Railway Management and Engineering by Profillidis, V.A. -- Read -- Imperial Library of Trantor

Index

Cover Page Dedication Title Page Copyright Page Contents Foreword Preface 1. Railways and Transport

1.1. Evolution of railways

1.1.1. Historical outline 1.1.2. The golden age of railways and recent technical innovations 1.1.3. Railways and other competing transportation means 1.1.4. Railways in the era of monopoly and competition

1.2. Characteristics of rail transport

1.2.1. Ability to transport high volumes 1.2.2. Energy consumption 1.2.3. Environmental impact and safety

1.3. Economic growth and railways 1.4. Increase of mobility and railways 1.5. Rail passenger traffic

1.5.1. Volumes of rail passenger traffic 1.5.2. Share of railways in the passenger market 1.5.3. Growth rates of rail passenger traffic 1.5.4. Distances with a comparative advantage for rail passenger traffic

1.6. Rail freight traffic

1.6.1. Volumes of rail freight traffic 1.6.2. Share of railways in the freight market 1.6.3. Growth rates of rail freight traffic

1.7. Railway traffic, length of lines, staff and productivity 1.8. Priority to passenger or freight traffic 1.9. Transportation services with good prospects for the railways

1.9.1. Comparative advantages of railways and high-speed trains 1.9.2. Urban rail services 1.9.3. Combined transport 1.9.4. Bulk loads 1.9.5. Rail freight transport and logistics

1.10. Rail and air transport: Competition or complementarity

1.10.1. Areas of competition and of complementarity 1.10.2. Rail links with airports 1.10.3. Rail connections of airports with other areas

1.11. International railway institutions 1.12. Rolling stock industries 1.13. Railway interoperability 1.14. Applications of GPS in railways

2. High Speeds and Magnetic Levitation

2.1. The evolution of high speeds on rails

2.1.1. Definition of high-speed trains and evolution of speed 2.1.2. Panorama of high-speed lines around the world 2.1.3. High speeds for only passenger or mixed traffic

2.2. High-speed trains and their impact on the rail market

2.2.1. High speeds and population concentrations 2.2.2. Impact of high speeds on the reduction of rail travel times 2.2.3. High speeds and new rail traffic

2.3. Technical features of high-speed railway lines

2.3.1. Technical characteristics of high-speed lines 2.3.2. Track characteristics for high speeds 2.3.3. Rolling stock for high speeds 2.3.4. Power supply at high speeds

2.4. The Channel Tunnel and high speeds between London and Paris

2.4.1. Technical description 2.4.2. Travel times 2.4.3. Method of financing and forecasts of demand 2.4.4. Operation, safety and maintenance

2.5. Tilting trains 2.6. Aerotrain 2.7. Magnetic levitation

2.7.1. Technical description 2.7.2. Comparison of magnetic levitation with conventional railways 2.7.3. Applications of magnetic levitation

3. Policy and Legislation

3.1. The competitive international environment and the evolution of the organization of railways 3.2. The dual nature of railways: business and technology

3.2.1. Weaknesses inherited to railways 3.2.2. Comparative advantages of railways 3.2.3. Strategy and restructuring measures 3.2.4. Railways and transport requirements

3.3. Globalization and liberalization of the rail market 3.4. Separation of infrastructure from operation and the new challenges for railways

3.4.1. Separation as an incentive for competition 3.4.2. Competition and new challenges for railways 3.4.3. Various forms of separation

3.5. A definition of railway infrastructure 3.6. European Union rail legislation 3.7. Some representative models of separation of infrastructure from operation in European railways

3.7.1. The Integrated model 3.7.2. The Semi-integrated model with apparent organic separation 3.7.3. The Holding model 3.7.4. The Separated model 3.7.5. The Separated model along with further separation in infrastructure 3.7.6. The Separated model along with privatization 3.7.7. Assessment of the various models

3.8. Rail legislation in the USA and Canada 3.9. Rail legislation in Japan 3.10. Rail legislation in China and India 3.11. Rail legislation in Australia and New Zealand

4. Forecast of Rail Demand

4.1. Purposes, needs and methods for the forecast of rail demand 4.2. Parameters affecting the various categories of rail demand

4.2.1. Parameters affecting rail demand globally (aggregate approach) 4.2.2. Effects on demand of the various parameters of rail transport

4.2.2.1. Passenger rail demand 4.2.2.2. Freight rail demand

4.3. Qualitative methods

4.3.1. Market surveys 4.3.2. Scenario writing method 4.3.3. Delphi method

4.4. Statistical projections

4.4.1. Theoretical background and conditions of applicability 4.4.2. Example of a statistical projection

4.5. Econometric models

4.5.1. Definition and domains of application 4.5.2. Statistical tests for the validity of an econometric model 4.5.3. Examples of some econometric models 4.5.4. Exogenous and endogenous variables in rail econometric models

4.6. Gravity models 4.7. Fuzzy models

4.7.1. Description of the fuzzy method 4.7.2. Example of a fuzzy model

4.8. Time-series models

4.8.1. Definition of time-series models – Approach of Box-Jenkins 4.8.2. The Least median of squares (LMS) method for the forecast of rail demand

4.9. Statistical evaluation of the forecasting ability of a model 4.10. A comparative analysis of performances of each method 4.11. Modelling of rail freight demand

5. Costs and Pricing

5.1. Definition of railway costs

5.1.1. Construction and operation costs 5.1.2. Fixed and variable costs 5.1.3. Marginal cost 5.1.4. External costs and marginal social cost 5.1.5. Generalized cost

5.2. Construction cost of a new railway line

5.2.1. Factors affecting rail construction cost 5.2.2. Construction costs for new high-speed lines 5.2.3. Allocation of costs to the various rail components 5.2.4. Construction costs of civil engineering works 5.2.5. Construction costs of track 5.2.6. Construction costs of electric traction 5.2.7. Construction costs of signaling

5.3. Maintenance and operation costs of infrastructure

5.3.1. Maintenance cost of infrastructure 5.3.2. Operation cost of infrastructure

5.4. Cost of purchase of rolling stock

5.4.1. Cost of high-speed rolling stock 5.4.2. Cost of ordinary passenger vehicles 5.4.3. Cost of freight vehicles 5.4.4. Cost of diesel locomotives 5.4.5. Cost of electric locomotives

5.5. Economic life of the various components of the railway system 5.6. Cost of operation of a railway company

5.6.1. Passenger transport 5.6.2. Freight transport 5.6.3. Combined transport

5.7. Quantification of external effects in monetary values 5.8. Pricing of infrastructure

5.8.1. Principles of infrastructure pricing 5.8.2. Objectives of infrastructure pricing 5.8.3. Financial consequences of infrastructure pricing 5.8.4. A commercial approach of infrastructure pricing 5.8.5. Theoretical and practical infrastructure pricing 5.8.6. Structure of infrastructure pricing

5.9. Infrastructure pricing models in some countries

5.9.1. Infrastructure pricing according to European Union legislation 5.9.2. France 5.9.3. Germany 5.9.4. United Kingdom 5.9.5. Sweden and Finland 5.9.6. Italy 5.9.7. Switzerland 5.9.8. Other countries 5.9.9. A comparison of rail infrastructure charges

5.10. Pricing of operation

5.10.1. Targets of pricing of operation 5.10.2. The traditional method of pricing 5.10.3. Effects of elasticities 5.10.4. Pricing and competition

5.11. Pricing of passenger traffic

5.11.1. The existence (or not) of public service obligations 5.11.2. The strategic dilemma: profit or increase of traffic 5.11.3. Pricing for rail operators without public service obligations 5.11.4. Yield management techniques 5.11.5. Complementary commercial measures to increase revenues

5.12. Pricing of freight traffic

6. Planning and Management of Railways

6.1. Railways and the social and economic environment

6.1.1. A systems approach for the railways 6.1.2. Railways and the social and economic environment

6.1.2.1. The social and economic environment 6.1.2.2. Strategic and tactical level of decisions 6.1.2.3. Separation in business units 6.1.2.4. Changes and requirements of the environment of railways

6.1.3. Quality control

6.2. Competition and impact on railway management 6.3. Feasibility studies and methods of financing

6.3.1. Need for evaluation of any rail project 6.3.2. Benefits and costs from new railway infrastructure 6.3.3. Evaluation methods for rail projects 6.3.4. Methods of financing a new rail project 6.3.5. Public-Private Partnerships

6.4. Planning the railway activity

6.4.1. Need and purposes of planning 6.4.2. Master Plans and Business Plans 6.4.3. A brief description of a Business Plan of a railway undertaking

6.5. Project management for railways

6.5.1. Definition of project management 6.5.2. Scope, benefits and costs of project management 6.5.3. Some rail projects that could require project management 6.5.4. A description of tasks of project management for railways

6.6. Management of infrastructure

6.6.1. Tasks and objectives for rail infrastructure 6.6.2. A new management approach 6.6.3. The issue of outsourcing 6.6.4. The need for an homogeneous rail product at the world level

6.7. Management and policy for rail passenger transport

6.7.1. Tasks and objectives for rail passenger transport 6.7.2. A segmentation of traffic 6.7.3. A new strategy combining competition, cooperation and alliances 6.7.4. Traditional weaknesses and offer of a new global product of railways 6.7.5. Application of informatics technologies (internet, SMS) 6.7.6. Marketing – Customer satisfaction surveys – Creation of a new culture

6.8. Management and policy for rail freight transport

6.8.1. Tasks and objectives of rail freight transport 6.8.2. A merciless competition 6.8.3. Integration of rail freight in the logistics chain

6.9. Human resources and their revalorization

6.9.1. The need for a more entrepreneurial approach 6.9.2. Allocation of human resources 6.9.3. The art of motivating people to work 6.9.4. Increase of productivity 6.9.5. Restructuring and revalorization of human resources

6.10. Privatization of railways

6.10.1. Prerequisites and targets of privatization 6.10.2. Privatization and competition 6.10.3. The problem of debt 6.10.4. The need for a strong Regulator 6.10.5. Privatization of infrastructure 6.10.6. Privatization of operation 6.10.7. Some cases of privatization of railways all over the world 6.10.8. Effects and degree of privatization

6.11. Justification and calculation of public service obligations

7. The Track System

7.1. The traditional division of railway topics into track, traction and operation 7.2. The track system and its components 7.3. Track on ballast or on concrete slab 7.4. Track gauge 7.5. Axle load and traffic load

7.5.1. Axle load 7.5.2. Traffic load

7.6. Sleeper spacing 7.7. The wheel-rail contact 7.8. Transverse wheel oscillations along the rail 7.9. Rail inclination on sleeper 7.10. Loading gauge

7.10.1. Static and dynamic loading gauge 7.10.2. European, British and American loading gauge 7.10.3. Loading gauge for high-speed tracks 7.10.4. Loading gauge for metro systems 7.10.5. Loading gauge for metric gauge tracks

7.11. Forces generated by the movement of a rail vehicle – Static and dynamic analysis

7.11.1. Forces generated 7.11.2. Static and dynamic analysis-Track defects and additional dynamic loads

7.12. Influence of forces on passenger comfort

8. Mechanical Behavior of Track

8.1. A variety of methods adjusted to the nature of the problem under study 8.2. Track coefficients and Bousinesq’s analysis

8.2.1. Definitions – Symbols 8.2.2. Track coefficients 8.2.3. Track coefficients and Bousinesq’s analysis

8.3. Approximate uni-directional elastic analysis of vertical effects

8.3.1. Assumptions and formulas 8.3.2. Results of the method

8.4. Accurate analysis of the mechanical behavior of track – Finite element method and elastoplastic analysis

8.4.1. A short description of applications of the finite element method in track problems 8.4.2. Construction of the mesh of the model 8.4.3. Limit conditions 8.4.4. Stress-strain relationship

8.4.4.1. Case of ballast and subgrade 8.4.4.2. Case of rail and sleeper

8.4.5. Numerical calculations 8.4.6. Determination of the mechanical characteristics of the various materials 8.4.7. Stress and strain in the track-subgrade system 8.4.8. Distribution of wheel load along successive sleepers 8.4.9. Elastic line of sleeper

8.5. Dynamic analysis of the track-subgrade system 8.6. Track defects and additional dynamic loads 8.7. Dynamic impact factor coefficient 8.8. Design of the track-subgrade system 8.9. Vibrations and noise from rail traffic

8.9.1. Origins of rail vibrations 8.9.2. Relation of rail noise level to speed 8.9.3. Damping of rail noise in relation to distance 8.9.4. Noise level in relation to infrastructure type 8.9.5. Noise levels in high speeds 8.9.6. Noise level standards

8.10. Analysis of the accurate mechanical behavior of rail 8.11. Application of unilateral contact theories in railway problems

8.11.1. Transmission of forces through contact surfaces 8.11.2. Unilateral contact theories 8.11.3. Equations of the unilateral contact problem 8.11.4. Numerical calculations

9. Subgrade – Geotechnical and Hydrogeological Analysis

9.1. The importance of the railway subgrade on track quality and its functions 9.2. Analytical geotechnical study

9.2.1. Targets of a geotechnical study and soil investigation 9.2.2. Preliminary studies 9.2.3. Techniques and methods of exploration used in a geotechnical study 9.2.4. Planning the exploration program 9.2.5. Geotechnical report and longitudinal section

9.3. Geotechnical classifications of soils 9.4. Hydrogeological conditions 9.5. Classification of the railway subgrade 9.6. Mechanical characteristics of the subgrade 9.7. The formation layer

9.7.1. Laying of formation layer in new tracks 9.7.2. Improvement of formation layer in existing tracks

9.8. Impact of traffic load on the subgrade 9.9. Impact of maintenance conditions on the subgrade

9.9.1. The maintenance coefficient 9.9.2. Impact of the maintenance coefficient on the behavior of track bed and the subgrade 9.9.3. Impact of the maintenance coefficient on subgrade stresses

9.10. Fatigue behavior of the subgrade 9.11. Frost protection of railway subgrades

9.11.1. Frost index 9.11.2. Frost foundation thickness 9.11.3. Frost protection methods on existing tracks

9.12. Track subgrade in cuts and on embankments – Values of slopes

9.12.1. Subgrade in cut sections 9.12.2. Subgrade on embankment sections

9.13. The reinforced soil technique 9.14. Hydraulic analysis and calculation of flows

9.14.1. Level of ground water 9.14.2. Semi-empirical formulas for the calculation of run-off flows 9.14.3. The rational method for the calculation of run-off flows

9.15. Geotextiles in railway subgrades

9.15.1. Characteristics, types and properties of geotextiles 9.15.2. Use and applications of geotextiles in the railway subgrade

9.16. Vegetation on the subgrade and the ballast

9.16.1. Vegetation on the track and herbicides 9.16.2. Criteria and dosage for application of herbicides

9.17. Earthquakes and the behavior of track and the subgrade

10. The Rail

10.1. Rail profiles 10.2. Manufacturing of rail steel 10.3. Mechanical strength and chemical composition of rail steel

10.3.1. Mechanical strength 10.3.2. Chemical composition

10.3.2.1. Carbon 10.3.2.2. Manganese 10.3.2.3. Chromium and Silicon 10.3.2.4. Chromium – Manganese 10.3.2.5. Equivalent carbon percentage

10.3.3. Rail grades

10.3.3.1. Rail grades according to UIC 10.3.3.2. Rail grades according to European standard 10.3.3.3. Choice of rail grade

10.4. Choice of rail profile

10.4.1. Standard gauge tracks 10.4.2. Metric gauge tracks 10.4.3. Broad gauge tracks 10.4.4. Geometrical characteristics of various rail profiles

10.5. Transport of rails 10.6. Analysis of stresses in the rail

10.6.1. Stresses at wheel-rail contact 10.6.2. Bending stresses of the rail on the ballast 10.6.3. Bending stresses of the rail head on the rail web 10.6.4. Stresses caused by temperature changes 10.6.5. Plastic stresses

10.7. Analysis of the mechanical behavior of rail by the finite element and the photoelasticity methods 10.8. Rail fatigue

10.8.1. Fatigue curve and rail lifetime determination 10.8.2. Rail fatigue criterion 10.8.3. Evolution of an internal discontinuity

10.9. Rail defects

10.9.1. Definition of rail defects 10.9.2. Codification of rail defects 10.9.3. Defects in rail ends

10.9.3.1. Longitudinal vertical cracking

10.9.4. Defects away from rail ends

10.9.4.1. Tache ovale 10.9.4.2. Horizontal cracking 10.9.4.3. Rolling (running) surface disintegration 10.9.4.4. Short-pitch corrugations 10.9.4.5. Long-pitch corrugations 10.9.4.6. Lateral wear 10.9.4.7. Shelling of the running surface 10.9.4.8. Gauge-corner shelling

10.9.5. Defects caused by rail damage

10.9.5.1. Bruising 10.9.5.2. Faulty machining

10.9.6. Welding and resurfacing defects

10.9.6.1. Electric flash-butt welding 10.9.6.2. Thermit welding and electric arc welding defects

10.10. Permissible rail wear

10.10.1. Vertical wear 10.10.2. Lateral wear

10.11. Optimum lifetime of rail 10.12. Fishplates 10.13. The continuous welded rail

10.13.1. The continuous welding technique 10.13.2. Mechanical behavior of continuous welded rail

10.13.2.1. Assumptions 10.13.2.2. Simplified mechanical analysis of continuous welded rail 10.13.2.3. Distribution of forces along a continuous welded rail 10.13.2.4. Length changes in the expansion zone 10.13.2.5. Rail welding

10.13.2.5.1. Flash-butt welding 10.13.2.5.2. Thermit welding 10.13.2.5.3. Electric arc welding

10.13.2.6. Distressing of a continuous welded rail

10.13.3. Expansion devices 10.13.4. Advantages of the continuous welded rail

11. Sleepers – Fastenings

11.1. The various types of sleepers and their functions 11.2. Steel sleepers

11.2.1. Form and properties 11.2.2. Dimensions, weight and chemical composition 11.2.3. Advantages and disadvantages 11.2.4. Lifetime

11.3. Timber sleepers

11.3.1. Form, properties and timber types 11.3.2. Geometrical characteristics 11.3.3. Advantages and disadvantages 11.3.4. Lifetime 11.3.5. Deformability of timber sleepers

11.4. Concrete sleepers

11.4.1. Inherent weaknesses of concrete sleepers 11.4.2. The two types of concrete sleepers

11.5. The twin-block reinforced-concrete sleeper

11.5.1. Geometrical characteristics and mechanical strength 11.5.2. Advantages and disadvantages 11.5.3. Lifetime 11.5.4. Deformability of twin-block sleepers

11.6. The monoblock prestressed-concrete sleeper

11.6.1. Geometrical characteristics and mechanical strength 11.6.2. Advantages and disadvantages 11.6.3. Lifetime 11.6.4. Deformability of monoblock sleepers 11.6.5. Monoblock sleepers in high-speed tracks

11.7. Manufacturing, quality control and testing of concrete sleepers 11.8. Stresses developing beneath the sleeper 11.9. Fastenings

11.9.1. Functional characteristics 11.9.2. Types of fastenings

11.9.2.1. Rigid fastenings 11.9.2.2. Elastic fastenings 11.9.2.3. Types of elastic fastenings 11.9.2.4. Operating principles of elastic fastenings

11.9.3. Forces and stresses in rigid and in elastic fastenings 11.9.4. Design criteria, anchorage and insulation of a fastening 11.9.5. Rail creep and anti-creep anchors

11.10. Resilient pads

11.10.1. Pads with or without a baseplate 11.10.2. Functions and properties of pads 11.10.3. Dimensions, materials and design 11.10.4. Force-elongation curves

11.11. Requirements of the European specifications for the sleeper-fastening system 11.12. Numerical application for the design of the various track components

12. Ballast

12.1. Functions of ballast and subballast

12.1.1. Functions of ballast 12.1.2. Functions of subballast

12.2. Geometrical characteristics of ballast

12.2.1. Granulometric composition 12.2.2. Fine particles 12.2.3. Fines 12.2.4. Particle shape

12.2.4.1. Flakiness index 12.2.4.2. Shape index 12.2.4.3. Particle length

12.3. Mechanical behavior of ballast and subballast

12.3.1. Elastoplastic behavior 12.3.2. Fatigue behavior

12.3.2.1. Ballast 12.3.2.2. Subballast

12.3.3. Modulus of elasticity

12.3.3.1. Ballast 12.3.3.2. Subballast

12.4. Ballast hardness

12.4.1. The Deval test 12.4.2. The Los Angeles test 12.4.3. The Microdeval test 12.4.4. Required strength and hardness of ballast

12.5. Determination of the appropriate thickness of ballast

12.5.1. Determination of the appropriate thickness of track bed 12.5.2. Required thickness of track bed (ballast + subballast) to avoid frost penetration 12.5.3. Thickness of ballast and subballast 12.5.4. Calculation of thickness of ballast according to the British regulations 12.5.5. Numerical application 12.5.6. Appropriate thickness of ballast for metric gauge tracks

12.6. Track cross-sections 12.7. Lifetime and re-use of ballast

13. Transverse Effects – Derailment

13.1. Transverse effects 13.2. Transverse track forces

13.2.1. Transverse static force 13.2.2. Transverse dynamic force

13.3. Transverse track resistance 13.4. Influence of ballast characteristics on transverse track resistance

13.4.1. Influence of the geometrical characteristics of the ballast cross-section 13.4.2. Influence of the granulometric composition of ballast 13.4.3. Influence of the degree of ballast compacting

13.5. Influence of sleeper type on transverse track resistance 13.6. Additional measures and special equipment used to increase transverse track resistance 13.7. Derailment

13.7.1. Derailment caused by track shifting 13.7.2. Derailment caused by wheel climbing on the rail 13.7.3. Derailment caused by the overturning of the vehicle 13.7.4. Derailment safety factor – Numerical application

13.8. Effects of transverse winds

14. Track Layout

14.1. Rail vehicle running on a curve

14.1.1. Effects during movement of a rail vehicle on a curve 14.1.2. Transition curve – Cubic parabola or clothoid

14.2. Theoretical and actual values of cant – Permissible values of transverse acceleration

14.2.1. Theoretical value of cant for complete compensation of centrifugal forces 14.2.2. Applied value of cant, cant deficiency and cant excess 14.2.3. Cant deficiency and tilting trains 14.2.4. Permissible values of transverse acceleration 14.2.5. Variation in time of cant deficiency

14.3. Limit values of cant, cant deficiency, cant excess and non- compensated transverse acceleration

14.3.1. Limit values according to UIC 14.3.2. Limit values according to European specifications 14.3.3. Geometrical characteristics of layout in some high-speed tracks

14.4. Calculation of the transition curve 14.5. Calculation of the circular arc 14.6. Case of consecutive same sense and antisense circular arcs 14.7. Superelevation ramp 14.8. Combining maximum and minimum speeds 14.9. Relationship of train speed with radius of curvature 14.10. Transition curves in the case of variation of the distance between the axes of two tracks 14.11. Longitudinal gradients and vertical transition curves

14.11.1. Longitudinal gradients 14.11.2. Vertical transition curves

14.12. Some considerations for metric gauge tracks 14.13. Layout design with the use of tables and computer methods 14.14. Construction of a new railway line

14.14.1. Feasibility study 14.14.2. Preliminary design 14.14.3. Outline design 14.14.4. Final design 14.14.5. Staking of the track layout

14.15. Environmental aspects of track layout

15. Switches and Crossings

15.1. Functions of switches and crossings 15.2. Components of a turnout 15.3. Various forms of turnouts 15.4. Running speed on turnouts 15.5. Geometrical characteristics of turnouts 15.6. Derailment criterion for switches and crossings 15.7. Turnouts on a curved main track 15.8. Turnouts run with increased speeds 15.9. Sleeper and track layout in turnouts and crossings 15.10. Manual and automatic operation of turnouts 15.11. Design principles for switches and crossings

16. Laying and Maintenance of Track

16.1. Laying of track

16.1.1. Mechanical equipment 16.1.2. Sequence of construction of the various track works

16.2. Track maintenance and parameters influencing it 16.3. Definitions and parameters associated with track defects 16.4. Track defects

16.4.1. Longitudinal defect 16.4.2. Transverse defect 16.4.3. Horizontal defect 16.4.4. Track gauge 16.4.5. Track twist

16.5. Recording methods of track defects 16.6. Limit values of track defects

16.6.1. Limit values for high-, rapid- and medium-speed tracks 16.6.2. Limit values for medium- and low-speed tracks 16.6.3. Acceptance values 16.6.4. Emergency values 16.6.5. Limit values according to European specifications

16.7. Progress of track defects

16.7.1. Longitudinal defect

16.7.1.1. Mean settlement of track 16.7.1.2. Standard deviation of longitudinal defects 16.7.1.3. Interval between maintenance sessions

16.7.2. Transverse defect 16.7.3. Horizontal defect 16.7.4. Gauge deviations 16.7.5. Track twist

16.8. Mechanical equipment for maintenance works 16.9. Scheduling of maintenance operations 16.10. Technical considerations for track maintenance works 16.11. Optimization of maintenance expenses 16.12. Track maintenance, vegetation and weed control

17. Slab Track

17.1. The dilemma between ballasted and non-ballasted track

17.1.1. Advantages and weaknesses of ballasted track 17.1.2. The non-ballasted track 17.1.3. First trials, tests and evolution of slab track techniques

17.2. Mechanical behavior of slab track

17.2.1. Simulation of slab track 17.2.2. Stresses and settlements in the case of slab track

17.3. A variety of forms of non-ballasted track 17.4. Slab track with sleepers

17.4.1. The Rheda technique 17.4.2. The Züblin technique 17.4.3. The Stedef technique

17.5. Slab track without sleepers 17.6. Non-ballasted track on an asphalt layer 17.7. Transition between ballasted and slab track 17.8. Costs of slab track

18. Train Dynamics

18.1. Train traction 18.2. Resistances acting during train motion 18.3. Running resistance RL

18.3.1. General equation for the running resistance 18.3.2. Empirical formulas of some railways for the running resistance

18.3.2.1. Formulas of the French railways

18.3.2.1.1. Diesel or electric locomotives 18.3.2.1.2. Hauled rolling stock 18.3.2.1.3. Electric passenger vehicles

18.3.2.2. Formula of the American railways 18.3.2.3. Formulas of the German railways 18.3.2.4. Formulas for broad and metric gauge railways

18.3.3. Resistances developed when running in a tunnel

18.3.3.1. Pressure problems 18.3.3.2. Increased aerodynamic resistances in tunnels 18.3.3.3. Crossing of trains 18.3.3.4. Tunnel cross-section requirements at high speeds

18.3.4. Comparative running resistance between railways and road vehicles

18.4. Resistance Rc due to track curves 18.5. Resistance Rg caused by gravity 18.6. Inertial (acceleration) resistance Rin 18.7. Starting force and traction force of a train 18.8. Adhesion forces 18.9. Required train power 18.10. Values of train acceleration and deceleration 18.11. Train braking

18.11.1. Braking systems 18.11.2. Braking distance 18.11.3. European specifications concerning braking

19. Rolling Stock

19.1. Components of rail vehicle 19.2. Wheels

19.2.1. Geometrical characteristics and materials 19.2.2. Wheel defects and reprofiling 19.2.3. Life cycle of a wheel

19.3. Axles 19.4. Bogies

19.4.1. Definition and functions of a bogie 19.4.2. Forms of bogies 19.4.3. Components of a bogie 19.4.4. Self-steering bogie

19.5. Springs 19.6. Couplings and buffers 19.7. Design of rolling stock 19.8. Localization of the position of a rail vehicle with the use of GPS 19.9. Tilting trains

19.9.1. Needs which gave rise to the tilting technology 19.9.2. Tilting technology 19.9.3. Technical and operational characteristics of tilting trains 19.9.4. Reductions in travel times by tilting trains 19.9.5. Cost of tilting trains

20. Diesel and Electric Traction

20.1. The various traction systems 20.2. Steam traction

20.2.1. Operating principle of the steam engine 20.2.2. Main parts of a steam locomotive 20.2.3. Disadvantages and abandonment of the steam locomotive

20.3. From steam traction to diesel traction and electric traction

20.3.1. From steam traction to diesel traction 20.3.2. From steam traction to electric traction 20.3.3. Gas turbine locomotives

20.4. Diesel traction

20.4.1. Operating principle of the diesel engine 20.4.2. Transmission systems 20.4.3. Requirements of diesel locomotives 20.4.4. Advantages and disadvantages of diesel traction

20.5. Electric traction and its subsystems

20.5.1. Power supply subsystem 20.5.2. Traction subsystem 20.5.3. Requirements and priorities

20.6. Electric traction systems

20.6.1. Direct current traction 20.6.2. Alternating current traction

20.6.2.1. Alternating current traction at 15,000 V, 16⅔ Hz 20.6.2.2. Alternating current traction at 25,000 V, 50 Hz

20.6.3. Advantages and disadvantages of electric traction compared to diesel traction

20.7. Feasibility analysis before electrification

20.7.1. Feasibility analysis parameters and procedure 20.7.2. Criterion for selection of the lines to be electrified

20.8. Overhead contact system

20.8.1. Parts and components of the overhead contact system 20.8.2. Calculation of the characteristics of the contact wire with the use of physical models 20.8.3. Calculation of the contact wire with the use of the finite element method 20.8.4. Suspension of overhead contact systems 20.8.5. The pantograph 20.8.6. Power transmission by conductor rail 20.8.7. Electrical and power characteristics of some high-speed tracks

20.9. Overhead line supporting poles

20.9.1. Pole material 20.9.2. Pole spacing 20.9.3. Pole foundation

20.10. Substations

20.10.1. Substations feeding direct current systems 20.10.2. Substations feeding alternating current systems 20.10.3. From thyristors to ‘gate turn off’ technology 20.10.4. Operating control center 20.10.5. Interference of electric traction with telecommunication and signaling systems

20.11. Synchronous and asynchronous motors 20.12. Electric locomotives maintenance – Depot

21. Signaling — Safety — Interoperability

21.1. Functions of signaling

21.1.1. Evolution of signaling 21.1.2. Braking distance and signaling requirements 21.1.3. Traffic safety and regularity 21.1.4. The regulatory framework 21.1.5. Basic signaling functions

21.2. Semaphore signaling

21.2.1. Visual and audible signals 21.2.2. Colors used in signals 21.2.3. Types of signals

21.3. Operating principles of light signaling – The track circuit

21.3.1. Definition of light signaling 21.3.2. The track circuit

21.3.2.1. Definition 21.3.2.2. Operating principle of the track circuit 21.3.2.3. The block section 21.3.2.4. Types of track circuits 21.3.2.5. Track circuit relay

21.4. Equipment and parts of a light signaling system

21.4.1. Light signals 21.4.2. Switch control devices 21.4.3. Train integrity detectors 21.4.4. Approach locking detectors 21.4.5. Local operating and display board 21.4.6. Remote monitoring and control

21.4.6.1. Operating principles 21.4.6.2. Equipment 21.4.6.3. Remote monitoring – Control of traffic safety

21.4.7. Power supply equipment

21.5. Train running procedure in a light signaling system

21.5.1. Route interlock 21.5.2. Single track interlock 21.5.3. Approach interlock 21.5.4. Interlocking of opposite schedules 21.5.5. Free way interlocking 21.5.6. Light signal interlocking 21.5.7. Compatible and incompatible schedules

21.6. Speed control

21.6.1. The various speed control systems

21.6.1.1. Automatic control and driver functions 21.6.1.2. Intermittent speed control 21.6.1.3. Continuous speed control 21.6.1.4. Speed control and interoperability

21.6.2. Technical characteristics of train speed control systems

21.6.2.1. Electromechanical control 21.6.2.2. Track-locomotive continuous communication system

21.7. Train scheduling 21.8. Calculation of the capacity of a track 21.9. Interoperability

21.9.1. Definition 21.9.2. Interoperability of track gauges 21.9.3. Interoperability of power systems 21.9.4. The European Rail Traffic Management System (ERTMS)

21.10. Safety measures at level crossings 21.11. Managing railway safety

22. Environmental Effects of Railways

22.1. Climate change, the transport sector and sustainable development

22.1.1. Climate change 22.1.2. Sustainable development 22.1.3. Transport and the environment

22.2. Air pollution and railways

22.2.1. Air pollutants from railways and other transport modes 22.2.2. The greenhouse effect and CO2 emissions from railways and other transport modes 22.2.3. CO2 emissions by the various types of trains 22.2.4. Carbon tax, internalization of external costs and railways

22.3. Railway noise

22.3.1. Sources and damping of railway noise 22.3.2. Noise indicators and maximum permitted level of rail noise 22.3.3. Measures for reduction of rail noise and related costs

22.4. Energy consumption and railways

22.4.1. Energy consumption and the transport sector 22.4.2. Energy consumption within the transport sector 22.4.3. Energy consumption for diesel and electric traction 22.4.4. Specific energy consumption of railways and other transport modes

22.5. Energy consumed in railways for comfort functions 22.6. Accidents, safety and railways

22.6.1. Definition of railway accidents 22.6.2. Types of railway accidents 22.6.3. Causes of railway accidents 22.6.4. Measures to increase railway safety 22.6.5. Evolution in the number of railway accidents 22.6.6. Accidents when transporting hazardous materials 22.6.7. Railway accidents and safety certification

22.7. Land occupancy, landscape 22.8. Congestion

List of References Abbreviations Index

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