Basic Electronics by De, Debashis -- Read -- Imperial Library of Trantor

Index

Title Page Contents Dedication Preface Reviewers The Author and the Contributor 1. Semiconductor Fundamentals

1-1 Introduction 1-2 Crystalline Materials

Semiconducting Materials 1-2-1 Crystals and Crystal Structures 1-2-2 Mechanical Properties 1-2-3 Energy Band Theory Simplified Derivation of the Fermi–Dirac Statistics

1-3 Basis of Classification: Metals, Semiconductors and Insulators

1-3-1 Insulators (Eg >> 4 eV) 1-3-2 Semiconductors (0 eV ≤ Eg ≤ 4 eV) 1-3-3 Metals (Inter-Penetrating Band Structure)

1-4 Intrinsic Semiconductors 1-5 Extrinsic Semiconductors

1-5-1 Doping 1-5-2 Dopants 1-5-3 Carrier Statistics in n- and p-type Semiconductors Properties of the Fermi–Dirac Integral

1-6 Electrical Conduction Phenomenon

1-6-1 Mobility 1-6-2 Conductivity 1-6-3 Diffusion of Carriers 1-6-4 Einstein Relation 1-6-5 Recombination and Generation Processes

1-7 The Continuity Equation 1-8 Hall Effect

2. Diode Fundamentals

2-1 Introduction 2-2 Formation of the p–n Junction 2-3 Energy Band Diagrams

2-3-1 The p–n Junction at Thermal Equilibrium

2-4 Concepts of Junction Potential

2-4-1 Space-Charge Region 2-4-2 Built-in and Contact Potentials 2-4-3 Effect of Doping on Barrier Field Invariance of Fermi Level at Thermal Equilibrium 2-4-4 Formulation of Built-in Potential

2-5 Modes of the p–n Junction

2-5-1 The p–n Junction with External Applied Voltage 2-5-2 Rectifying Voltage–Current Characteristics of a p–n Junction 2-5-3 The Junction Capacitance 2-5-4 The Varactor Diode

2-6 Derivation of the I–V Characteristics of a p–n Junction Diode 2-7 Linear Piecewise Models 2-8 Breakdown Diode

2-8-1 Zener Breakdown 2-8-2 Avalanche Breakdown

2-9 Special Types of p–n Junction Semiconductor Diodes

2-9-1 Tunnel Diode 2-9-2 Light-Emitting Diode 2-9-3 Photo Detector Diode 2-9-4 Photovoltaic Diode

2-10 Applications of Diode

2-10-1 Radio Demodulation 2-10-2 Power Conversion 2-10-3 Over-Voltage Protection 2-10-4 Logic Gates 2-10-5 Ionizing Radiation Detectors 2-10-6 Temperature Measuring 2-10-7 Charge-Coupled Devices

3. Diode Circuits

3-1 Introduction 3-2 Analysis of Diode Circuits 3-3 Load Line and Q-Point 3-4 Zener Diode as Voltage Regulator

3-4-1 Line Regulation 3-4-2 Load Regulation: Regulation with Varying Load Resistance

3-5 Rectifiers

3-5-1 Half-Wave Rectifier 3-5-2 Full-Wave Rectifier 3-5-3 Use of Filters in Rectification 3-5-4 Regulation 3-5-5 Performance Analysis of Various Rectifier Circuits

3-6 Clipper and Clamper Circuits

3-6-1 Clipper 3-6-2 Clamper

3-7 Comparators 3-8 Additional Diode Circuits

3-8-1 Voltage Multiplier 3-8-2 Peak Detector 3-8-3 Digital Circuits 3-8-4 Switching Regulators

4. BJT Fundamentals

4-1 Introduction 4-2 Formation of p–n–p and n–p–n Junctions 4-3 Transistor Mechanism 4-4 Energy Band Diagrams 4-5 Transistor Current Components

4-5-1 Current Components in p–n–p Transistor 4-5-2 Current Components in n–p–n Transistor

4-6 CB, CE and CC Configurations

4-6-1 Common-Base (CB) Mode 4-6-2 Common-Emitter (CE) Mode 4-6-3 Common-Collector (CC) Mode

4-7 Expression for Current Gain

4-7-1 Relationship between α and β Ebers–Moll Model of Transistor

4-8 Transistor Characteristics

4-8-1 Input Characteristics 4-8-2 Output Characteristics

4-9 Operating Point and the Concept of Load Line 4-10 Early Effect

5. BJT Circuits

5-1 Introduction 5-2 Biasing and Bias Stability

5-2-1 Circuit Configurations 5-2-2 Stabilization Against Variations in ICO, VBE and β

5-3 Calculation of Stability Factors

5-3-1 Stability Factor S 5-3-2 Stability Factor S' 5-3-3 Stability Factor S'' 5-3-4 General Remarks on Collector Current Stability

5-4 CE, CB Modes and Their Properties

5-4-1 Common-Emitter (CE) Mode 5-4-2 Common-Base Mode

5-5 Small-Signal Low-Frequency Operation of Transistors

5-5-1 Hybrid Parameters and Two-Port Network

5-6 Equivalent Circuits Through Hybrid Parameters as a Two-Port Network 5-7 Transistor as Amplifier

5-7-1 The Parameter α'

5-8 Expressions of Current Gain, Input Resistance, Voltage Gain and Output Resistance

5-8-1 Current Gain (AI) 5-8-2 Input Resistance (RI) 5-8-3 Voltage Gain (Av) 5-8-4 Output Resistance (RO)

5-9 Frequency Response for CE Amplifier with and without Source Impedance

5-9-1 Conclusions

5-10 Emitter Follower 5-11 Darlington Pair 5-12 Transistor at High Frequencies 5-13 Real-Life Applications of the Transistor

6. Field-Effect Transistor

6-1 Introduction 6-2 The Field-Effect Transistor

6-2-1 Junction Field-Effect Transistor (JFET) 6-2-2 Insulated Gate Field-Effect Transistor (IGFET) 6-2-3 Metal-Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistor (MESFET)

6-3 Construction of the JFET 6-4 Biasing of the JFET

6-4-1 Effect of the Gate Voltage

6-5 Current–Voltage Characteristics 6-6 Transfer Characteristics of the JFET 6-7 Construction and Characteristics of the MOSFET

6-7-1 Depletion-Type MOSFET 6-7-2 Enhancement-Type MOSFET

6-8 Complementary MOS

6-8-1 Construction of the CMOS 6-8-2 CMOS Inverter Examination of Mosfets under Two Extremes

6-9 Real-Life Applications of the FET

7. FET Circuits

7-1 Introduction 7-2 FET Biasing

7-2-1 Fixed-Bias Arrangement 7-2-2 Self-Bias Arrangement 7-2-3 Voltage Divider Biasing Arrangement

7-3 FET as an Amplifier

7-3-1 DC Bias Point 7-3-2 Voltage Gain of the FET

7-4 Electrical Parameters of the FET 7-5 AC Equivalent Circuit for Small-Signal Analysis

7-5-1 Small-Signal Model for the MOSFET T Equivalent-Circuit Model

7-6 High-Frequency MOSFET Model

7-6-1 Effective Capacitance of the Gate 7-6-2 The Junction Capacitance 7-6-3 The High-Frequency Models of the MOSFET

7-7 Additional FET Circuits

7-7-1 MOS Differential Amplifiers 7-7-2 Current Source Circuits

7-8 Comparison Between the FET and the BJT

8. Special Semiconductor Devices

8-1 Introduction 8-2 Silicon-Controlled Rectifier (SCR)

8-2-1 Constructional Features 8-2-2 Physical Operation and Characteristics 8-2-3 I–V Characteristics of the SCR 8-2-4 Simple Applications

8-3 Triode AC Switch (TRIAC)

8-3-1 Constructional Features Physical Operation and Characteristics of the TRIAC

8-4 Diode AC Switch (DIAC)

8-4-1 Constructional Features 8-4-2 Physical Operation and Characteristics 8-4-3 Applications

8-5 Unijunction Transistor (UJT)

8-5-1 Constructional Features 8-5-2 Physical Operation and Characteristics 8-5-3 Applications

8-6 Insulated-Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT)

8-6-1 Constructional Features 8-6-2 Physical Operation and Characteristics

8-7 Real-Life Applications

9. Feedback Amplifier

9-1 Introduction 9-2 Conceptual Development Through Block Diagrams

9-2-1 Input Signal 9-2-2 Output Signal 9-2-3 Sampling Network 9-2-4 Comparison or Summing Network 9-2-5 Basic Amplifier

9-3 Properties of Negative Feedback 9-4 Calculations of Open-Loop Gain, Closed-Loop Gain and Feedback Factors

9-4-1 Loop Gain or Return Ratio

9-5 Topologies of the Feedback Amplifier

9-5-1 Voltage-Series or Series-Shunt Feedback 9-5-2 Current-Series or Series-Series Feedback 9-5-3 Current-Shunt or Shunt-Series Feedback 9-5-4 Voltage-Shunt or Shunt-Shunt Feedback

9-6 Effect of Feedback on Gain, Input and Output Impedances

9-6-1 Effect of Feedback on Input Impedance 9-6-2 Effect of Feedback on Output Impedance

9-7 Practical Implementations of the Feedback Topologies

9-7-1 Voltage-Series Feedback Using Transistor 9-7-2 Current-Series Feedback Using Transistor 9-7-3 Voltage-Shunt Feedback Using Transistor 9-7-4 Current-Shunt Feedback Using Transistor

9-8 Sensitivity 9-9 Bandwidth Stability 9-10 Effect of Positive Feedback

9-10-1 Instability and Oscillation 9-10-2 Nyquist Criterion 9-10-3 Condition of Oscillation 9-10-4 Barkhausen Criterion

10. Fundamentals of Integrated Circuit Fabrication

10-1 Introduction 10-2 Fundamentals of Integrated Circuits 10-3 Types of Integrated Circuits

10-3-1 Monolithic IC 10-3-2 Hybrid IC

10-4 Advantages and Disadvantages of Integrated Circuits 10-5 Scale of Integration

10-5-1 Types of IC Chips

10-6 Crystal Growth and Wafer Preparation 10-7 Epitaxial Growth 10-8 Oxidation for Isolation 10-9 Photolithography for Pattern Transfer

10-9-1 Mask Alignment and UV Exposure

10-10 Etching for Design

10-10-1 Wet Chemical Etching 10-10-2 Dry Chemical Etching 10-10-3 Chemical Plasma Etching 10-10-4 Ion Beam Etching 10-10-5 Reactive Ion Etching

10-11 Diffusion for Doping 10-12 Ion Implantation for Doping 10-13 Metallization for Interconnection 10-14 Testing for Reliability 10-15 Packaging Protection 10-16 IC Symbols 10-17 Fabrication Steps for Different Circuits

10-17-1 Fabrication of Resistors in Integrated Circuits 10-17-2 Steps of Fabrication of Capacitors 10-17-3 Steps of Fabrication of the Transistor Circuit 10-17-4 The Schottky Diode 10-17-5 Schematic Diagram of a CMOS Circuit

10-18 Real-Life Applications

11. Operational Amplifier

11-1 Introduction 11-2 Properties of the Ideal Operational Amplifier 11-3 Specifications of IC 741C

11-3-1 Description of Op-Amp 741 IC Pins

11-4 Operational Amplifier and its Terminal Properties

11-4-1 Input Offset Voltage and Output Offset Voltage 11-4-2 Input-Bias Current 11-4-3 Input Offset Current and Output Offset Current 11-4-4 Input Offset Null Voltage 11-4-5 Differential Input Resistance 11-4-6 Input Capacitance 11-4-7 Offset Voltage Adjustment Range 11-4-8 Input Voltage Range 11-4-9 Common-Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR) 11-4-10 Supply Voltage Rejection Ratio (SVRR) 11-4-11 Large Signal Voltage Gain 11-4-12 Output Voltage Swing 11-4-13 Output Resistance 11-4-14 Supply Voltage 11-4-15 Supply Current 11-4-16 Power Consumption 11-4-17 Slew Rate 11-4-18 Gain Bandwidth Product 11-4-19 Virtual Ground

11-5 Applications of the Operational Amplifier

11-5-1 Inverting Mode of Operation 11-5-2 Non-Inverting Mode of Operation 11-5-3 Voltage Summing, Difference, and Constant Gain Multiplier 11-5-4 Voltage Follower or Unity Gain Amplifier 11-5-5 Comparator 11-5-6 Integrator 11-5-7 Differentiator 11-5-8 Logarithmic Amplifier

11-6 Real-Life Applications

12. Oscillators

12-1 Introduction 12-2 Classifications of Oscillators 12-3 Circuit Analysis of a General Oscillator

12-3-1 Hartley Oscillator 12-3-2 Colpitts Oscillator 12-3-3 Phase-Shift Oscillator 12-3-4 Wien-Bridge Oscillator

12-4 Conditions for Oscillation: Barkhausen Criterion

12-4-1 Nyquist Criterion for Oscillation

12-5 Tuned Oscillator

12-5-1 Circuit Analysis

12-6 Crystal Oscillator 12-7 Real-Life Applications of Oscillators

12-7-1 Voltage-Controlled Oscillator 12-7-2 Cascode Crystal Oscillator

13. Digital Electronic Principles

13-1 Introduction 13-2 Number System 13-3 Conversion of Number System

13-3-1 Binary to Decimal 13-3-2 Decimal to Binary 13-3-3 Number System Conversions

13-4 Boolean Algebra

13-4-1 Addition 13-4-2 Subtraction 13-4-3 Basic Boolean Laws

13-5 Logic Gates

13-5-1 AND Gate 13-5-2 OR Gate 13-5-3 NOT Gate 13-5-4 NAND Gate 13-5-5 NOR Gate 13-5-6 XOR Gate 13-5-7 XNOR Gate 13-5-8 Universal Gate 13-5-9 Characteristics of Logic Gates

13-6 De Morgan’s Theorem

13-6-1 Using Basic Logic Gates 13-6-2 Application of De Morgan’s Theorem

13-7 Simplification of Boolean Expression 13-8 Logic Gate Circuits

13-8-1 Combinational Logic 13-8-2 Sequential Logic Circuit

13-9 Real-Life Applications of Digital Circuits

14. Electronic Instruments

14-1 Introduction 14-2 Components of the Cathode-Ray Oscilloscope 14-3 Cathode-Ray Tube

14-3-1 Electron Gun 14-3-2 Deflection Systems 14-3-3 Fluorescent Screen

14-4 Time-Base Generators

14-4-1 Oscilloscope Amplifiers 14-4-2 Vertical Amplifiers

14-5 Measurements Using the Cathode-Ray Oscilloscope

14-5-1 Measurement of Frequency 14-5-2 Measurement of Phase 14-5-3 Measurement of Phase Using Lissajous Figures

14-6 Types of Cathode-Ray Oscilloscope

14-6-1 Analog CRO 14-6-2 Digital CRO 14-6-3 Storage CRO 14-6-4 Dual-Beam CRO

14-7 Sweep Frequency Generator

14-7-1 Applications of the Sweep Frequency Generator

14-8 Function Generator 14-9 Sine Wave Generator 14-10 Square Wave Generator 14-11 AF Signal Generator

Acknowledgements Copyright

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