Index

Note: Page numbers followed by f indicate figures and t indicate tables.

A

Active asteroids  219

Aeolian process  19, 20f

Age of rock sample 

cosmic ray exposure age  56–57, 57f

fission track dating  55

maturity indices  57–59

radiometric dating 

⁴⁰Ar/³⁹Ar dating  53–55, 54f

choosing  49–50

derivation  48–49

diffusion  50

isochrons  50–51, 51f

K-Ar  53–55

Rb-Sr dating  51–52, 52f

Sm-Nd system  55

U, Th-Pb system  55, 56f

Age of rocky surfaces, impact craters  59–67

crater counting  61–62

production function  59–61

programs  66–67

secondary craters  63–66

Ahuna Mons  237–239, 238f

AIDA  See Asteroid Impact and Deflection Assessment (AIDA)

Air  9

Airless bodies  1, 2f, 5

aeolian process  19, 20f

electromagnetic process  19

fluvial process  19–20

history of exploration 

asteroids  31

Mercury  30–31, 31f

Moon  28–29, 29f

Phobos and Deimos  30

ice and volatiles  22–25

impact craters  10

instruments  91t

paradigms 

asteroids  42–44

Mercury  37–40

Moon  33–37

Phobos and Deimos  40–41

solar system  32–33

regolith  18 See also Regolith

resurfacing  21–22

solar wind interactions  180, 181f

space weathering process  15–17, 17f, 19

techniques  See Spectral techniques

temperature  10–14

volatile  See Volatile

volcanism  20–21, 21f

Airless body process 

Ahuna Mons  237–239, 238f

asteroid families  229–230

faculae on Ceres  238–239, 239–240f

grooves  247–250, 248f

irregular mare patches  235–237

lunar swirls  239–242

Phobos and Deimos, dust from  230–231

pits  242–243

chains  245–247

craters  244–245

tides and temperatures  232–234

transient lunar phenomena  231–232

Vesta  234–235

Albedo  73

Almahatta Sitta  43–44

Alpha-Proton X-ray Spectrometer (APXS)  260–261

Angle of repose, regolith  171–172

Angrites  103

Apollo mission  104

Apollo program  33

Apollo samples  122

Archimedes crater  122

Argon-argon (⁴⁰Ar/³⁹Ar) dating  53–55, 54f

Asteroid  7–8

boulder population on  153, 154f

Ceres and  5

effects on  16, 17f

exploration of  31

families  229–230

levitation on  183

paradigms  42–44

robotic mission 

AIDA  265

DESTINY+ mission  265

funding  264–265

MARS  265–266

operation  263–264

taxonomy  112, 113t

vis-viva equation  189–191

volatiles  205–206, 219–221

Asteroid Impact and Deflection Assessment (AIDA)  265

Asteroid radar  88

Asteroid regolith ponds  177–179

Asteroid spectral survey  110–115, 111f

Astronomical Unit (AU)  188

Atmospheres  5

substantial  9

Aubrites  103

B

Band centers  78

Barycenter  187–188

Basalts and brecciated basalts  105

Basins  147

Bennu  263

BepiColombo mission  3, 260, 261f

Black chondrites  132

Bond albedo  73

Boulders  67–69

abundance  67

block size-frequency distribution  67, 69f

defined  67

measurements and techniques  67–69

properties  68t

regolith  152–153

size-frequency distribution  67, 69

Brazil Nut Effect (BNE)  176–177

Brecciated anorthosites  105

Bulk density  99–100

Bus-DeMeo taxonomy  110–112, 131–132

Bus taxonomy  110

C

Camera modes  109–110

Carbon dioxide snow line  202

Cataclysm  36

Cat Mountain meteorite  105, 106t

C chondrites  102–103

C-complex asteroids  111, 129, 219

Central pit craters  245

Cerealia  238

Ceres 

and asteroids  5

densities of  100

density  24

faculae on  238–239, 239–240f

regolith  174

and Vesta  149

volatile on  217–218

Chandrayaan-1 

orbiter  1

spacecraft  33–35

Chandrayaan-2  258

Chang’E series  1, 33–34, 257–258

Charge-coupled devices (CCDs)  74–75

Chelyabinsk, dark portion of  131–132

Chinese asteroid mission  265–266

Chinese space agency  259–260

Chips off of Vesta  114–115

Chondrites  102

Chondritic interplanetary dust particles  107

Christiansen features  77, 130

Citizen science projects  271

Citizen scientists  270–271

Clementine  34

Cliffs, regolith  172

Closure temperature  50

Cohesion  43–44

regolith and dust  166–167

Cold trapping  24, 199–200, 206–208

Collapse craters  242–243

Color index  86

Comets lunar swirls  242

Comets, volatile  205–206

Complex craters  149, 150f

Compositional analyses, rocky surfaces  See Rocky surfaces

Continuous ejecta blanket  147

Copernicus  116

Cosmic Ray Exposure (CRE) age  56–57, 57f

Cosmic Vision  256

Cracks  159–160

Crater counting  61–62

Craters 

formation  145–147, 146f

impact  See Impact craters

interpreting  97–98

Crater statistics programs  66–67

Creep, regolith  169–171

Crossover region  77

Cumulative plot  62, 63f

D

DART  See Double Asteroid Redirection Test (DART)

Data collection  47–48

Data mining  270

Data processing  270–271

Data storage  270

Dating surfaces, space weathering  134–136

Dawn (Vesta/Ceres)  1–2

Dawn GRaND instrument  217–218

Dawn spacecraft  264

D-class asteroid spectra  112

Debris curtain  168

Decadal survey process  256

Deep Space Gateway  266

Deimos  3

asteroid taxonomies  112

dust from  230–231

exploration of  30

paradigms  40–41

robotic mission  261–262

volatile  221–222

Delay-Doppler space  88

Delta-v  190–191

Depth and retention, regolith  160–162

DESTINY+ mission  265

Detection, volatile  206

Didymos system  265

Diffusion  50

Diogenites  103

Discontinuous ejecta blanket  147

Discovery missions  256

Doppler shift  88

Double Asteroid Redirection Test (DART)  265

Downslope movement, regolith 

angle of repose  171–172

creep  169–171

seismic shaking and regolith convection  174–177

slumping and landslides  172–174

Dust  See also Regolith and dust

levitation  180–182

Phobos and Deimos  230–231

E

Earth 

remote sensing data from  96

volatile  205

E asteroids  111

E chondrites  102–103

Ejecta, regolith and dust  167–168

Electromagnetic process  19

Electrostatic effects and levitation, regolith  180–183

Emission spectra  77

Emitted light  74

Endogenic volatile  201–205

Enstatite achondrites  103

Eros  2f

pit chains  246, 247f

ponds on  177–179, 178f, 183

Eucrites  103

European space agency  259, 262

Exogenic volatile  205–206

Exploration  See also specific types

asteroids  31

Mercury  30–31, 31f

Moon  28–29, 29f

Phobos and Deimos  30

F

Faculae on Ceres  238–239, 239–240f

Fatigue  157, 158f

Fischer Tropsch–type reactions  129

Flagship missions  256

Flood basalts  96–97

Floor pits  245

Framing cameras  109–110

G

Gamma-ray spectrometers (GRS)  81f, 82

Gamma-ray spectroscopy  81

Ganymede  4f

Gardening, regolith  154–155

Gaspra  31, 32f, 42

Genesis mission  109

Giant Impact theory  33

Grains and space weathering  127–129

The Grand Tack  32–33

Granular convection  177

Greenhouse effect  10–12

Grooves  247–250, 248f

H

Hapke modeling  79

Hartmann plot (H-plot)  62, 64f

Hayabusa mission  44, 108–109

Hayabusa 2 mission  2, 263

Hayabusa X-ray measurements  130

Howardite, eucrite, and diogenite (HED) meteorites  100–101, 103, 114–115

Vesta and  124–125

Howardites  103

Human exploration  257, 266, 267f

data storage and processing  269–271

in situ resource utilization  266–268

and regolith  268–269

Human Exploration and Operations Mission Directorate (HEOMD)  259–260

Hydrated interplanetary dust particles  107

I

Ice and volatiles  22–25

Ida  42

IDPs  See Interplanetary dust particles (IDPs)

Impact craters  10, 59–67, 145, 146f

crater counting  61–62

production function  59–61

programs  66–67

secondary craters  63–66

Impact ejecta blankets  147

Impact-melt breccia  105

Impactor 

size  10, 11t

speed of  10, 11t

Inclination  188

India, lunar program  258

Infrared Processing and Analysis Center (IPAC)  270

In situ resource utilization (ISRU)  266–268

Instruments, airless bodies  91t

International Space Exploration Coordination Group (ISECG)  266

Interplanetary dust particles (IDPs)  106–107

Iron meteorites  103

Irregular mare patches (IMP)  235–237

Isochrons  50–51, 51f

Itokawa  42–43, 42f

J

The Japanese Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA)  108

K

Kaguya  33–34

K-Ar dating  See Potassium-Argon (K-Ar) dating

K chondrites  102–103

Keck/NASA Reflectance Experiment Laboratory (RELAB)  270

Keplerian orbital elements  188, 189f

Kirchhoff’s law  74

Korea Pathfinder Lunar Orbiter (KPLO)  258, 259f

L

Lag deposits, regolith  160

Landslides, regolith  172–174

Large-scale impacts  145–151

Laser altimetry  89–90, 90f, 263

Laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS)  80

Layer silicate chondritic particles  107

LCROSS  See Lunar Crater Observation and Sensing Satellite (LCROSS)

Leonardo sketch  28f

Levitation of dust on asteroids  183

LIBS  See Laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS)

Lightcurves  86–87

Loss, volatile  209–211

Low-albedo surfaces, space weathering on  129

Low-reflectance material (LRM)  213

LRO  See Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO)

Lucy mission  264

LunaH-Map  259–260

Luna program  33

Lunar 

compositions  126–127

impact, Moon  35–37

meteorites  104–105

observations  182

regolith  268–269, 269f

Lunar Crater Observation and Sensing Satellite (LCROSS)  213–214

impactor  34

Lunar exploration  29, 29f

robotic mission 

asteroids  262–266

Mercury  260–261

Moon  257–260

Phobos and Deimos  261–262

science goals  255–257

Lunar Flashlight mission  259–260

Lunar IceCube  259–260

Lunar Prospector  34

Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO)  1, 34–35

LRO NAC  110

Lunar swirls  239–242

M

Magnitudes, brightness in  84–86

Main belt comets (MBCs)  219

Mariner 10  269

Mars Express (MEx) mission  41

Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO) mission  41, 221–222

Martian Moons Exploration (MMX) mission  261–262

MASCOT  263

M asteroids  111

Maturation  57

Maturity indices  57–59

Megaregolith  156–157, 156f See also Regolith

Mercury  3, 37–38

exploration of  30–31, 31f

ice deposits  24, 25f

lunar swirls  242

pit Craters  244–245, 245f

robotic mission  260–261

sulfur on  130–131

surface composition  39–40

volatile on  211–213

volatiles on  38–39

Mercury Dual Imaging System (MDIS)  83–84, 84f

Mercury lander mission  260–261

Mercury Laser Altimeter (MLA)  89

Mercury Magnetospheric Orbiter (MMO)  260

Mercury orbit  14, 15f

Mercury Planetary Orbiter (MPO)  260

Mesosiderites  103

MESSENGER mission  3, 30–31, 37–39, 161–162, 260, 269

Meteorites  100–106

effects on  16, 17f

history of  105–106

types  101–105, 102f

Microgravity, cohesion in  166–167

Micrometeorites (MMs)  106–107

impacts  152

Microphase  127–128

MINERVA-II-1A, -1B, -II  263

Mini-SAR instrument  34, 35f

MMX (Japanese mission)  3

Mohr-Coulomb failure  166

Monte Carlo model  208

Moon  33–34

exploration of  28–29, 29f

and Ganymede  4, 4f

hydroxyl (OH)  24

lunar impact  35–37

and Mercury  5

pit chains  245–246

pits  243, 244f

remote sensing data from  96

resonance  16

robotic mission  257–260

space-weathering process  126

volatile on  213–215

water on  34–35

Moon Mineralogy Mapper (M³)  34–35

Morphological imaging  109–110

Multiple Asteroids Rendezvous and in situ Survey Mission (MARS)  265–266

N

Nanophase  127–128

Narrow-angle camera (NAC)  110

Near-Infrared Spectrometer  263

NEAR Shoemaker mission  42–43

Nectaris  37

Neutron spectrometers (NS)  81f, 82

Neutron spectroscopy, volatile  206

New Frontiers missions  256

The Nice Model Phase  32–33, 36–37

Nitrogen snow line  202

Nonchondritic interplanetary dust particles  107

O

Obliquity  10–12

OC  See Ordinary chondrites (OC)

OCAMS  263–264

Occator Crater  238, 239f

O chondrites  102–103

Olivine chondritic particles  107

OMAT (optical maturity) technique  70–72, 70–72f, 115–117, 117f

lunar swirls  240

Regolith creep  169–171

space weathering  134–136

Optical Navigation Camera  263

Orbital considerations 

elements  187–188

Poynting-Robertson drag  195–196

Roche limit  195

solar radiation pressure  195–196

vis-viva equation  189–191

Yarkovsky effect  191–192, 192f

YORP torque  193–195

Ordinary chondrites (OC)  122–123

asteroids  123–125

meteorites  103, 122–123

Origins, Spectral Interpretation, Resource Identification, Security, Regolith Explorer (OSIRIS-REx)  2, 263–264, 264f

Oumuamua orbit  188

P

Paradigms 

asteroids  42–44

Mercury  37–40

Moon  33–37

Phobos and Deimos  40–41

solar system  32–33

P asteroids  111

Permanently shadowed regions (PSRs)  199–200, 210f

asteroids  221

Mercury  211–212

Moon  214–215

retention of volatiles  209

Phaethon perihelion  233–234, 234f

Phobos  2f, 3

asteroid taxonomies  112

dust from  230–231

exploration of  30

grooves  247–250

paradigms  40–41

robotic mission  261–262

volatile  221–222

Phobos Grunt spacecraft  262

Phootprint  262

Photoelectric effect  180

Photogeology  109

Photoionization  210

Photometry  82–83

Pits  242–243

chains  245–247

craters  244–245

Planetary Data System (PDS)  270

Plasma interactions  132–134

Polarization ratio  88–89

Ponds, regolith  177–179

Potassium-Argon (K-Ar) dating  53–55

Poynting-Robertson drag  195–196

Primitive achondrites  103

Production function  59–61

Projects, citizen science  271

PSRs  See Permanently shadowed regions (PSRs)

Psyche mission  4, 264–265

Pushbroom imagers  109–110

Pyroxene chondritic particles  107

R

Radar  87–89

asteroid  88

measurements  3

Radiometric dating 

⁴⁰Ar/³⁹Ar  53–55, 54f

choosing  49–50

derivation  48–49

diffusion  50

isochrons  50–51, 51f

K-Ar  53–55

Rb-Sr  51–52, 52f

Sm-Nd system  55

U, Th-Pb system  55, 56f

Raman shift  80

Raman spectroscopy  80

Rb-Sr dating  See Rubidium-87/strontium-87 (Rb-Sr) dating

R chondrites  102–103

Reflectance spectroscopy  74–79

crossover region  77

emission spectra  77

spectral measurements  78–79

transmission spectra  76–77

Regolith  18, 22, 23f, 57, 144–145

boulders  152–153

convection  174–177

depth and retention of  160–162

gardening  154–155

human exploration and  268–269

hydrogen in  133

lag deposits  160

large-scale impact  145–151

megaregolith  156–157, 156f

small-scale impact  152

thermal fracturing  157–160

Regolith and dust  165–166

cohesion  166–167

downslope movement 

angle of repose  171–172

creep  169–171

seismic shaking and regolith convection  174–177

slumping and landslides  172–174

ejecta  167–168

electrostatic effects and levitation  180–183

ponds  177–179

regime  165–166

Regolith creep  169–171

Relative plot (R-plot)  62, 64f

Remote elemental composition technique  81–82

Remote sensing  95–96

asteroid spectral survey  110–115, 111f

bulk density  99–100

craters, interpreting  97–98

from Earth  96

Genesis mission  109

Hayabusa mission  108–109

interplanetary dust particles  106–107

measurements  3

meteorites  See Meteorites

Moon  96

morphological imaging  109–110

optical maturity  115–117

Stardust mission  107–108

for volatiles  206

Resetting space weathering  136–139

Resonance, Mercury  14, 15f

Resurfacing  21–22

Retention of volatile  209

Robotic mission 

asteroids  262–266

Mercury  260–261

Moon  257–260

Phobos and Deimos  261–262

Roche limit  195

Rock sample, age of  See Age of rock sample

Rocky airless bodies  27 See also Airless bodies

Rocky surfaces 

age of  See Age of rocky surfaces

compositional analyses 

albedo  73

emitted light  74

Kirchhoff’s law  74

laser altimetry  89–90, 90f

LIBS  80

lightcurves  86–87

magnitudes, brightness in  84–86

photometry  82–83

radar  87–89

Raman spectroscopy  80

reflectance spectroscopy  See Reflectance spectroscopy

remote elemental composition technique  81–82

spectrophotometry  83–84

Rovers  263

Rubble pile internal structures  157

Rubidium-87/strontium-87 (Rb-Sr) dating  51–52, 52f

Russian Phobos-Grunt mission  30

Russian space agency  259

S

Samarium-147/neodymium-143 system (Sm-Nd)  55

Sample return mission  257

S asteroids  123–124

Science goals  255–257

Scientist, roles  270–271

S-class asteroids  122–123

S-class spectra  122–123

S complex asteroids  111

S-complex NEA population  135–136

Secondary craters  63–66

SED  See Spectral energy distribution (SED)

Seismic shaking, regolith  174–177

SELENE-R mission  258

SETI@home project  271

Shielding lunar swirls  242

Shock darkening  131–132

Simple craters  147

Size-frequency distribution (SFD)  60–61

SKG  See Strategic knowledge gap (SKG)

SLIM  See Smart Lander for Investigating Moon (SLIM)

Sloan Digital Sky Survey data  270

SLS  See Space Launch System (SLS)

Slumping, regolith  172–174

Smart Lander for Investigating Moon (SLIM)  258

Sm-Nd  See Samarium-147/neodymium-143 system (Sm-Nd)

Snow line  202

Solar radiation pressure  195–196

Solar system paradigms  32–33

Solar wind implantation  132–134

Sorting lunar swirls  242

South Pole-Aitken (SPA) 

basin  37, 37f

sample return mission  257

Space Launch System (SLS)  259–260

Space weathering 

dating surfaces with  134–136

definition  121–122

grains and  127–129

implications of  121–122

on low-albedo surfaces  129

problem of  122–125

processes of  15–17, 17f, 19, 125–127

resetting  136–139

shock darkening  131–132

solar wind implantation and plasma interactions  132–134

sulfur and  130–131

wavelengths  130

Spectral energy distribution (SED)  77, 78f

Spectral measurements  78–79, 79f

Spectral techniques 

albedo  73

emitted light  74

Kirchhoff’s law  74

laser altimetry  89–90

LIBS  80

lightcurves  86–87

magnitudes, brightness in  84–86

photometry  82–83

radar  87–89

Raman spectroscopy  80

reflectance spectroscopy  See Reflectance spectroscopy

remote elemental composition technique  81–82

spectrophotometry  83–84

Spectrophotometry  83–84

Spectroscopic measurements, volatile  206, 207f

Spectroscopy  74–75 See also specific types

Spin barrier  193–195

Sputtering process  211

Stardust mission  107–108

Stickney crater  247–249

Strategic knowledge gap (SKG)  257

Subsidence craters  242–243

Sulfur and space weathering  130–131

Summit pits  245

Sun, volatile  205

Surface composition, Mercury  39–40

Swirls, lunar  239–242

T

Temperature 

extremes  10–14

resurfacing  232–234

Terminal Lunar Cataclysm (TLC)  36–37

Terrestrial analogs  96–98

Themis, volatile  219

Thermal fatigue  157–158, 158f

Thermal fracturing, regolith  157–160

Thermal inertia  12–13

Thermal Infrared Imager  263

Tholen taxonomy  110–111

Th-rich material  104

Tides, resurfacing  232–234

Time delay and integration (TDI) cameras  109–110

TLC  See Terminal Lunar Cataclysm (TLC)

Transient lunar phenomena (TLPs)  20–21, 231–232

Transmission spectra  76–77

Transparency features  77

Transportation, volatile  206–208, 208f

Tycho crater  116, 122, 123f

U

United States, planetary exploration  255–257

U-Pb ages  36

Uranium, thorium-lead (U, Th-Pb)  55, 56f

V

van der Waals forces  166–167

V class asteroid spectra  112, 114

Velocity, launch  168

Vesta  2, 2f, 24, 44

densities of  100

and HED meteorites  124–125

grooves  249

hydroxyl and hydrogen  234–235

regolith of  235

volatile on  216

Vesta-HED connection  114–115

Vinalia Faculae  238

Vis-viva equation  189–191

V magnitude  86

Voids  243

Volatile 

on asteroids  219–221

on Ceres  217–218

definition  200–201

detection  206

endogenic  201–205

exogenic  205–206

ice and  22–25

loss  209–211

on Mercury  38–39, 211–213

on Moon  213–215

Phobos and Deimos  221–222

retention of  209

temperature  199–200, 200f

transportation  206–208, 208f

on Vesta  216

Volcanism  20–21, 21f

W

Water on Moon  34–35

Wavelengths, space weathering  130

Weathering process  15–17, 17f, 19 See also Space weathering

Wentworth Scale  143–144, 144t

Wide-angle camera (WAC)  110

Wien’s displacement law  74

X

X complex asteroids  111

X-ray spectroscopy  81

Y

Yarkovsky effect  191–192, 192f, 230, 230f

YORP force  43–44, 138–139, 160–161, 193–195

Z

Zeami impact basin  214f