Present Knowledge in Nutrition by MacDonald, Ian A., Erdman, John W., Zeisel, Steven H. -- Read -- Imperial Library of Trantor

Index

Cover DEDICATION Title page Copyright page List of Contributors Preface Acknowledgments 1 SYSTEMS BIOLOGY APPROACHES TO NUTRITION

Introduction Understanding the Systems Biology Approach The Power of Public Databases Future Directions

2 NUTRITIONAL EPIGENETICS

Introduction Epigenetic Mechanisms Nutritional Influences on Epigenetics Outstanding Questions in the Field Future Directions Acknowledgments

3 GENETIC VARIATION AND NUTRIENT METABOLISM

Introduction Dietary Fat Vitamin B12 Folate Choline Vitamin C Vitamin D Caffeine Future Directions

4 METABOLOMICS

Introduction Measuring the Metabolome Analytical Technologies Stability of the Human Metabolome Metabolomics as a Dietary Assessment Tool Epidemiological Scale Metabolomics Nutrimetabonomics and the Effects of Nutritional Challenges The Importance of the Gut Microbiota on Metabolic Profiles Future Directions

5 ENERGY METABOLISM IN FASTING, FED, EXERCISE, AND RE-FEEDING STATES

Introduction Energy Expenditure in the Fasting State Energy Expenditure in the Fed State Activity Energy Expenditure or Physical Activity Energy Expenditure Energy Requirements Energy Expenditure During Refeeding and Energy Imbalance Future Directions

6 PROTEIN AND AMINO ACIDS

Introduction The Currency of Protein Metabolism and Nutrition – Amino Acid Functions Nutritional Corollaries of the Amino Acids Postprandial Nitrogen and Amino Acid Utilization Intestinal Amino Acid Synthesis Nitrogen (Protein) Requirements Requirements for Indispensable Amino Acids Excessive Intakes of Protein and of Amino Acids Protein Malnutrition Conclusion Future Directions Acknowledgments

7 CARBOHYDRATES

Introduction Carbohydrates in the Food Supply Digestion and Absorption of Carbohydrates Metabolism of Carbohydrates Carbohydrate Requirements and Recommendations Carbohydrates in Chronic Disease Future Directions

8 DIETARY FIBER

Introduction The Definition, Composition, and Analysis of Dietary Fiber Physiological Effects of Dietary Fiber Dietary Fiber in the Management and Prevention of Disease Adverse Effects of Dietary Fiber Future Directions

9 LIPIDS: ABSORPTION AND TRANSPORT

Introduction Chemistry Digestion Absorption Transport and Metabolism Future Directions

10 LIPIDS: CELLULAR METABOLISM

Introduction Dietary Sources of Lipids Cellular Roles of Lipids Lipid Biosynthesis Eicosanoid Production and Regulation Dietary Requirements for Fatty Acids Dietary Fatty Acids and Disease Risk Future Directions Acknowledgments

11 VITAMIN A

Introduction Nomenclature and Chemical Properties Analytical Methods Intestinal Absorption of Preformed Vitamin A and Provitamin A Metabolism of Preformed Vitamin A and Provitamin A Physiology of Vitamin A: Functions and Actions Manifestations and Consequences of Vitamin A Deficiency and Variation in Vitamin A Nutriture Causes of Variation in Vitamin A Status and the Epidemiology of Vitamin A Deficiency Population Epidemiology of Hypovitaminosis A Nutrient Requirements and Recommended Intakes for Dietary Vitamin A Food Sources and Dietary Intakes of Vitamin A Diagnostic Assessment of Vitamin A Nutriture Vitamin A Interventions in Preventive Medicine and Public Health Vitamin A in Clinical Medicine and Therapeutics Uses for Retinoids Adverse and Toxic Consequences of Exposures to Vitamin A and Retinoids Systemic Toxicity of Vitamin A Future Directions

12 CAROTENOIDS

Introduction Bioavailability and Bioconversion Carotenoid Retinol Equivalents and Retinol Activity Equivalents Transport and Accumulation Factors Affecting Circulating Levels Toxicity and Deficiency Carotenoid-Cleavage Enzymes Health and Disease States Related to Carotenoids Future Directions

13 VITAMIN D

Introduction Chemistry of Vitamin D Physiology and Biochemistry of Vitamin D Disease States in Man Related to Vitamin D Nutritional Aspects of Vitamin D Vitamin D: Safety, Serum 25(OH)D Levels, and Toxicity Future Directions

14 VITAMIN E

Introduction Definitions, Structures, Antioxidant Activity Content of Foods Dietary Reference Intakes Biological Activities of the Tocopherols Deficiency Chronic Disease Protection and Public Health Implications Future Directions Acknowledgment

15 VITAMIN K

Introduction Chemistry and Nomenclature Absorption, Transport, Turnover, and Storage Biochemical and Physiological Function Vitamin K-dependent Proteins Vitamin K and Health Emerging Functions for Vitamin K Deficiency Requirements Sources and Dietary Intakes of Vitamin K Toxicity Future Directions

16 VITAMIN C

Introduction Chemistry and Metabolism Biochemical Functions Physiological Functions Deficient and Marginal Status Dietary Requirements Future Directions

17 THIAMIN

Introduction The Discovery of Vitamins: Thiamin and the Biochemical Lesion Chemical Properties of Thiamin and Thiamin Phosphate Derivatives Determination of Thiamin in Biological Samples and Food Preparations Nutritional Requirements and Toxicity Thiamin Transport and Homeostasis Tissue Content and Metabolism of Thiamin Phosphate Derivatives Cofactor Role of Thiamin Diphosphate Non-Cofactor Roles of Thiamin Phosphate Derivatives in Animals Diseases Specifically Related to Thiamin Deficiency Thiamin Precursors and Lipid-Soluble Thiamin Compounds Antithiamins Future Directions Acknowledgments

18 RIBOFLAVIN

Introduction Natural Flavins Flavocoenzyme Types and Functions Absorption, Transport, and Uptake Coenzyme Formations and Interconversions Catabolism, Excretion, and Secretion Status and Deficiency Future Directions

19 NIACIN

Introduction Niacin Structure and Nomenclature Assessment and Maintenance of Niacin Nutriture Physiological Functions of NAD NAD Metabolism NAD-utilizing Proteins Physiological Concentrations of NAD Precursors Niacin and Disease Future Directions

20 VITAMIN B6

Introduction Vitamin B6 Disposition and Metabolic Function Vitamin B6 Metabolism and Role as a Coenzyme Assessment of Vitamin B6 Nutritional Status Vitamin B6 in Health and Disease Future Directions

21 FOLATE

Introduction Chemistry and Sources Physiology and Metabolism Biochemical Functions Regulation of Cytosolic One-Carbon Metabolism Genetic Polymorphisms Severe Clinical Deficiency, Pregnancy Complications, Fetal Growth Drug and Alcohol Impairment of Folate Metabolism Recommended and Estimated Folate/Folic Acid Intakes in the US and the Impact of Fortification Analytical Methods Status Assessment Safety of Folic Acid Future Directions

22 VITAMIN B12

Introduction Structure of Vitamin B12 Vitamin B12-Dependent Enzyme Reactions L-Methylmalonyl CoA Mutase Methionine Synthase Metabolic Abnormalities in Vitamin B12 Deficiency Clinical Manifestations Causes of Vitamin B12 Deficiency Diagnosis Treatment of Vitamin B12 Deficiency Future Directions

23 BIOTIN

Introduction History Biosynthesis Catabolism of Biotin Biological Functions of Biotin Methods of Biotin Analysis Absorption, Transport Proteins, Storage, and Excretion Pharmacokinetics Biotin Status Biotin Deficiency Disorders of Biotin Metabolism Biotin–Drug Interactions Requirements and Recommended Intakes Intake and Food Sources Excess and Toxicity Future Directions Acknowledgments

24 PANTOTHENIC ACID

Introduction Chemistry and Nomenclature Intestinal Absorption, Cellular Uptake and Efflux, Plasma Transport, and Excretion Cellular Regulation and Functions Dietary Sources and Requirements Deficiency and Toxicity Status Determination Health Claims Future Directions Acknowledgment

25 L-CARNITINE

Introduction Carnitine in the Diet, Bioavailability, and Absorption Biosynthesis and Metabolism Requirements and Consequences of Deficiency Mechanisms of Action/Biological Activity Supplements: Infant Nutrition, Health Maintenance, Performance Enhancement, and Prevention or Retardation of Aging and Chronic Disease Therapeutic Use and Health Claims Future Directions

26 CHOLINE

Introduction Choline Metabolism Dietary Requirements for Choline Role of Choline in Normal Cell and Organ Function Choline in Human Health Future Directions Acknowledgments

27 DIETARY FLAVONOIDS

Introduction Classification and Distribution in Foods Absorption, Metabolism, and Excretion – Quantitative and Mechanistic Aspects Biological Effects of Flavonoids Direct Antioxidant Effects Effects in the Gut Lumen Effects in the Gut Lumen Related to Diabetes Systemic Effects Related to Cardiovascular Disease Systemic Effects Related to Inflammation Detoxification and Carcinogenesis Effect of Flavonoids on Neurodegenerative Diseases Future Directions

28 CALCIUM

Introduction Distribution Chemistry and Function Calcium Requirements Dietary Sources of Calcium Calcium Deficiency Calcium Supplementation Future Directions

29 PHOSPHORUS

Introduction Phosphorus in the Human Body Phosphorus in Foods Phosphorus Metabolism Recommended Dietary Intake of Phosphorus Phosphorus-Related Human Disease Future Directions

30 MAGNESIUM

Introduction Magnesium Concentration in the Body Chemistry and Functions Absorption and Homeostasis Magnesium Requirements Food Sources of Magnesium Magnesium Deficiency Effects of Deficiency Magnesium Supplementation Effects of Magnesium Excess Methods for Assessing Magnesium Status in Individuals Future Directions

31 SODIUM, CHLORIDE, AND POTASSIUM

Introduction Sodium Dietary Salt Potassium Future Directions

32 HUMAN WATER AND ELECTROLYTE BALANCE

Introduction Physiology of Water and Electrolyte Balance Consequences of Fluid Imbalance Illnesses and Disease Hydration Assessment Water and Electrolyte Needs Fluid Replacement Future Directions Acknowledgments

33 IRON

Introduction Functions of Iron Iron: Systemic Distribution and Turnover Iron Absorption: Gastrointestinal Mucosal Uptake and Transfer Iron Homeostasis: the Regulation of Iron Acquisition and Distribution Inborn Disorders of Iron Kinetics and Use Influence of Inflammation on Iron Kinetics Iron and the Infant Iron and Women in Their Reproductive Years Measuring Iron Status Dietary Sources of Iron Bioavailability of Iron Iron Intake Reference Values Iron Deficiency Iron Overload Public Health and Preventive Measures to Combat Iron Deficiency Future Directions

34 ZINC

Introduction Chemistry Metabolism Physiological (Biochemical) Function Zinc Deficiency Requirements, Recommended Dietary Allowance, Upper Limits, and Evaluation of Zinc Status Food and Other Sources of Zinc Excess and Toxicity Future Directions

35 COPPER

Introduction Biological Functions of Copper Copper Homeostasis Factors Affecting Copper Status Copper Requirement Copper Deficiency Copper Toxicity Assessment of Copper Status Future Directions Acknowledgment

36 IODINE AND IODINE DEFICIENCY DISORDERS

Introduction Ecology and Dietary Sources Absorption, Metabolism, and Excretion Physiologic Function and Deficiency Disorders Requirements and Status Assessment Prophylaxis and Treatment Excess and Toxicity Future Directions

37 SELENIUM

Introduction Dietary Selenium, Recommended Daily Allowance, and Assessment Diseases of Excess and Deficiency Metabolism Selenium and Human Health Selenoproteins Future Directions

38 MANGANESE, MOLYBDENUM, BORON, CHROMIUM, AND OTHER TRACE ELEMENTS

Introduction Essential Trace Elements Beneficial Bioactive Trace Elements Other Nutritionally Bioactive Trace Elements Other Elements Future Directions

39 MATERNAL NUTRIENT METABOLISM AND REQUIREMENTS IN PREGNANCY AND LACTATION

Introduction Changes in Maternal Physiology during Pregnancy Weight Gain During Pregnancy Metabolism and Recommended Intakes of Nutrients Other Nutrition-Related Conditions Physiology of Lactation Milk Composition Maternal Nutrient Requirements During Lactation Future Directions

40 INFANT NUTRITION

Introduction Dietary Reference Intakes of Specific Nutrients Feeding in the Second 6 Months of Life Human Milk vs. Artificial Formula Complementary Feeding Infant Formula vs. Bovine Milk Long-Chain Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids Future Directions Acknowledgments

41 ADOLESCENCE

Introduction Growth during Adolescence Nutritional Needs of Adolescents Nutritional Assessment Special Nutrition-related Issues Future Directions Acknowledgments

42 NUTRITION AND AGING

Introduction Effects of Aging on Nutritional Status Effects of Nutritional Deficiencies on the Older Population Future Directions

43 SPORTS NUTRITION

Introduction Goal 1: Eat Adequate Energy and Fuel to Cover Your Individual Needs, Tracking Changes in Needs over Different Times of the Sporting Year Goal 2: Achieve and Maintain a Physique That Is Associated with Good Performance Goal 3: Eat to Stay Healthy and Injury Free Goal 4: Understand the Physiological Limitations to Performance in an Event, and Eat Before and During the Event to Reduce or Delay the Onset of Such Fatigue Goal 5: Eat Strategically After Training and Competition Sessions to Recover Optimally Goal 6: Make Good Choices Regarding Specialized Sports Foods and Supplements Future Directions

44 NUTRIENT REGULATION OF THE IMMUNE RESPONSE

Introduction The Immune System Factors Influencing Immune Function Impact of Infection on Nutrient Status Why Should Nutrients Affect Immune Function? Assessment of the Effect of Nutrition on Immune Function Obesity and Immune Function Protein–Energy Malnutrition and Immune Function The Influence of Individual Micronutrients on Immune Function Dietary Fat and Immune Function Dietary Amino Acids and Immune Function Probiotics, Prebiotics and Immune Function Breastfeeding and Immune Function Other Considerations Future Directions

45 OBESITY AS A HEALTH RISK

Introduction Epidemiology of Obesity Childhood Obesity Etiology Co-Morbidities of Obesity Psychosocial Issues Mortality Obesity Prevention Future Directions

46 HYPERTENSION

Introduction Role of Adult Diet and Lifestyle in Influencing Blood Pressure An Integrated Dietary Approach to Prevent Hypertension Conclusions Future Directions

47 INSULIN RESISTANCE AND THE METABOLIC SYNDROME

Introduction Prevalence of the Metabolic Syndrome Normal Actions of Insulin Molecular Mechanisms of Insulin Resistance Techniques Used to Assess Insulin Action How Does Insulin Resistance Cause Cardiovascular Disease and Type 2 Diabetes? What Can We Do to Maximize Insulin Sensitivity? Diet and the Metabolic Syndrome Implications for Management Future Directions

48 ATHEROSCLEROTIC CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE

Introduction Pathophysiology of Atherosclerotic Cardiovascular Disease (CVD) Coronary Heart Disease, Stroke, and Peripheral Vascular Disease Risk Factors for Atherosclerosis Dietary Prevention and Treatment of Cardiovascular Disease Dietary Patterns for Prevention Functional Foods and Nutrition Labeling Terminology World Health Organization and Food and Agriculture Organization Summary on the Strength of the Evidence for Dietary and Lifestyle Factors for CVD Risk Major Co-Morbidities of Cardiovascular Disease Healthy Lifestyle Behaviors Diet and Lifestyle Interventions Complement Drug Therapy A Need for Population-Based Approaches Future Directions

49 DIABETES

Introduction Type 1 Diabetes (T1D) Gestational Diabetes (GDM) Type 2 Diabetes (T2D) Approaches to Reduce Complications of Chronic Disease Risk Factors in Type 1 and Type 2 Diabetes Micronutrients and Supplements Other Types of Diabetes Global Public Health Issues Future Directions

50 OSTEOPOROSIS

Introduction Definitions of Osteoporosis and Osteopenia Epidemiology of Osteoporosis Pathophysiology of Osteoporosis Experimental Animal Model and In Vitro Studies of Nutritional Factors Affecting Bone Studies of Nutritional Factors Affecting Bone of Older Adults Interpretation of Human Studies Future Directions

51 CANCER

Introduction Studying Nutrition and Cancer Physiological versus Pathological Conditions Sites of Action Current Recommendations Future Directions

52 NUTRITION AND GASTROINTESTINAL ILLNESS

Introduction Esophagus Small Intestine Pancreas Future Directions

53 KIDNEY DISEASE

Introduction Basic Kidney Physiology and Pathophysiology Protein-Energy Wasting: Prevalence, Mechanisms and Significance Other Nutritional Aberrations in CKD Nutritional Assessment in CKD Patients Treating Nutritional Deficiencies in CKD Patients Future Directions

54 LIVER DISEASE

Introduction Assessment and Prevalence of Malnutrition Causes of Malnutrition in Liver Disease Cytokine–Nutrient Interactions Nutrition Support Individual Nutrients and Complementary and Alternative Medicine Potential Nutritional Toxicities in Liver Disease: Vitamin, Electrolyte, and Mineral Supplementation Obesity and Non-Alcoholic Steatohepatitis Nutrition and Liver Transplantation Conclusions Future Directions

55 ALCOHOL: ITS ROLE IN NUTRITION AND HEALTH

Introduction Alcohol Metabolism The Nutritional Assessment of the Alcoholic Patient Alcohol and Nutrition Effects of Alcohol on Energy Metabolism Effects of Alcohol on Lipid Metabolism Alcohol and Carbohydrate Metabolism Effect of Alcohol on Fat-Soluble Vitamins Effects of Alcohol on Water-Soluble Vitamins Effects of Alcohol on Mineral and Trace Element Metabolism Alcohol and Mortality Alcohol and Cardiovascular Diseases Alcohol and Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus Alcohol and Hypertension Alcohol and Stroke Alcohol and Cognitive Function Alcohol and Liver Disease Alcohol and Cancer Alcohol and Bone and Muscle Fetal Alcohol Syndrome Outstanding Issues and Questions Future Directions

56 EYE DISEASE

Introduction Cataract Age-Related Macular Degeneration (AMD) Dietary Patterns, Cataracts, and AMD Retinitis Pigmentosa Beyond Eye Disease Future Directions

57 SPECIALIZED NUTRITION SUPPORT

Introduction Nutritional Assessment Nutrient Intake Goals Enteral Nutrition Support Parenteral Nutrition Support Future Directions

58 BODY COMPOSITION EVALUATION

Introduction Anthropometric Indices Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis Hydrodensitometry Air-Displacement Plethysmography Dual-Energy X-Ray Absorptiometry Magnetic Resonance Imaging Quantitative Magnetic Resonance Assessment of Body Composition in Disease States Future Directions

59 ESTIMATION OF DIETARY INTAKE

Introduction Dietary Assessment Methods Assessment of Specific Food Components and Dietary Supplements Variation and Error Assessment in Specific Situations Assessment in Specific Populations Equipment for Dietary Surveys Future Directions

60 TASTE AND FOOD CHOICES

Introduction Measuring Taste Responses The Taste Sensations Sensory Response to Fats Taste Preferences and Food Choices Neurobiology of Taste and Appetite Palatability and Satiety Food Preferences and Habitual Food Intake Economics of Food Choice Behavior Future Directions

61 ENERGY INTAKE, OBESITY, AND EATING BEHAVIOR

Introduction Nutritional Influences on Energy Intake, Obesity and Eating Behavior Non-Nutritional Influences on Energy Intake, Obesity, and Eating Behavior Psychological Influences on Energy Intake, Obesity, and Eating Behavior Physiological Influences on Energy Intake, Obesity, and Eating Behavior Future Directions

62 STRATEGIES FOR CHANGING EATING AND EXERCISE BEHAVIOR TO PROMOTE WEIGHT LOSS AND MAINTENANCE

Introduction History of Behavioral Weight Loss Programs Behavioral Strategies Changing Eating Behavior Changing Exercise Support for Healthy Eating and Exercise Behavior Media-Based Interventions for Weight Loss Maintenance of Initial Weight Loss Future Directions Acknowledgment

63 EPIDEMIOLOGIC APPROACHES TO EVALUATION OF NUTRITION AND HEALTH

Introduction Epidemiologic Study Designs Example of Diet and Disease Relationship Studied with Multiple Epidemiologic Study Designs Future Directions

64 NUTRITION MONITORING IN THE UNITED STATES

Introduction History and Recent Accomplishments/Activities Purposes and Uses of Nutrition Monitoring Data Today Nutrition Monitoring Components in the United States Future Directions Nutrition Monitoring in Other Countries Public Health Implications

65 DIETARY STANDARDS AND GUIDELINES: SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES AMONG COUNTRIES

Introduction Dietary Reference Intakes Examples of Dietary Reference Intakes for Nutrients from Various Countries Dietary Guidelines Future Directions

66 THE ROLE OF UNITED NATIONS AGENCIES IN ESTABLISHING INTERNATIONAL DIETARY STANDARDS

Introduction Recommended Nutrient Intakes Public Health Applications of Nutrient Recommendations Future Directions Acknowledgment

67 EMERGENCE OF DIET-RELATED CHRONIC DISEASES IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

Introduction The Major Global Forces Underlying Dietary Shifts: Globalization of Economic, Demographic, Social, and Technological Forces Biological Mismatch Major Global Dietary and Eating Behavior Shifts Global Obesity Dynamics The Double Burden of Under- and Overnutrition Hypertension, Diabetes, Cardiovascular Disease Mortality, and Cancers Future Directions

68 FOOD INSECURITY, HUNGER, AND UNDERNUTRITION

Introduction Food Insecurity and Hunger in Food-Rich Countries: The United States as a Case Example Food Insecurity and Hunger in Poor Countries Undernutrition Future Directions

69 PUBLIC NUTRITION IN HUMANITARIAN CRISES

Introduction Assessment and Analysis of Nutrition in Emergencies Addressing the General Nutritional Needs of Populations Reaching the Physiologically At-Risk Groups Preventing and Treating Micronutrient Deficiency Diseases Preventing and Treating Moderate Acute Malnutrition Treating Severe Acute Malnutrition Policy Development, Best Practices, and Capacity Development Future Directions Acknowledgment

70 FOODBORNE INFECTIONS AND FOOD SAFETY

Introduction Causative Agents Types of Illness Pathogenic Mechanisms Epidemiology Surveillance The Challenges of Special Populations New Infectious Agents Different Risks in Food Production Vaccine Prospects Prevention Future Directions

71 FOOD ALLERGIES AND INTOLERANCES

Introduction Classification IgE-Mediated Food Allergy Cell-Mediated Allergy Food Intolerances Future Directions

72 FOOD BIOFORTIFICATION: BREEDING AND BIOTECHNOLOGY APPROACHES TO IMPROVE NUTRIENTS IN VEGETABLES AND OIL QUALITY IN SOYBEAN

Introduction Biofortification of Crops with Essential Nutrients Biofortification of Crops with Phytonutrients Biotechnology-Derived Soybean Traits Future Directions Acknowledgments

73 BIOACTIVE COMPONENTS IN FOODS AND SUPPLEMENTS FOR HEALTH PROMOTION

Introduction Why Foods and Dietary Supplements? An Evidence-Based Approach to the Literature Dietary Modifiers and Biological Responses Population and Personalized Experimental Designs Molecular Targets Biomarkers and Long-Term Intervention Omega-3 Fatty Acids as an Example Future Directions

Index

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