Preface
THE PURPOSE OF THIS BOOK IS TO DESCRIBE THE TRAVEL experience in nineteenth-century America. What was it like to ride in a stagecoach, a riverboat, or a train 150 years ago? Were the seats comfortable? Was heating provided? Was the ventilation adequate? How were tickets purchased, and at what cost? How fast did vehicles and ships travel? Why was the passage to Europe faster than the return trip to North America? Why did stagecoaches ride so miserably and railroad cars ride so smoothly? How safe was travel at the time? Is it true riverboats were one of the most dangerous modes of travel? How large was passenger traffic on the various modes of travel? What were the duties of stagecoach drivers, transatlantic sea captains, or railroad train conductors? How did a locomotive engineer drive his iron steed? Were great fortunes made in the transportation business? Did government attempt to regulate the travel industry? Did the rich ride in comfort while the poor traveled in less-well-appointed accommodations, or was there a greater mix of social and economic classes? These and many other topics are explained in the fourteen chapters of this volume.
But surely the history of early American travel has been handled in many other books. That is true, but almost all deal only with one mode of travel such as railroads, seagoing ships, or canals. Very few have attempted to handle all types of transport systems, other than juvenile or pictorial accounts. There have been a few volumes of a serious nature that deserve mention. John L. Ringwalt's Development of Transportation Systems of the United States appeared in 1888. It is a detailed and rich source of data, but it says rather little about the travel experience and a great deal about the network or system of transportation. Seymour Dunbar's A History of Travel in America appeared in 1915 and is a monumental work of fifteen hundred pages. It is more anecdotal in nature than Ringwalt's book and tends to wander off the subject with long detours into American Indian history. George R. Taylor's Transportation Revolution is a far more sophisticated study that is rightly considered a classic in American economic history. It is concise, literate, and scholarly. However, Dr. Taylor's focus is freight transportation, and he says less about passenger travel, since its effect on the national economy was less important. A more recent volume is Transportation in America by William L. Richter, which was published in 1995. Because the book is organized alphabetically rather than by mode or date, I feel it presents a disjointed story that fails to provide a narrative that is understandable by the general reader. It is an excellent collection of data but lacks the organization to be read as a story. Each of these four studies offers considerable information, and all were valuable to my research. None are now in print, so I felt justified in offering the present volume to the public. My book is not documented in the traditional manner, though I try to make my sources clear within the text. This volume is not for scholars or specialists but was written for students and the general reader.
This study covers all forms of public transport, but it does not include individual travel on foot or horseback, nor any form of private conveyance. The time period covered is largely limited to the 1800s, but when appropriate, early or later time periods are included. Chapter 1, for example, addresses ancient and primitive travel. This study does not pretend to be a complete account of public travel in America and is intended only to create a general picture of what occurred.
Humans found travel necessary before agriculture led to settlements and the raising of crops. We were scavengers who picked up food en route as hunters and gatherers. Grain, fruit, and small animals were consumed when and where they could be found, but it was soon necessary to move on, always seeking fresh fields to explore in our quest for sustenance. Long, muscular legs made man an ideal creature for walking. We could walk day after day from twenty to forty miles if necessary. Even after mankind developed civilizations that included dwellings and cities, the attraction to travel remained powerful. Writers of the past commented on the subject often. Seneca wrote that travel and a change of place imparts vigor. Centuries later, Samuel Johnson advised travelers to visit a country better than their own and to copy its virtues. He also contended that the most wonderful experience was to travel in the company of a pretty woman. Other wise men believed movement was the essence of life. It was a force deep within us; we are nomads drawn to the open road that winds through the distant hills and forest. We are by nature wayfarers. Robert Louis Stevenson declared, “I travel not to go anywhere but to go…I travel for travel's sake.”
A major reason to travel is to get away, to break up the routine of everyday life. This is the purpose of a vacation, to go on a holiday and see new places and faces. People dream of seeing the nation's capital, Niagara Falls, Rockefeller Center, or the Grand Canyon. Others become romantic about foreign sights in the faraway Pacific or the wilds of Africa. Limited budgets often preclude such adventures, and the would-be world travelers settle for a week in a nearby state park or fishing lake. More-determined persons go on budget vacations to see exotic places. We give examples of hearty souls who would go emigrant class to achieve their travel dreams or needs in chapter 12.
Thousands of trips were made to attend family events such as graduations, weddings, and funerals. In some cases, people just wanted to spend time with a parent or relative. Public events were also traffic generators: athletic games, rodeos, and the Kentucky Derby would put thousands in motion. Washington, D.C., required a very large railroad station to handle the crowds that came to witness the presidential inauguration once every four years. National meetings of the Freemasons and other fraternal organizations were widely attended. Churches, business groups, and veterans moved en masse for regional or national conclaves, and special trains were operated specifically for these meetings. Hotels were solidly booked and restaurants were crowded.
A few traveled to escape the law. Burglars, murderers, swindlers, and other criminals got out of town and traveled afar to establish themselves elsewhere with a new identity. Mexico and South America were favored hideouts. Henry Meiggs left the United States in 1854 to escape legal action and spent his remaining years in Peru building railways. Boss Tweed left the country for Cuba in 1875 to escape prison.
Others traveled for more noble reasons. Herodotus traveled the ancient world gathering information on a variety of cultures and peoples. His systematic recording of these facts made him, some claim, the first historian. Scientists such as Charles Darwin traveled thousands of miles seeking new information on the natural world. Many explorers went to the Arctic regions seeking to expand our knowledge of these icy terrains. Some of these explorers died in the service of science. In chapter 7 we discuss the travels of artists such as George Catlin, who recorded the American Indian in the 1830s, and James Audubon, who, like Catlin, traveled up the Missouri River to study animal and bird life.
Juan Ponce de Leon had perhaps the best reason to travel. In 1512 he went to Florida seeking the fountain of youth. Since ancient times many have traveled to hot springs hoping to regain their health. Hotels and resorts were built in many parts of the United States, and many became fashionable destinations. This subject is discussed in chapters 9 and 14. Upper-class families generally left their city townhouses for country retreats or mountain hotels to escape the heat. Southerners would summer in Newport, Rhode Island, or White Sulphur Springs, Virginia, to avoid the hot weather in Dixie. The White Mountains and the Adirondacks were favored by eastern residents. Part of the summer exodus was prompted by outbreaks of cholera and yellow fever common to port cities such as Baltimore and New York. In the winter, northerners were attracted to Florida, Southern California, and some Caribbean islands. Here again, much of this migration was limited to the more affluent classes.
Business travel can be traced back to trade among primitive peoples before humans crossed over to the western hemisphere. Flints and bits of native copper were carried hundreds of miles and exchanged for food or other commodities. By the Victorian era, European salesmen crossed the Atlantic to sell woolens while Americans peddled grain or lumber in the Old World. Domestic salesmen known as drummers traveled the United States to sell a variety of products from shoe polish to steam boilers. Executives visited suppliers to negotiate better terms. Bankers journeyed across states to sell bonds or open new branches. Trade was aggressive and competitive and involved much person-to-person contact. This meant going to Chicago, Rochester, or wherever opportunity or profitable connections could be made.
America had a reputation for movement. It became known as a nation of travelers. “Let's go” was a common expression. In 1855 a French visitor reported, “They are in such a hurry – these sons of the New World.” We were a “locomotive people,” restless, impetuous, and ready to roll. An anonymous author wrote in the 1830s that Americans were born in haste, take our education on the run, marry on the wind, make a fortune at a stroke, and lose it quickly. Our soul is a high-pressure engine and our life is like a shooting star. So is the business mentality. Even so, the real joy of travel is the delight of getting home. Can anything be sweeter?
Happy travelers tended to be cheerful, carefree people who were ready to overlook the problems inherent in most journeys. Delays, missed connections, broken seat springs, too much or too little heat did not bother them greatly. Such folks laughed off accidents as just another inconvenience. However, although there are sunny accounts of travel, most firsthand reminiscences dwell on the hardships. The list is a long one. When traveling by stagecoach, the chief complaint was the roughness of the ride – it was bad enough to shake your guts loose – but also the coach stopped every ten miles to change horses, and passengers were told to stay in their seats or be left behind. The inns were crowded, and no one had a private room. As many as six people shared a bed. The food was often poor and expensive. Speeds were slow. It took days to go any distance. The overland stage required 25 days to go from Arkansas to California in 1858. But this was far faster than going by ship around South America's Cape Horn, which generally required about 150 days. Fares were high, generally 5 cents a mile and sometimes much higher. Stagecoach accidents resulted in injuries but few deaths, hence it was a relatively safe way to travel.
It is easy to see why so many people had a negative view of travel during the Victorian period, especially in the first half of that age. It was uncomfortable, slow, costly, and dangerous. Why not just stay at home, where it was the complete opposite? There was your fireplace, a good chair, your books, your family, and your own bed. Life was quiet and secure. It might be a little dull, but was that all so bad? You needed to go south to settle your late sister's estate, but your liver had been acting up, so you put it off as long as possible. Now the lawyers were hounding you. Fortunately, your younger brother was foolhardy – he loved to travel – make him do it. Pay his expenses; it would be a bargain.
Canal boats were pleasant for daytime journeys, but the sleeping arrangements were medieval and the interior space was limited. They were incredibly slow, rarely traveling more than 4 miles per hour. Riverboats offered good interior space plus small sleeping compartments and good food. The packets moved along at about 15 mph, which was fast compared to stagecoaches and canal boats. By the 1850s steamers made the trip from New Orleans to Louisville in six days. Fares were cheap at a penny per mile. The accident rates were high, making steamers a dangerous way to travel.
Railroads proved superior for speed and outran all of their competitors. By around 1850, 25 mph was a typical train speed. To our ancestors it seemed like flying. Western lines tended to run slower; the Union Pacific Railroad rarely topped 18 mph until 1880. As the rail system grew to 30,000 miles by 1860, most eastern canals and stage lines lost their passenger trade. Riverboats began losing the long-distance travel market at the same time. The cars were fairly roomy and offered heating in winter; they also offered toilets and drinking water. The seats were adequate for daytime passengers but made a poor bed for sleeping. Periodic stops were made for meals, but generally only first-class passengers could afford a berth and meal on the train. Coach fares were around 3 cents a mile, which was moderately high but still affordable to all but the poorest citizens. The safety record of railroads was also only moderately good and was a topic of public discussion that led to regulation of the industry. By 1890 railroads dominated intercity travel in the United States.
Public travel in America at the opening of the nineteenth century was an infant industry. There were no scheduled ships leaving our ports. Passengers waited for a ship's captain to announce his intent to go to England, France, or Brazil. In 1818 a line opened between New York and Liverpool, the first to sail on a fixed schedule. Stagecoach service was limited to the East Coast and often presented problems; some lines ran only one day a week, and many roads had no bridges over major streams. Ferry boats, too, were troublesome, as they did not operate in winter and before the introduction of the steamboat in 1807 usually only went downriver. It was almost impossible to make a long trip by one conveyance. Typically the trip began by carriage, then by ferry boat, with another transfer to a stagecoach or a ship. As late as the 1850s Horace Greeley complained, “The chief miseries of traveling are changing cars and crossing ferries.” Getting on and off repeatedly with baggage, such changes in transportation mode remained a vexation well into the nineteenth century.
One traveler recorded her experience in going from Staten Island to the Pennsylvania Railroad station in Jersey City in 1893. The Staten Island Rapid Transit took her to the ferry station, where she boarded a boat to South Ferry. It was blocked from landing by another passing vessel. Minutes were lost. It was then a race to the elevated station to transfer uptown to another ferry to Jersey City. Once inside the sprawling station, there was a goodly walk to the gate of the train. Four transfers and several hikes on foot were needed to go just about 8 miles. Today airlines offer fewer direct flights, and passengers now commonly change planes at a second airport. If everything is on schedule, the exchange works well – even the bags are transferred from one flight to the other. We have all experienced missed connections, however, which in some cases can mean a delay until the next day.
Modern travelers understand money problems when they travel abroad. These normally concern handling strange currencies and the exchange rate. But in early America such problems occurred inside the United States. Our national banking system was eliminated by Andrew Jackson in 1832. In its place rose a chaotic nonsystem of state banks that issued their own bills. Many failed after a few years, but their currency remained in circulation. Even the bills of the more stable state banks were of little value outside of their immediate location. Pittsburgh bank notes had almost no value in Chicago and vice versa. The state bank bills were easy to counterfeit; indeed, some counterfeiters issued notes for banks that did not exist. Paper money understandably was not wanted. Gold coins became the only trusted medium of exchange, but they were in short supply. Specie, or money in coins, was so scarce that foreign coins were legal for exchange in the United States until 1857. All of this had a great impact on travelers. They needed a way to pay for meals, lodging, and fares en route, and this could only be done with coins. Finding a supply of them became a problem for any journey, one that had to be solved before leaving home. In some cases, travelers would carry jewelry or sterling silver household items such as tableware to pay their way along the road. To make change it was sometimes necessary to cut coins or jewelry into pieces. Spanish dollars minted in Mexico were very popular in the United States during this period. When cut into “two bits” this wedge-shaped piece was worth 25 cents, or one quarter. All of this nonsense ended in 1863 with a new national banking act that included paper currency produced by the U.S. Treasury. It was legal tender accepted throughout the nation. However, most citizens continued to prefer gold coins, which were minted by the federal government in great enough number to end the Jackson-era money madness.
The national economy was subject to periodic panics, or depressions. These were often the result of liberal loan policies. Too much debt led to bank failures and economic bad times in 1819, 1837, 1857, 1873, and 1893. The panic of 1857 was of rather short duration, but its effects were international. Everyone suffered to some degree. Investors were ruined and working people lost their jobs. Bankruptcies and foreclosures were commonplace. Even in good economic times the average person worked long hours for modest pay. A typical workday was ten to twelve hours. Unskilled workers made a dollar a day. Skilled workers such as machinists and locomotive engineers were paid between $2 and $3 a day. Women and children of poor families worked part-time to supplement the family budget, many women taking in laundry or sewing. Widows supported themselves by taking in boarders. Children left school at the eighth grade to find low-paying jobs as messengers or water boys; boys sold newspapers on street corners; girls peddled pencils or apples. Saturday was a workday, so only Sunday was a holiday. Vacations were only for the more affluent classes. If you were sick or injured, your job and paycheck ended as well. Charity hospitals did what they could to help poorer people. Private charity organizations cared for orphans, the aged, and homeless people, and some cities operated such institutions as well, but there was no large-scale public safety net. Families cared for their own aged and infirm kin to the best of their ability.
Modern America has lived with inflation since the end of World War II. The declining value of the dollar is accepted as normal. The rate varies from year to year, but it is steadily downward. This was not true in Victorian times. The dollar tended toward deflation – that is, it crept up in value as a general trend. Debtors were forced to repay loans with more valuable currency. The only significant inflation in the United States during the nineteenth century was during the Civil War. Federal income tax was not established until 1913. Before that time, excise taxes funded the national government. Modern readers will be more surprised to learn that the revenue from customs duties and other sources actually created a surplus in the federal treasury during the latter part of the Victorian era.
Nature created many obstacles to easy travel in North America that are no longer obvious. The earliest settlers traveled along the eastern coast by ship as the only easy way to get around. They went up rivers, bays, and natural harbors to establish settlements. The way west was blocked not only by the Alleghenies but also by dense forests of giant trees, some dating back before the time of Columbus. The great forest that covered the eastern half of the United States effectively blocked travel until about 1825. Animal trails offered only a narrow pathway for men on foot or pack animals. Wagon roads came at a tremendous price in human labor. Roads were built a few miles at a time with little government aid. Most early settlers went west via the Ohio River or Lake Erie. Until the 1820s there was little public transportation west of the Alleghenies, as will be revealed later in this book.
There was an enormous amount of talk about internal improvements that would build roads and canals and make rivers more navigable. Albert Gallatin, the secretary of the treasury, prepared a comprehensive plan in 1808 that would create a fine national transportation system. Much of the plan was eventually completed long after Gallatin's death. During his life there was no political will to do very much. Political parties were very divided on this matter. Put simply, those in favor believed in federal funding for the transportation plan; those opposed did not. State governments made an effort to complete certain projects – the Erie Canal as built by New York State was an outstanding success – but most other state projects were far less successful. Some were such failures that the state government was bankrupted by these efforts. Private investors were involved in toll road construction and railroads. The private highways had rather mixed results. The railroads were generally efficient carriers and good investments. There were strong anti-tax feelings in the nation at a time when private enterprise was seen as the only solution. Small local taxes were tolerated, but the federal government was expected to live off of revenues generated by tariffs and excess taxes. The federal government worked directly to build a national road to Wheeling, West Virginia, from Cumberland, Maryland. It was a partner in building the transcontinental railroad, harbor and river improvements, and a few other projects, but in general it stood clear of transport involvements until after 1900. The bicycle and automobile rapidly grew in popularity by this time, and both local and federal governments funded road building.
Where possible, statistics on travel have been included in the following chapters. The U.S. census of 1880 is the first solid source for such data on a national scale. Before that time, traffic and revenue numbers can be found for a few states. Individual corporations would also include statistics in their annual reports, which are useful but do not answer the need for national statistics. The census fails to provide such information for such basics as the number of horses in the United States; it offers figures for horses on farms but not in urban areas. (Readers who assume the census offices published numbers on every subject, even those that would be of general interest, are under a false assumption.)
Travel in early America was largely a male enterprise. This is documented indirectly by the space allocated to men and women on ships and boats. In almost every case, the number of cabins for women was a fraction of the number reserved for men. The same was true on railroads. One car might be reserved for ladies while the rest of the train was open to both sexes. Women generally stayed home to tend to children; however, circumstances sometimes dictated that they travel long distances under difficult conditions. Emigration might be the most extreme example. Here, not just women but children and infants, too, were at sea or on the road. Crossing the ocean was a major trial for travelers, and millions of women proved themselves ready and able to embark on such journeys. We discuss this in chapter 12. Once on shore, women once again went by wagon or river rafts and set up housekeeping in frontier settlements. Middle-class and upper-class ladies had a somewhat easier time. The idea of separate accommodations for women dates back to the sailing ship era. By the early 1800s separate cabins were set aside for them, though they generally dined with male passengers in the main cabin. This tradition was extended to ferry boats, river steamers, and railroad stations. Railroads provided ladies’ cars in a less consistent fashion, which is outlined in chapter 14. Lodging was a greater problem for ladies traveling alone. Inns were often too crowded for the luxury of separate accommodations, so women were well advised to write ahead for arrangements with friends or family. Matters in this regard became easier after hotels became more common. It should also be noted that transport workers, ships’ captains, stewards, railroad conductors, and station agents could be counted upon to assist single women and children who were traveling unescorted. It is also true that a few women traveled the world and wrote about their adventures. Miss Isabella Bird and Fredrika Bremer and Frances Trollope are well-known examples, and America can claim the fearless female traveler and journalist Anne Royall.
The Victorian era is likely unfamiliar to most readers. It is so far in the past and so different from modern life, a brief summary seems necessary. Technically, it is bounded by the reign of Queen Victoria, 1837–1901, but it is sometimes understood as the entire nineteenth century. Its namesake was the British monarch who reigned for sixty-three years when England was a world power with an empire so widespread that the sun was always shining on some segment of it. It was a time of great prosperity, emigration, and population growth. Democracy expanded in Western Europe and North America while colonialism grew elsewhere in the world. New fortunes were made in a few years and as quickly lost as factories replaced craftsman and small workshops. People left countryside homes and small towns for cities. Populations that were once largely rural became urbanized. The very rich found life as cheerful and breezy as a Strauss waltz and were portrayed as rich and carefree; yet, as in present-day America, even the wealthy can be troubled and unhappy. The upper classes were wedded to comfort, sentimentality, and an appearance of breeding and good manners. Self-control, propriety, and a good public appearance were important. A growing middle class held that hard work, sobriety, and living the Protestant ethic were essential to the creation of the good life. Working-class people struggled to exist on low wages and harsh working conditions. Some succeeded in moving upward economically and socially; others turned to trade unions and socialism as part of a necessary class struggle to improve their lives. Capital and labor became combatants; the government generally sided with capital, but labor continued its battle for better wages and shorter hours and eventually succeeded to win some concessions from management. Oddly enough, protective tariffs so favored by capitalists helped to protect jobs for the working class.
The Victorian era was also a time for incredible technical advances. The steam engine was greatly improved and refined, and its effect on transportation is illustrated in the main body of this book. The limitations of human and animal traction are discussed in the early chapters. How steam power and electricity, which was dependent on steam, revolutionized everyday life is explained in almost all chapters in this book. Steam replaced sail on the seas, and electricity replaced the horse on street railways.
There is much that is not so obvious or easy to explain, and that is how different everything was in the time of Queen Victoria. Appearance was much more important. Dress was more elaborate and formal. One was always fully covered. This was necessary to look proper. The fabrics were heavy, and there were layers of clothes, even in the summer. Hats were always worn. We explain in chapter 7 how one young woman lost her life because she would not be seen in public without a hat. People dressed up to go to work, shop, or travel, even to go on a picnic. A vest, tie, jacket, and hat were required. This tradition of formality carried over to housing, conversation, and most social events.
On the other hand, everyday comforts such as indoor toilets, central heating, air conditioning, and electric lighting were unknown. Only important streets and roads were paved. Street lighting was not common. Tap water was not treated and could be unsafe. Bathing was done once a week, usually on Saturday evening. Water was heated on the kitchen stove and poured into a large metal tub placed near the stove. Young girls went in first – they were the cleanest members of the family. Then the women would bathe, followed by the men. The water would now be cloudy, but it was good enough for the boys, who were the dirtiest members of the family. By the end of the next week, most people were smelling a little rank. There was no deodorant at this time, so body odor was common, especially in warm weather.
Medical care was well intended but rather ineffective. The only method to stop serious infections was amputation. High blood pressure was untreatable, as were most other common illnesses. Infant deaths were common. Parents were lucky to see half of their children reach adulthood. Few adults kept their teeth. In 1850 life expectancy was thirty-eight years. By 1900 it was up to forty-six, showing that some progress was being made in health care and sanitation.
A reading list will be found at the end of each chapter. Many of the books listed can be found in larger public or university libraries. My research went well beyond these books and included other similar volumes as well as magazines and newspapers of the period. Travelers’ guidebooks were also a useful source of information, but such material is widely scattered. The earliest guide I consulted was published in 1835 by Mitchell and Hinman in Philadelphia. Appleton Guides appeared in about 1850. Curran Dinsmore of New York began the American Railway Guide at the same time; the title is somewhat misleading, because the small volume also includes information on lake and river steamers. Other early guides were published by Henry S. Tanner, John Disturnel, John Ashcroft, and Joseph H. Colton. In June 1868 the Official Railway Guide printed its first issue and rather quickly eclipsed its competitors. This monthly publication soon added steam navigation lines to its format and continued until 1995. Karl Baedeker's 1893 guidebook to the United States is useful for late-Victorian subjects. The literature on travel, tourism, and transportation is huge. I examined around two or three thousand books, articles, and newspapers in the course of my research, but that is only a small fragment of the total literature available on the subject.
