Resources
This section offers guidance on writing technique, style, grammar, and punctuation. It’s not intended to be a comprehensive guide to any of these topics. Rather, it targets the most common errors in business writing and offers help with those areas where business writers struggle the most.
The English language is always changing, and the rules change along with it. Not everyone is aware of the rules, and not everyone cares. From a practical point of view, though, you should make an effort to use correct English when you write at work, for two reasons.
The first is that there are sticklers in every organization, with their eyes peeled for errors. Sometimes these people are powerful, and often they take pride in their knowledge of English. They can be a tremendous asset to an organization, but they can also be a pain in the neck and make you feel insecure about your writing. (It’s worth pointing out that sometimes these people are wrong, and will “correct” you when you’ve done nothing wrong.) However you feel about these sticklers, you have to deal with them if you work with them, and having a solid understanding of grammar, usage, and style can boost your confidence and improve your writing.
The second, and better, reason that you should use correct English is that you really ought to care. If communication is part of your job, you should take pride in doing it well. In the end, it’s not hard to learn the difference between the active and passive voices. It’s not difficult to master the proper use of commas and semicolons. When you make the effort to get these kinds of things right in your writing, you’ll see some interesting results in yourself. You’ll feel more confident, you’ll project that confidence, and you’ll have greater impact through your writing.
WRITING SKILLS
Overcoming Writer’s Block
Across various surveys I’ve conducted with business writers over the past twenty-five years, about 70 percent of them have reported experiencing writer’s block. Writer’s block hits most people at one time or another. When writer’s block interferes with your productivity and leaves you staring at a blank screen, try these techniques to help yourself get started.
UNDERSTAND THE REASON
There’s almost always an identifiable reason behind your writer’s block. Often the most effective way to get yourself unblocked is to spend some time exploring why you feel you can’t write. A very common reason is not being sure exactly what you want to say; maybe you need to spend some time brainstorming before you start to write. Another common reason is lack of confidence: you’re worried that the finished product won’t be any good. In this case, it might help to remember that your first draft is just that—a first draft—and no one but you will see it. Think hard about why you’re feeling blocked, and you might just hit on a practical solution to the problem.
CLOSE THE DOOR
If you’re feeling distracted by noise or activity nearby, try to arrange for a place and a time in which you won’t be disturbed. Close your door, shut down your e-mail program and your web browser, turn off your phone, and tell your colleagues or your family you won’t be available for a while. Having some private space and time can help you focus on your writing.
REWARD YOURSELF
Instead of running out for coffee before you write, try making that coffee (or a piece of chocolate or a trip to the gym—whatever you like) your reward for putting in some quality time on your writing project. It’s easier to knuckle down when you know that you’ll earn something you like for doing the work.
WRITE IT FOR YOUR GRANDMOTHER
Maybe worries about your reader’s potential reaction are making it hard for you to get started. If that’s the case, you can overcome your block by imagining a different reader—someone who’s sympathetic to you, interested in what you have to say, and unlikely to judge you harshly: your grandmother. Get your writing process started by imagining that you are writing for your grandmother—or anyone else who’s unconditionally kind. You’ll make it clear and straightforward, and you won’t dump a lot of jargon in. Once you have a draft, you can revise it to meet the more exacting standards of your actual reader.
WRITE IT BADLY
Are you convinced that your writing isn’t going to be any good? Then instead of worrying about it, go ahead and write the whole thing as badly as you can. Write it ungrammatically; use inappropriate vocabulary. No one but you is going to see this draft, so go wild. Once you’ve got a bad draft, you can revise it into a good one, and you will have had some fun in the process.
Note: if you’re trying this trick in an e-mail window, fill in the “to” field with your own e-mail address, not the intended recipient’s, while you’re working on your draft. It’s easy to send off a draft by accident. To be extra safe, write your bad draft in a separate text file, then copy and paste into an e-mail when you’re done revising.
WORK SOMEPLACE ELSE
If you get discouraged sitting in front of the computer, try writing someplace else. Grab pen and paper or your laptop and find an empty conference room. Try sitting in a coffee shop. Try jotting notes while you’re on the bus or the train. Sometimes changing your environment will change your approach just enough to help you get your writing task under way.
Getting Your Writing Done Faster
“I have little time to plan my writing, and it generally takes a little while to perfect it. Time, as they say, is of essence.”
—SURVEY RESPONDENT
Most of my clients tell me they need to get through their writing tasks faster. We’re all pressed for time at work, and writing has become a critically important part of many jobs.
Here are a few tricks to help you write faster:
Use a template. If you do certain writing tasks frequently, take a few minutes to create a template that you can use over and over again. The point here is to avoid reinventing the wheel every time you write. Your template doesn’t have to be fancy—even a quick outline can help you focus and get started. Refine the template as you continue to use it, to make it as efficient as possible.
Make a time for writing. Mark out a time in your day just for writing—for answering e-mails or working on any other writing tasks you’re facing. It doesn’t have to be the same time every day; it just has to be 100 percent dedicated to writing: no phone calls, no other interruptions. You can get a lot of writing done in twenty minutes if there are no other demands on that time.
Think before you write. It may seem counterintuitive, but taking some time to plan out what you’re going to write can save you a tremendous amount of time in the long run. When you start writing before you know what you want to say, you often end up spending more time later reworking and rewriting your text.
Finally, get into the habit of proofreading what you’ve written. Even the most experienced writers make more mistakes when they’re in a hurry. It may take a few seconds to proofread your work, but catching errors before they reach others can save you a lot of time in cleaning up the confusion that can result from typos or muddy expression.
The Secret to Overcoming Writer’s Block
Anita Campbell
When you’re stuck, start talking. Literally. It’s the fastest way I’ve found to get over writer’s block.
I write a lot, each and every day. I used to struggle, staring at a blank screen. Sometimes getting that first paragraph down was the hardest part. Once I got going, it wasn’t so bad to finish. But jeez Louise, pushing out that first paragraph was misery. As you can imagine, for someone like me—the publisher of an online journal—who communicates for a living, writer’s block could seriously hamper my career.
How did I overcome it? My secret is simple: use voice dictation technology.
The past five years have seen huge advances in voice recognition and voice activation technologies. Voice recognition has become “intelligent,” with predictive text corrections that amaze me. And the good news is that there are free applications out there, so you can experiment to see if voice dictation works for you, without fronting any money to buy software.
For example, did you know that Windows 10 has built-in voice dictation capabilities? I’ve used it to dictate into a WordPress site on a Windows PC. Microsoft also has an application called “Dictate,” which uses its more advanced Cortana technology to let you dictate into Microsoft Office documents. Google Docs now features built-in voice typing, too (under the “Tools” menu). And various Apple devices enable dictation. However, some people who decide they like to dictate will opt for an advanced application, such as Dragon software.
Whatever your choice, here’s a tip: don’t try to edit immediately or clean up your first sentences as soon as you start dictating. At first, just get the words flowing. The goal is to get over the psychological hump. Once you have a few paragraphs dictated, then go back and edit your ramblings. At that point, you might even decide to switch to typing in order to finish the piece. By the time you get deep into whatever you’re writing, the dictation has served its purpose. It got you over your initial writer’s block. And that’s what counts!
Anita Campbell is the founder, CEO, and publisher of Small Business Trends (smallbiztrends.com) and its associated online publications, communities, and newsletters. She writes one thousand words a day.
Editing Your Own Writing
Editing your own writing can be challenging. It’s ideal to have someone else edit your work for you, but that’s not always possible. These tips for self-editing will help you ensure that your writing is as accurate, complete, and concise as possible before you share it with the world.
TAKE A BREAK FROM YOUR WRITING
Taking a break from your writing can help you gain more perspective on it. If possible, leave your first draft overnight and return to it with a fresh eye the next day. If that’s not possible, stand up from your desk for at least a few minutes and get your mind on something else before returning to your writing to edit. You’ll find that the distance helps you see your draft more objectively.
PRETEND YOU’RE THE INTENDED READER
How will your reader react to your writing? One way to help answer this critical question is to imagine that you are the intended reader of the document as you review it. Put yourself in your reader’s shoes. What’s your response to the document? Is the purpose clear? If there’s an action requested, do you know what it is and why? Is there any information missing? Is the tone appropriate? Imagining yourself as the recipient of the document can help you find areas for improvement.
READ IT OUT LOUD
Reading your draft out loud is an excellent way to catch problems in your writing, including missing words, awkward sentences, and incomplete thoughts. Find a quiet place, and listen as you read. Your final draft will be better for it.
WEED OUT UNNECESSARY WORDS
First drafts are often full of wordy constructions that can be trimmed. Go through your draft sentence by sentence and look for verbiage that isn’t doing any work. Check out the examples below and see if you can make similar revisions in your own draft.
Original: Jackson is of the opinion that the restoration of the bases can be accomplished within six months or so.
Revised: Jackson believes that the bases can be restored in about six months.
Original: In most circumstances, the practice of the committee is to weigh a variety of different options before arriving at a final decision.
Revised: The committee usually weighs different options before making a decision.
PROOFREAD CAREFULLY
There’s no substitute for careful proofreading. Don’t trust spelling- or grammar-checking software to catch errors. These programs typically cannot find errors like the mistyping of “coed” for “code.” And they have no way to “know” the correct spelling of many personal or product names. Ultimately, it’s up to you to proofread your draft word by word to avoid any embarrassing mistakes.
FIX SLOW BEGINNINGS
A strong and specific beginning can engage readers and motivate them to keep reading. Use these tricks to help improve sentences that begin slowly, so that you’ll get your readers involved right away.
Look out for the “blah blah blah is that” sentence opening. Some writers feel they need to add some warm-up syllables to a sentence before they get to the point. Consider these common beginnings:
The point is that . . .
It is important to remember that . . .
It is essential that . . .
The purpose of X is to Y . . .
Most of the time you can do without these and just get straight to the point.
Look out for empty words. Phrases like the ones below creep into our writing without our realizing it, but they don’t mean anything:
In many circumstances . . . (How many? Are there really many, or is this just noise? If you mean “often,” say “often.”)
In many ways . . . (How many ways? Look out for this one—it’s usually just filler. If you can’t answer the question “How many ways, and which ones?,” you’re probably just vamping.)
In order to . . . (This almost always means just “to.”)
Remember that readers may be skimming rather than reading, so it’s important to place the key concepts where readers can see them easily. Sentences that begin with long introductory phrases are not incorrect or even poorly styled, but they do tend to push the important stuff toward the end.
Writing for Mobile Devices
Nearly everything you write might be read on a phone or a tablet. Website content marketers and copywriters have led the way in setting best practices for writing for mobile platforms. But now everything from e-mails to proposals is likely to be opened and read on a tablet or a phone. Writing with mobile devices in mind shouldn’t be an afterthought; it should be a routine practice. The following tips can help ensure that what you write is easy to scan on a mobile screen.
Think visually. This one almost goes without saying, and it’s the only thing you need to remember: envision how your content is going to look on a (much) smaller screen. Consider that a single sentence can fill the entire screen of a phone. Long paragraphs can mean scrolling and scrolling. The ability to envision what your writing is going to look like on a phone screen or on a tablet is the cornerstone of writing for mobile.
Front-load your content. The more a reader has to scroll, the more likely that reader is to give up and go do something else. Make sure you get your most important content right up front. Even if you have to develop that content more fully later in the document, make sure you get your main ideas out there in front.
Be concise. Writing concisely is a virtue no matter what delivery method you use, but on mobile screens it’s a live-or-die matter. Long sentences, complex constructions, and extra words will make your reader’s experience unnecessarily laborious.
Format for ease of scanning. When you’re writing for ordinary screens or for printing, you want to use formatting—paragraph breaks, headings, bullet points, bolding—to make your content easier to scan. That’s even more important for mobile platforms. Imagine that you’ve written a proposal that your potential customer is viewing on his phone. If he starts reading a prose paragraph, he’s got no idea how long it’s going to be, because he can’t see the whole thing. He might find himself scrolling and scrolling through a long paragraph and beginning to feel lost. You can help him with these formatting practices:
Use headlines to orient the reader.
Use bulleted or numbered lists where appropriate.
Write short sentences and short paragraphs.
Buddhists believe that there is only the present. The past is gone, and the future is uncertain; all we have for sure is now. You should adopt the same kind of thinking when you’re writing for mobile platforms. On a mobile device, a reader can’t see a full document, and she can’t see the larger context—all she’s got is the screen in front of her. It’s your job as a writer to ensure that your content is communicated effectively on the mobile platform.
STYLE
Active Voice—Make Your Writing More Direct
The grammatical term “voice” refers to whether the subject of the sentence acts or receives the action. If the subject is doing the acting, the sentence is in the active voice (“Joe kicks the ball”); if the subject is acted upon, the sentence is in the passive voice (“The ball is kicked by Joe”). The passive voice is made up of a form of the verb “to be” and the past participle of another verb (e.g., “is eaten,” “are preferred,” “was chosen,” or “were stolen”).
Writers in many different settings tend to overuse the passive voice, and the result is often lackluster, vague writing.
COMMON REASONS FOR USING THE PASSIVE VOICE
To avoid taking responsibility (“We didn’t do it; it just happened.”)
Our fees for services were increased.
An error was made in calculating your statement.
To sound authoritative
The decision was investigated and was found to be sound.
To hedge
The project is expected to be completed on time.
No inconvenience to the occupants is anticipated.
BETTER REASONS FOR USING THE PASSIVE VOICE
You don’t know the actor or you prefer not to identify him or her
The fire alarm was set off over the weekend.
You want to emphasize the object of the action rather than the actor
The report was prepared by Terry Monroe.
(Where the emphasis is on the report, not on Terry.)
The new assistant was recommended by Jody McCarron.
(Where the emphasis is on the assistant, not on Jody.)
TRANSFORMING PASSIVE CONSTRUCTIONS INTO ACTIVE ONES
Transforming passive constructions into active constructions is easy, and the resulting sentences are usually shorter, more direct, more specific, and more interesting. To change a passive construction into an active one, identify the person or thing that is doing the action, make it the subject of the sentence, and continue with any necessary alterations. You may find that the actor isn’t present in the sentence at all; in that case, figure out what it is and insert it.
Passive: The speaker was ignored by the audience for most of the presentation.
Active: The audience ignored the speaker for most of the presentation.
Passive: The ship was prepared for launch by its crew.
Active: The ship’s crew prepared it for launch.
Passive: The novel was judged to be one of the best of the decade. (The actor is missing from this sentence.)
Active: Critics judged the novel to be one of the best of the decade.
Using a passive construction is not incorrect. In general, however, active constructions are more interesting and engaging to read. Becoming adept at using the passive and active voices will help you become a stronger and more skilled writer.
(For more about voice, please see Step 4.)
Reading, Writing, and Leadership
Jerry Reece
President Harry Truman once famously said, “Not all readers are leaders, but all leaders are readers.” This statement certainly rings true, as influential leaders from the past, including President Teddy Roosevelt and Sir Winston Churchill, frequently traveled around the world with their libraries at their disposal.
I had the pleasure of meeting Alfred W. Tatum, PhD—the dean of the College of Education at the University of Illinois at Chicago. Dr. Tatum informed me that he uses a scale to make sure he reads five pounds of books per month. I have personally adopted this practice and encourage everyone who has leadership aspirations to read a lot, not just in their chosen fields but broadly across all topics.
However, I would take President Truman’s thought one step further and assert that not all writers are leaders, but all leaders are writers. Communication is the single most important key to leadership success. In all lines of business, the ability to effectively and persuasively write and communicate is what propels the great leaders above their peers.
In real estate, for example, you must be able to clearly, concisely, and efficiently convey your client’s intentions in written contracts without ambiguity; otherwise, deals are lost, and clients will leave you. To build a successful real estate career, it is not enough simply to be a good salesperson. You must also be able to translate what you say you can do into skillfully written documents so you can successfully close the deal.
In today’s fast-paced business world, strong reading and writing habits are more important than ever to the development of leadership skills. No amount of tech savvy can replace the critical thinking skills built through reading and writing, and the amount of “noise” in the environment makes clear communication even more important. The libraries we carry with us now may be on our iPads rather than in printed books, but the top business leaders still read widely and prioritize strong written communication.
Jerry Reece is chairman emeritus of ReeceNichols, a leader in real estate in the Kansas City area.
This What?
Here’s a quick and easy trick to help you cultivate a more engaging writing style: avoid using the word “this” as a stand-alone subject. “This” can be used in two ways.
As a demonstrative pronoun: This is difficult.
Or as an adjective: This project is difficult.
When used as a pronoun, “this” stands in the place of a noun. In a sentence like “This is difficult,” you can assume that, from the context, people know what “this” means. It’s a little harder to follow, however, when you try to use the pronoun “this” to stand in for something more complex than a simple idea. Let’s look at an example:
We might improve the process by having the prep team notify AK when the first phase has been completed. This would allow AK to prepare to move the product to phase two. This could eliminate an entire step of the HD process.
In the second and third sentences above, what do you figure “this” means? This what? In these sentences, “this” is being asked to do too much, and the result is vague, weak prose. Let’s look at a revision:
We might improve the process by having the prep team notify AK when the first phase been completed. AK could then prepare early to move the product to phase two. Setting up this kind of notification system could eliminate an entire step of the HD process.
The revision is more specific and easier to follow. Is it possible for a reader to guess what the original version means? Probably. Is it better not to make the reader guess? Certainly.
When you’re about to use “this” to stand in for a complex idea, take a moment to write out what you mean explicitly. If you have trouble doing so, it’s a sign that you were “cheating” a little bit and expecting that little word to do the hard work you didn’t want to do. Taking the trouble to think through exactly what you mean will help guide your reader and make your point more clearly.
Gender-Neutral Language
The English language has gendered pronouns in the third person—that is, “he” and “she.” Once upon a time, the masculine pronouns “he,” “him,” “his,” and “himself” were considered acceptable for use as gender-neutral pronouns in situations where the sex of the person was not known:
Everyone should lock his office door at the end of the day.
The successful executive has confidence, and he can communicate effectively with everyone.
A worker is only as good as his tools.
Modern man no longer coddles himself during pregnancy. He continues to work often until days before he goes into labor and delivers.
That last example calls into question the neutrality of the pronoun, doesn’t it? Today, the masculine pronoun is no longer considered gender-neutral, which leaves professional writers with some choices to make when they want to be inclusive. No one has yet developed a widely accepted gender-neutral English pronoun, so we’re left with a few different options when we want to write without specifying the gender of the person we’re talking about.
USE “HE OR SHE” OR “SHE OR HE”
The phrases “he or she” or “she or he” can work, especially if used sparingly. This construction can be clunky when it’s used in situations where the pronoun appears more than once in a single sentence:
Everyone should lock his or her office door at the end of the day.
But not:
Everyone should lock his or her office door at the end of the day and ensure that he or she turns off the copier and printer.
USE S/HE AND HIS/HER
This option is typographically more efficient than using “she or he,” but it reads unnaturally:
The successful executive has confidence, and s/he can communicate effectively with everyone.
ALTERNATE USING “HE” AND “SHE”
If you have a fairly long text that features a lot of pronouns, you can alternate using “he” and “she,” showing equal favor to both. That’s the primary approach chosen for this book. However, it won’t work if you have a string of sentences that require the pronoun; the alternation will seem bizarre and confusing.
USE “THEY” AND “THEIR” AS SINGULAR PRONOUNS
Many writers use “they” and “their” to refer back to a singular subject, when the gender of that subject is unknown:
Everyone should lock their office door at the end of the day.
Somebody got their handprints all over the bathroom mirror; they ought to go back and clean it off.
Sticklers and traditionalists will point out that this construction is grammatically incorrect, because “everyone” is singular and “their” is plural. They’re right, and you should be aware that some readers won’t approve of this solution to the gender-neutral challenge. However, it’s an approach that many, if not most, people have adopted in everyday speech. There are examples of “they” used as a singular pronoun going back as far as the fourteenth century, and it was only in the nineteenth century that grammarians began to object to it. For us twenty-first-century types, using “they” as a singular pronoun is probably all right in most settings; in very formal writing, it might be smart to find another alternative.
PLURALIZE YOUR SENTENCE
Instead of making a plural work as a singular, and possibly alienating some readers, consider pluralizing the whole sentence:
Successful executives have confidence, and they can communicate effectively with everyone.
Workers are only as good as their tools.
REWRITE THE SENTENCE TO AVOID USING THIRD-PERSON PRONOUNS
Sometimes the best solution is to rewrite the sentence without third-person pronouns. This approach is always safe:
Please lock your office door at the end of the day.
Whoever got handprints all over the mirror should go back and clean it up.
BE CONSISTENT
Whatever option you choose, be sure you implement it consistently; don’t switch from one style to another in midstream.
Not:
The new STEP app allows users to choose what action to take once he/she logs in.
But:
The new STEP app allows users to choose what action to take once they log in.
Or:
The new STEP app allows each user to choose what action to take once he/she logs in.
GRAMMAR AND USAGE
Sentences, Fragments, and Run-ons
The sentence is the basic building block of writing. Fragments and runons masquerade as sentences, but they’re incorrect and often confusing. For clarity and correctness, you’re wise to use proper sentences in formal and informal writing.
SENTENCES
A sentence contains a subject and a verb and expresses a complete thought.
The subject of a sentence is a noun or pronoun that names a person, place, or thing: “the committee,” “Justin,” “she,” “they,” “Scotland,” “the backyard,” “Wall Street,” “the laptop,” “a cat,” “a regulation.”
It can also be a series of words that function as a noun, because they name a thing: “running the application.”
A verb is a word that expresses action or a state of being: “provide,” “argue,” “is,” “are,” “were.”
To be considered a sentence, a group of words must have both a subject and a verb:
The committee provides guidelines for the implementation of each stage.
They argue a lot, but they never get anywhere.
The laptop is broken.
FRAGMENTS
A fragment is an incomplete sentence. It’s usually missing its subject or its verb. It hints at a complete thought but does not express it. For example:
Ran the backup overnight.
Not a full-blown detailed blueprint.
RUN-ONS
A run-on sentence is two or more sentences stuck together without a conjunction (like “and” or “but”) or appropriate punctuation (like a semicolon).
Everyone came in for the meeting, there was no place to sit.
There’s not much content under the first bullet maybe we should add a line or two.
Here are two easy ways to fix these run-ons:
Everyone came in for the meeting, but there was no place to sit.
There’s not much content under the first bullet, so maybe we should add a line or two.
Or:
There’s not much content under the first bullet; maybe we should add a line or two.
Pronoun Pitfalls
Pronouns are words that stand in for nouns. They can take different forms depending on what part they play in a sentence. Personal pronouns used as subjects take the nominative case: “I,” “you,” “he,” “she,” “we,” and “they.” Personal pronouns used as direct or indirect objects, or as objects of a preposition, take the objective case: “me,” “you,” “him,” “her,” “us,” and “them.” Most of the time, writers use pronouns correctly. However, there are a few common errors you should beware.
Not:
Please send the finished reviews to George and I.
But:
Please send the finished reviews to George and me.
If alarm bells are going off in your head right now, it’s probably because you can hear your mother’s voice exclaiming, “George and I!” She was saying that because you said, “George and me are going to ride bikes,” or maybe “Me and George are going to ride bikes.” She was trying to get you to use the nominative case of the pronoun as the subject of the sentence, and she was right. In this case, however, you need the objective case. “George” and “me” are objects of the preposition “to,” so you need the objective case, even if it sounds weird.
How do you know? In this case, simply drop “George and” and see how it sounds:
Please send the finished reviews to I.
You can tell that’s wrong. It’s wrong because you need “me,” in the objective case, as the object of the preposition “to.” So it needs to be “George and me.” By the same token, you can now probably see that this sentence is incorrect:
The work was divided between he and I.
Instead, you need pronouns in the objective case as objects of the preposition “between”:
The work was divided between him and me.
Another common pronoun problem is the incorrect use of reflexive pronouns. The reflexive form of the pronoun contains the word “self.” Think of the form reflecting back on itself: “myself,” “yourself,” “himself,” “herself,” “ourselves,” and “themselves.” Reflexive pronouns are used only to refer to another word in the sentence or to emphasize another word in the sentence.
I hurt myself.
She did all the coding herself.
Reflexive pronouns like “myself” never stand alone. So common constructions like this are incorrect:
All the results will be reviewed by Loren and myself.
For people like myself, keeping up with technology can be difficult.
In both of these cases, “myself” is not referring to another word in the sentence; hence the usage is incorrect. People use “myself” in this way in an attempt to sound more formal and more polite, but it’s simply wrong. Those sentences should read:
All the results will be reviewed by Loren and me.
For people like me, keeping up with technology can be difficult.
Those versions might not sound fancy, but they’re grammatically correct.
A third common pronoun controversy has to do with using “they” as a singular pronoun. Of course, “they” is plural form. But in order to avoid sexist writing, people have increasingly been using forms of “they” as a gender-neutral singular pronoun.
Everyone should bring their own lunch.
We should let the assistant know when they will be needed.
There’s still some disagreement about whether this usage is acceptable in modern English, although more and more people (including me) consider it just fine. For a fuller discussion of this issue, see “Gender-Neutral Language” here.
Misplaced and Dangling Modifiers
“Modifiers” are parts of speech that change, or modify, the meaning of other words. Adjectives modify nouns or pronouns (the silent machine; the rude neighbor; she was busy). Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs (the machine ran silently; the report was especially dense; she spoke very quickly).
Modifiers don’t have to be single words. They can also be phrases:
The heater under the desk was set on low. (The phrase “under the desk” works as an adjective modifying “heater.”)
The operation ran for a year without full staffing. (The phrase “for a year” functions as an adverb modifying “ran.”)
As a general rule, modifiers should be placed as close as possible to the words they modify, to avoid confusion. A misplaced modifier is positioned in such a way that it’s not clear what word it’s supposed to modify. You might not notice a misplaced modifier at first, but once you do, the result is often nonsensical.
Not:
The caterer served tostadas to the guests on mini tortillas. (The guests were not on the tortillas, the tostadas were.)
But:
The caterer served tostadas on mini tortillas to the guests.
Or:
The caterer served the guests tostadas on mini tortillas.
Not:
They brought an Italian chair for the new CEO with an extra-wide seat. (Presumably it’s the chair, not its occupant, that has the big seat.)
But:
They brought an Italian chair with an extra-wide seat for the CEO.
Not:
Working through the weekend, the presentation was finished by Monday. (It sounds like the presentation itself was working, not the people.)
But:
Working through the weekend, the team finished the presentation by Monday.
The most common misplaced modifier in the English language is probably “only.”
Not:
I only ate two doughnuts. (This sentence suggests that you only ate them—you didn’t play tennis with them or take them to a movie or pile them on your desk.)
But:
I ate only two doughnuts. (Remarkable self-restraint.)
Lots of readers won’t notice the difference, but if you want to write correctly, it’s worth being careful where you place “only” in a sentence.
A dangling modifier is a word that modifies another word that’s not present in the sentence. You might guess at the meaning of the sentence, but dangling modifiers can result in confusion.
Not:
As one of my valued customers, I’m pleased to announce special loyalty prices for the month of September. (As written, the sentence suggests that the writer is one of her own customers.)
But:
As one of my valued customers, you are eligible for special loyalty prices in the month of September.
Not:
Hoping to impress the client, the baseball tickets were left with his assistant. (As written, the sentence suggests that the tickets were hoping to impress the client. The person who was hoping is missing from the sentence altogether.)
But:
Hoping to impress the client, she left the baseball tickets with his assistant.
Not:
Although majoring in business, Greg’s interests also included world history and Asian languages. (As written, the sentence suggests that Greg’s “interests” are majoring in business, not Greg himself.)
But:
Although Greg was majoring in business, his interests also included world history and Asian languages.
“That” and “Which”
When to use “that” and when to use “which”—it’s a mystery to a lot of business writers, but the answer is pretty easy to remember. “That” and “which” often introduce clauses. Clauses can be restrictive or nonrestrictive. A restrictive clause is essential to the meaning of the sentence:
The room that has the video screen is already booked.
In this example, “that has the video screen” defines the room you’re talking about. Dropping that clause would cause the sentence to lose its meaning; it would no longer be clear which room is booked.
A nonrestrictive clause is not essential to the meaning of a sentence. If it’s deleted, the sentence still makes sense and retains its meaning.
Room 511, which has a video screen, seats twenty-five people.
In this example, you can drop the clause and the sentence will still retain its meaning. The clause is nonrestrictive.
As you might infer from the examples above, “that” is used with restrictive clauses, and “which” is used with nonrestrictive clauses.
Not:
I left my phone in the rental car which I picked up in Memphis.
But:
I left my phone in the rental car that I picked up in Memphis.
This clause is restrictive. It’s essential to the meaning of the sentence, so you need to introduce it with “that.” It wasn’t the car you picked up in Atlanta or the one you picked up in Cleveland; it was the one you picked up in Memphis.
On the other hand:
The rental car, which I picked up in Memphis, got two flat tires on the way over the bridge.
The point of this sentence is that the car got two flat tires on the bridge. The fact that you picked it up in Memphis doesn’t matter. It’s a nonrestrictive clause, so it’s introduced with “which.”
It’s worth noting that this rule exists only in American English, not in British English.
Split Infinitives
The infinitive form of a verb is the form that includes “to”: “to run,” “to understand,” “to process,” and so on. It’s called an “infinitive” because it exists outside of time—that is, it’s not in the present, past, or future tense. It’s the base form of the verb.
A split infinitive is one where someone has inserted a word between the “to” and the main part of the verb. The world’s most famous split infinitive comes from the original series of Star Trek, where Captain Kirk describes the mission of the Enterprise: “To boldly go where no man has gone before.”
Many of us were taught that it’s incorrect to split an infinitive. The reason for this is complicated and probably not interesting unless you’re a big fan of grammatical history. All you need to know is that there are people out there, perhaps in your office, who feel that split infinitives are bad grammar and that you should avoid them. In response, you can do one of two things: (1) ignore these colleagues and risk being dinged for bad writing, or (2) try to avoid splitting infinitives.
If you choose the second course, consider moving the modifier to another place in the sentence. Often this solution works very well:
To boldly go where no man has gone before → Boldly to go where no man has gone before
To better understand the problem → To understand the problem better
To unilaterally reject the deal → To reject the deal unilaterally
We need to first explore the cheaper option → First we need to explore the cheaper option
Ending a Sentence with a Preposition
Many people will tell you that it’s incorrect to end a sentence with a preposition. Others will tell you it’s not a rule at all. If you’re writing with the sticklers in mind, you’ll want to avoid this practice.
There are several ways to rewrite a sentence that ends with a preposition.
For the next quarter, we need to decide which initiative to focus on.
Use “on which”:
For the next quarter, we need to decide on which initiative to focus.
This solution can be awkward, as you can see, but sometimes it works well.
Reorder the sentence in another way:
We need to decide which initiative to focus on for the next quarter.
Find another word to replace the prepositional form:
For the next quarter, we need to decide which initiative to prioritize.
This rewrite sounds stronger than the initial version. Forms that contain a verb and a preposition can often be replaced with a single, stronger verb.
Talk about → discuss
Mull over → consider
Try out → test
“Unique”
“Unique” means “one of a kind.” Don’t use it to mean “special” or “distinctive.” And don’t use qualifiers like “very” with “unique.” How could something be “very one of a kind”?
“Would Have,” “Could Have”
The way most Americans speak, these terms sound a lot like “would of” and “could of.” Be careful to write them correctly.
Not: We would of gone if we had been there.
But: We would have gone if we had been there.
COMMONLY CONFUSED WORDS
The English language has a lot of words that sound similar. It’s easy to confuse them, especially when you’re writing in a hurry. This list covers some of the most commonly confused words in the language; keep it handy to avoid mistakes.
Accept and except
Accept means to receive.
Except means apart from, otherwise than.
Adverse and averse
Adverse means harmful or unfavorable.
Averse means opposed to or strongly disinclined.
Affect and effect
To affect is to have an influence on or to create strong emotions.
An effect is a result or an outcome.
All right
All right means acceptable or in good order.
There is no such word as alright. It’s a misspelling of all right.
All together and altogether
All together (two words) indicates people or things located in one place.
Altogether means completely, entirely.
Appraise and apprise
Appraise means to estimate the value of.
Apprise means to notify.
Chord and cord
A chord is a combination of musical notes sounded together.
A cord is a slender length of flexible material.
Note: It’s vocal cords, NOT vocal chords.
Cite, site, sight
To cite is to refer to something, to note as a reference.
A site is a place, either real (e.g., a construction site) or virtual (e.g., a website).
A sight is something you see, like the Pyramids (a popular sightseeing destination) or a small child after finger painting (“You’re a sight!”).
Compliment and complement
A compliment is a comment of praise, admiration, or approval.
To complement something is to accompany it or complete it.
Conscience and conscious
Conscience means a sense of right and wrong.
Conscious refers to an alert mental state or a sense of awareness.
Elicit and illicit
Elicit means to draw forth or evoke.
Illicit means unlawful.
Imply and infer
To imply is to hint at something without saying it explicitly.
To infer is to draw a conclusion, to reason through deduction.
Its and it’s
Its is a possessive form: The house lost its roof in the storm.
It’s is a contraction of it is: It’s very cold out today.
Pour and pore
To pour is to dispense a liquid.
To pore is to study something closely.
Note: You don’t pour over a document, unless you’re trying to get it wet. You pore over it.
Precede and proceed
To precede is to come before something in time, rank, or importance.
To proceed is to move forward or continue.
Principle and principal
A principle is a guiding belief or truth.
A principal is a governing officer in an organization (like a school or a firm).
Stationary and stationery
Stationary means fixed in one place, motionless.
Stationery refers to writing materials, especially envelopes and writing paper.
Their, there, and they’re
Their indicates possession: their car, their philosophy, their problems.
There indicates a place or point: The house is there. Start reading there.
They’re is a contraction of they are: They’re on vacation. They’re under arrest.
Through, threw, and thorough
Through indicates movement into one side and out another.
Threw is the past tense of throw.
Thorough means carried through to completion, complete, or careful about detail.
To, two, and too
To means in the direction, as far as.
Two is the number 2.
Too means also. It’s also used as an intensifier: too hot, too difficult.
Your and you’re
Your indicates possession: your book, your office, your health.
You’re is a contraction of you are: you’re busy, you’re right.
PUNCTUATION
How to Use a Comma
Commas are the most frequently used punctuation marks, as well as the ones that cause the greatest confusion. Learning a few rules can boost your comma confidence.
USE A COMMA WHEN JOINING TWO FULL SENTENCES WITH AND, OR, BUT, SO, NOR, OR FOR.
The flight was delayed, and they spent the night in a hotel.
Jennifer worked for the agency, but I never knew her there.
Almost everyone is here, so I think we should get started.
They have not upgraded this year, nor do they expect to upgrade next year.
Opening another plant in France was impossible, for the costs were too high.
USE A COMMA BETWEEN ITEMS IN A SERIES. (NOTE THAT THESE ITEMS CAN BE SINGLE WORDS OR PHRASES.)
The movers packed up the books, dishes, and artwork.
On Saturday we do the laundry, mow the lawn, and wash the car.
She enjoys playing the violin, working in the garden, and trading stock options.
Note: In these examples, the comma before the “and” is optional. Known as a “serial comma” or “Oxford comma,” it is not required, but it can improve the clarity of a sentence.
USE A COMMA AFTER A LONG INTRODUCTORY PHRASE OR CLAUSE.
With the surgery behind him, Tim was able to travel to Italy comfortably.
Because of the shortage of housing in the city, they moved to the suburbs.
USE A COMMA AFTER AN INTRODUCTORY ADVERB THAT MODIFIES THE ENTIRE SENTENCE.
Unfortunately, the guacamole was gone when they arrived.
Alternatively, we could take the train into the city.
On the other hand, it might be better to work on the taxes in the morning.
USE A COMMA TO SET OFF A NONRESTRICTIVE MODIFIER OR APPOSITIVE.
(An appositive is a noun or a pronoun set next to another to explain or identify it. A nonrestrictive element is not essential to the meaning of a sentence. If it’s deleted, the sentence still makes sense and retains its meaning.)
The car, a black Lexus, was parked in the underground garage.
The sweater, which was too small already, shrank in the wash.
USE A COMMA TO SET OFF SENTENCE MODIFIERS AND SENTENCE ELEMENTS OUT OF THE NORMAL WORD ORDER.
The new software, unfortunately, is even harder to use than the old version.
Urban living, I think, will become the norm soon.
Note: Although it’s tempting to insert a comma wherever you might pause in speech, you’re far safer to follow the rules above than to punctuate “by ear.”
How to Use Colons and Semicolons
Colons and semicolons frequently cause confusion, but they are very easy to master. The few rules explained here will equip you to use colons and semicolons correctly.
COLONS ARE USED TO INTRODUCE
Use a colon to introduce a list of things:
He bought all the ingredients for the recipe: pasta, tomato sauce, fresh tomatoes, and cheese.
You can use a colon to introduce an entire sentence, if the second part explains the first.
The renovation was extensive: they replaced all the electrical and plumbing systems in the building.
Think of a colon as saying “the following” or “in other words.”
SEMICOLONS ARE USED TO SEPARATE
Use a semicolon when joining two full sentences without a conjunction like and, or, but, nor, or for.
Tony took the train home; Paul had a car.
The dinner was great; the concert was disappointing.
Use a semicolon when joining two full sentences with an adverb like however or nevertheless.
I finished the project on time; however, the office was closed when I went to deliver it.
We asked them not to share the proposal with others; nevertheless, they circulated it to the whole team.
Use semicolons to separate items in a series that themselves contain commas.
The publisher was looking for titles in project management, IT, and systems analysis; general management, leadership, and coaching; and computer literacy, the Internet, and web design.
How to Use Parentheses, Brackets, and Dashes
Many people use dashes, parentheses, and brackets interchangeably; however, each of these punctuation marks has its own correct usage. These guidelines will help you understand and use them correctly.
PARENTHESES
Use parentheses to enclose a loosely related comment, explanation, or elaboration within a sentence or a paragraph. You should be able to omit the material within the parentheses without changing the basic meaning or structure of the sentence or paragraph.
We saw a production of Titus Andronicus (one of Shakespeare’s earliest plays) in London.
The cook (it was his first day on the job) used the wrong sauce for the enchiladas.
Al worked for the National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) in Washington, D.C.
Note: A parenthetical sentence within another sentence has no initial capital letter or period.
At that point all flights were canceled. (The rain had gotten much heavier.) We had no choice but to wait.
Note: A freestanding parenthetical sentence requires an initial capital letter and a period inside the parentheses.
BRACKETS
Use brackets to indicate that you have inserted something into a quotation to clarify the meaning.
Deb said during her acceptance speech, “I am honored by it [the award], but I could not have achieved this without the help of my staff.”
You can also use brackets to set off an interpolation within parentheses.
By a vote of 5–4, the Supreme Court overturned the lower court’s ruling. (See here [Figure A] for a chronology of the case.)
DASHES
Use dashes to indicate a break in thought.
The truth is—and you probably already know it—that we can’t manage without you.
I think we can go ahead and accept—no, we can’t!
You can also use a dash to introduce a summary or explanation.
It was a close call—the sudden wind almost overturned the boat.
Legislators were in a tough position—they had to fund the program without raising taxes.
(Colons can also be used for this purpose.)
How to Use Capital Letters
Capitalization often seems arbitrary, probably because so many people use capitals incorrectly. Everyone knows to capitalize the first letter of a sentence and people’s names; the following few rules will help you capitalize correctly every time.
CAPITALIZE ALL THE WORDS IN PLACE-NAMES
Silver Lake, Park Avenue, Atlantic Ocean, Appalachian Mountains, Pacific Coast Highway, Atwater Village, New York City
CAPITALIZE RECOGNIZED SECTIONS OF THE WORLD OR THE COUNTRY
the South, the Sunset Strip, the Northwest, the Lake District, the Far East
DON’T CAPITALIZE EAST, WEST, NORTH, OR SOUTH WHEN THEY INDICATE DIRECTION; DO CAPITALIZE THEM WHEN THEY REFER TO RECOGNIZED SECTIONS OF A COUNTRY
Go west on Colorado Boulevard till you hit the freeway.
Just east of the house, there’s a stand of eucalyptus trees.
the Midwest, the West Coast, the Southeast, the Northeast, the West Country
CAPITALIZE THE NAMES OF ORGANIZATIONS, BUSINESSES, INSTITUTIONS, AND GOVERNMENT BODIES
League of Women Voters, National Geographic Society, Delta Air Lines, Plaza Hotel, Columbia University, National Science Foundation, Department of English and Comparative Literature, House of Representatives, Federal Aviation Administration, Internal Revenue Service
CAPITALIZE THE NAMES OF HISTORICAL EVENTS AND PERIODS, SPECIAL EVENTS, AND CALENDAR ITEMS
Civil War, Renaissance, Kentucky Derby, Special Olympics, Monday, June, Halloween, Memorial Day, Administrative Professionals’ Week
CAPITALIZE THE NAMES OF SHIPS, PLANES, MONUMENTS, AND AWARDS
the Merrimac, the Spruce Goose, the Vietnam Memorial, the Academy Awards, the Statue of Liberty
CAPITALIZE THE TITLES OF BOOKS, STORIES, POEMS, SONGS, MOVIES, AND OTHER WORKS OF ART
The Hobbit, The Red Badge of Courage, The Big Sleep, Paradise Lost, “The Raven,” “Twist and Shout,” “I Wanna Be Sedated,” Lawrence of Arabia, Star Trek
WHAT NOT TO CAPITALIZE
Do not capitalize a word just because the concept seems important to you (a really annoying habit known among editors as Very Important Thing syndrome).
How to Use Quotation Marks
Quotation marks are used to set off words in a sentence. Most frequently, they indicate a direct quotation from someone other than the writer. Quotation marks are frequently misused, but if you learn these few rules you’ll never go wrong.
DOUBLE QUOTATION MARKS
In American usage, you’ll need double quotation marks, not single ones, most of the time. You’ll need to use single quotation marks if you have a quotation within a quotation.
Penelope told us what happened in the meeting: “Marc and Jen both said, ‘This is a really terrible idea’ at the same time.”
Use quotation marks to set off the exact words of a speaker or writer.
Gail read the message and blurted out, “That’s ridiculous.”
The sign over the door said, “No bicycles or skateboards.”
Use quotation marks for the titles of articles, essays, poems, chapters, and songs. (Titles of books, magazines, and newspapers belong in italics. Here, because the example sentences are set in italics, those titles reverse out to roman.)
His song “Let’s Call the Whole Thing Off” appeared in the 1937 movie Shall We Dance.
Her essay “Shakespeare’s Language” was reprinted in the book Renaissance Literary Rhetoric.
Use quotation marks to indicate the ironic use of a word.
One of the “advantages” the broker mentioned was the apartment’s proximity to a punk rock club.
Use quotation marks to refer to a word being used as the word itself.
The word “pizza” first appeared in a Latin text in the year 997.
Don’t use quotation marks to add emphasis. Use italics, boldface, or underlining instead, and do so only sparingly.
Not like this:
Food is “not” permitted in the theater.
Like this:
Food is not permitted in the theater.
Not like this:
“No” parking during business hours.
Like this:
Absolutely no parking during business hours.
PUNCTUATION WITH QUOTATION MARKS
Commas and periods go inside the quotation marks.*
“I’m sure,” said Joe, “that we’ll be done with this project by Friday.”
Exclamation points and question marks go inside the quotation marks when they are part of the quotation.
“Holy cats!” she said. “Is this project ever going to end?”
Semicolons and colons go outside the quotation marks.
The judge commented that the mortgage company had behaved “unconscionably”; the plaintiff’s motion was upheld.
He was described as “the quintessential team player”: focused, cooperative, and supportive of his colleagues.