigh, Samuel, 142
Lent: in Catholic fasting practices, 41, 42, 45–46, 47, 48, 50, 53, 54, 55, 105–7, 108–9, 110–11, 112, 116, 118, 121–22; dietary approach of medicine, and, 106–7, 111–12, 114, 116, 118, 119, 121, 122n17, 123n32; dispensations and, 41, 45; early modern France and, 105–7, 108–9, 110–11, 112, 116, 118, 121, 122n17; English Church and, 49; fish and, 46, 47, 49, 105–6, 107, 110–11; French Catholic reform and, 108–9; in Greek Orthodox fasting practices and, 192, 194, 195–96, 201; laws and sumptuary laws on food, 75, 80n79; meat and, 41, 46, 54, 55, 105–6, 107, 111, 112, 121, 122n17; during Reformation, 41, 42, 45–46, 47, 48, 50, 53, 54, 55
Leonardo da Vinci, 1
Lery, Jean de, 88, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94–95, 99, 103n41
Linand, Barthélemy, 115
Liturgical year, and monastic diet, 23 The lord’s supper, 1
Louis XIII, 62
Louis XIV, 108
Love: love feast and, 167n10; vegetarianism and, 180–81
Love feast (agape), 11; communion meal differences from, 151; Eucharist and, 151; overview, 151–52; parts of, 151; Protestant denominations practicing, 147; sex, love, and sensuality in, 167n10; see also Brethren in Christ Church love feast
Luther, Martin, 42, 44, 47–48, 80n61
Luxury: Catholics on Protestantism and, 69, 70; Protestants on body politic and, 72–73; spirituality and, 74; sumptuary laws on wealth and, 60, 64, 66; see also French luxury
Luxury clothing: French, 71, 72; sumptuary laws on, 59, 60
Luxury foods: Catholics on overeating and, 66–67, 69–70; Protestants on, 72
McManners, John, 108
Maker’s Diet, 206, 207, 210, 212, 213
Malkmus, George, 206, 207, 212–13, 215
Maori, 146n27; bread and, 126, 128, 130–31, 132, 133, 136–37, 141, 142–44, 145; Christian missionaries and, 129, 130–39, 142–43, 144, 145; diet, 135–37; English colonialism and, 131–45, 146n59; explorers and, 125–26, 127–28; French explorers and, 126; kumara and, 125, 126–27, 143; New Zealand mid-1800’s wars and, 140–42, 143; potatoes and, 126, 127, 129, 134; trade and, 129, 131; whaling ships and, 127–28; wheat and, 125, 126, 127, 128–29, 130, 132, 133, 134, 136, 137, 138, 139, 140, 141, 142, 144
Maori spiritual sanctions to food (tapu): bread and, 142, 143–44; kumara and, 126–27, 143; potatoes and, 126, 127
Mardis Gras (Fat Tuesday), 16, 47
Marsden, Samuel, 128, 129, 130, 142
Mazzi, Curzio, 33
Meals: fellowship, 147, 148, 151, 156–58; sacrament as, 3; see also Communion meal; English Benedictine meals
Meat: America and, 157; arguments against, 177–78, 179–82, 183–84; Benedictine Rule and, 31, 40n95, 224–25; bodily health and, 113–14, 177–78; in Catholic fasting practices, 41, 42, 43, 54, 55; in Christian food practices, 68; dietary approach of medicine, and, 111–12, 113–14, 115, 117, 122n17; early modern France and, 111–12; Galenism and, 67–68, 74, 113–14; in Greek Orthodox fasting practices, 192, 202; in Greek Orthodox food practices, 192, 196–97, 202; Lent and, 41, 46, 54, 55, 105–6, 107, 111, 112, 121, 122n17; in monastic food practices, 224–25; Santa Trinità monastery and, 30–31, 40n95; sumptuary laws on, 62, 63, 68, 75, 80n79; vegetarianism and, 177–78, 179–82, 183, 184; see also Vegetarianism
Meatless meals, see Vegetarianism
Medical understanding of digestion, 114; debates over, 115–17; dietary approach of medicine, and, 116–17; see also Dietary approach of medicine
Medieval pre-Reformation: sumptuary laws, 60, 61, 66, 76, 77, 77n5; sumptuary laws on food, 60, 62, 66, 76, 77
Mental healing, Unity, 172, 173, 182–83
Mentzer, Raymond, 75
Mercantilism: French, 71, 75, 80n68; French luxury and, 71, 80n68
Metaphysics: of American Protestant sects, 171, 186; see also Unity beliefs Missionaries, see Christian missionaries Moderation: of Benedictine Rule, 224, 225; in Christian food practices, 96; of English Benedictine food practices, 223, 224, 233; of English Benedictine monasteries, 223–24; Native American, 96–97
Monasteries, see English Benedictine monasteries; Santa Trinità monastery
Monastic diet: considerations, 23; fasting and, 223; liturgical year and, 23; Santa Trinità monastery, 21, 30–34; see also Monastic food practices
Monastic fasting practices, 225; declining, 223; diet and, 223; early, 224; see also English Benedictine fasting practices Monastic food practices, 15, 105–6, 110, 224; Benedictine Rule and, 3, 4, 15, 110, 224–25; meat in, 224–25; Santa Trinità monastery, 21–22, 23, 30–34; see also English Benedictine food practices; Monastic diet; Monastic fasting practices
Monks: asceticism and, 15, 222, 223, 224, 225; Benedictine Rule and, 229; Congregation of Saint Maur, 109–10; Desert Fathers, 224; fasting practices of, 15, 110; Santa Trinità monastery, 21–22, 24, 25, 27, 28, 30, 31, 32–34; Le Tréport, 105–6, 118, 119, 120; work and, 228–30; see also Benedictine monks; specific monastic topics
Morality, and sumptuary laws, 60, 61, 78n7
Morgan, John, 131, 133, 138, 139, 140
Moses, 11
Native Americans: Benzoni and, 83, 84, 86–90, 91, 93, 97–98, 99–102; bodily health, 96–97; cannibalism and, 92, 93, 94, 99, 100, 103n44; Christian identity and, 83, 86–87, 90–91, 92, 99–100, 102; excessive drinking, 94–95, 97; moderation of, 96–97; Spanish colonialism and, 97, 98–99, 101, 102
Native American bread and wine: Benzoni and, 83, 84, 86–90, 91, 93–95, 97–98, 101, 102; Catholics, Eucharist, and, 91–92; Christian identity and, 89, 93, 103n7; as “dirty,” 83, 86; Eucharist and, 90–93, 94; Galenism and, 86, 89; making of, 87–90; Native American women and, 83, 87–89, 90, 91, 92, 94, 101; Protestants, Eucharist, and, 91; usages, 93–95, 97–98, 103n49
Native American women, 100–1; Eucharist and, 92; Native American bread and wine, and, 83, 87–89, 90, 92, 94, 101
Navarre, Henri de, 66
New Testament: Christian fasting practices and, 43; Christian food practices and, 12, 41, 55; food references and metaphors, 12
New Thought beliefs, 171, 173, 182, 186; see also Unity beliefs
New Thought movement, 171; see also specific Unity topics
New World, 84; see also America of the sixteenth century
New Zealand, 125, 127, 128; Christian missionaries, 129–39; English colonization of, 131–45, 146n59; mid-1850s wars, 139–42, 143; see also Maori
Nobility protection, and sumptuary laws, 60, 77n5
Nuns, of English Benedictine monasteries, 223, 225
Old Testament: Christian fasting practices and, 45, 54; Christian food practices in, 12, 45, 54
Olive oil: in Greek Orthodox fasting practices, 191, 195, 202n3; Santa Trinità monastery, 28, 29, 33, 39n76
Overeating: Catholics on luxury foods and, 66–67, 69–70; Christian, 96–97; Galenism and, 67, 69, 74, 95–96; see also Fat bodies; Gluttony
Overweight/obesity, see Fat bodies
Pagan holiday, and Christianity, 17
Passover, 11
Peter (apostle), 11
Physical body: body politic and, 69–70, 72; spirituality and, 69, 80n61; see also Fat bodies
Plutarch, 179
Potatoes: Maori and, 126, 127, 129, 134; Maori spiritual sanctions to food, and, 126, 127; see also Kumara
Pray Your Weight Away (Shedd), 205
Protestant fasting practices: during Radical Reformation, 49; during Reformation, 44–45, 47–51, 53–55; salvation and, 49, 54; sumptuary laws on food, and, 75, 80n79; see also Calvinist fasting practices; Christian fasting practices
Protestantism, 16–17; Catholics on luxury and, 69, 70; Galenism and, 74; see also American Protestantism; Calvinism; Christianity; English Church; Puritanism
Protestant Reformation, see Reformation
Protestants, 16; Benzoni and, 98, 101; Eucharist differences of Catholics and, 85–86, 90–91, 92–93, 103n41, 185; on French luxury, 65, 70–73, 74, 75, 80n73; French Wars of Religion and, 65, 70, 71–72; love feast and denominations of, 147; on luxury and body politic, 72–73; on luxury foods, 72; Native American bread and wine, Eucharist, and, 91; sumptuary laws and, 59, 60–61, 65, 73, 74–77, 78n7; sumptuary laws on food, and, 59, 60, 62, 63–64, 65, 73, 74–77, 80n79
Radical Reformation: Christian vegetarianism and, 49–50; Protestant fasting practices during, 49
Raeff, Marc, 78n7
Red wine, 39n77
Reformation, 16, 85; Bible and, 48; Calvinist fasting practices during, 48, 49, 50, 51, 53–55; Catholic fasting practices during, 41–47, 50–53, 55; Catholic food practices during, 41–47, 50–53, 55; Christian fasting practices during, 41–56; Christian feasting practices during, 42, 47; Christian food practices during, 41–56, 77; food culture and religion during, 77; 262 Jesuit fasting practices during, 50, 51–53; Lent during, 41, 42, 45–46, 47, 48, 50, 53, 54, 55; Protestant fasting practices during, 44–45, 47–51, 53–55; salvation and, 42–43, 44, 46, 47–48, 49; sumptuary laws during, 59–65, 73–77, 78n6; sumptuary laws on food during, 59–65, 73–77; see also Catholic Reformation; Luther, Martin; Radical Reformation
Regeneration, in Unity beliefs, 182–83, 184, 186, 187
Religion, 217; food customs and, 2, 7–8; Reformation, food culture and, 77; see also Spirituality
Revelation of Saint John, 12
Roman Catholic Church, 41
Roper, Lyndal, 80n61
Roux, Jean, 126
Rubin, Jordan, 206, 207, 210, 212, 213, 215
Rule of Saint Benedict, see Benedictine Rule
Sabbath, and Christian food practices, 11
Sacraments, 2; Brethren in Christ Church love feast and, 150–51; as meal, 3; overview, 3; see also Eucharist
Sacrifice: Christian food practices and, 13; Judaism and, 9–10
SAD, see Standard American Diet
Saint Benedict’s Rule, see Benedictine Rule
Salvation: Catholic asceticism and, 73; Catholic fasting practices and, 42–43, 44, 46, 48, 73; Protestant fasting practices and, 49, 54; Reformation and, 42–43, 44, 46, 47–48, 49
Santa Trinità monastery: Benedictine Rule and, 21, 22, 24, 31, 33, 34; cheese and, 31; diet of, 21, 30–34; farms of, 27–29, 30, 33, 39n62; fish and, 32, 33; Florence and, 25–26; Florence markets, shops, and vendors and, 22–23, 24–25, 26–27, 28, 30–33, 36n23; food practices of, 21–22, 23, 30–34; fruits and, 32–33; hired servants, 24, 25; lay brothers, 24, 25, 36n23; meat and, 30–31, 40n95; monks of, 21–22, 24, 25, 27, 28, 30, 31, 32–34; olive oil of, 28, 29, 33, 39n76; shopping and consumption of, 21–34; vegetables and, 32–33; wealthy neighbors of, 26; wine and, 29–30, 33, 39n76
Santa Trinità piazza, 26–27, 37n47
Schalk, Ellery, 77n5
Scotland, and sumptuary laws on food, 62, 63, 64, 75, 78n10
Secular society: American Protestantism appropriation of, 217; assumptions about fat bodies, 206, 207–9, 211, 215–16
Sekora, John, 78n7
Sex, and love feast, 167n10
Shamblin, Gwen, 206, 207, 211, 213, 214
Shaw, Frances J., 78n10
Shedd, Charlie, 205
Shortland, Edward, 133
Showalter, Carol, 206, 207, 209, 210, 211–12, 213, 214, 216
Smyth, Henry William, 104n57
Social bonds, and commensality, 2
Society of Silent Unity, 171, 173
Spanish colonialism: Benzoni and, 83–84, 97, 98–99, 101, 102; greed and barbarism of, 98–99, 101; Native Americans and, 97, 98–99, 101, 102; sixteenth-century America and, 83–84, 97, 98–99, 101, 102
Spices, and sumptuary laws, 64, 79n28
Spirituality: of fasting, 3, 69, 192; luxury and, 74; physical body and, 69, 80n61; sumptuary laws on food, and, 60; see also Metaphysics
Standard American Diet (SAD), 207
Stephans, J. L., 194
Success with God diets, 206, 207, 214
Sumptuary laws: Catholics and, 59, 60, 61, 70, 73, 74, 75–77, 78n7; France and, 60, 61, 73, 75–76, 77n5; French luxury and, 263 75–76; French Wars of Religion and, 65; luxury and wealth, 60, 64, 66; luxury clothing, 59, 60; medieval pre-Reformation, 60, 61, 66, 76, 77, 77n5; morality and, 60, 61, 78n7; nobility protection and, 60, 77n5; Protestants and, 59, 60–61, 65, 73, 74–77, 78n7; Reformation era, 59–65, 73–77, 78n6; religious community conformity and, 76; sixteenthcentury political reforms and, 59, 77n2; weddings and, 64–65
Sumptuary laws on food: banqueting and, 60–65, 73, 76, 78n10; Calvinism and, 74–75; Catholic fasting practices and, 75; Catholics and, 59, 60, 62–63, 65, 73, 74, 75–77; drugs and spices in, 64, 79n28; England and, 63, 74, 75, 76, 80n79; as “food police,” 60; France and, 59, 61–62, 65–73, 75; Germany and, 64, 74, 76; Italy and, 76; Lenten laws, 75, 80n79; meat and, 62, 63, 68, 75, 80n79; medieval pre-Reformation, 60, 62, 66, 76, 77; Protestant fasting practices and, 75, 80n79; Protestants and, 59, 60, 62, 63–64, 65, 73, 74–77, 80n79; Reformation era, 59–65, 73–77; Scotland and, 62, 63, 64, 75, 78n10; spiritual unhealthiness and, 60; Switzerland and, 63, 64, 65, 74
Surville, Jean-François Marie de, 126
Switzerland, and sumptuary laws on food, 63, 64, 65, 74
Tapu, see Maori spiritual sanctions to food
Taylor, Richard, 138, 140, 142
Theotokis, Konstantinos, 189–91
Thevet, Andre, 88, 100 3D Plan Diet, 206, 207, 209, 210, 216
Trade: Christian missionaries and, 129; Maori and, 129, 131 Le Tréport monks, 105–6, 118, 119, 120
The Two Loves (Theotokis), 189–91
Unity: movement, 171; publications, 174, 175, 178–79, 181–82, 184
Unity beliefs: Christ in, 171–72, 173, 174, 180, 182, 185–87; Eucharist and, 185–86; mental healing in, 172, 173, 182–83; mind and spirit in, 171, 172, 174, 182, 184, 185; regeneration in, 182–83, 184, 186, 187; vegetarianism in, 172–73, 174, 178, 182, 183, 184–85, 186, 187
Unity bodily health practices: diet in, 175–76, 185; health reformation of, 175; vegetarianism in, 174, 175
Unity Protestants: adherents of, 171, 172; see also specific Fillmore and Unity topics
Unity Pure Food Company, 174, 175
Unity Society of Practical Christianity, 171, 172, 174
Vegetables, and Santa Trinità monastery, 32–33
Vegetarianism: American, 176–78; animal cruelty and, 177, 179–80; bodily health and, 178, 181, 183, 184, 187n17; Eucharist and Unity, 185–86; as fasting, 3; Greek Orthodox fasting practices and, 192, 203n7; hygiene and, 181; love and, 180–81; meat and, 177–78, 179–82, 183, 184; rationales for, 176–77, 178, 179–82, 183, 184–85; Unity beliefs about, 172–73, 174, 178, 182, 183, 184–85, 186, 187; Unity health practices and, 174, 175; see also Christian vegetarianism
Vertot, L’abbé de, 77n5
Voltaire, 107
Wakefield, Arthur, 143
Wars of Religion, see French Wars of Religion
Weddings, and sumptuary laws, 64–65
Weigh Down Diet, 206, 207, 211, 214
Whaling ships, and Maori, 127–28
Wheat: bread and, 125, 128, 129–30, 132, 133, 136; in Christian food practices, 125, 132, 133, 136, 138; Maori and, 125, 126, 127, 128–29, 130, 132, 133, 134, 136, 137, 138, 139, 140, 141, 142, 144; peace and, 141–42
Wine: in communion meal, 165–66; Florence markets and shops, and, 30; in Greek Orthodox fasting practices, 191, 192, 195, 202n3; red, 39n77; Santa Trinità monastery and, 29–30, 33, 39n76; Trebbiano white, 29; see also Bread and wine
Women: Christian fasting practices of medieval, 233–34; Christian weight loss programs and, 216–17; diets and, 216; English Benedictine monasteries and, 228; nuns of English Benedictine monasteries, 223, 225; see also Native American women
Yom Kippur, 10