Academic Ranking of World Universities (ARWU), 210, 256
Access to education, 82
Accountability, 136–43, 227–28
Africa: early intervention for reading in, 200; enrollment and attainment vs. learning profiles in, 74–76; learning pace in, 92–93; private schools in, 122, 198, 199
Agenda conformity, evaluation of novelty by, 133, 134, 157
Agents vs. system problems, 140, 142
Albania: learning pace in, 118; level of learning in, 45, 46
Algeria, TIMSS assessment in, 43
Anderson, Benedict, 183
Andhra Pradesh (India): community-hired teachers in, 122, 156; Minimal Learning Levels in, 158, 159
Andhra Pradesh Randomized Evaluation Studies (APRESt), 14, 22–25, 253
Annual Status of Education Report (ASER), 22, 25–29, 90–91, 253–54
Anori, Mori, 173
APRESt (Andhra Pradesh Randomized Evaluation Studies), 14, 22–25, 253
Argentina: learning pace in, 118; level of learning in, 45, 46; PISA assessment in, 41, 46
Arithmetic skills. See Mathematic skills
ARWU (Academic Ranking of World Universities), 210, 256
ASER (Annual Status of Education Report), 22, 25–29, 90–91, 253–54
Assessments of innovation, 132–35
Assessments of learning, 253–55; APRESt, 22–25, 253; ASER, 25–29, 253–54; Demographic and Health Survey (DHS), 65, 254; Educational Initiatives, 29–31, 254; importance of, 76–78; international comparative, 34–47; LEAPS, 31–33, 124–26, 199, 200, 254; NAEP, 114–15, 254–55; Penn World Tables, 255; PISA, 34–42, 255; SACMEQ, 74–76, 92–94, 255; TIMSS, 42–44, 255; UWEZO, 58, 59, 255
Aten, Bettina, 255
Attainment deficits and dropouts, 79–81
Attainment profiles by grade. See Grade attainment profiles
Australia, TIMSS assessment in, 43
Autonomy in starfish ecosystems, 195, 220–24, 240
Azerbaijan: learning pace in, 118; PISA reading test scores in, 46
Azim Premji Foundation, 22, 234–35, 253
Bahrain: level of learning in, 46; TIMSS assessment in, 43
Bangladesh: dropouts in, 81; grade attainment profiles in, 56
Basic schooling: dropout rate in move from, 59–60; expanded enrollment in, 65–66; questions to ask about, 239–40; universal, 52
Baumol, William J., 194
Baumol's cost disease, 194
Beatings in Indian schools, 4, 83, 128–29
Beatty, Amanda, 160
Beckstrom, Rod, 5
Belgium, rise of schooling in, 175–76
Belief inculcation, 165, 166–71
“Best practice” as camouflage, 121, 143
The Big Store (Katz), 136
Bihar (India), remediation in, 197
Boredom at school, 83
Botswana: expanded schooling in, 76; learning pace in, 94; level of learning in, 45, 46; TIMSS assessment in, 43
Bowen, William G., 194
Brafman, Ori, 5
Brazil: conditional cash transfers in, 86, 215; learning pace in, 118; level of learning in, 45, 46; meeting learning goals in, 48; PISA assessment in, 41, 46; spending and learning outcomes in, 111–12; starfish systems in, 214–15
Breakthrough to Literacy (Zambia), 200
Bruner, Jerome, 171
Budget-level private schools, 198–99
Budgets and learning outcomes, 107–13
Bulgaria: learning pace in, 118; PISA reading test scores in, 46
Bureaucracy, rise of public sector, 123
Burkina Faso, school access in, 82
Cambodia, gross enrollment rate in, 17, 178
Cameras in classrooms, 122
Camouflage, 120–63; “best practice” as, 121, 143; dangers of, 120–21, 143; for failing spider systems, 129–43; input improvements as, 145–50; and lack of evidence-based decisionmaking, 131–36; metaphor of, 6–7, 121–22; preventing good ideas from succeeding, 143–50; of reform, 131, 134–35; and resistance to disruptive innovation, 151–63; and survival of organizations, 143–44; in value-subtracting and rent-extracting school systems, 123–29; and weak systems of accountability, 136–43
Capitalism and Freedom (Friedman), 189
Causal learning profiles, 58–60
CCTs (conditional cash transfers), 52, 86, 215
Census-based assessment in Brazil, 214
Centralized organization, 5–6. See also Spider schooling systems
Central Secondary Education Examination (CSEE) in Tanzania, 94
Cherry-picked estimates, evidence-based plans using, 106–07
“Child-friendly” pedagogical practices in India, 4, 83
Chile: learning pace in, 118; level of learning in, 45, 46; locally operated schools in, 220; PISA assessment in, 41, 42, 46; school reform in, 8; vouchers in, 190
China: high stakes for students in, 228–29; spread of public schooling in, 182
Civil service teachers: in India, 4, 126–29; in Kenya, 145–47
Class size reduction as camouflage, 145–47
Cohort learning profiles: components of, 19; goals for, 47–50; LEAPS study of, 31–33; and learning progress, 56, 60–62, 63
Colombia: dropouts in, 79–80, 81; enrollment and attainment vs. learning profiles in, 65–67; learning pace in, 92, 118; level of learning in, 45, 46; PISA assessment in, 41, 46; TIMSS assessment in, 43
Communication in starfish ecosystems, 195, 231–34
Communist regimes and spread of public schooling, 182–83
Community-controlled schools, 11, 197–98, 241
Community-hired teachers, 122, 155–58
Conceptual understanding, flat learning profiles in, 29–31
Conditional cash transfers (CCTs), 52, 86, 215
Contractible instruction, 167–68, 169
Contract teachers: in India, 4, 126–29, 156–58; in Kenya, 122, 145–47
Costa Rica: gross enrollment rate in, 17, 178; PISA assessment in, 41
Cost-effectiveness of inputs, 108–13
CSEE (Central Secondary Education Examination) in Tanzania, 94
Cuba, level of education in, 180–81
Cumulative impacts of input expansion, 106
Czech Republic, vouchers in, 190
Decentralized organization, 5–6, 195, 220–24, 240. See also Starfish ecosystems of educators
Delegation and accountability, 138, 139–40
Democratic government and expanded schooling, 17–18
Demographic and Health Survey (DHS), 65, 254
Denmark: level of learning in, 45, 46; PISA assessment in, 36–42; spending and learning outcomes in, 111, 112
“Depreciation” of learning over time, 37
Desks, adequacy of, 105
Developing countries: enrolled vs. actual cohorts in, 64; grade attainment profiles in, 55, 56; irrelevance of learning from experience of OECD countries by, 119; learning pace in, 90–94; performance comparison with OECD countries of, 39–42; performance of best (and richest), 44–47; PISA results for, 39–42, 44–47; years of schooling in, 15–16
DHS (Demographic and Health Survey), 65, 254
Directly contractible instruction, 167–69
Disruptive innovation: community teachers as, 155–58; effervescent, 152–54; by innovative leaders, 151–52; overambitious curricula vs. remediation as, 158–62; resisting, 151–63; in spider systems, 154–63; technology as, 162–63
Dixon, Pauline, 198
Dreze, Jean, 128
Dropouts: and attainment goals, 79–82; and learning profiles, 58–60; prevention of, 84–87; reasons for, 82–84
Duflo, Esther, 147
Dupas, Pascaline, 147
Early Grade Reading Assessment Plus (EGRA+, Liberia), 200
East Asian model of schooling, 228–29
Ecological learning, 135–36, 218
Economic growth and demand for schooling, 18, 179–80
Economies of scale, 188–89, 205
Education: defined, 2, 172; goal of, 13, 18–19; schooling vs., 1–4; universal, 14–15
Educational Initiatives Student Learning Study (EI SLS), 3, 22, 29–31, 83, 254
Educational input expansion. See Input expansion
Education Department, U.S., TIMSS project of. See Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study
Education for Self Reliance (Tanzania), 184
Education goals: and consequences of flat learning profiles, 33–47; and expanded schooling, 14–18, 62–78; and grade learning profiles, 18–21; and illustrations of flat learning profiles, 21–33; importance of setting and tracking, 76–78; and Millennium Development Goals, 13–14; schooling goals vs., 13–50. See also Learning goals
Education guarantee scheme (EGS), 156
Education management information systems (EMIS): and inputs used to fill learning gap, 99–101; and “school quality,” 95–99
Education objectives. See Education goals
Education production functions, 101–07
Effervescent innovation, 152–54
EGRA+ (Early Grade Reading Assessment Plus, Liberia), 200
EGS (education guarantee scheme), 156
Egypt: dropouts in, 80, 81; enrollment and attainment vs. learning profiles in, 65, 66; level of learning in, 45, 46; TIMSS assessment in, 43
EI SLS (Educational Initiatives Student Learning Study), 3, 22, 29–31, 83, 254
El Salvador, TIMSS assessment in, 43
EMIS. See Education management information systems
Empirical learning profiles, 58–60
Enforceability and accountability, 138, 139–40
Enrollment expansion: drive for, 51–52; and education goals, 62–64; grade attainment profiles vs., 54; steepened learning profiles vs., 64–76
Epple, Dennis, 191
Equilibrium allocations, Pareto optimality of, 141–42
Europe, higher education system in, 210–12
Evaluation. See Assessments
Evidence-based decisionmaking: based on EMIS-visible input expansion, 95–99; camouflage for lack of, 131–36; using cherry-picked estimates, 106–07
Evolution: as adaptive system, 140–41; of isomorphic mimicry, 121, 129–30; performance pressure in, 224–25; as power to change education, 9–10; source and survival function of variation in, 132–33
Examinations, high stakes for students on, 228–29
Expanded schooling, 51–88; and education goals, 62–64; by expanding number of schooling years, 52; and false dichotomy of “quantity” vs. “quality,” 78–87; and grade attainment profiles, 53–56; and importance of education objectives, 76–78; by increased enrollment, 51–52; international comparisons of learning effects of, 64–76; and learning progress as combination of grade achievement and learning profiles, 56–62; and physical access, 82; and schooling goals, 14–18; and universal schooling target, 51–53
Expenditures and learning achievement, 107–13. See also Funding
Externalities: negative, 186; positive, 187
Ferry, Jules, 175
Ferry laws, 175
Filmer, Deon, 45–49, 53–56, 82, 254
Financial support. See Funding
Finland: learning pace in, 117; spending and learning outcomes in, 111
Foucault, Michel, 172
Fraker, Andrew, 237
France: rise of schooling in, 175; universities in, 210–11
Friedman, Milton, 189
Functional standards, 133, 134
Funding: and accountability, 138; for education in Brazil, 214; and learning achievement, 107–13; for starfish ecosystems, 195, 237–39, 240
Ga (Ghana), private schools in, 198, 199
Geometry skills in Andhra Pradesh (India), 24–25
GER (gross enrollment rate), 17, 178
Germany, measures of progress in, 115–17
Ghana: dropouts in, 81; enrollment and attainment vs. learning profiles in, 65, 66, 67–70; flat learning profiles in, 53; grade attainment profiles in, 54–55; level of learning in, 45, 46; overambitious curricula in, 161; private schools in, 198, 199; TIMSS assessment in, 43
Glewwe, Paul W., 158
Goldin, Claudia, 191
Good, Harry Gehman, 177
Government-run schools: inculcation of beliefs by, 165, 166–71; in Punjab (Pakistan), 124–26; small jurisdictions for, 11, 241–42; as starfish ecosystems, 199–201. See also Public schooling
Grade attainment: in cohort learning profiles, 19, 53–56, 60–62, 63; expanding, 52–53; learning effects of increasing, 64–76; and learning progress, 56–62; and school learning objectives, 73; trends in, 15–16. See also Universal schooling
Grade completion profiles. See Grade attainment profiles
Grade learning profile: Andhra Pradesh Randomized Evaluation Studies of, 22–25; ASER survey of, 25–29; in cohort learning profiles, 60–62, 63; consequences of flat, 33–47; defined, 20; Educational Initiatives study of, 29–31; illustrations from India of flat, 21–33; and learning progress, 56–62; as link between schooling and education goals, 19–21; link to assessment results of, 36–39; and PISA and TIMSS assessments, 34–47
Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution (China), 182
Greece, meeting learning goals in, 48
Gross enrollment rate (GER), 17, 178
Growing Public (Lindert), 190
Guatemala, gross enrollment rate in, 17, 178
Healey, F. Henry, 153
Heston, Alan, 255
Hierarchical power, 6
Higher education. See Universities
High stakes testing for students, 228–29
Himachal Pradesh (India): cohort learning profiles in, 60–62, 63; PISA assessment in, 33–42
Holland. See Netherlands
Hoxby, Caroline, 189
Human Development Index, 17
Human Development Report (UN, 2010), 17
Hyderabad (India), private schools in, 199
IASSD (international assessment student standard deviation), 91, 98
IB (International Baccalaureate), 212–13
IDEB (Índice de Desenvolvimento da Educação Básica), 214
Ideology and spread of public schooling, 180–85
IEA (International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement), 255
Inculcation of beliefs, 165, 166–71
India: cameras in classrooms in, 122; cohort learning profiles in, 60–62, 63; community-hired teachers in, 122, 156–58; consequences of flat learning profiles in, 33–47; dropouts in, 81, 83; functions and activities in, 203, 204; illustrations of flat learning profiles from, 21–33; learning achievement in, 103, 105; learning pace in, 57, 90–91; level of learning in, 45, 46; overambitious curricula in, 158–61; physical abuse in, 4, 83, 128–29; PISA assessment in, 33–42; private schools in, 7–8, 129, 198, 199; Right to Education Act in, 7, 219; schooling vs. education in, 1–4; teacher salaries in, 150; tutors in, 122, 161, 197; value-subtracting school systems in, 126–29
India Human Development Survey (2005), 128–29
Índice de Desenvolvimento da Educação Básica (IDEB), 214
Indonesia: dropouts in, 80, 81; enrollment and attainment vs. learning profiles in, 65, 66; learning pace in, 91–92, 117, 118; level of learning in, 45, 46; meeting learning goals in, 48; PISA assessment in, 41, 46; spread of public schooling in, 183–84; teacher training in, 147–48; TIMSS assessment in, 43
Inequality of government vs. private schools, 125–26
Information: and accountability, 138, 139; school choice based on, 228, 229–31
Infrastructure and learning outcomes, 95, 96, 107–08
Innovation: choice of, 134; community teachers as, 155–58; effervescent, 152–54; evaluation of, 132–35; by innovative leaders, 151–52; openness to, 131, 133, 215–20, 239–40; overambitious curricula vs. remediation as, 158–62; resisting disruptive, 151–63; rigorous experimentation to test out, 235–37; scaled, 135, 151, 152–54, 201–06; in spider systems, 154–63; technology as, 162–63. See also Disruptive innovation
Input expansion, 3, 89–119; as camouflage, 145–50; and cost of meeting learning goals, 107–13; cumulative impacts of, 106; effect size of, 96, 97, 98; failure to fill learning gap by, 99–101; and learning achievement, 95–99, 101–07; organizational and systemic changes vs., 122–23; and performance of Western vs. East Asian countries, 113–19; progress defined in terms of, 95–99; scope of, 97; and slow learning pace in developing countries, 90–94; wedge size of, 96–99
In Search of Excellence (Peters & Waterman), 154
In-service training, 224
“Instructional rounds,” 232
International assessment student standard deviation (IASSD), 91, 98
International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement (IEA), 255
International Baccalaureate (IB), 212–13
International comparative assessments, 34–47; characteristics of, 34; developing countries vs. OECD countries, 39–44; enrollment and attainment vs. learning profiles, 64–76; linking grade learning profiles to results of, 36–39; performance of best (and richest) developing countries, 44–47; scaling of, 34
Iran: learning pace in, 92; level of learning in, 45, 46; TIMSS assessment in, 43
Isomorphic mimicry, 6–7, 129–31; and challenges to scaling, 152–54; dangers of, 143; defined, 121; and input improvements, 145–50; and lack of evidence-based decision making, 131–36; and resistance to disruptive innovation, 151–63; and rise of spider schooling systems, 165, 185; and survival of organizations, 130, 143–44; system characteristics leading to, 131, 132; due to weak systems of accountability, 136–43
Italy, universities in, 211
Jamaica, learning achievement in, 102–04
Japan: meeting learning goals in, 48; rise of schooling in, 172, 173–74
Jordan: learning pace in, 91–92, 118; level of learning in, 45, 46; PISA assessment in, 41, 46; TIMSS assessment in, 43
Katz, Donald, 136
Katz, Lawrence, 191
Kazakhstan, learning pace in, 118
Kenya: contract teachers in, 122, 145–47; early intervention for reading in, 200; expanded schooling in, 75–76; free public education in, 85; learning pace in, 94; private schools in, 122; smaller class sizes in, 145–47; textbooks in, 158
Korea, meeting learning goals in, 48
Kuwait: level of learning in, 46; TIMSS assessment in, 43
Kyrgyzstan, learning pace in, 118
Labor-productivity-resistant services, 194
Lagos (Nigeria), private schools in, 198, 199
Laicism of Third Republic (France), 175
Language, learning pace for, 58
Law for the Maintenance of Order (Turkey), 175
Law of Unification of Instruction (Turkey), 174
LEAPS Science and Math schools in South Africa, 220
LEAPS (Learning and Educational Achievement in Pakistan Schools) study, 31–33, 124–26, 199, 200, 254
Learning: experiential, 236–37; gap, plan needed to fill, 99–101; lack of evidence-based plans to improve, 95–99; organizational and ecological, 135–36, 218; progress as combination of grade achievement and learning profiles, 56–62; trajectories, 19–22, 36–39
Learning achievement profile: Andhra Pradesh Randomized Evaluation Studies of, 22–25; ASER survey of, 25–29; best (and richest) developing countries, 44–47; consequences of flat, 33–47; defined, 14; developing countries vs. OECD countries, 39–44; Educational Initiatives study of, 29–31; effect of student and parental background on, 102; empirical vs. causal, 58–60; and expenditures, 107–13; illustrations from India of flat profiles, 21–33; input effect on, 95–99, 101–07; LEAPS study of, 31–33; learning effects of steepening, 64–76; and learning pace, 56–60; link to assessment results of, 36–39; and meeting learning goal for all children, 47–50; PISA and TIMSS assessments of, 34–47
Learning and Educational Achievement in Pakistan Schools (LEAPS) study, 31–33, 124–26, 199, 200, 254
Learning assessments. See Assessments of learning
Learning goals: cohort-based, 47–50; cost of meeting, 107–13; input-based plan to meet, 99–101; schooling goals linked to, 19. See also Education goals
Learning input expansion. See Input expansion
Learning outcomes: and learning materials, 95, 96, 107–08; and spending, 107–13
Learning pace: in developing countries, 90–94; and flat learning profiles, 56–60; in OECD vs. developing countries, 113–19
Lebanon: level of learning in, 45, 46; TIMSS assessment in, 43
Lesotho: expanded schooling in, 75, 76; learning pace in, 94
Liberia, early intervention for reading in, 200
Lindert, Peter, 190
Literacy skills. See Reading skills
Local districts in U.S., 241
Local government control of schools, 8, 195, 220–24, 240
La Loi de malheur (Belgium), 176
Macedonia, level of learning in, 46
Madhya Pradesh (India), education guarantee scheme in, 156
“Make vs. buy” decision, 168, 170–71
Making Services Work for the Poor (World Bank), 137–38
Malandi District Experiment (Kenya), 200
Malawi: dropouts in, 81; expanded schooling in, 75, 76; free public education in, 85–86; learning pace in, 94
Malaysia: learning pace in, 92; level of learning in, 45; PISA assessment in, 41; TIMSS assessment in, 43
Mali: access to education in, 82; dropouts in, 79, 81; early intervention for reading in, 200; grade attainment profiles in, 54
Maoist regimes and spread of public schooling, 182–83
Market equilibrium and socially desirable outcome, 186
Marxist-Leninist regimes and spread of public schooling, 182–83
Mastery level, 64
Mathematic skills: in Andhra Pradesh (India), 23–25; ASER test of, 25–29; learning pace for, 56–58, 91–94; PISA assessment of, 35. See also Arithmetic skills
Mauritius: expanded schooling in, 76; learning pace in, 94; PISA assessment in, 42
MEASURE DHS (Monitoring and Evaluation to Assess and Use Results Demographic and Health Surveys) project, 254
Meiji Restoration, rise of schooling in, 172, 173–74
Mexico: conditional cash transfers in, 86; dropouts in, 81; government vs. private schools in, 200–01; learning pace in, 118; level of learning in, 44, 45, 46; meeting learning goals in, 48; PISA assessment in, 41, 42, 46; spending and learning outcomes in, 111; spread of public schooling in, 183
Middle East, spread of public schooling in, 183
Millennium Declaration, 172
Millennium Development Goals, 13–14, 15, 18, 87, 172
Mimicry. See Isomorphic mimicry
Minimal Learning Levels (MLL), 158, 159
Miranda (Venezuela), PISA assessment in, 41
MLL (Minimal Learning Levels), 158, 159
“Money follows the student” schemes, 189–90, 214, 228
Money handling, ASER test of, 27
Monitoring and Evaluation to Assess and Use Results Demographic and Health Surveys (MEASURE DHS) project, 254
Montenegro: learning pace in, 118; PISA reading test scores in, 46
Moore, Gordon, 193
Morocco: level of learning in, 45, 46; TIMSS assessment in, 43
Moulin, Sylvie, 158
Mozambique: expanded schooling in, 75, 76; learning pace in, 94
“Municipalization” of schools in Chile, 8
Muralidharan, Karthik, 22, 253
NAEP (National Assessment of Education Progress), 114–15, 254–55
Namibia: expanded schooling in, 75, 76; learning pace in, 94
NAP (normative as positive), 186–91
National Assessment of Education Progress (NAEP), 114–15, 254–55
National Center for Education Statistics, TIMSS project of. See Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study
Nation-states: control of socialization by, 165, 173, 180–85; spread of public school in, 183–84
NCLB (No Child Left Behind) Act (2001), 229–30
Negative externalities, 186
Netherlands: choice-based system in, 241; rise of schooling in, 175–76; vouchers in, 190
“Never enrolled,” attainment deficits due to, 80–82
NGO schools. See Nongovernmental organization schools
Nicaragua, technology in, 162
Niger, school access in, 82
Nigeria: dropouts in, 81; gross enrollment rate in, 17, 178; level of learning in, 45, 46; private schools in, 198, 199
No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act (2001), 229–30
Nongovernmental organization (NGO) schools: in India, 1, 122, 161; in Kenya, 146; in starfish ecosystems, 197–98
Nordhaus, William, 194
Normative as positive (NAP), 186–91
Novelty. See Innovations
Numeracy skills. See Mathematic skills
Nyerere, Julius Kambarage, 184
OECD countries: irrelevance to developing countries of learning from experience of, 119; performance comparison with developing countries of, 39–42; PISA results for, 22, 34, 35, 39–42, 255; spending and learning outcomes in, 111
Oman, TIMSS assessment in, 43
Operational core of organization, 143–44
Oportunidades (Mexico), 86
Organizational learning, 135–36
Organizational structure, 143–44
Orissa (India), learning achievement in, 103, 105
Ostrom, Elinor, 6
Out-of-school children, 26, 39, 47, 64
Overgeneralization of applying Western schooling standards globally, 190–91
Pakistan: dropouts in, 81; gross enrollment rate in, 17, 178; learning profiles in, 31–33; performance pressure in, 225–26; private schools in, 122, 125, 199, 200; teacher training in, 148–49; value-subtracting school systems in, 124–26
Palestine, level of learning in, 35
Panama: learning pace in, 118; PISA assessment in, 41
Parental background, effect on learning achievement of, 102
Pareto optimality of equilibrium allocations, 141–42
Penn World Tables, 255
Performance pressure, 195, 224–31, 240
Peru: dropouts in, 80–81; lack of evaluation in, 134; learning pace in, 118; level of learning in, 45, 46; PISA assessment in, 41
Peters, Thomas J., 154
Philippines: dropouts in, 80, 81; enrollment and attainment vs. learning profiles in, 65, 67, 70, 71–72; level of learning in, 45, 46
Physical abuse in Indian schools, 4, 83, 128–29
Pinching in Indian schools, 4, 83, 128–29
PISA. See Program for International Student Assessment
Poland, spending and learning outcomes in, 111
“Polycentric” systems, 6
“Positive externalities,” 187
Poverty. See Socioeconomic conditions
PPP (purchasing power parity), 110–11
Pratham: ASER assessment by, 25–29, 253; remediation by, 161, 197; testing and evaluation in Uttar Pradesh (India) by, 1–2
Pritchett, Lant, 44, 47–49, 160, 200–01
Private schools and schooling: in Africa, 122, 198, 199; budget-level, 198–99; in India, 7–8, 129, 198, 199; in Punjab (Pakistan), 122, 125, 199, 200; and spider systems, 8; as starfish ecosystems, 11, 198–99, 241
PROBE report (Public Report on Basic Education in India, 1998), 4, 128
Professional associations, 233–34
Program for International Student Assessment (PISA): aims of, 39–40; in best (and richest) developing countries, 44–47; in developing countries vs. OECD countries, 39–44; enrollment and attainment vs. learning profiles in, 73, 74; on flat learning profiles in India, 22, 33, 34–36; on government schools, 200–01; and learning goals, 47–49; on learning pace, 91; levels of performance in, 34, 35; linking grading learning profiles to results of, 36–39; overview, 255; scaling of, 34; on spending and learning outcomes, 110–11; target population of, 40
Programme in Student Assessment, 255
PROGRESA (Mexico), 86
“Public” economics, 186
Public Report on Basic Education in India (PROBE report, 1998), 4, 128
Public schooling: demand-driven by modernizing economy, 179–80; and isomorphic mimicry, 165, 185; normative as positive in, 186–90; and overgeneralization, 190–91; rise of, 171–77; spread of, 177–85; supply-driven by need for nation-state control of socialization, 180–85; vouchers for, 189–90. See also Government-run schools
Public sector bureaucracy, rise of, 123
“Pull” factors for dropouts, 83, 84
Punjab (Pakistan): learning profiles in, 31–33; private schools in, 122, 125, 199, 200; value-subtracting school systems in, 124–26
Purchasing power parity (PPP), 110–11
“Push” factors for dropouts, 83–84
Qatar: learning pace in, 118; PISA assessment in, 41; TIMSS assessment in, 43
“Quality”: increased inputs in plans to improve, 95–99; “quantity” vs., 78–87; starfish ecosystem traits to produce, 195. See also Starfish ecosystems of educators
Radio-based instruction in Nicaragua, 162
Rajasthan (India), learning achievement in, 103, 105
Reading skills: ASER test of, 25–29; early intervention programs for, 200; evaluation in India for, 2–3; learning pace for, 93–94; PISA assessment of, 35, 39, 40
Read-Learn-Lead (RLL, Mali), 200
“Reforms” as isomorphic mimicry, 131, 134–35
Reitor Global University Rankings, 256
Religion and spread of public schooling, 183
Rent-extracting school systems, 123–24, 144
Resource expansion. See Input expansion
Retention. See Dropouts
Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act (Right to Education Act, India, 2010), 7, 219
RLL (Read-Learn-Lead, Mali), 200
Robinson, James, 191
Romania: learning pace in, 118; PISA reading test scores in, 46
Romano, Ricard, 191
SACMEQ (Southern and Eastern Africa Consortium for Monitoring Educational Quality), 74–76, 92–94, 255
Saudi Arabia: level of learning in, 45, 46; TIMSS assessment in, 43
Scale, economies of, 188–89, 205
Scale and Scope (Chandler), 205
Scaled innovations, 135, 151, 152–54, 201–06
Scaling of assessment results, 34
Scholarships, targeted, 52
School choice based on information, 228, 229–31
Schooling: access to, 82; by bad governments, 17; demand for, 179–80; education vs., 1–4; functions and activities of, 203, 204; Millennium Development Goal for, 13–14; other forms of instruction vs., 206–09; rise of, 171–77; success of expanded, 14–18
Schooling goals, 13–50; achieved capabilities as, 70–73; and consequences of flat learning profiles, 33–47; education goals vs., 13–50; and expanded schooling, 14–18; and grade learning profiles, 18–21; and illustrations of flat learning profiles, 21–33; and meeting learning goal for all children, 47–50; and Millennium Development Goals, 13–14; reverse engineering of, 21; and time in school, 73
Schooling years: expanding number of, 52; and schooling goals, 73
Schumpeter, Joseph, 135
Science: learning pace for, 91–92; PISA assessment of, 35
Scott, James, 6
Secondary schooling: dropout rate in move to, 59–60; dropout rate of girls in, 84; grades covered by, 66; universal, 52, 57, 58
Secularist regimes with dominant religion, 183
Seeing Like a State: How Certain Schemes to Improve the Human Condition Have Failed (Scott), 6
Self-organizing systems, 6
Serbia, PISA reading test scores in, 46
Seychelles: expanded schooling in, 76; learning pace in, 94
Shah, Neil, 237
Singapore, level of learning in, 45
Skills vs. beliefs, 167
SMRS (Systematic Method for Reading Success, South Africa), 200
Socialization process: control by nation-states of, 165, 173, 180–85; direct control vs. third-party control of, 165, 166–71
Socioeconomic conditions: and grade attainment profiles, 55, 56; and physical abuse in India, 128–29; and school performance, 230
South Africa: dropouts in, 80, 81; early intervention for reading in, 200; expanded schooling in, 75, 76; LEAPS Science and Math schools in, 220; learning pace in, 94; level of learning in, 45, 46
Southern and Eastern Africa Consortium for Monitoring Educational Quality (SACMEQ), 74–76, 92–94, 255
South Korea: level of learning in, 46; PISA reading test scores in, 46; spending and learning outcomes in, 111
Spain: spending and learning outcomes in, 111; universities in, 211
Spending and learning outcomes, 107–13
Spider schooling systems, 164–92; blocking of great ideas from scaling by, 202; camouflage of, 120–63; demand-driven by modernizing economy, 179–80; disruptive innovation in, 154–63; inculcation of beliefs by, 165, 166–71; input expansion by, 89–119; isomorphic mimicry by, 165, 185; metaphor for, 5–6; normative as positive in, 186–90; obsolescence of, 11–12; overgeneralization in, 190–91; questions about, 165; rise of, 7–9, 171–77; spread of, 177–85; starfish systems vs., 6, 9, 203–06; supply-driven by need for nation-state control of socialization, 180–85; vouchers in, 189–90; weaknesses of, 5–6, 242–43
Sri Lanka, learning achievement in, 103, 104–05
The Starfish and the Spider: The Unstoppable Power of Leaderless Organizations (Brafman & Beckstrom), 5
Starfish ecosystems of educators, 193–243; in Brazil, 214–15; budget-level private schools as, 198–99; community and NGO schools as, 197–98; currently successful, 196–201; design principles of, 10–11; examples of, 209–15; flexible financing of, 195, 237–39, 240; freedom and choice in, 12; government schools as, 199–201; in higher education, 210–12; International Baccalaureate as, 212–13; learning from instruction for, 206–09; local operation of, 195, 220–24, 240; metaphor for, 5–6; openness of, 195, 215–20, 239–40; performance pressure in, 195, 224–31, 240; principles of, 195, 215–39; professional networking by, 195, 231–34, 240; as rebirth of education, 11–12, 242–43; salient features of, 9; spider systems vs., 6, 9, 203–06; technical support for, 195, 234–37, 240; training to support, 235; unleashing power of, 9–10, 201–06; variety of implementations of, 196, 239–42
Student background, effect on learning achievement of, 102, 230
Summers, Robert, 255
Sundararaman, Venkatesh, 22, 253
Swaziland: expanded schooling in, 76; learning pace in, 94; level of learning in, 46
Syria, TIMSS assessment in, 43
Systematic Method for Reading Success (SMRS, South Africa), 200
System problems and economic explanations, 140–43
Tamil Nadu (India), PISA assessment in, 34–36, 37, 41
Tanzania: dropouts in, 59–60, 81; expanded schooling in, 76, 86–87; learning pace in, 57, 58, 93–94; spread of public schooling in, 184
Targeted scholarships, 52
Teachers: absences in India of, 128; assignment of, 222, 223–24; civil service, 4, 126–29; community-hired, 122, 155–58; contract, 4, 122, 126–29, 156–58; firing of, 139–40; hiring of, 222, 223–24; in India, 4, 122, 126–29; local responsibility for, 222, 223–24; salaries, 149–50; unions for, 234. See also Teacher training and qualifications
Teacher-to-pupil ratio and learning outcomes, 95, 96, 107–08
Teacher training and qualifications: as camouflage, 147–49; in-service, 224; and learning outcomes, 95, 96, 97, 107–08; pre-service, 148; to support starfish systems, 235
Technical core of organization, 143–44
Teller, James David, 177
Test performance, high stakes for students on, 228–29
Test preparation firms, 209
Textbooks in Kenya, 158
Thailand: gross enrollment rate in, 178; learning goals in, 48; learning pace in, 92, 118; level of learning in, 45; PISA assessment in, 42, 46; TIMSS assessment in, 43
THE-QS (The Times Higher Education Supplement–Quacquarelli Symonds) World University Rankings, 211, 256
Thick vs. thin accountability, 227–28
Third International Math and Science Study (TIMSS). See Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study
Third-party contractible instruction, 165, 166–71
Third Republic (France), laicism of, 175
Three-dimensional diagram linking grade learning profiles to assessment results, 36–39
Times Higher Education Supplement–Quacquarelli Symonds (THE-QS) World University Rankings, 211, 256
Time telling, ASER test of, 27
TIMSS. See Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study
Tooley, James, 198
Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS): in Chile, 8; and cohort learning goal deficit, 49; enrollment and attainment vs. learning profiles in, 64–73; on flat learning profiles in India, 34, 42–44; on learning pace, 91; overview, 255
Trinidad and Tobago: learning pace in, 118; PISA assessment in, 41
Tunisia: learning pace in, 92, 118; level of learning in, 45, 46; PISA assessment in, 41, 46; TIMSS assessment in, 43
Turkey: enrollment and attainment vs. learning profiles in, 65; grade attainment profiles in, 54, 55; learning pace in, 92; level of learning in, 45, 46; meeting learning goals in, 48; PISA reading test scores in, 46; rise of schooling in, 174–75
Tutors in India, 122, 161, 197
Uganda: expanded schooling in, 75, 76; learning pace in, 94
Ukraine, spread of public schooling in, 192
United Arab Emirates, PISA assessment in, 42
United Kingdom (UK): higher education system in, 210–12; PISA reading test scores in, 46
United Nations (UN): Human Development Index, 17; Millennium Development Goals, 13–14, 15, 18, 87, 172
United States (U.S.): higher education system in, 210–12; learning goals in, 48; level of learning in, 45, 46; local districts in, 241; NAEP of, 114–15; spending and learning outcomes in, 111
Universal basic (through grade 9 or 10) schooling, 52–53, 65–70, 173
Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 14
Universal primary (through grade 6) schooling: achieving Millennium Development Goal for, 13–15, 18, 87, 172; enrollment and attainment vs. learning profiles in, 75–76; in Mexico, 48; in Turkey, 55
Universal schooling: general increase in, 178, 179, 191; not resulting in universal proficiency, 1–4, 56–62. See also Spider schooling systems
Universities: examinations to determine entrance into, 229; rankings of, 255–56; as starfish systems, 210–12
Uruguay: learning pace in, 118; level of learning in, 45, 46; meeting learning goals in, 48; PISA assessment in, 42, 46
Utah, vouchers in, 190
Uttar Pradesh (India): ASER test administration in, 27, 28–29; cohort learning profiles in, 60–62, 63; Pratham testing and evaluation in, 1–2; private schooling in, 7–8, 129, 199; teacher salaries in, 150; value-subtracting school systems in, 126–29
Value-subtracting school systems, 123–24; in Punjab (Pakistan), 124–26; survival of, 144; in Uttar Pradesh (India), 126–29
Venezuela, PISA assessment in, 41
The Visible Hand (Chandler), 205
Vocational licensing, 209
Waterman, Robert H., 154
The Wealth of Nations (Smith), 141
Webometrics ranking of universities, 211, 256
“Welfare” economics, 186
Window dressing, reforms as, 134–35
World Bank: and APRESt, 22; on economics of education, 186–87; Making Services Work for the Poor, 137–38
World Conference on Education for All (2000), 15
Zambia: early intervention for reading in, 200; expanded schooling in, 75, 76; learning pace in, 94
Zanzibar: expanded schooling in, 76; learning pace in, 94
Zimbabwe: expanded schooling in, 76; level of learning in, 45, 46