1. Stephen Castles, “The Factors That Make and Unmake Migration Policies,” International Migration Review 38 (Fall 2004): 852–884; and Douglas S. Massey, “March of Folly: US Immigration Policy after NAFTA,” American Prospect 37 (March–April 1998): 22–33.
2. Mario Barrera, Race and Class in the Southwest: A Theory of Racial Inequality (Notre Dame, IN: Notre Dame University Press, 1979); M. Patricia Fernández-Kelly, For We Are Sold, I and My People: Women and Industry in Mexico’s Frontier (Albany: SUNY Press, 1983); and George J. Borjas, Friends or Strangers: The Impact of Immigrants on the U.S. Economy (New York: Basic Books, 1990).
3. Raúl Delgado-Wise and James M. Cypher, “The Strategic Role of Mexican Labor under NAFTA: Critical Perspectives on Current Economic Integration,” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Sciences 610 (March 2007): 120–142.
4. Wayne A. Cornelius, “Death at the Border: Efficacy and Unintended Consequences of US Immigration Control Policy,” Population and Development Review 27 (December 2001): 661–685; Douglas S. Massey, Jorge Durand, and Nolan J. Malone, Beyond Smoke and Mirrors: Mexican Immigration in an Era of Economic Integration (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2002); and Raúl Delgado-Wise and Humberto Márquez Covarrubias, The Reshaping of Mexican Labor Exports under NAFTA: Paradoxes and Challenges (Zacatecas, Mexico: University of Zacatecas, International Network of Migration and Development, 2006).
5. Julia Preston, “Pickers Are Few and Growers Blame Congress,” New York Times, September 22, 2006; Nathan Thornburgh, “Inside America’s Secret Work Force,” Time, February 6, 2006, 34–45; and Tamar Jacoby, “California Without a Mexican,” Los Angeles Times, August 25, 2007.
6. Delgado-Wise and Covarrubias, Reshaping of Mexican Labor Exports.
7. United Nations, World Population Prospects: The 2000 Revision (New York: United Nations, 2002), 3: ch. 1.
8. Edward E. Telles and Vilma Ortiz, Generations of Exclusion: Mexican Americans, Assimilation, and Race (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2008); David E. López and Ricardo D. Stanton-Salazar, “Mexican-Americans: A Second Generation at Risk,” in Ethnicities: Children of Immigrants in America, ed. Rubin G. Rumbaut and Alejandro Portes (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001), 57–90.
9. Stanley Lieberson, Language Diversity and Language Contact: Essays (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1981); David E. López, Language Maintenance and Shift in the United States Today: The Basic Patterns and Their Social Implications, vols. 1–4 (Los Alamitos, CA: National Center for Bilingual Research, 1982); and Alejandro Portes and Lingxin Hao, “The Price of Uniformity: Language, Family, and Personality Adjustment in the Immigrant Second Generation,” Ethnic and Racial Studies 25 (November 2002): 889–912.
10. Ariel Dorfman, “Waving the Star Spangled Banner,” Washington Post, May 6, 2006; Andres Oppenheimer, “EE.UU.: El Peligro de una ‘Intifada’ Hispana,” El Pais (Spain), December 27, 2007, 33; and Alejandro Portes, Cristina Escobar, and Renelinda Arana, “Bridging the Gap: Transnational and Ethnic Organizations in the Political Incorporation of Immigrants in the United States,” Ethnic and Racial Studies 31 (September 2008): 1056–1090.
1. Senator John McCain in “Transcript of GOP Debate at Reagan Library,” CNN.com, January 30, 2008, http://www.cnn.com/2008/POLITICS/01/30/GOPdebate.transcript.
2. Tom Tancredo, In Mortal Danger: The Battle for America’s Border and Security (Nashville: WND Books, 2006).
3. Jeffrey S. Passel and D’Vera Cohn, U.S. Population Projections: 2005–2050 (Washington, DC: Pew Hispanic Center, February 11, 2008), 1.
4. Jeffrey S. Passel, Background Briefing Prepared for Task Force on Immigration and America’s Future (Washington, DC: Pew Hispanic Center, June 14, 2005), 3.
5. Philip Martin and Elizabeth Midgley, “Immigration: Shaping and Reshaping America,” Population Bulletin 61, no. 4 (2006): 4.
6. Daniel Griswold, Comprehensive Immigration Reform: Finally Getting It Right, Free Trade Bulletin no. 29 (Washington, DC: Cato Institute, May 16, 2007), 1.
7. Bureau of Labor Statistics, News (Washington, DC: Department of Labor, April 25, 2007).
8. Passel and Cohn, U.S. Population Projections, 18.
9. James M. Lindsay and Audrey Singer, Changing Faces: Immigrants and Diversity in the Twenty-First Century (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, June 2003), 222–223.
10. Ibid.
11. Gordon Hanson, “Illegal Migration from Mexico to the United States,” NBER Working Paper 12141 (Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research, April 2006), 1.
12. Jeffrey S. Passel, The Size and Characteristics of the Unauthorized Migrant Population in the U.S., Research Report (Washington, DC: Pew Hispanic Center, March 7, 2006), 4.
13. Passel and Cohn, U.S. Population Projections, i.
14. Kelly Jefferys and Randall Monger, U.S. Legal Permanent Residents: 2007, Annual Flow Report (Washington, DC: Office of Immigration Statistics, March 2008), table 2, “Legal Permanent Resident Flow by Major Category of Admission: Fiscal Year 2005 to 2007,” http://www.dhs.gov/xlibrary/assets/statistics/publications/LPR_FR_2007.pdf.
15. Martin and Midgley, “Immigration: Shaping and Reshaping America,” 4.
16. Passel, Size and Characteristics, 41.
17. The eight states are California, Texas, Florida, New York, Arizona, Illinois, New Jersey, and North Carolina.
18. Jorge Durand and Douglas S. Massey, eds., Crossing the Border: Research from the Mexican Migration Project (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2004), 37.
19. Passel, Background Briefing, 22.
1. Stephen Castles and Mark J. Miller, The Age of Migration, 3rd ed. (New York: Guilford Press, 2003).
2. Kemal Karpat, Gecekondu: Rural Migration and Urbanization (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009).
3. Aristide R. Zolberg, “International Migration in Political Perspective,” in The Migration Reader: Exploring Politics and Policy, ed. Anthony M. Messina and Gallya Lahav (Boulder, CO: Lynne Reinner Publishers, 2006), 63–88.
4. David Wood and Birol Yeşilada, The Emerging European Union, 4th ed. (New York: Pearson/Longman, 2004).
5. Aristide R. Zolberg, “The Exit Revolution,” in Citizenship and Those Who Leave: The Politics of Emigration and Expatriation, ed. Nancy L. Green and François Weil (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2007), 34–36.
6. Ibid., 36–41.
7. Peter Silver, Our Savage Neighbors: How Indian War Transformed Early America (New York: Norton, 2008).
8. Samuel P. Huntington, Who Are We? The Challenges of America’s National Identity (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2004), 45.
9. Robert Kagan, Dangerous Nation (New York: Knopf, 2006), 75–78.
10. Timothy J. Hatton and Jeffrey G. Williamson, Global Migration and the World Economy: Two Centuries of Policy and Performance (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2005).
11. Zolberg, “Exit Revolution,” 41–49.
12. Aristide R. Zolberg, A Nation by Design: Immigration Policy in the Fashioning of America (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2006).
13. Ibid., 93–98.
14. Hiroshi Motomura, Americans in Waiting: The Lost Story of Immigration and Citizenship in the United States (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006), 116.
15. Ibid., 23.
16. Zolberg, Nation by Design, 164–165.
17. Kagan, Dangerous Nation, 80–81.
18. Alan Riding, Distant Neighbors: A Portrait of the Mexicans (New York: Vintage Books, 1984), 36. Also see Kagan, Dangerous Nation, 220–238.
19. Motomura, Americans in Waiting, 9.
20. Hatton and Williamson, Global Migration and the World Economy, 155–200. Also see Seymour Martin Lipset and Gary Marks, It Didn’t Happen Here: Why Socialism Failed in the United States (New York: Norton, 2000), 125–166.
21. Roger Daniels, Guarding the Golden Door: American Immigration Policy and Immigrants since 1882 (New York: Hill and Wang, 2004).
22. Yves Lequin, ed., La mosaique France (Paris: Larousse, 1988).
23. Robert F. Zeidel, Immigrants, Progressives, and Exclusion Politics: The Dillingham Commission, 1900–1927 (DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 2004), 3–20.
24. Ibid.; and Hatton and Williamson, Global Migration and the World Economy.
25. Zolberg, Nation by Design, 238–242.
26. Ibid., 198.
27. George C. Kiser and Martha Woody Kiser, eds., Mexican Workers in the United States: Historical and Political Perspectives (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1979) 10–11.
28. The term bracero is Spanish for, “strong-armed one.”
29. Kiser and Kiser, Mexican Workers in the United States, 33–45.
30. Francisco E. Balderrama and Raymond Rodríguez, Decade of Betrayal: Mexican Repatriation in the 1930s (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1995).
31. Daniels, Guarding the Golden Door, 121–285.
32. Select Commission on Immigration and Refugee Policy Staff Report (Washington, DC, April 30, 1981), 470.
33. Kiser and Kiser, Mexican Workers in the United States, 120–123.
34. Daniels, Guarding the Golden Door, 137.
35. Philip L. Martin and Mark J. Miller, “Guestworkers: Lessons from Europe,” Industrial and Labor Relations Review 33 (April 1980): 315–330.
36. Peter J. Katzenstein, A World of Regions: Asia and Europe in the American Imperium (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2005).
37. Hatton and Williamson, Global Migration and the World Economy, 247–264.
38. BBC News, “Mystery over Ghost Ship Migrants,” May 30, 2006, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/5029230.stm (accessed June 29, 2007).
39. U.S. Committee for Refugees, World Refugee Survey 1996 (Washington, DC: Immigration and Refugee Services of America, 1996), 12.
40. Jonathan Crush, South Africa: New Nation, New Migration Policy? (Washington, DC: Migration Information Source, 2003), http://www.migrationinformation.org/.
41. Bahram Rajaee, “The Politics of Refugee Policy in Post-revolutionary Iran,” Middle East Journal 54, no. 1 (Winter 2000): 44–63
42. Michele Wucker, Why the Cocks Fight: Dominicans, Haitians, and the Struggle for Hispaniola (New York: Hill and Wang, 1999).
43. Mark J. Miller and Boyka Stefanova, “NAFTA and the European Referent: Labor Mobility in European and North American Regional Integration” in The Migration Reader.
44. U.S. Department of State, Trafficking in Persons Report (Washington, DC: Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons, June 4, 2008), http://www.state.gov/g/tip/rls/tiprpt/2008/105388.htm.
45. Barbara Surk, “India Pushes for Worker Rights in Gulf,” Associated Press, May 27, 2008, http://www.newsvine.com/_news/2008/03/27/1393537-india-pushes-for-worker-in-gulf.
46. Robert C. Smith, “Migrant Membership as an Instituted Process: Transnationalization, the State and Extra-Territorial Conduct of Mexican Politics,” International Migration Review 37, no. 2 (2003): 297–343
47. Jeffrey S. Passel, “Immigration Patterns, 1986–2008” (presented at Immigration, Agriculture and Communities Conference, Washington, DC, May 8, 2008).
48. Mark J. Miller, “Towards Understanding State Capacity to Prevent Unwanted Migrations,” West European Politics 17 (April 1994): 140–167
49. Daniel J. Tichenor, Dividing Lines: The Politics of Immigration Control in America (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2002), 224–230.
50. Select Commission on Immigration and Refugee Policy, U.S. Immigration Policy and the National Interest (Washington, DC, March 1, 1981).
51. Philip L. Martin and Mark J. Miller, Employer Sanctions: French, German and US Experiences (Geneva: International Labor Organization, 2000).
52. Castles and Miller, Age of Migration, 112–114.
53. Philip L. Martin, Trade and Migration: NAFTA and Agriculture (Washington, DC: Institute for International Economics, 1993).
54. Castles and Miller, Age of Migration, 11.
55. Mark J. Miller and C. Gabriel, “The US-Mexico Honeymoon of 2001: A Retrospective,” in Governing International Labour Migration: Current Issues, Challenges and Dilemmas, ed. C. Gabriel and H. Pellerin (New York: Routledge, 2008).
56. Rey Koslowski, “Global Mobility and the Quest for an International Migration Regime” (paper presented at the Conference on International Migration and Development: Continuing the Dialogue—Legal and Policy Perspectives, New York, 2008)
57. Herbert Bruecker, Labor Mobility after the European Union’s Eastern Enlargement: Who Wins, Who Loses? (Washington, DC: German Marshall Fund of the United States, 2007), 3.
58. Ibid., 4.
59. Francis Fukuyama, “Does the West Still Exist?” in Beyond Paradise and Power: Europe, America, and the Future of a Troubled Partnership, ed. Tod Lindberg (New York: Routledge, 2005), 137–161.
60. Independent Task Force on the Future of North America, Building a North American Community (New York: Council on Foreign Relations, May 2005), http://www.cfr.org/publication/8102/building_a_north_american_community.html
61. Leo Lucassen, The Immigrant Threat: The Integration of Old and New Migrants in Western Europe since 1850 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2005), 1–24.
1. Harvard Research in International Law, “The Law of Nationality,” Supplement: Codification of International Law, American Journal of International Law 23, no. 2 (April 1929): 1–129. See also Richard W. Flournoy Jr. and Manley O. Hudson, A Collection of Nationality Laws of Various Countries (New York: Oxford University Press, 1929).
2. International Law Commission, Draft Articles on Nationality of Natural Persons in Relation to the Succession of States (New York, April 3, 1999), http://untreaty.un.org/ilc/texts/instruments/english/commentaries/3_4_1999.pdf.
3. International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) and the Inter-American Development Bank (IDB), Sending Money Home: Worldwide Remittance Flows to Developing Countries, joint report (Rome and Washington, 2008).
4. Commission on Human Security, Human Security Now: Protecting and Empowering People (New York, 2003). See, in particular, chapter 3.
5. Martin Lloyd, The Passport: The History of Man’s Most Travelled Document (London: Sutton, 2003).
6. Brian Lavery, “Voters Reject Automatic Citizenship for Babies Born in Ireland,” New York Times, June 13, 2004; Jason De Parle, “Born Irish, but With Illegal Parents,” New York Times, February 25, 2008.
7. Betty de Hart, “The Morality of Maria Toet: Gender, Citizenship, and the Construction of the Nation-State,” Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 32, no. 1 (January 2006): 49–68.
8. Karen Knop, “Gender and Nationality in International Law,” in Citizenship Today: Global Perspectives and Practices, ed. T. Alexander Aleinikoff and Douglas Klusmeyer (Washington, DC: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 2001), 89.
9. Patrick Weil, “Access to Citizenship: A Comparison of Twenty-Five Nationality Laws,” in Citizenship Today. See also U.S. Constitution, art. 2, sec. 1.
10. Carl Hulse, “McCain’s Canal Zone Birth Prompts Queries about Whether That Rules Him Out,” New York Times, February 28, 2008.
11. Associated Press, “Mexico to Bar Non-natives from Jobs,” May 22, 2006.
12. Commission on Human Security, Human Security Now, ch 3.
13. Constantin Sokoloff and Richard Lewis, Denial of Citizenship: A Challenge to Human Security European Policy Center, Issue Paper 28 (Brussels: European Policy Centre, January 4, 2005), http://www.epc.eu/TEWN/pdf/724318296_EPC%20Issue%20Paper%2028%20Denial%20of%20Citizenship.pdf.
14. Commission on Human Security, Human Security Now, ch. 3.
15. See, for example, Stanley Renshon’s The 50% American: Immigration and National Identity in an Age of Terror (Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press, 2005); and John Fonte’s Dual Allegiance: A Challenge to Immigration Reform and Patriotic Assimilation (Washington, DC: Center for Immigration Studies, 2005).
16. Michael Jones-Correa, “Under Two Flags: Dual Nationality in Latin America and Its Consequences for Naturalization in the United States,” International Migration Review, Winter 2001, 997–1029.
17. Ronald Inglehart and Wayne E. Baker, “Modernization, Cultural Change, and the Persistence of Traditional Values,” American Sociological Review 65 (February 2000): 19–51.
18. Richard Florida and Irene Tinagle, Europe in the Creative Age (London: Demos: February 2004), http://www.creativeclass.org/acrobat/Europe_ in_the_Creative_Age_2004.pdf. See also Richard Florida and Gary Gates, Technology and Tolerance: The Importance of Diversity to High-Technology Growth (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 2001).
19. See, of course, Richard Florida, The Rise of the Creative Class: And How Its Transforming Work, Leisure, Community and Everyday Life (New York: Basic Books, 2004).
20. See also Eva Thalhammer, Vlasta Zucha, Edith Enzenhofer, Brigitte Salfinger, and Günther Ogris, Attitudes Towards Minority Groups in the European Union: A Special Analysis of the Eurobarometer 2000 Survey (Vienna: European Monitoring Centre on Racism and Xenophobia, March 2001); and Laurie Hanquinet, Veronique Vandezande, Dirk Jacobs, and Marc Swyngedouw, Comparative Study of the Measurement of the Attitudes of Tolerance of Majority Groups towards Ethnic Minorities (Brussels: ISPO—K.U. Leuven and GERME—ULB, March 31, 2006), http://www.kbs-frb.be/files/db/FR/PUB_1633_Ullens_MeasurementAttitudesTolerance.pdf.
1. Men accounted for 98% of former braceros surveyed in Michoacan and Jalisco by Massey and colleagues. See Douglas S. Massey and Zai Liang, “The Long-term Consequences of a Temporary Worker Program: The US Bracero Experience,” Population Research and Policy Review 8, no. 3 (September 1989): 199–226.
2. For analyses of these outcomes of the bracero program, see ibid.; and Richard Mines, Developing a Community Tradition of Migration: A Field Study in Rural Zacatecas: Mexico and California Settlement Areas, Monograph Series, no. 3 (San Diego: University of California, Program in United States–Mexican Studies, 1981).
3. Silvia Pedraza-Bailey, Political and Economic Migrants in America: Cubans and Mexicans (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1985), 77, table 4.
4. Alejandro Portes and Robert L. Bach, Latin Journey: Cuban and Mexican Immigrants in the United States (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985).
5. Douglas S. Massey, Jorge Durand, and Nolan J. Malone, Beyond Smoke and Mirrors: Mexican Immigration in an Era of Economic Integration (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2002), 24.
6. Ivan Light, Deflecting Immigration: Networks, Markets, and Regulation in Los Angeles (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2006), 80; Victor Zúñiga and Rubén Hernández-León, eds., New Destinations: Mexican Immigration in the United States (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2005).
7. Light, Deflecting Immigration, 80.
8. Mark Ellis, “A Tale of Five Cities? Trends in Immigrant and Native-Born Wages,” in Strangers at the Gates: New Immigrants in Urban America, ed. Roger Waldinger (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001).
9. Lisa Catanzarite and Michael B. Aguilera, “Working with Co-Ethnics: Earning Penalties for Latino Immigrants at Latino Jobsites,” Social Problems 49, no. 1 (February 2002): 101–127.
10. Pierrette Hondagneu-Sotelo, “Women and Children First: New Directions in Anti-Immigrant Politics,” Socialist Review 25, no. 1 (1995): 169–190.
11. Massey and others, Beyond Smoke and Mirrors, 20.
12. Jeanne Batalova, “Mexican Immigrants in the United States,” Migration Information Source, April 2008, http://www.migrationinformation.org/USfocus/display.cfm?ID=679
13. Ibid
14. U.S. Census Bureau, American Community Survey (Washington, DC, 2006)
15. Jeffrey S. Passel and D’Vera Cohn, U.S. Population Projections 2005–2050 (Washington, DC: Pew Hispanic Center, February 11, 2008), 1.
16. For a comprehensive and well-informed discussion on possible remedies to U.S. immigration law, particularly with an eye to Mexican immigration, see Massey and others, “Repair Manual: U.S. Immigration Policies for a New Century,” in Beyond Smoke and Mirrors.
17. For a detailed analysis of this trajectory, see ibid., 43–44.
18. In 1986 immigrant rights coalitions were formed in Los Angeles; San Francisco; New York state; Massachusetts; Chicago, Illinois; and Texas (Angelica Salas, executive director of Coalition for Humane Immigrant Rights in Los Angeles, interview by the author, November 6, 2006). These coalitions were loosely tied together through the National Network for Immigrant and Refugee Rights (NNIRR), which maintains offices in Oakland, California. The marches of spring 2006 were organized by many groups, including the CCIR. The CCIR launched the New American Opportunity Campaign (NAOC), a campaign to ensure comprehensive—not just punitive or restrictionist—immigration reform. The NAOC received participation from organized labor, community-based organizations, and religious groups.
19. For analysis of how religious activists are advocating for immigration inclusion and rights, see Pierrette Hondagneu-Sotelo, God’s Heart Has No Borders: How Religious Activists Are Working for Immigrant Rights (Berkley: University of California Press, 2008).
20. U.S. Conference of Catholic Bishops, “Welcoming the Stranger Among Us: Unity in Diversity” (pastoral statement, November 15, 2000), http://www.usccb.org/mrs/welcome.shtml.
21. U.S. Conference of Catholic Bishops, “Stranger No Longer: Together on a Journey of Hope,” (pastoral letter, January 22, 2003), http://www.usccb.org/mrs/stranger.shtml#1.
22. On November 14, 2006, in his message on the Ninety-third World Day of Migrants and Refugees, Pope Benedict XVI spoke out in favor of migrant family rights, drawing parallels to Mary and Joseph fleeing from Nazareth to Egypt. He called on all governments to ratify “the international legal instruments that aim to defend the rights of migrants, refugees and their families.” Available at http://www.zenit.org/article-18183?=english.
23. See Pierrette Hondagneu-Sotelo and Angelica Salas, “What Explains the Immigrant Rights Marches of 2006? Organizers, Xenophobia and Democracy Technology,” in Immigrant Rights in the Shadows of United States Citizenship, ed. Rachel Ida Buff (New York: New York University Press, 2008), for a description and analysis of the sectors mobilizing the 2006 immigrant rights movement for reform.
24. Massey and others, Beyond Smoke and Mirrors, 158–159.
25. Ibid, 162.
1. Benjamin Franklin, “Observations Concerning the Increase of Mankind, Peopling of Countries, Etc.,” in The Papers of Benjamin Franklin, ed. Leonard W. Labaree (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1961), vol. 4.
2. Mae M. Ngai, Impossible Subjects: Illegal Aliens and the Making of Modern America (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2004); and Aristide R. Zolberg, A Nation by Design: Immigration Policy in the Fashioning of America (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2006).
3. For details, see Alan Lupo, Liberty’s Chosen Home: The Politics of Violence in Boston (Boston: Little, Brown, 1977).
4. For details, see Ronald Takaki, Strangers from a Different Shore: A History of Asian Americans (Boston: Little, Brown, 1989).
5. See Luis Ricardo Fraga, “Domination through Democratic Means: Nonpartisan Slating Groups in City Electoral Politics,” Urban Affairs Quarterly 23, no. 4 (1988): 528–555.
6. Figures from Abraham Hoffman, Unwanted Mexican Americans in the Great Depression: Repatriation Pressures, 1929–1939 (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1974); and Francisco Balderrama and Raymond Rodríguez, Decade of Betrayal: Mexican Repatriation in the 1930s (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1995).
7. For details, see Julian Samora, Los Mojados: The Wetback Story (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1971); and Juan Ramon García, Operation Wetback: The Mass Deportation of Mexican Undocumented Workers in 1954 (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1980).
8. Of course, Puerto Rican incorporation into the United States took place as a consequence of the Spanish-American War. So Puerto Ricans have held U.S. citizenship since the adoption of the Jones Act of 1917. Nevertheless, Puerto Rican life on the U.S. mainland is a fundamentally immigrantlike experience, though with citizenship hurdles removed.
9. Samuel P. Huntington, Who Are We? The Challenges to America’s National Identity (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2004)
10. And though Nevada was in the region of North America annexed from Mexico in 1848, its population in the last century has been overwhelmingly Anglo. Substantial Latino population growth in Nevada is a recent phenomenon.
11. See, for example, Frank D. Bean and Gillian Stevens, America’s Newcomers and the Dynamics of Diversity (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2003); and Richard Alba and Victor Nee, Remaking the American Mainstream: Assimilation and Contemporary Immigration (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2003).
12. See, for example, George J. Sánchez, Becoming Mexican American: Ethnicity, Culture, and Identity in Chicano Los Angeles, 1900–1945 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993); and Rodolfo de la Garza, Angelo Falcon, and F. Chris García, “Will the Real Americans Please Stand Up: Anglo and Mexican-American Support of Core American Political Values,” American Journal of Political Science 40, no. 2 (1996): 335–351.
13. It is not clear how Anglos would answer this question and no comparable data exist, to our knowledge. Our suspicion, however, is that commitment to equality of opportunity, while likely a majority opinion among U.S. citizens, has never approached unanimity.
14. For a comprehensive review of anti- and pro-immigrant positions, rhetoric, and evidence in the current immigration debate see Luis Ricardo Fraga, “Building through Exclusion: Anti-Immigrant Politics in the United States,” in Bringing Outsiders In: Transatlantic Perspectives on Immigrant Political Incorporation, ed. Jennifer Hochschild and John Mollenkopf (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2009).
15. Teresa Watanabe and Anna Gorman, “More Than 500,000 Rally in L.A. for Immigrant Rights,” Los Angeles Times, March 25, 2006, http://www.latimes.com/news/local; Gustavo Cano, “Poltical Mobilization of Mexican Immigrants in American Cities and the U.S. Immigration Debate,” Mexico-North Research Network, September 2006, http://www.mexnor.org.
16. On this, see Matt A. Barretto, Luis R. Fraga, Sylvia Manzano, Valerie Martinez-Ebers, and Gary M. Segura, “Should They Dance with the One Who Brung ’Em? Latinos and the 2008 Presidential Election,” PS: Political Science and Politics, October 2008, 753–760.
17. Roberto Lovato, “Will Latinos Continue Moving Democratic?” Public Eye, April 3, 2007, http://www.alternet.org/story/49924/
18. Latino Policy Coalition, http://www.latinopolicycoalition.org/poll2007.htm (accessed August 8, 2008).
19. Adrian Pantoja and Gary M. Segura, “Fear and Loathing in California: Contextual Threat and Political Sophistication Among Latino Voters,” Political Behavior 25, no. 3 (2003): 265–286; Luis Ricardo Fraga and Ricardo Ramírez, “Latino Political Incorporation in California, 1990–2000,” in Latinos and Public Policy in California: An Agenda for Opportunity, ed. David López and Andrés Jiménez (Berkeley, CA: Berkeley Public Policy Press, 2003), 301–335
20. Los Angeles Times/Bloomberg Poll, June 7–10, 2007. N=1,183 adults nationwide. MoE ± 3. Reported in National Immigration Forum, “While Debate Rages, the Public Continues to Support Realistic Immigration Solution,” December 10, 2007, http://www.immigrationforum.org/documents/PressRoom/PublicOpinion/2007/PollingSummary0407.pdf
21. Los Angeles Times/Bloomberg Poll, November 30–December 3, 2007. N=1,245 registered voters nationwide. MoE ± 3. The question was worded, “One proposal that has been discussed in Congress would allow illegal immigrants who have been living and working in the United States for a number of years, and who do not have a criminal record, to start on a path to citizenship by registering that they are in the country, paying a fine, getting fingerprinted, and learning English, among other requirements. Do you support or oppose this, or haven’t you heard enough about it to say?” Reported in National Immigration Forum, “While Debate Rages, the Public Continues to Support Realistic Immigration Solution,” December 10, 2007, http://www.immigrationforum.org/documents/PressRoom/PublicOpinion/2007/PollingSummary0407.pdf.
22. Tamar Jacoby, “Immigration Nation,” Foreign Affairs, November–December 2007, 15–21.
23. Charisse Jones, “States Try to Block Illegal Workers,” USA Today, July 9, 2006.
24. Mark Scolofo, “Hazelton Council Passes Ordinance against Illegal Immigrants,” Associated Press, 2006.
25. Ralph Blumenthal, “Texas Lawmakers Put New Focus on Illegal Immigration,” New York Times, November 16, 2006.
26. Eunice Moscoso, “Illegal Immigrant Laws Challenged,” Atlanta Journal-Constitution, November 27, 2006.
27. Douglas S. Massey, Jorge Durand, and Nolan J. Malone, Beyond Smoke and Mirrors: Mexican Immigration in an Era of Economic Integration (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2002).
28. Rogers M. Smith, Civic Ideals: Conflicting Visions of Citizenship in U.S. History (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1997).
1. See S. Haber, ed., How Latin America Fell Behind: Essays on the Economic Histories of Brazil and Mexico, 1800–1914 (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1997).
2. Francis Fukuyama, “Immigration and Family Values,” in Arguing Immigration: The Debate over the Changing Face of America, ed. Nicolaus Mills (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1994), 166; Robert Samuelson, “Importing Poverty,” Washington Post, September 5, 2007.
3. Jeffery S. Passel, Background Briefing Prepared for Task Force on Immigration and America’s Future (Washington, DC: Pew Hispanic Center, June 14, 2005), 22.
4. Abdurrahman Aydemir and George Borjas, A Comparative Analysis of the Labor Market Impact of International Migration: Canada, Mexico, and the United States (Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research, June 2006), 13.
5. See Zadia Feliciano, “The Skill and Economic Performance of Mexican Immigrants from 1910 to 1990,” Explorations in Economic History 38, no. 3 (2001): 386–409.
6. Charles Hirschman, “Immigration and the American Century,” Demography 42, no. 4 (2005): 599.
7. Daniel Griswold, Comprehensive Immigration Reform: Finally Getting It Right, Free Trade Bulletin no. 29 (Washington, DC: Cato Institute, May 16, 2007), 1.
8. Jeffrey S. Passel and D’Vera Cohn, U.S. Population Projections 2005–2050 (Washington, DC: Pew Hispanic Center, February 11, 2008), 2.
9. The general case is well put in Philippe Legrain, Immigrants: Your Country Needs Them (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2007), 61–88
10. For the parallel crisis in the long-term care industry, see Robyn Stone with Joshua Wiener, Who Will Care for Us? Addressing the Long-Term Care Workforce Crisis (Washington, DC: Urban Institute, October 26, 2001), 5, 21–22
11. Jeffrey S. Passel, The Size and Characteristics of the Unauthorized Migrant Population in the U.S., Research Report (Washington, DC: Pew Hispanic Center, March 7, 2006), 9
12. Cited in Immigration’s Economic Impact (Washington, DC: Council of Economic Advisers, June 20, 2007), 2
13. Passel, Size and Characteristics, 3.
14. Retail salespersons, food preparation including fast food, cashiers, janitors and cleaners, waiters and waitresses, nursing aides, receptionists, security guards, office clerks, teaching assistants, home help aides, truck drivers, landscapers, and groundskeepers. (Bureau of Labor Statistics, Monthly Labor Review, November 2007, table 3.)
15. See Arlene Dohn and Lynn Schniper, “Occupational Employment Projections to 2016,” Monthly Labor Review, November 2007, 86–87, 102
16. Griswold, Comprehensive Immigration Reform, 2
17. George Borjas, “The New Economics of Immigration: Affluent Americans Gain, Poor Americans Lose,” Atlantic Monthly, November 1996, reproduced in The Migration Reader: Exploring Politics and Policy, ed. Anthony M. Messina and Gallya Lahav (Boulder, CO: Lynne Reinner Publishers, 2006), 320
18. George Borjas, Heaven’s Door: Immigration Policy and the American Economy (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1999), 83, 94
19. George Borjas, Increasing the Supply of Labor through Immigration: Measuring the Impact on Native-Born Workers, Backgrounder (Washington, DC: Center for Immigration Studies, May 2004), 1.
20. Julie Murray, Jeanne Batalova, and Michael Fix, The Impact of Immigration on Native Workers: A Fresh Look at the Evidence, Insight no. 18 (Washington, DC: Migration Policy Institute, July 2006), 4
21. David Card, Is the New Immigration Really So Bad? (Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research, August 2005), 1.
22. Gianmarco Ottaviano and Giovanni Peri, Rethinking the Gains from Immigration: Theory and Evidence from the U.S. (Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research, September 2005), 4.
23. George Borjas, Jeffrey Grogger, and Gordon Hanson, Imperfect Substitution between Immigrants and Natives: A Reappraisal (Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research, March 2008), 1.
24. Rachel M. Friedberg and Jennifer Hunt, “The Impact of Immigrants on Host Country Wages, Employment and Growth,” Journal of Economic Perspectives 9, no. 2 (Spring 1995): 28.
25. Gianmarco Ottaviano and Giovanni Peri, Rethinking the Impact of Immigration on Wages (Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research, August 2006), 21.
26. One in 9 black men aged twenty to thirty-four is now in jail. The figure for African-American men age eighteen and over is 1 in 15. The equivalent figure for white men eighteen and over is 1 in 106. Pew Center for the States, One in 100: Behind Bars in America 2008 (Washington, DC, February 2008), 6
27. Steven Camarota, “The Impact of Immigration on American Workers,” testimony to the U.S. House of Representatives, Committee on the Judiciary, 108th Cong., 1st sess., October 30, 2003, 4.
28. George Borjas, Jeffrey Grogger, and Gordon Hanson, Immigration and African-American Employment Opportunities: The Response of Wages, Employment and Incarceration to Labor Supply Shocks (Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research, September 2006), 4
29. George Borjas, The Labor Market Impact of High-Skill Immigration (Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research, March 2005), 1
30. Jeanne Batalova, Skilled Immigrant and Native Workers in the United States: The Economic Competition Debate and Beyond (New York: LFB Scholarly Publishing, 2006), 7
31. “The reduction in earnings occurs regardless of whether the immigrants are legal or illegal, permanent or temporary. It is the presence of additional workers that reduces wages, not their legal status.” Borjas, Increasing the Supply, 1.
32. David Card, “Immigration Inflows, Native Outflows, and the Local Labor Market Impacts of Higher Immigration,” Journal of Labor Economics 19, no. 1 (2001): 1
33. Tito Boeri, Gordon Hanson, and Barry McCormick, eds., Immigration Policy and the Welfare System (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002), 192.
34. Gordon Hanson, The Economic Logic of Illegal Immigration, CRS No. 26 (Washington, DC: Council on Foreign Relations, March 2007), 5
35. Ron Haskins, Immigration: Wages, Education and Mobility (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 2007), 5.
36. Bureau of Labor, News (Washington, DC: Department of Labor, April 25, 2007), 2
37. Steven Camarota, A Jobless Recovery: Immigrant Gains and Native Losses, Backgrounder (Washington, DC: Center for Immigration Studies, October 2004), 1.
38. Steven Camarota, “Immigrant Employment Gains and Native Losses,” in Debating Immigration, ed. Carol M. Swain (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007), 155.
39. David A. Jaeger, Replacing the Undocumented Work Force (Washington, DC: Center for American Progress, March 2006), 1
40. Rakesh Kochhar, Growth in the Foreign-Born Workforce and Employment of the Native-Born (Washington, DC: Pew Hispanic Center, 2006), 1.
41. Borjas, Grogger, and Hanson, Immigration and African-American Employment Opportunities, 4
42. David Card, Immigrant Flows, Native Outflows, and the Local Labor Market Impacts of Higher Immigration (Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research, February 1997), 35
43. Steven Camarota, Dropping Out, Backgrounder (Washington, DC: Center for Immigration Studies, March 2006), 21
44. Financial Times, October 30, 2007. The Bank of Mexico reported unemployment among U.S.-based Americans rising from 5.4% in the first quarter of 2007 to 8.2% in the first quarter of 2008. Remittances were down 2.4% over the same period. The fall in remittances reportedly reflects more than rising unemployment. It was also thought to be a response to rising U.S. fuel and food costs, tighter border controls, and increased savings to meet fines or immigration bonds. Financial Times, June 4, 2008.
45. For medical usage, see Dana Goldman and others, “Immigrants and the Cost of Medical Care,” DataWatch, November–December 2006, 1700. In their study, the undocumented were 12% of the nonelderly but accounted for only 6% of the spending class. For incarceration rates, see Ruben Rumbaut and Walter Ewing, The Myth of Immigrant Criminality and the Paradox of Assimilation (Washington, DC: Immigration Policy Center Special Report, Spring 2007).
46. Angela Kelley, The Economic Impact of Immigration (Washington, DC: Immigration Policy Center, 2008), 1
47. Steven Camarota, Back Where We Started, Backgrounder (Washington, DC: Center for Immigration Studies, March 2003), 1.
48. Council of Economic Advisers, Immigration’s Economic Impact, 5
49. The Heritage Foundation dissents on this. Its researchers estimate the fiscal deficit of each unskilled household over its lifetime at $1.2 trillion! This calculation does not include any offsetting savings from later generations. The NRC report cited here is James Smith and Barry Edmonston, eds., The New Americans: Economic, Demographic, and Fiscal Effects of Immigration (Washington, DC: National Research Council, 1997)
50. Kelley, Economic Impact, 1
51. Passel, Size and Characteristics, 2.
52. Boeri and others, Immigration Policy and the Welfare System, 241
53. Kelley, Economic Impact, 2.
54. Ibid., 2.
55. Julie L. Myers, quoted in the Washington Post, September 13, 2007.
56. Rajeev Goyle and David A. Jaeger, Deporting the Undocumented: A Cost Assessment (Washington, DC: Center for American Progress, July 2005), 1.
57. Ken Belson and Jill Capuzzo, “Towns Rethink Laws against Illegal Immigrants,” New York Times, September 26, 2007; Julia Preston, “Short on Labor, Farmers in US Shift to Mexico,” New York Times, September 5, 2007.
58. Borjas, “New Economics,” 323.
59. James P. Smith and Barry Edmonston, eds., The New Americans: Economic, Demographic, and Fiscal Effects of Immigration (Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1997), 152.
60. Borjas, “New Economics,” 323.
61. Council of Economic Advisers, Immigration’s Economic Impact, 1–2.
62. See, for example, Donald R. Davis and David E. Weinstein, United States Technological Superiority and the Losses from Migration, Backgrounder (Washington, DC: Center for Immigration Studies, February 2005).
63. See for example, George Borjas, “Immigration Policy and Human Capital,” in Reshaping the American Workforce in a Changing Economy, ed. Harry J. Holzer and Demetra Smith Nightingale (Washington, DC: Urban Institute Press, 2007), 195–200.
64. See for example Roy Beck, The Case Against Immigration: The Moral, Economic, Social, and Environmental Reasons for Reducing U.S. Immigration Back to Traditional Levels (New York: Norton, 1996).
65. Peter Brimelow, “Economics of Immigration and the Course of the Debate,” in Debating Immigration, 158
66. Hanson, Economic Logic, 4–5.
1. Douglas S. Massey, Jorge Durand, and Nolan J. Malone, Beyond Smoke and Mirrors: Mexican Immigration in an Era of Economic Integration (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2002), 77.
2. Marcus J. Kurtz, Free Market Democracy and the Chilean and Mexican Countryside (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), 168.
3. Jorge Durand, Douglas Massey, and Emilio Parrado, “The New Era of Mexican Migration to the United States,” Journal of American History 86, no. 2 (September 1999).
4. Robert Joe Stout, Why Immigrants Come to America: Braceros, Indocumentados, and the Migra (Westport, CT: Praeger, 2008), 143.
5. Antonia López and Julio López Gallardo, “Manufacturing Real Wages in Mexico,” Brazilian Journal of Political Economy 26, no. 3 (July–September): 459–474.
6. Robert E. Scott, Carlos Salas, and Bruce Campbell, Revisting NAFTA: Still Not Working for North America’s Workers, EPI Briefing Paper no. 173 (Washington, DC: Economic Policy Insititute, September 28, 2006), 36.
7. Ibid, 48.
8. Jose Brambila Macias, “The Dynamics of Parallel Economies: Measuring the Informal Sector in Mexico,” Munich Personal RePEc Archive, March 2008, 11.
9. Denise Dresser, “Embellishment, Empowerment, or Euthanasia of the PRI? Neo-Liberalism and Party Reform in Mexico,” in The Politics of Economic Restructuring: State-Society Relations and Regime Change in Mexico, ed. Maria Lorena Cook, Kevin Middlebrook, and Juan Molinar Horcasitas (San Diego: University of California, Center for U.S.-Mexican Studies, 1994), 125–149
10. Thomas Callaghy, “Toward State Capability and Embedded Liberalism: Lessons for Adjustment,” in Fragile Coalitions: The Politics of Economic Adjustment, ed. Joan M. Nelson (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books, 1989), 116.
11. George Grayson, Mexico: From Corporatism to Pluralism? (Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt Brace, 1998), 1–25.
12. Dresser, “Embellishment,” 132.
13. Enrique de la Garza Toledo, “The Restructuring of State-Labor Relations in Mexico,” in Politics of Economic Restructuring, 195–218
14. Kurtz, Free Market Democracy, 171
15. Stout, Why Immigrants Come, 140.
16. Massey and others, Beyond Smoke and Mirrors, 84
17. The Economist 386, no. 8564.
18. Sarah J. Fitzgerald, The Effects of NAFTA on Exports, Jobs and the Environment: Myths and Reality, Backgrounder no. 1462 (Washington, DC: Heritage Foundation, 2001), 2.
19. Joseph Stiglitz, “The Broken Promise of NAFTA,” New York Times, January 6, 2004.
20. Antonio Yúnez-Naude and Fernando Barceinas Paredes, “The Reshaping of Agricultural Policy in Mexico,” in Changing Structure of Mexico: Political, Social and Economic Prospects, ed. Laura Randall, 2nd ed. (Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 2006), 226.
21. See the El Instituto Nacional de Estadística, Geografía e Informática (INEGI), http://dgcnesyp.inegi.gob.mx/bdiesi/bdie.html.
22. Scott and others, Revisting NAFTA, 45.
23. Ibid., 43.
24. Ibid., 44
25. Ibid
26. Stout, Why Immigrants Come, 147
27. Steven Sanderson, The Transformation of Mexican Agriculture: International Structure and the Politics of Rural Change (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1986).
28. Bill Weinberg, “NAFTA at TEN: Tragic Toll for Mexican Maize,” Native Americas 21, no. 2 (June 2004): 2–20.
29. Scott and others, Revisting NAFTA, 47.
30. Yúnez-Naude and Barceinas Paredes, “Reshaping of Agricultural Policy,” 213. There are varying statistics on agricultural employment in Mexico. These figures appear to show more dramatic losses in agricultural jobs than the data from the Carnegie Endowment cited in chapter 14. This is the case because these data cover longer-term trends and measure total jobs lost in the agricultural sector as a result of the ejido reforms, neoliberalism, and NAFTA, whereas the Carnegie data represents only jobs lost as a result of NAFTA.
31. Aristide R. Zolberg, A Nation by Design: Immigration Policy in the Fashioning of America (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2006), 238–242.
32. Massey and others, Beyond Smoke and Mirrors, 28
33. Though nativism did increase during the 1920s and for the first time forced deportations did occur, the decade’s booming economy and haphazard enforcement did little to stem Mexican immigration.
34. Massey and others, Beyond Smoke and Mirrors, 28.
35. Ibid., 36.
36. Ibid., 41–50.
37. Cited in Stout, Why Immigrants Come, 28.
38. For a discussion of different temporary worker schemes see Phillipe Legrain, Immigrants: Your Country Needs Them (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2006), 198–206.
1. Unless attributed differently, the quotations cited in this chapter are from interviews held by Dan DeVivo while making Crossing Arizona or were conducted by Valeria Fernández and Dan DeVivo between May and July 2008 in the making of another documentary yet to be named.
2. In 1993 the U.S. government made its first attempts to halt illegal border crossings via Operations Gatekeeper and Hold the Line. These operations sealed off the most popular entry points in California and Texas, respectively.
3. Quoted in Valeria Fernández, “Ground Zero for Immigration,” Colorlines, March 2008.
4. Quoted in Ray Stern, “El Jefe,” Phoenix New Times, July 2008.
5. Title 8: Aliens and Nationality, U.S. Code (2007), §1325, http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov/cgi-bin/getdoc.cgi?dbname=browse_usc&docid=Cite:+8USC1325.
6. A legal opinion issued by a federal court judge in Kansas reinforces the concept that merely being in the country without documents is not considered a crime. In the decision the appellate court states, “Deportation may be based upon any number of factors, including the alien’s initial entry into this country contrary to law or acts while in this country, such as the commission of certain crimes. However, while an illegal alien is subject to deportation, that person’s ongoing presence in the United States in and of itself is not a crime unless that person had been previously deported and regained illegal entry into this country.” State of Kansas v. Nicholas L. Martinez, Kans. Ct. App. (2007), http://www.kscourts.org/Cases-and-Opinions/opinions/ctapp/2007/20070817/96613.htm.
7. Quotes from Valeria Fernández, “Juez Respalda Ley Anticote,” La Voz, June 14, 2006.
8. Louis Olivas, “Datos 2007: Focus on Arizona’s Hispanic Market” (Phoenix: Arizona Chamber of Commerce, November 2007).
1. For the data, see Kristin F. Butcher and Anne Morrison Piehl, “Crime, Corrections, and California: What Does Immigration Have to Do with It?” California Counts: Population Trends and Profiles 9, no. 3 (February 2008): 1–24.
2. See Stephanie Koontz, The Way We Never Were: American Families and the Nostalgia Trap (New York: Basic Books, 1992.
3. See Miguel Gamio, Mexican Migration to the United States: A Study of Human Migration and Adjustment (New York: Dover Publications, 1971).
4. U.S. Bureau of the Census, “Social and Demographic Indicators,” (Washington, DC, 2004), Table 14a, http://www.census.gov/population/socdemo/education/cps2004/tab14a.csv.
5. Americas Society and Council of the Americas, “U.S. Business and Hispanic Integration: Expanding the Economic Contributions of Immigrants” (New York, 2008), http://coa.counciloftheamericas.org/files/editor/image/ExecutiveSummary.pdf.
6. See Richard Alba and Victor Nee, Remaking the American Mainstream: Assimilation and Contemporary Immigration (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2005); and Douglas Massey, Jorge Durand, and Nolan J. Malone, Beyond Smoke and Mirrors: Mexican Immigration in an Era of Economic Integration (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2002).
7. Roberto Coronado, “Workers’ Remmittances to Mexico,” Business Frontier, no. 1 (2004), http://www.dallasfed.org/research/busfront/bus0401.html.
8. Richard Marosi, “Border Crossing Deaths Set a 12-Month Record,” Los Angeles Times, October 1, 2005.
9. See Patricia Fernández-Kelly, For We Are Sold, I and My People: Women and Industry in Mexico’s Frontier (Albany: SUNY Press, 1983).
10. See Francesco Duina, The Social Construction of Free Trade: The European Union, NAFTA, and MERCOSUR (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2006).
11. See James Allan Davis, Tom W. Smith, and Peter V. Marsden, General Social Survey (Chicago: National Opinion Research Center, 2000). The General Social Survey (GSS), conducted annually between 1972 and 1994 (except for 1979, 1981, and 1992) and biennially thereafter by the National Opinion Research Center at the University of Chicago, collects information from the general public on a wide variety of subjects, including attitudes toward social issues, religion, education, jobs and the economy, government and other institutions, politics, and policy issues.
12. Christoher Dickey, “Urban Legends: New Immigrants May Be the Best Thing That Ever Happened to American Cities, but Don’t Wait for the Leading Presidential Candidates to Tell You That,” Newsweek, November 28, 2007, http://www.newsweek.com/id/72735.
13. See Tamar Jacoby, “Not Another Generation: How to Fix the U.S. Immigration System, and Insure it Stays Fixed,” Americas Quarterly, Summer 2008, 66–73.
14. See David Autor, “Past Trends and Projections in Wage, Work, and Occupations in the United States” (paper prepared for the Federal Reserve Bank of Chicago Conference on “Strategies for Improving Economic Mobility of Workers,” November 15–17, 2007). The U.S. Department of Labor defines low wages as $21,260 to $30,560 and very low wages as up to $21,220.
15. See Alba and Nee, Remaking the American Mainstream.
16. See Massey and others, Beyond Smoke and Mirrors
17. The data is in Rubén Rumbaut, “Assimilation and Its Discontents: Ironies and Paradoxes,” in The Handbook of International Migration: The American Experience, ed. Charles Hirschman, Philip Kasinitz, and Josh DeWind (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1999), 172–195; and Rubén Rumbaut and John R. Weeks, “Unraveling a Public Health Enigma: Why Do Immigrants Experience Superior Perinatal Health Outcomes?” Research in the Sociology of Health Care 13 (1999): 335–388
18. Samuel Huntington, Who Are We? The Challenges to America’s National Identity (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2005).
19. Alejandro Portes and Rubén Rumbaut, Legacies: The Story of the Immigrant Second Generation (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001).
20. Pew Hispanic Center, Fact Sheet: Hispanics in the Military (Washington, DC, March 27, 2003)
21. Mark Dow, American Gulag: Inside U.S. Immigration Prisons (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004).
1. Antiterrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act of 1996, Public Law 104-132, U.S. Statutes at Large 110 (1996): 1214; Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act of 1996, Public Law 104-208, U.S. Statutes at Large 110 (1996): 3009-546.
2. Nicaraguan Adjustment and Central American Relief Act of 1997, Public Law 105–100, §§ 202–03, U.S. Statutes at Large 111 (1997): 2160, 2193–2201; Haitian Refugee Immigration Fairness Act of 1998, Public Law 105-277, § 101(h), U.S. Statutes at Large 112 (1998): 2681-538–2681-542.
3. See “U.S., Mexican Governments Meet for First in Series of High-Level Immigration Talks,” Interpreter Releases 78 (2001): 642.
4. See “President Bush Announces Immigration Initiative,” Interpreter Releases 81 (2004): 33.
5. For a summary of the immigration reform legislation considered from 2005 to 2007, see T. Alexander Aleinikoff, David A. Martin, Hiroshi Motomura, and Maryellen Fullerton, Immigration and Citizenship: Process and Policy, 6th ed. (St. Paul, MN: Thomson/West, 2008), 459–462.
6. Border Protection, Antiterrorism, and Illegal Immigration Control Act of 2005, HR 4437, 109th Cong., 1st sess. (December 16, 2005).
7. Comprehensive Immigration Reform Act of 2006, S 2611, 109th Cong., 2nd sess. (May 25, 2006).
8. S 1639, 110th Cong., 1st sess. (June 18, 2007).
9. See Andorra Bruno, Immigration Policy Considerations Related to Guest Worker Programs (Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service, April 21, 2005), http://fpc.state.gov/documents/organization/45976.pdf; White House, “President Delivers State of the Union Address,” news release, January 23, 2007, http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2007/01/print/20070123-2.html.
10. See Daniel Griswold testimony, Securing Our Borders under a Temporary Guest Worker Program: Hearing before the Senate Subcommittee on Immigration, Border Security, and Citizenship, 103rd Cong., 2nd sess., 1994; White House, “President Delivers State of the Union.”
11. See Jeffrey Passell, The Size and Characteristics of the Unauthorized Migrant Population in the U.S.: Estimates Based on the 2005 Current Population Survey (Washington, DC: Pew Hispanic Center, 2006), 1, http://pewhispanic.org/files/report/61.pdf
12. Daniel T. Griswold, Willing Workers: Fixing the Problem of Illegal Mexican Migration to the United States (Washington, DC: Cato Institute, 2002), 11, http://www.freetrade.org/pubs/pas/tpa-019.pdf.
13. Passell, Size and Characteristics, 2.
14. See Philip L. Martin and Michael Teitelbaum, “The Mirage of Mexican Guest Workers,” Foreign Affairs 117 (2001): 80.
15. See Camille J. Bosworth, “Guest Worker Policy: A Critical Analysis of President Bush’s Proposed Reform,” Hastings Law Journal 56 (2005): 1095, 1102; Patricia Fernández-Kelly and Douglas S. Massey, “Borders for Whom? The Role of NAFTA in Mexico-U.S. Migration,” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 610 (2007): 98, 106–107.
16. See, e.g., Alejandro Portes and József Böröcz, “Contemporary Immigration: Theoretical Perspectives on Its Determinants and Modes of Incorporation,” International Migration Review 23 (1989): 606, 612–614.
17. See Stephen Castles, “The Guest-Worker in Western Europe—An Obituary,” International Migration Review 20 (1986): 761, 770–771. For the same author’s views about recent proposals to reintroduce guest-worker programs in Europe, see Stephen Castles, “Guest Workers in Europe: A Resurrection?” International Migration Review 40 (2006): 741.
18. See White House, “Remarks on Immigration Reform,” news release, January 7, 2004, http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2004/01/20040107-3.html. See, generally, Nicole Kersey, “Misplaced Opposition: Immigration Incentives of the Proposed Social Security Totalization Agreement with Mexico,” Georgetown Immigration Law Journal 22 (2007): 57.
19. See Anne C. Mulkern, “Immigration Reform Sputters: A White House Plan Has Lawmakers Split Along Party Lines,” Denver Post, March 30, 2007; PowerPoint of President’s Immigration Legislation Proposal 9 (March 28, 2007) (on file with the author).
20. See “Labor: Guest Workers, H-1B,” Migration News 8 (June 2001), http://www.migration.ucdavis.edu/mn/more.php?id=2382_0_2_0; “Presidents Bush, Fox Agree to U.S.-Mexico Bilateral Working Group on Migration,” Interpreter Releases 78 (2001): 414, 415; Phil Gramm, “Benefits of a Guest-Worker Program,” Washington Times, July 1, 2001.
21. See Myron Weiner, “International Migration and Development: Indians in the Persian Gulf,” Population and Development Review 8 (1982): 1, 26–28.
22. See Roger Gravil, “The Nigerian Aliens Expulsion Order of 1983,” African Affairs 84 (1985): 523, 524–525.
23. Max Frisch, “Uberfremdung I,” in Schweiz Als Heimat? (Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp, 1965).
24. For one important account of the moral foundations for such a stance against temporary guest-worker programs, see Michael Walzer, Spheres of Justice: A Defense of Pluralism and Equality (New York: Basic Books, 1983), 56–61
25. See Griswold, Willing Workers; Jorge Durand and Douglas S. Massey, “Borderline Sanity,” American Prospect, September 23, 2001, 28
26. See Mike Allen, “Immigration Reform on Bush Agenda,” Washington Post, December 24, 2003; Elisabeth Bumiller, “Bush Would Give Illegal Workers Broad New Rights,” New York Times, January 7, 2004; White House, “President Tours Border, Discusses Immigration Reform in Texas,” news release, November 29, 2005, http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2005/11/20051129-2.html.
27. See Steven A. Camarota, Dropping Out: Immigrant Entry and Native Exit from the Labor Market, 2000–2005, (Washington, DC: Center for Immigration Studies, 2006), 12, table 5. Overall, the native-born make up 85% of the workforce (ibid.)
28. Philip Martin, “Factors that Influence Migration: Mexican Immigrant Workers and U.S. Food Expenditures,” Migration Between Mexico and the United States: Binational Study (Washington, DC: U.S. Commission on Immigration Reform, 1998) 3: 871, 872, http://www.utexas.edu/lbj/uscir/binpapers/v3a-2martin.pdf.
29. See Robert J. Samuelson, “We Don’t Need ‘Guest Workers,’” Washington Post, March 22, 2006.
30. See Doris Meissner and others, Immigration and America’s Future: A New Chapter, Report of the Independent Task Force on Immigration and America’s Future (Washington, DC: Migration Policy Institute, 2006), 5, 6 table 3, 7 table 4.
31. Tamar Jacoby, “Borderline: Why We Can’t Stop Illegal Immigration,” New Republic, January 26, 2004, 18.
32. See General Accounting Office, INS’ Southwest Border Strategy: Resource and Impact Issues Remain after Seven Years (Washington, DC: GAO, 2001), 1–6; Peter Andreas, Border Games: Policing the U.S.-Mexico Divide (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2000), 92–93.
33. Jacoby, “Borderline,” 18, 21; Andreas, Border Games, 92–96.
34. Even so shrewd an observer as Robert Samuelson has fallen prey to this misconception. See Robert J. Samuelson, “Build a Fence—And Amnesty,” Washington Post, March 8, 2006. More recently, Samuelson has broadened his horizons and now emphasizes both border policing and worksite verification: Robert J. Samuelson, “The Immigration Impasse: A Way Out,” Washington Post, April 5, 2006.
35. See Julia Gelatt, “Bush Puts Immigration Reform Back on Agenda, Approves Funding for DHS,” Migration Information Source, November 1, 2005, http://www.migrationinformation.org/USfocus/display.cfm?id=346.
36. David Dixon and Julia Gelatt, “Immigration Enforcement Spending since IRCA,” Immigration Facts, no. 10 (November 2005), 4, http://www.migrationpolicy.org/ITFIAF/FactSheet_Spending.pdf. The balance of enforcement spending went for detention and removal as well as intelligence.
37. See David A. Martin, “Immigration Enforcement: Beyond the Border and the Workplace,” Policy Brief No. 19 (Washington, DC: Migration Policy Institute, July 2006), 1, 5.
38. See General Accounting Office, Immigration Enforcement: Weaknesses Hinder Employment Verification and Worksite Enforcement Efforts (Washington, DC, 2005), 5–8.
39. See Andreas, Border Games, 100–112; Kitty Calavita, “Employer Sanctions Violations: Toward a Dialectical Model of White-Collar Crime,” Law and Society Review 24 (1990): 1041, 1055
40. See Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986, Public Law 99-603, § 101(a), U.S. Statutes at Large 100 (1986): 3359, 3360–74, codified at Immigration and Nationality Act (INA), § 274A(b), U.S. Code 8 (2006), § 1324a(b).
41. INA § 274A(b)(1)(A), U.S. Code 8, § 1324a(b)(1)(A).
42. INA, § 274B(a)(6), U.S. Code 8, § 1324b(a)(6).
43. See Tamar Jacoby, “Let’s Put This ID Plan to Work,” Washington Post, April 3, 2005.
44. A good summary of the Basic Pilot system and the potential for converting it to a functioning nationwide verification system appears in Meissner and others, Immigration and America’s Future, 45–53
45. See Border Protection, Antiterrorism, and Illegal Immigration Control Act of 2005, HR 4437, 109th Cong., 1st sess. (December 16, 2005), title 7; Comprehensive Immigration Reform Act of 2006, S 2611, 109th Cong., 2nd sess. (May 25, 2006), title 3. The drafters of the 2007 compromise Senate legislation sought no significant changes in this element of reform
46. See Department of Homeland Security, “DHS Designates E-Verify as Employment Eligibility Verification System for All Federal Contractors,” news release, June 9, 2008, http://www.dhs.gov/xnews/releases/pr_1213039922523.shtm; and U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services, “100,000 Employers Use E-Verify Program,” news release, January 8, 2009, http://www.uscis.gov/files/article/e-verify100K_8jan09.pdf.
47. See Stewart Baker statement, Immigration Enforcement at the Workplace: Learning from the Mistakes of 1986: Hearings Before the Subcommittee on Immigration, Border Security and Citizenship of the Senate Committee on the Judiciary, 109th Cong., 2nd sess., 2006.
48. Meissner and others, Immigration and America’s Future, 48–50.
49. See Dixon and Gelatt, “Immigration Enforcement Spending since IRCA,” 4.
50. Compare INA § 286, U.S. Code 8, § 1356 (2000) (showing examples of dedicated funding sources of this type, such as the Immigration Examinations Fee Account, the Breached Bond/Detention Fund, and the Fraud Prevention and Detection Account). Tying fees to E-Verify inquiries would need to be approached with great caution, lest it discourage use of the system by employers facing financial straits
51. Emergency Supplemental Appropriations Act for Defense, the Global War on Terror, and Tsunami Relief, Public Law 109-13, U.S. Statutes at Large 119 (2005), div. B, title II, 302, 311–16.
52. For discussion of this sensitivity, see generally Joseph J. Eaton, Card-Carrying Americans: Privacy, Security, and the National ID Card Debate (Totowa, NJ: Rowman & Littlefield, 1986); Daniel J. Steinbock, “National Identity Cards: Fourth and Fifth Amendment Issues,” Florida Law Review 56 (2004): 697.
53. See “State Opposition Growing to REAL ID Act Mandates,” Interpreter Releases 84 (2007): 352; “DHS Publishes REAL ID Final Rule in Federal Register, Announces Increase in Grants Funding,” Interpreter Releases 85 (2008): 297.
54. See Department of Homeland Security, “Fact Sheet: E-Verify,” August 9, 2007, http://www.nilc.org/immsemplymnt/ircaempverifE-Verify_Fact_Sheet_2007-08-09.pdf.
55. See, e.g., Monica Rhor, “Immigration Raids Split Kids from Moms,” Seattle Times, March 12, 2007; N. C. Aizenman, “Pleading to Stay a Family,” Washington Post, April 2, 2007.
56. See “Senate Committee Splits Immigration Reform Bill, House Floor Action Is Next,” Interpreter Releases 73 (1996): 313–14.
57. See National Conference of State Legislatures, 2007 Enacted State Legislation Related to Immigrants and Immigration (Washington, DC: National Conference of State Legislatures, 2007), http://www.ncsl.org/print/immig/2007Immigrationfinal.pdf; Cristina Rodriguez, “The Significance of the Local in Immigration Regulation,” Michigan Law Review 106 (2008): 567.
58. See Nancy Morawetz, “Understanding the Impact of the 1996 Deportation Laws and the Limited Scope of Proposed Reforms,” Harvard Law Review 113 (2000): 1936–38; Elwin Griffith, “The Transition Between Suspension of Deportation and Cancellation of Removal for Nonpermanent Residents under the Immigration and Nationality Act: The Impact of the 1996 Reform Legislation,” Drake Law Review 48 (1999): 79, 124–36.
59. See Meissner and others, Immigration and America’s Future, 3–15.
1. U.S. Constitution, art. 1, sec. 8, cl. 4.
2. Jeffrey S. Passel, Unauthorized Migrants: Numbers and Characteristics (Washington, DC: Pew Hispanic Center, June 2005). The 60% figure is from Steven S. Camarota, The High Cost of Cheap Labor: The Impact of Illegal Immigration on the Federal Budget (Washington, DC: Center for Immigration Studies, August 2004).
3. George J. Borjas, Heaven’s Door: Immigration Policy and the American Economy (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1999), 27.
4. Ibid., 8.
5. Robert Rector and Christine Kim, The Fiscal Cost of Low-Skill Immigrants to the U.S. Taxpayer, Special Report no. 14 (Washington, DC: Heritage Foundation, May 21, 2007).
6. This calculation assumes the low-skill immigrant remains in the United States for his full life.
7. An alternative approach to calculating lifetime fiscal costs is to multiply the average fiscal cost per age category by the expected survival rate of householders from age twenty-five on; this allows the number of households to shrink slowly as the heads of household age. This approach also yields a net lifetime fiscal burden of around $1.2 million. Figures are available on request.
8. Rector and Kim, Fiscal Cost of Low-Skill Immigrants.
9. Edwin Meese III and Matthew Spalding, The Principles of Immigration, Backgrounder no. 1807 (Washington, DC: Heritage Foundation, October 19, 2004). See also, Edwin Meese III and Matthew Spalding, Where We Stand: Essential Requirements for Immigration Reform, Backgrounder no. 2034 (Washington, DC: Heritage Foundation, May 10, 2007); Robert Rector, Amnesty and Continued Low-Skill Immigration Will Substantially Raise Welfare Costs and Reduce Poverty, Backgrounder no. 1936 (Washington, DC: Heritage Foundation, May 16, 2006), 13.
10. Passel, Unauthorized Migrants.
11. A temporary guest-worker program must be limited in scope and limited in duration; it must not be a pathway to legal permanent residence and citizenship; guest workers should not bring their families to the United States, since the inclusion of families would greatly increase costs to U.S. taxpayers, and the policy of birthright citizenship should not apply to children born to guest workers temporarily in the United States; participants should not be entitled to U.S. welfare and should not become eligible for future Social Security and Medicare benefits; employers should be required to cover medical costs of workers while they are in the United States. Edwin Meese III and Matthew Spalding, Permanent Principles and Temporary Workers, Backgrounder no. 1911 (Washington, DC: Heritage Foundation, March 1, 2006).
12. Robert Rector, “Senate Immigration Bill Would Allow 100 Million New Legal Immigrants over the Next Twenty Years,” Web Memo no. 1076 (Washington, DC: Heritage Foundation, May 15, 2006).
13. John C. Eastman, From Feudalism to Consent: Rethinking Birthright Citizenship, Legal Memorandum no. 18 (Washington, DC: Heritage Foundation, March 30, 2006); and Rector, Amnesty and Continued Low-Skill Immigration
14. Passel, Unauthorized Migrants.
15. Eligibility for Social Security is granted after forty quarters (ten years) of lawful employment
16. Rector, Amnesty and Continued Low-Skill Immigration; and Robert Rector, Importing Poverty: Immigration and Poverty in the United States, Special Report no. 9 (Washington, DC: Heritage Foundation, October, 25, 2006), 29.
1. Jeffrey S. Passel, The Size and Characteristics of the Unauthorized Migrant Population in the US (Washington, DC: Pew Hispanic Center, March 7, 2006), 2, www.pewhispanic.org/reports/report.php?ReportID=61.
2. For U.S. population figures, see U.S. Census Bureau, Statistical Abstract of the United States: 2007 (Washington, DC, 2007), tables 1 and 2; for legal immigration numbers, see Office of Immigration Statistics, 2005 Yearbook of Immigration Statistics (Washington, DC: Department of Homeland Security, November 2006), table 1; for illegal immigration figures, see Jeffrey Passel, Rise, Peak and Decline: Trends in US Immigration 1992–2004 (Washington, DC: Pew Hispanic Center, September 27, 2005), 10.
3. For the most recent figure, see Statistical Portrait of the Foreign-Born Population in the United States, 2006 (Washington, DC: Pew Hispanic Center, January 23, 2008), table 1, http://pewhispanic.org/factsheets/factsheet.php?FactsheetID=35. For historical figures, see Campbell Gibson and Emily Lennon, “Table 1: Nativity of the Population and Place of Birth of the Native Population: 1850 to 1990” (Washington, DC: U.S. Census Bureau, March 9, 1999), www.census.gov/population/www/documentation/twps0029/tab01.html.
4. U.S. Census Bureau, Population Estimates Program, www.census.gov/popest/national/.
5. Daniel E. Hecker, “Occupational Employment Projections to 2014,” Monthly Labor Review, November 2005, table 3, 77.
6. Mitra Toossi, “Labor Force Projections to 2014: Retiring Boomers,” Monthly Labor Review, November 2005, 42.
7. Immigration Policy Center, Economic Growth and Immigration: Bridging the Demographic Divide (Washington, DC, November 2005), 17.
8. Carlos Gutiérrez, testimony before the U.S. Senate Committee on the Judiciary, “Hearing on Comprehensive Immigration Reform,” 110th Cong., 1st. sess., February 28, 2007.
9. See Douglas Massey, Backfire at the Border: Why Enforcement without Legalization Cannot Stop Illegal Immigration, Trade Policy Analysis no. 29 (Washington, DC: Cato Institute, June 13, 2005), 7; and Michael Chertoff, testimony before the U.S. Senate Committee on the Judiciary, “Hearing on Comprehensive Immigration Reform,” 110th Cong., 1st. sess, February 28, 2007
10. Stuart Anderson, The Impact of Agricultural Guest Worker Programs on Illegal Immigration (Washington, DC: National Foundation for American Policy, November 2003), 6.
11. Robert Rector, “Senate Immigration Bill Would Allow 100 Million New Legal Immigrants over the Next Twenty Years,” Web Memo no. 1076 (Washington, DC: Heritage Foundation, May 15, 2006).
12. Office of Immigration Statistics, 2007 Yearbook of Immigration Statistics (Washington, DC: Department of Homeland Security, September 2008), table 1.
13. Immigration Policy Center, Immigration Scare-Tactics: Exaggerated Estimates of New Immigration under S. 2611 Based on Questionable Statistics and Faulty Assumptions, Immigration Policy Brief (Washington, DC, May 2006).
14. Congressional Budget Office, CBO Cost Estimate for S. 2611: Comprehensive Immigration Reform Act of 2006 (Washington, DC, May 16, 2006), table 2, 4
15. Congressional Budget Office, Senate Amendment 1150 to S. 1348, the Comprehensive Immigration Reform Act of 2007 (Washington, DC, June 4, 2007), 6.
16. James P. Smith and Barry Edmonson, eds., The New Americans: Economic, Demographic, and Fiscal Effects of Immigration (Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1997), 220.
17. Gianmarco Ottaviano and Giovanni Peri, Rethinking the Effects of Immigration on Wages, Working Paper no. 12497 (Washington, DC: National Bureau of Economic Research, August 2006), 4.
18. U.S. Census Bureau, 2005 American Community Survey (Washington, DC, November 14, 2006), table S. 2001, factfinder.census.gov
19. Passel, Size and Characteristics, 2.
20. Robert E. Rector, “Amnesty Will Cost U.S. Taxpayers at Least $2.6 Trillion,” Web Memo no. 1490 (Washington, DC: Heritage Foundation, June 6, 2007).
21. Robert Rector, Christine Kim, and Shanea Watkins, The Fiscal Cost of Low-Skill Households to the U.S. Taxpayer, Special Report (Washington, DC: Heritage Foundation, April 4, 2007), 2.
22. Consider a simple example: If a certain policy change were to cost the federal government a net $1 billion a year for the next fifty years, the Heritage approach would say that the total cost of the change would be $50 billion. But at a 3% discount rate, the net present value of the stream of payments would in reality be $25.7 billion, only half the nondiscounted total. The Heritage numbers are further exaggerated by the fact that the benefits that legalized immigrants would collect from such programs as Social Security would be largely back-loaded, occurring decades in the future for most current workers and paid in more deeply discounted dollars, while the taxes collected from the immigrants would be front-loaded and paid in more current and valuable dollars.
23. U.S. Census Bureau, “Income: Historical Income Tables—Households,” Current Population Survey: Annual Social and Economic Supplements (Washington, DC, March 2008), table H14, http://www.census.gov/hhes/www/income/histinc/h13.html.
24. U.S. Census Bureau, “America’s Families and Living Arrangements,” Current Population Survey (Washington, DC, March 2008), www.census.gov/population/www/socdemo/hh-fam.html. For 2006, see table F2; for 1996, see table 6
25. CBO, Senate Amendment 1150 to S. 1348, 1.
26. Ibid., 1. The CBO estimated that indirect, discretionary outlays would also rise during that period, but those outlays would not be tied directly to the number of legalized workers.
27. Ibid., 2.
28. Smith and Edmonson, New Americans, 334.
29. Although the NRC considered the fiscal impact of multiple generations, its study notes that “much of the impact of descendants is actually experienced during the lifetime of the immigrant.” Ibid., 334.
30. Ibid., 339
31. U.S. Census Bureau, Population Division, Cumulative Estimates of the Components of Population Change for Counties: April 1, 2000 to July 1, 2006, http://www.census.gov/popest/counties/CO-EST2006-04.html (accessed May 10, 2007).
32. For U.S. population figures, see Statistical Abstract of the United States: 2007, tables 1 and 2; for public school K-12 enrollment, see National Center for Education Statistics, Digest of Educational Statistics: 2005 (Washington, DC: Department of Education, July 2005), http://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d05/tables/dt05_037.asp.
33. Ruben G. Rumbaut and Walter A. Ewing, The Myth of Immigrant Criminality and the Paradox of Assimilation, Special Report (Washington, DC: Immigration Policy Center, Spring 2007), 1.
34. Ibid.
35. Ibid., 12–14
36. Rand Corporation, “Rand Study Shows Relatively Little Public Money Spent Providing Health Care to Undocumented Immigrants,” news release, November 14, 2006, www.rand.org/news/press.06/11.14.html.
37. Smith and Edmonson, New Americans, 351.
38. John D. Kasarda and James H. Johnson Jr., The Economic Impact of the Hispanic Population on the State of North Carolina (Chapel Hill, NC: Kenan Institute of Private Enterprise, January 2006), ix, www.kenan-flagler.unc.edu/assets/documents/2006_KenanInstitute_HispanicStudy.pdf.
39. Carole Keeton Strayhorn, Undocumented Immigrants in Texas: A Financial Analysis of the Impact to the State Budget and Economy, Special Report (Austin: Office of the Comptroller, Texas, December 2006), 20.
1. Linda Levine, The Effects on U.S. Farmworkers of an Agricultural Guest Worker Program (Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service, January 17, 2008), 5.
2. Douglas S. Massey, Jorge Durand, and Nolan J. Malone, Beyond Smoke and Mirrors: Mexican Immigration in an Era of Economic Integration (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2002).
3. Ibid., 42.
4. Andorra Bruno, Immigration: Policy Considerations Related to Guest Worker Programs, CRS Report for Congress (Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service, June 27, 2007).
5. Philip Martin and Bert Mason, “Hired Workers on California Farms,” in California Agriculture: Dimensions and Issues, ed. Jerome Siebert (Berkeley: Giannini Foundation of Agricultural Economics, 2003), 201.
6. Alec Wilkinson, Big Sugar: Seasons in the Cane Fields of Florida (New York: Knopf, 1989), 226–246.
7. Rebecca Smith, testimony in U.S. House of Representatives Committee on Education and Labor, Hearing on Guest Worker Programs: Impact on the American Workforce and U.S. Immigration Policy, 109th Cong., 2nd sess., July 19, 2006.
8. Food prep–related services; lodging-related services; construction; motor freight; packing and material handling; extraction occupations; and grounds maintenance workers. Cited in Ross Eisenbrey, Reforming the H-2B Non-Immigrant Visa Program, evidence to the House Judiciary Committee, Subcommittee on Immigration, Citizenship, Refugees, Border Security, and International Law, 110th Cong., 2nd sess., April 16, 2008.
9. Denice Vélez, “Wages for H-2B Workers Set Lower than the Prevailing Wage,” Snapshot, August 13, 2008, http://www.epi.org/content.cfm/webfeatures_snapshots_20080813.
10. Southern Poverty Law Center, Close to Slavery: Guestworker Programs in the United States (Montgomery, AL, 2007).
11. Tom Knudson and Hector Amezcua, “The Pineros, Part 1,” Sacramento Bee, November 13, 2005.
12. Julia Preston, “Workers on Hunger Strike Say They Were Misled on Visas,” New York Times, June 8, 2008.
13. Lawrence Mishel, Jared Bernstein, and Heidi Shierholz, State of Working America 2008/2009 (Washington, DC: Economic Policy Institute, 2009).
14. It is surprising that H-2B workers may, under current law, legally work in the United States for less than the federal minimum wage. In 2005, for example, the Department of Labor certified an H-2B application for more than a thousand “circus laborers” at $250 per week, effectively less than $3.00 per hour for a ninety-hour work week, at a time when the minimum wage was $5.15 per hour. See Arthur N. Read, “Learning from the Past: Designing Effective Worker Protections for Comprehensive Immigration Reform,” Temple Political and Civil Rights Law Review 16 (Spring 2007): 423, http://friendsfw.org/Advocates/Immig/Learn_Past.pdf.
1. Jorge Durand and Douglas S. Massey, eds., Crossing the Border: Research from the Mexican Migration Project (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2004), 6.
2. Douglas S. Massey, “Borderline Madness: America’s Counterproductive Immigration Policy,” in Debating Immigration, ed. Carol M. Swain (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007), 129–38.
3. Jim Harper, Electronic Employment Eligibility Verification: Franz Kafka’s Solution to Illegal Immigration, Cato Policy Analysis 612 (Washington, DC: Cato Institute, March 5, 2008).
4. Editorial, New York Times, March 27, 2008.
5. See Southern Poverty Law Center, Close to Slavery: Guestworker Programs in the United States (Montgomery, AL, 2007), 18–33.
6. Philip Martin and Michael Teitelbaum, “The Mirage of Mexican Guest Workers,” Foreign Affairs, November–December 2001, 4.
7. Durand and Massey, Crossing the Border, 11.
8. Ross Eisenbrey, Reforming the H-2B Non-Immigrant Visa Program, evidence to the House Judiciary Committee, Subcommittee on Immigration, Citizenship, Refugees, Border Security, and International Law, 110th Cong., 2nd sess., April 16, 2008, 1.
9. “Food prep–related services; lodging-related services; construction; motor freight; packing and material handling; extraction occupations; and ground maintenance workers.” Ibid, 5.
10. Martin Wolf, “Humanity on the Move,” Financial Times, July 30, 2003, 11.
11. Douglas Massey, “Mexico Vividly Illustrates How US Treatment of Immigrant Workers Backfires,” American Prospect, June 3, 2003.
12. Ibid.
13. Durand and Massey have this as “perhaps the single most important motivation for Mexican migration to the United States.” Durand and Massey, Crossing the Border, 7.
14. Douglas S. Massey and Kristin E. Espinosa, “What Drives Mexico-US Migration? A Theoretical, Empirical and Policy Analysis,” American Journal of Sociology 102, no. 4 (1997): 969.
15. Ibid, 987.
16. Ibid, 939.
17. Ibid, 969–970.
18. Jorge Durand and Douglas Massey, “Borderline Sanity,” American Prospect, September 23, 2001.
19. Bill Weinberg, “NAFTA at TEN: Tragic Toll for Mexican Maize,” Native Americas, June 2004.
20. The Heritage Foundation and the Cato Institute have been among the loudest critics of U.S. farm subsidies. See for example, Brian M. Reidl, How Farm Subsidies Harm Taxpayers, Consumers, and Farmers Too, Backgrounder no. 2043 (Washington, DC: Heritage Foundation, June 19, 2007); and Chris Edwards, Agricultural Subsidies (Washington, DC: Cato Institute, June 13, 2007).
21. Alan Beattie, “Pile-It-High Advocates Set to Reap Gains,” Financial Times, October 9, 2007
22. The case against NAFTA can be found in the EPI’s NAFTA at Seven: Its Impact on Workers in All Three Nations (Washington, DC: Economic Policy Institute, 2001); and Joseph Stiglitz, “The Broken Promise of NAFTA,” New York Times, January 6, 2004. The case for NAFTA as positive for the United States can be found in Sarah J. Fitzgerald, The Effects of NAFTA on Exports, Jobs and the Environment: Myths and Reality, Backgrounder no. 1462 (Washington, DC: Heritage Foundation, 2001); and Daniel Griswold, By Every Reasonable Measure, NAFTA Has Been a Success (Washington, DC: Cato Institute, 2002). The Congressional Budget Office found the effect on trade positive but small (CBO, The Effects of NAFTA on US-Mexican Trade and GDP [Washington, DC, May 2003]).
23. In its 2003 report, NAFTA Turns Ten 1994–2004, the Carnegie Endowment estimated the number of jobs lost in Mexico’s agricultural sector between 1994 and 2002 as 1.3 million. North American Congress on Latin America, “Tracking the Economy: NAFTA Turns Ten 1995–2004,” January 1, 2004, http://www.globalexchange.org/countries/americas/mexico/1554.html.
24. For this figure we are grateful to Roger N. Kirkman, BA, technology support analyst, Winston-Salem State University
25. Alejandro Portes, NAFTA and Mexican Immigration, July 31, 2006, http://borderbattles.ssrc.org/Portes.
26. Robert Joe Stout, Why Immigrants Come to America: Braceros, Indocumentados, and the Migra (Westport, CT: Praeger, 2008), 9.
27. The Mexican Migration Project was created in 1982 and based at the universities of Princeton and Guadalajara. It is codirected by Jorge Durand and Douglas S. Massey
28. Douglas S. Massey, Jorge Durand, and Nolan J. Malone, Beyond Smokes and Mirrors: Mexican Immigration in an Era of Economic Integration (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2002), 5, 105–136.
29. See, for example, the report of the Independent Task Force on Immigration and America’s Future, chaired by Spencer Abraham and Lee Hamilton: Immigration and America’s Future: A New Chapter (Washington, DC: Migration Policy Institute, 2006), xx.
30. For parallel arguments, see ibid., 154–163; and Michele Wucker, Lockout: Why America Keeps Getting Immigration Wrong When Our Prosperity Depends on Getting It Right (New York: Public Affairs, 2006), 223–231
31. The case is well put in Alejandro Portes, “The Fence to Nowhere,” American Prospect, October 2007.
32. Ross Eisenbrey, in this volume, and Reforming the H-2B, 7.
33. “At present, all countries have the same quota of 20,000 legal immigrants per year, no matter their size or relationship to the United States. Thus, our largest and closest neighbor and most important trading partner has the same limited access to U.S. visas as Botswana, Nepal and Paraguay. A more realistic policy would recognize Mexico’s unique status by increasing the annual immigrant quota, establishing a flexible temporary labor program and regularizing the status of those already here.” Massey, “Mexico Vividly Illustrates.”
34. Audrey Singer, Reforming US Immigration Policy: Open New Pathways to Integration (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 2008), 10.