The Roman Eastern Frontier and the Persian Wars AD 226-363 by Dodgeon, Michael H.,Lieu, Samuel N.C. -- Read -- Imperial Library of Trantor

Index

Cover Page Title Page Copyright Page Maps Notes On the Sources List of Abbreviations Foreword Acknowledgements Introduction

(1). Outline of Romano-Persian Relations (224±363) (2). The Problem of the Sources (3). The Structure of the Book

1. The Rise of the Sassanians

1.1.1. The Lineage, Parentage, and Childhood of Ardashir (r. 226± 241/2) 1.1.2. The Revolt of Ardashir (c. 208±224) 1.1.3. Ardashir's Initial (And Unsuccessful) Attempt to Capture Hatra (c. 229) 1.1.4. His Failure In Armenia 1.1.5. Ardashir's Invasion of Roman Territory and His Demand for the Restitution of the Achaemenid Possessions In Europe 1.2.1. The Reply of Alexander Severus to Ardashir 1.2.2. Invasion of Mesopotamia and Cappadocia By Ardashir 1.2.3. Alexander Severus' Preparation for His Campaign and His Speech Before the Troops 1.2.4. Renewed Attempts At Negotiation and Their Failure 1.2.5. Suppression of Mutinies By Alexander Severus 1.3.1. Visit of Alexander Severus to Palmyra (c. 230/1) 1.3.2. Repair to the Zela-Sebastopolis Road As Preparation for Alexander Severus' Persian Campaign (231) 1.3.3. The Persian Campaign of Alexander Severus (231±3) 1.3.4. Road Repair In Mesopotamia, Near the Tigris (231/2) 1.3.5. Appearance of the Dux Ripae At Dura Europos (Before 245) 1.4.1. Causes of Alexander Severus' Withdrawal from the East 1.4.2. Eastern Troops Taken By Alexander Severus to Germany 1.4.3. The Triumphal Return to Rome of Alexander Severus and His Speech to the Senate (25 September 233) 1.4.4. The Persian Attack of 238/9 1.4.5. Roman Assistance to Hatra 1.5.1. The Fall of Hatra to the Persians (240)

2. The Persian Expedition of Gordian III (The ‘First Campaign’ of Shapur I Against the Roman Empire)

2.1.1. Renewal of Hostility Between Rome and Persia (241) 2.1.2. Shapur's Accession to Sole Rule 2.1.3. Description of His Empire 2.1.4. Restoration of the Kingdom of Edessa By Gordian III 2.1.5. The Death of Gordian and the Roman Withdrawal (244): (a) The Persian View 2.2.1. The Death of Gordian: (b) The Roman View 2.2.2. The Participation of the Philosopher Plotinus In the Expedition of Gordian 2.2.3. Philip's Treaty With Shapur I 2.2.4. The Accession of Philip and General Political Instability In the East 2.2.5. Attempt By Philip to Regain Mesopotamia and Armenia(?) 2.3.1. Julius Priscus Placed In Charge of the East 2.3.2. Julius Priscus Made Rector Orientis 2.3.3. Dedication By a Prefect of a Newly Formed (Or Reformed) Heavy Cavalry Unit At Bostra (Between 244 and 249) 2.3.4. Sepulchral Inscription of a Veteran of Legio VIII Augusta In Syria

3. The Second and Third Campaigns of Shapur I Against the Roman Empire

3.1.1. Khosrov II of Armenia Was Murdered At the Instigation of the Sassanians (After 244) 3.1.2. Nisibis Captured By the Persians (252?) 3.1.3. The Murder of Khosrov II of Armenia and Flight of Trdat (Tiridates) to the Roman Court(?) 3.1.4. Shapur's Second Campaign Against the Roman Empire (252) 3.1.5. Antioch Betrayed By Mariades (Or Kyriades) to Shapur I (253?) 3.2.1. Some Incidents Related to the Fall of Antioch (253? or 260?) 3.2.2. A Persian Column Defeated At Emesa (?) 3.2.3. Inscriptions Commemorating the Victory of Emesenes Over Shapur I (?) 3.2.4. Repair to the Walls of Batnae By a Prefect of Osrhoene (After 256?) 3.2.5. Transfer of Troops to Arabia (259?) 3.2.6. Shapur's Third Campaign Against the Roman Empire (260?): (a) The Persian View 3.3.1. The Third Campaign of Shapur and the Capture of Valerian: (b) The Roman and Byzantine View 3.3.2. The Prophet Mani's Participation In the Campaigns of Shapur I 3.3.3. Attempt By Kirder the Mobed to Introduce Zoroastrianism to Conquered Roman Territory 3.3.4. Fulvius Macrianus Refused to Send Help to Valerian 3.3.5. Ballista Rallied Roman Stragglers and Inflicted Defeats On Persians In Lykaonia 3.4.1. Shapur Bribed the Roman Soldiers At Edessa to Facilitate His Return Journey 3.4.2. The Settlement of Roman Prisoners By Shapur In Persian Territory

4. The Rise and Fall of Palmyra

5. From Probus to Diocletian

5.1.1. The Accession of Bahram II (276±293) 5.1.2. Peace Between Probus and the Persians 5.1.3. Probus' Plan to Invade Persia and His Death (282) 5.1.4. Dedication to Probus By Syrian Villagers (?282) 5.1.5. Internal Unrest In Persia (c. 283) 5.1.6. The Persian Expedition of Carus, His Initial Success and His Death (283) 5.2.1. Conflicting Accounts of the Achievements of Numerianus and Carinus, the Sons of Carus 5.2.2. A Story Associated With the Armenian (Persian?) War of Carus or Carinus 5.2.3. Diocletian's Truce With the Persians 5.2.4. Return of Trdat to Armenia With Roman Military Assistance (?) (c. 287) 5.2.5. Diocletian Fortifies Circesium and Reorganizes the Eastern Frontier (287?) 5.3.1. Diocletian's Campaign Against the Saracens (? May/June, 290) 5.3.2. The Accession of Bahram (III) and His Brief Reign (293) 5.3.3. The Accession of Narses (c. 293) 5.3.4. Renewal of Hostilities By Narses (c. 293) 5.3.5. The Persian Campaigns of Diocletian and Galerius (296± 298) 5.4.1. Assuristan Raided By Armenians(?) 5.4.2. Negotiations Between Galerius and the Envoy of Narses 5.4.3. The Peace Settlement Between Diocletian and Narses (298 or 299) 5.4.4. Participation of Constantine (The Great) In the Expedition of Galerius(?) 5.4.5. The Achievements of Verinus In Armenia Recalled By Symmachus 5.5.1. The Triumph of Diocletian and Galerius At Rome (c. 298) 5.5.2. The Victories of Diocletian and Galerius As Recalled By Eumenius 5.5.3. Manichaeans Accused of Being a Pro-Persian Fifth-Column (c. 302) 5.5.4. The Accession of Hormizd II (302) 5.5.5. General Efforts By Diocletian to Strengthen the Eastern Frontier (287ff.) 5.6.1. A Wayfarer's Appreciation of the Improved Provisions for Travellers In the Frontier Regions (Late 3rd or Early 4th C.)

6. Rome and Shapur II: Shapur and Constantine (c. 302–337)

6.1.1. The Birth and Childhood of Shapur II 6.1.2. The Cruelty of Adarnases (Shahanshah 309/10) 6.1.3. The Problems Which Beset the Sassanian Empire At the Accession of Shapur II and His Qualities As a Monarch 6.1.4. His Early Wars Against the Arabs 6.1.5. The Armenian Campaign of Maximinus Daia (c. Nov., 312) 6.1.6. Formation of a Mobile Field Army By Constantine (Before 325) 6.2.1. Constantine Rebuilt Chalcedon and His Defeat By Persians (?) (c. 324) 6.2.2. Victory (?) of Constantine Over Shapur II and Provincial Reorganization (Date Unknown) 6.2.3. The Flight of Hormisdas to Rome (324?) 6.2.4. Construction of a Reservoir On the Syrian Limes (324) 6.2.5. Letter of Constantini the Great to Shapur II (After 324?) 6.2.6. Dedication to Constantine and His Family from Arabia (Between 326 and 333) 6.3.1. Unrest In Armenia Leading to Persian Intervention (?) 6.3.2. The `lies of Metrodorus' (326/7) 6.3.3. Caesar Constantius Was Sent to Take Command of the Eastern Frontier (c. 336) 6.3.4. Narses, Brother (?) of Shapur II, Captured Amida But Was Killed In Battle (At Narasara?) (c. 336?) 6.3.5. Refortification of the City of Amida By the Caesar Constantius (Before 337) 6.4.1. Constantine Appointed His Nephew Hannibalianus As `king of Kings and of the Pontic Peoples' (335) 6.4.2. Constantine's Preparation for War Against the Persians and His Death (22 May, 337) 6.4.3. Hope for Roman Victory As Expressed By a Christian Writer In Persia (c. 337) 6.4.4. The Career of a Descendant of a Roman Prisoner of War In the Persian Empire

7. Rome and Shapur II: The Early Wars of Constantius II (337–350)

7.1.1. Hannibalianus, the King of Pontus and Neighbouring Regions, Was Murdered By Soldiers Loyal to Constantius In a Palace Coup (337) 7.1.2. Unrest In Armenia As a Consequence of the Murder of Hannibalianus (?) 7.1.3. The First Siege of Nisibis (337 or 338) 7.1.4. Death of Jacob of Nisibis (After 337/8) 7.1.5. Constantius' Return to the East 7.1.6. The Armenian Settlement (c. 337/8) 7.2.1. Treaty Between Constantius and the Arabs (338?) 7.2.2. Restoration of Military Discipline By Constantius 7.2.3. Roman Cavalry Equipment Strengthened By Constantius 7.2.4. Constantius Arrived At the Eastern Frontier But Was Unable to Bring the Enemy Into Open Battle (338/9) 7.2.5. The Persian War Used As an Excuse By Arian Leaders for Not Appearing Before Pope Julius Who Had Summoned Them (c. 338) 7.3.1. Dedication to Constantius Who Was On the Point of Embarking On His Persian Campaign By a Contemporary Epitomator of the Campaigns of Alexander and Trajan (Before 340) 7.3.2. Roman Raids Across the Tigris (340ff.?) 7.3.3. A Persian City Was Captured By Constantius On One of His Forays Into Enemy Territory (c. 343) 7.3.4. The Battle of Singara (343 or 344) 7.3.5. Defeat and Flight of Constantius (Date Uncertain) 7.4.1. Capture of Singara By the Persians (Date Uncertain) 7.4.2. Constantius In Nisibis (May, 345) 7.4.3. The Foundation of Tella/Constantia (346? ) 7.4.4. The Foundation of Other Fortresses In Mesopotamia (Date Unknown) 7.4.5. The Second Siege of Nisibis (346) 7.5.1. Redemption of Prisoners By Bishop Babu of Nisibis (After 346) 7.5.2. Constantius In Edessa (c. 346) 7.5.3. Nocturnal Sally By Two Roman Units Based At Singara (348?) 7.5.4. Rebuilding of a Tower By the Dux Silvinianus (348) 7.5.5. The Third Siege of Nisibis (350) 7.5.6. Constantius At Edessa (After Jan. 350) 7.6.1. Strengthening of the Syrian Frontier By Constantius Prior to His Departure to the West (350) 7.6.2. Building Inscriptions from the Syrian-Arabian Frontier (350±353) 7.6.3. Importance of Antioch to the Persian Campaigns of Constantius 7.6.4. The Persian Mailed Cavalry (Cataphracts) As Described In Contemporary Fiction

8. Rome and Shapur II the Later Wars of Constantius II (353–360)

(A). Chronology and Analysis of the Sources (B). The Sources (In Alphabetical Order of Their Authors)

9. Rome and Shapur II the Persian Expedition of Julian (March-June, 363)

(A). Chronology and Analysis of the Sources (B). The Sources (In Alphabetical Order of Their Authors)

Appendix 1: Select Passages from Sources In Arabic and New Persian Appendix 2: Select Passages from Armenian Historians Appendix 3: Select Documents from Dura Europos

(1). From the Files of the XX Cohors Palmyrenorum (2). Documents In Middle Iranian

Appendix 4: Eastern Victories In Imperial Titulature. From Alexander Severus to Constantius II (222±361) Appendix 5: The Frontier Units According to the Notitia Dignitatum Notes

1. The Rise of the Sassanians 2. The Persian Expedition of Gordian III 3. The Second and Third Campaigns of Shapur I Against the Roman Empire 4. The Rise and Fall of Palmyra 5. From Probus to Diocletian 6. Rome and Shapur II: Shapur and Constantine 7. Rome and Shapur: The Early Wars of Constantius II 8. Rome and Shapur II: The Later Wars of Constantius II 9. Rome and Shapur II: The Persian Expedition of Julian Appendix 1 Appendix 2 Appendix 3 Appendix 4 Appendix 5

Glossary of Roman Military Terms Bibliography of Secondary Works

Postscript

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