Thought and Knowledge by Halpern, Diane F. -- Read -- Imperial Library of Trantor

Index

Cover Half Title Title Page Copyright Page Preface to the Fifth Edition Table of Contents CHAPTER 1 THINKING: AN INTRODUCTION

The Need for Critical Thinking Skills

The Twin Pillars of Knowing and Thinking What We Really Need to Know Thought and Knowledge A Working Definition of Critical Thinking What’s Critical about Critical Thinking? Changing How People Think: Should It Be Done? Commercialization of Schools as a Threat to Critical Thinking

Empirical Evidence That Thinking Can Be Improved

Is Critical Thinking a Byproduct of a Good Education? Transfer of Training

Learning to Think Critically: A Four-Part Model

A Skills Approach to Critical Thinking The Disposition for Effortful Thinking and Learning Transfer of Training Metacognitive Monitoring

Intelligence and Thinking Skills

The Nature of Intelligence The Measurement of Intelligence

Becoming a Better Thinker: The Quick and Easy Way

Two Types of Thinking—Fast and Slow Bounded Rationality

Thinking about Thinking

Thinking as a Biological Process Thinking as Imagery and Silent Speech

Critical Thinking: Hollywood Style

Becoming a Better Thinker: A Skills Approach

Chapter Summary Terms to Know

CHAPTER 2 THINKING STARTS HERE: MEMORY AS THE MEDIATOR OF COGNITIVE PROCESSES

Memory: The Acquisition, Retention, and Retrieval of Knowledge

Memories are Stored in Associative Networks

What We Believe About Memory is (Mostly) Wrong

Change Blindness Blindness Memory without Awareness The Illusion of Truth Classical Conditioning Varieties of Memory Working Memory Long-Term Memory General Principles to Improve Learning and Remembering

Acquisition

Strategies that Promote Learning

Retention

The Constructive Nature of Memory Stereotypes and Prejudice Inference and Distortion Real and False Memories

Retrieval

Forgetting Chunking

Metamemory Mnemonics

Pegwords and Images Rhymes Method of Places First Letters Mnemonic Principles External Memory Aids Remembering Events

Biases in Memory

Confirmation Bias Vivid, Dramatic, Personal, and Familiar Long-Term Accuracy is Sometimes Excellent

Chapter Summary Terms to Know

CHAPTER 3 THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THOUGHT AND LANGUAGE

Thought and Language

Psycholinguistics Underlying Representation and Surface Structure Implications and Inference The Role of Inference in Advertisements Rules for Clear Communication Analogy and Metaphor Using Analogies as an Aid to Understanding Using Analogies to Persuade

Words and their Meanings

Definitions and the Control of Thought The Power of Labels and Categories Prototypical Thinking

Language: Tool or Master of Thought?

The Direction and Misdirection of Thought Emotional Language and Name Calling Ambiguity, Vagueness, and Equivocation Etymology and Reification Bureaucratese and Euphemism The Perils of Polite Speech Framing with Leading Questions and Negation Contrast and Context Anchoring Barometers of Thought

Comprehension: The Reason for Language

Strategies for Comprehension Re-representation Questioning and Explaining Concept Maps Spatial Representation of Thought General Guidelines and Principles

Chapter Summary Terms to Know

CHAPTER 4 REASONING: DRAWING DEDUCTIVELY VALID CONCLUSIONS

Logical and Psychological

Pragmatism and Logic When Logic and Belief Collide

Inductive and Deductive Reasoning Linear Ordering

Linear Diagrams Confusing Truth and Validity “If, Then” Statements Tree Diagrams “If, Then” Reasoning in Everyday Contexts Confirmation Bias Permission and Obligation Schemata “If, and Only If” Chained Conditionals “If, Then” Reasoning in Legal Contexts “If, Then” Reasoning as Therapy for Children with Attention Deficit Disorder

Combinatorial Reasoning Syllogistic Reasoning

Circle Diagrams for Determining Validity Reasoning with False Premises Syllogisms in Everyday Contexts Circle Diagrams can Capture Complex Relationships Missing Quantifiers Changing Attitudes with Syllogisms Common Errors in Syllogistic Reasoning Illicit Conversions

Probabilistic Reasoning

Bounded Rationality

Reasoning in Everyday Contexts

Reasoning with Diagrams Reasoning Gone Wrong Motivated Reasoning

Chapter Summary Terms to Know

CHAPTER 5 ANALYZING ARGUMENTS

The Anatomy of an Argument

Premises Conclusions Assumptions Qualifiers Counterarguments

Diagramming the Structure of an Argument

Guidelines for Diagramming Arguments Using Argument Structure when Writing and Speaking

Actively Open-Minded Thinking

Historical Evidence

Evaluating the Strength of an Argument

Acceptable and Consistent Premises Credibility The Credibility Crisis Premises that Support the Conclusion Missing Components Sound Arguments

How to Analyze an Argument A Template for Writing Sound Arguments

Reasoning and Rationalizing How People Reach Different Conclusions from the Same Evidence

Persuasion and Propaganda

The Psychology of Reasons

Explaining as Knowing

Twenty-One Common Fallacies Distinguishing between Opinion, Reasoned Judgment, and Fact

Visual Arguments

How to Change Beliefs

Chapter Summary Terms to Know

CHAPTER 6 THINKING AS HYPOTHESIS TESTING

Understanding Hypothesis Testing

Explanation, Prediction, and Control Inductive and Deductive Methods Operational Definitions Independent and Dependent Variables Measurement Sensitivity

Populations and Samples

Biased and Unbiased Samples Sample Size Variability

Science versus Science Fiction

Amazing and Not True

Determining Cause

Isolation and Control of Variables Three-Stage Experimental Designs Using the Principles of Isolation and Control Prospective and Retrospective Research Correlation and Cause Illusory Correlation Validity Convergent Validity Illusory Validity Reliability

Thinking about Errors

Experience is an Expensive Teacher Anecdotes

Self-Fulfilling Prophecies Occult Beliefs and the Paranormal

Conspiracy Theories

Thinking as an Intuitive Scientist Chapter Summary Terms to Know

CHAPTER 7 LIKELIHOOD AND UNCERTAINTY: UNDERSTANDING PROBABILITIES

Probabilistic Nature of the World

Likelihood and Uncertainty Odds The Laws of Chance How We Explain Chance Events Degrees of Belief It’s a Miracle (or Maybe Just Statistics)

Factors Affecting Judgments about Likelihood and Uncertainty

The Search for Meaning Overconfidence

Using Probability

Games of Chance Computing Probabilities in Multiple Outcome Situations Conjunction Error—Applying the “And Rule” Cumulative Risks—Applying the “Or Rule”

Expected Values Subjective Probability

Base-Rate Neglect Gambler’s Fallacy

Making Probabilistic Decisions

Combining Information to Make Predictions Thinking with Frequencies The Problem of False Positives Nonregressive Judgments

Risk

Assessing Risks Biases in Risk Assessment

Statistical Use and Abuse

On the Average Precision Significant Differences Extrapolation

Chapter Summary Terms to Know

CHAPTER 8 DECISION MAKING: IT IS A MATTER OF CHOICE

Making Sound Decisions

A Framework for Decision Making Good Decisions and Subjective Utility Descriptive and Prescriptive Processes

Pitfalls and Pratfalls in Decision Making

Failure to Seek Disconfirming Evidence Overconfidence Availability Heuristic Representativeness Heuristic Wishful Thinking (Pollyanna Principle) Entrapment Psychological Reactance Liking Reciprocity Mere Exposure Effect Emotional States Unconscious Influences Nudging a Decision

Evaluating Consequences

Assessing Desirable and Undesirable Consequences Elimination by Aspects

Preparing a Worksheet

Framing the Decision Generating the Alternatives Listing the Considerations Weighing the Considerations Weighing the Alternatives Calculating a Decision The Problem with Numbers Dilemmas in Decision Making

Post-decision Commitment and Evaluation

Cognitive Dissonance Foot-in-the-Door Perspective Taking Hindsight and Forethought

Chapter Summary Terms to Know

CHAPTER 9 DEVELOPMENT OF PROBLEM-SOLVING SKILLS

What is a Problem? Anatomy of a Problem

Situation Awareness

Stages in Problem Solving

Incubation Persistence

Well-Defined and Ill-Defined Problems Problem Planning and Representation

Multiple Statements of the Goal Representation of the Problem Space Select the Best Representation

Problem-Solving Strategies

Means–Ends Analysis Working Backwards Generalization and Specialization Random Search and Trial-and-Error Rules Hints Split-Half Method Brainstorming Contradiction Analogies and Metaphors Consult an Expert Crowdsourcing Select the Best Strategy

Problem-Solving Problems

Functional Fixedness and Mental Set Misleading and Irrelevant Information World View Constraints

Chapter Summary Terms to Know

CHAPTER 10 CREATIVE THINKING

Defining Creativity

Lateral and Vertical Thinking Creative Genius or Pedestrian Process? Sensitivity, Synergy, and Serendipity Creativity as Investment Theory: Buy Low; Sell High Creativity as a System Creativity as a Group Process Creativity as a Cognitive Process Stretching and Rejecting Paradigms The Problem of Problem Definition Selecting Relevant Information Generation, Exploration, and Evaluation Insight and Incubation Analogical Thinking Making the Familiar Strange Remote Associations Test

Encouraging Creativity

The Person, the Problem, the Process Personality Factors Persistence, Conscientiousness, and Curiosity Creativity as a Goal Types of Motivation

Strategies for Creative Thinking

Basic Principles Quantity Breeds Quality Creative Ideas Checklist Attribute Listing Crovitz’s Relational Algorithm Plus, Minus, Interesting Activating Inert Knowledge Browsing Visual Thinking Putting it All Together Chapter Summary

Terms to Know

CHAPTER 11 THE LAST WORD

Framework for Thinking

What is the Goal? What is Known? Which Thinking Skill or Skills will Get You to Your Goal? Have You Reached Your Goal? A Desirable Outcome

Can Critical Thinking Save the World? Going Forward

Appendix: List of Critical Thinking Skills Bibliography Index

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