Figure 6.1 Students working with Music Ace software. Courtesy of Harmonic Vision, Inc.
The curriculum in America's elementary schools is always expanding and changing. Technological developments dictate change and offer unlimited opportunities for enhancing music learning. A thrust for a stronger curricular focus on integrating the various subjects in the elementary curriculum requires careful instructional planning. Changing demographics, the school population, and various legislative updates necessitate varying learning and teaching strategies so reaching out to all learners is critical. And the ever-emerging research confirming the importance of early childhood music learning requires teachers to be grounded in "what works" in engaging very young children in music. These curricular developments and approaches to curricular integration are addressed in this chapter.
Every sort of technology has made its way into the elementary classroom, the music classroom, and into the lives of children. We have computers (including tablets), digital music players, MIDI, smartphones, DVDs, electronic instruments, interactive white boards, and multimedia. Teachers have wonderful opportunities to use this technology to enhance music learning and increase children's fascination with music. A variety of technology-based resources, including lesson plans, are also available to assist teachers in integrating music with other subjects in the elementary curriculum.
Information about some of this technology, as applied in the elementary classroom, follows. Specific information about electronic keyboards, QChords® (digital songcard guitars) and virtual instruments is included in Chapter 3 and numerous applications of technology are integrated throughout the model experiences in Section II.
Computers are certainly one of the most important educational technology tools available for teachers and students. For music teaching and learning, computers can display music notation and sound specific pitches simultaneously and when connected to electronic keyboards, with MIDI (Music Instrument Digital Interface) capability, they can become "instruments." When creative teachers use computer-related technologies such as music notation software, computer-assisted instruction software (CAI), electronic and virtual instruments, interactive white boards (such as Smart Boards) and the Internet, their students will have increased options to experience the three artistic processes of creating, performing, and responding to music.
Computers are especially good at providing individualized instruction, creative music activities, and collaborative learning experiences. Teachers can introduce music concepts and skills in the classroom and then let students practice and expand on them through carefully selected instructional software. It may be effective to use an interactive white board or other projector to demonstrate software to the entire class, and then students can work individually or in groups of two to four with various programs.
Figure 6.1 Students working with Music Ace software. Courtesy of Harmonic Vision, Inc.
Tablet computers (such as iPads or Chromebooks) introduce yet more options for adults and children alike. These portable tablets are ideal for children with their intuitive touch-based interface and offer not only access to the Internet, but a plethora of applications as well. Some music applications allow students to create and compose their own music and record their work in traditional or non-traditional notation. Check out the Apple App Store and Android Market for the many applications available.
Digital music players (DMPs) such as iPods are extraordinarily valuable because they are very small; can access the Internet; run all kinds of applications; and store digital music, videos, and photos/pictures. For teachers, they offer a way to download and store all music, visuals, and videos for classroom use in one place. Of course, smartphones can also access the Internet, run applications, and take photos and videos.
Digital video discs (DVDs) offer high-quality pictures combined with sound. Many DVDs are available in music and offer examples of music of other cultures (references are noted in some model experiences in Section II), performances of ballets, operas, musicals, movies, and the list goes on. The multimedia feature of combining audio and visual in DVDs provides students with the complete musical experience.
Finally, the Internet itself is an unlimited teaching/learning tool. Students and teachers alike can access (at any time of day or night) just about any kind of information imaginable via the Internet. Throughout Section I of this text, there are many suggestions for teachers to initiate research on specific subjects related to the elementary school music curriculum and view various approaches to teaching via YouTube videos. In Sections I and II of this text, there are recommendations for teachers of where to download or stream music from for the model experiences, and suggestions for Internet projects for students as well. Because of the quantity of Internet resources, it is crucial for teachers to be attentive to the quality of Web-based information. This is particularly important when downloading music to use with children.
Because so many interactive music programs (software, apps, organizations' websites) are available, it is essential that teachers carefully preview, evaluate, and select only those of the highest quality for use in the classroom. High-quality software not only offers sequenced individualized instruction but also provides opportunities for creative activities and a tracking method for the teacher to use to keep tabs on student learning. Software programs such as Music Ace (Harmonic Vision) and the Groovy Music series (Sibelius) are excellent examples of well-structured interactive lessons for elementary school children. "Guidelines for Evaluating Music Software" and a Music Software Program Evaluation Form is found on The Musical Classroom companion website.
Figure 6.2 Screen shot from Sibelius’s Music: Shapes. Courtesy of Musicfirst.
The number of apps for children continues to grow by leaps and bounds. There are apps for playing instruments, composing, and lots more. However, some are developmentally appropriate and others not. Again, teachers need to be vigilant that any chosen for classroom use are age appropriate. A number of symphony orchestras have excellent interactive programs designed just for children (see Appendix E). Take a look also at websites such as "Go Classical for Kids" and the "Canadian National Arts Center" for a plethora of engaging musical experiences for children (Appendix E).
The abundance of Internet resources requires teachers to be particularly cautious about the quality of any Web-based information they use. Anyone can publish a website and no one is evaluating the accuracy of the information presented. Teachers should always pay close attention to who is responsible for the website and where it "lives." Is it a reputable government agency, university, etc.? And it always is wise to consider why this website was established and for whom. For guidelines on evaluating Web-based resources, teachers should check out the Cornell University Library website at http://www.Librarycornell.edu/olinuris/ref/research/webeval/html.
Downloading or streaming music from the Internet requires the same quality checks as required of any other Web-based resource. The advantages of being able to download (e.g., iTunes, GoogleMusic, Amazon) or stream (e.g., Spotify) musical examples is that it can enable you to have great performances all in one place. However, there are often many performances by various groups and individuals available for just one piece of music. It is particularly important to choose the best one that matches what you are teaching and the age of the children who will interact with the music. For example, if you want to download a particular song for a class of first graders, it is important that the downloaded song is in an appropriate vocal range and sung at a tempo that young children can actually perform. If you are selecting music of a particular culture to share with the class, it is crucial to make sure that the performance is authentic, e.g., African drumming performed on African instruments ideally by African performers. Throughout this text, there are references for where to access the musical examples via links or downloads/streaming.
The elementary school curriculum includes numerous subjects—everything from math to music and science to social studies. Integrating and relating these subjects one to another makes learning more meaningful for children. The key people making this happen are the teachers! Classroom teachers have the unique opportunity to work with the same children day after day and are responsible for instruction in most subjects. They know their students and the curriculum and can choose the appropriate "curricular moment" to relate and connect music, for example, to the social studies, language arts, or science curriculum. The specialist teachers (music, visual arts, physical education, etc.) bring their specialized knowledge and skills in a particular subject to the curricular table for sharing and collaborating with the classroom teacher. Working together they can help children develop comprehensive understandings within and across the various disciplines in an integrated curriculum.
An integrated curriculum can only happen when the integrity and uniqueness of each subject area is acknowledged and respected. When music is integrated with other subjects, instruction goals need to be established for both music and the other subjects. For example, a start at integrating music with a social studies unit on the Revolutionary War might be to introduce the song "Yankee Doodle." But just singing the song is only a beginning, because if students are to learn something about music, they must also explore the song's elements (e.g., melody, rhythm, tempo) and the song's use and its importance during the war. A valid integrative experience should deepen the understanding of music as well as that of the other discipline(s) involved.
There are various approaches and models for curriculum integration. The thematic approach and the parallel concepts approach are two such organizations. The thematic or multidisciplinary approach is often used at the elementary school level.
The thematic approach emphasizes how the various disciplines relate to each other and to a common theme or topic. The integrity of the disciplines as discrete subjects is an important component of this approach. At times, just one teacher may be involved in approaching a particular theme, but often more than one teacher is involved to provide the needed expertise in the subject area and to make the necessary connections to the district or state standards. The sample thematic web below illustrates the common theme as the core and the various subjects that can connect to that core. For example, if "Environment" were the theme, what specific learnings would connect to that theme in the various subject areas?
Figure 6.3 Sample thematic web.
Themes such as holidays, celebrations, seasons, transportation, animals, and circus often serve as the focus for many integrative experiences, especially at the primary grade level. For example, the thematic approach is illustrated in Model 3 in Section II. The focus of the lesson is on the listening selection "Parade." This experience uses the topic of parades to help children explore soft and loud musical sounds. Students also discuss different kinds of parades, their importance, and relate personal experiences. Several books about parades are shared and an in-class parade is planned. As a result, students have integrated experiences with music, language arts, and social studies.
Often themes explore the lifestyles, celebrations, and history of various cultures. For example, the celebration of the Chinese New Year offers multiple ways to engage children in making all kinds of curricular connections. Model 29 offers such an opportunity with "The Dragon Song" as students learn about the same and different phrases in the song, try a dragon dance, learn about the Chinese New Year celebration and the accompanying Lantern Festival, and plan a celebration with Chinese food, traditional clothing, etc. Or check out Model 22, focusing on the special timbre of instruments in a mariachi band as well as their importance in many different kinds of celebrations in the Mexican culture. Think of all the curricular connections that can be made with these themes!
When choosing a theme for curriculum integration, it is important that teachers consider the following:
Every single model experience in this text makes connections with other subjects in the school curriculum. In the Extend category of each, there are specific suggestions of how to relate music to the visual arts, language arts, social studies, science, and other subjects. And almost all songs in Section III identify an integrative area or areas that can relate to each song. By using the Monthly Planners in Section II, teachers can readily see what materials are available to integrate music with the various holidays and celebrations throughout the school year.
The parallel concepts approach is particularly appropriate for integrating and connecting the various art forms. The arts (music, visual arts, dance, theatre), for example, have concepts unique to each discipline, but concepts in common (or parallel) as well. Common concepts include elements such as color, repetition, contrast, unity, and balance.
Music, visual arts, dance, and theatre are special languages of both ideas and feeling. Each has unique media and symbolic systems. Each has formal elements that are expressed in different ways but with commonalities that can be compared and contrasted. For example:
The National Core Arts Standards highlight the similarities across the arts disciplines (Music, Dance, Visual Arts, Theatre, and Media Arts) with 11 Common Anchors. These common anchors are shared by all five sets of discipline-specific standards (www.nationalartsstandards.org).
A curriculum for the parallel concepts approach is usually organized so that students can examine the common elements or concepts from several perspectives. Each discipline is distinct, with unique skills and symbolic systems, so commonalities should not be forced. For example, even though the word line is used in both music and the visual arts, the concept has a technically different meaning in each art.
Several examples of the parallel concepts approach used in this text follow. Repetition is explored when children focus on how unity is achieved when parts of a song are repeated. They then continue this exploration noting repetition and its importance in poems and paintings. This concept is illustrated in Model 8. The concept of contrasts in visual art, dance, and music can be illustrated when students listen to two contrasting musical selections and create abstract drawings for the connected and disconnected musical pitches. As an extension, students create contrasting body movements to match each piece. This approach is used in Model 17.
Many elements can be compared and contrasted across subjects, including
Some broader perspectives could be culture and ethnicity (how our culture is shaped by various ethnic groups) and migration and immigration (conflicts, effects on resident populations, homesickness).
There are many challenges with curriculum integration and a variety of ways to approach it. Is there time to do the necessary planning? Are there resources to make it happen? Is there support for ensuring that it happens? Are other teachers willing to work in the spirit of cooperation? And the list goes on. What's important is that teachers acknowledge its importance and do the necessary planning and organizing to make it happen .
There are many reasons for integrating music and the other arts in the elementary curriculum. They can be an exciting stimulus for many other subjects because they provide for creative, "hands-on" experiences. And they share many educational goals with other subjects because they help develop
Music and the other arts can play a central role in educating the whole child.
Today's classrooms include an amazing mix of individual students with varying abilities, disabilities, interests, and diverse backgrounds and cultures. Teachers are challenged, as never before, to provide educational opportunities for each and every learner in a truly inclusive classroom. Since music is an important part of the education of all students, teachers need to continuously adapt, accommodate, and modify their teaching strategies and procedures to meet the differing needs of students. "More importantly, it is good teaching to treat each student as an individual and to give everyone the tools they need to be successful in the music classroom (those with special needs and those without special needs)" (Hammel and Hourigan, 2011: 78).
Before 1975, students with special needs were generally isolated in special self-contained classes. With the passage in 1975 of Public Law 94 142, followed by the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) in 1990, students were to be placed in the least restrictive environment, which, in many cases, became the regular elementary school classroom. Individualized education programs (IEPs) also were to be developed annually for each student. The IDEA has been revised many times since 1990 with the most recent amendments passed by Congress in 2004, with final regulations published in 2006 (Part B for school-aged children), and in 2011 (Part C for babies and toddlers).
Under the IDEA, states are responsible for meeting the special needs of eligible children with disabilities (www.parentcenterhub.org). The IDEA lists 13 disability categories under which children and youth ages 3 through 21 may be eligible for special education and related services. Those categories are: autism, deaf-blindness, deafness, emotional disturbance, hearing impairment, intellectual disability, multiple disabilities, orthopedic impairment, other health impairment, specific learning disability, speech or language impairment, traumatic brain injury, and visual impairment (including blindness). For a student who has a disability that is included in IDEA, but does not need the same level of services of an IEP, or a student who has a disability that is not included in IDEA, a 504 Plan may be developed that includes more general adaptations of the general classroom environment.
As a result of the IDEA, both classroom and music teachers have been challenged to learn how to reach and teach students with special needs and to provide a learning environment in which all students can succeed and grow in the elementary classroom.
All students can participate in meaningful musical experiences, gaining skills, knowledge, and satisfaction. Those with exceptionalities can refine their auditory, language, visual, and motor skills through music. In fact, many students respond best to a music modality and many classroom and special education teachers use music to help teach the basic skills.
The music concepts introduced may well be the same as those for the other students, but teaching strategies, equipment, or musical instruments will need modification. For example, students with physical or health disabilities do not always need more time to complete their music activities but frequently need modified equipment. Instruments can be altered to have larger handles or straps, or they can be hung (with Velcro® straps) from overhead supports. Mallets can be attached to hands or gloves with Velcro®. Or easy participation is possible by using electronic instruments that respond to a light touch (such as electronic keyboards) or that include a pressure-sensitive board.
Fortunately, there are a number of assistive technology (AT) devices available to enable students with a disability to participate in musical experiences. It is important to note that schools are required by law to consider the need for AT devices when developing IEPs for students (Lewis et al., 2017). Therefore, any accommodation included in an IEP can be purchased through special education funds. AT devices are being developed continuously and keeping on top of the latest advances is crucial. Some examples of current assistive devices include the following.
Students with a mild to moderate vision loss can benefit from the Lime Lighter, a product that magnifies music up to ten times its original size (www.dancingdots.com/limelighter). A Soundbeam device is available for youngsters who have limited motor skills (www.soundbeam.co.uk). Its ultrasonic beam plays MIDI sounds when triggered (interrupted) by movement—from sensing movement in a wheelchair across a stage to a movement as minimal as the raise of an eyebrow!
Students with physical or communication-related disabilities are able to communicate responses through a device such as GoTalk9® (www.attainmentcompany.com).
Basic information and suggestions for teaching music to students who have exceptional learning needs is provided on the companion website. Specifics for the 13 disability categories identified in the IDEA are addressed. Do remember that it is very important that classroom and music teachers consult and work with the special education facilitator, teacher, and/or paraprofessional in their school to learn how best to maximize the music-learning experiences for students with any kind of exceptionality.
Figure 6.4 Soundbeam translating body movements into sound. Courtesy of Soundabout/The Soundbeam Project, UK.
Figure 6.5 Electronic communication aid—GoTalk9®. Courtesy of Attainment Co., Inc.
Our classrooms include not only students with disabilities (covered in the IDEA), but also those who have special gifts and talents (not covered in the IDEA). Students who are gifted are usually extremely bright while students who are talented possess special abilities or talents in disciplines such as art or music. Some students may be both gifted and talented.
Teachers may recognize these students by their ability to pick up ideas quickly and relate those ideas to other contexts. Or they may be identified by the depth of their thinking and questioning—even their solutions to problems and questions. Students with musical talent may quickly learn to read music, show great skills and musicianship in learning to play an instrument, or demonstrate exceptional creativity in composing and arranging activities. To help these students achieve their full potential, teachers need to offer numerous opportunities for them to be challenged, often with small group or individualized projects.
The increasing population of English language learners (ELL) in our schools challenges teachers to meet the individual needs of students who come from a variety of countries and cultures. These students are not identified as students with a disability nor do they come under the IDEA. However, just as students who have exceptional learning needs or are gifted and talented need opportunities to reach their full learning potential so do the learners who may speak little or no English. All students should have the opportunity to speak the "international" language of music.
As a teacher, it is important to obtain as much information as you can about the English language learners in your classroom—the range of English proficiency may vary greatly as might their level of academic achievement. Consulting with their ESL teachers and counselors is the key to learning how best to serve their needs in the inclusive classroom.
Ideas and strategies are provided throughout the model experiences in Section II to help with engaging English language learners in both music learning and English language learning. There should be many opportunities in these lessons to tap into the natural resource of having students with diverse and rich cultural backgrounds in your classroom. Just think how they will enrich the classroom learning of all students as they build confidence and self-esteem in their new language environment!
Almost every model experience in Section II includes suggestions (adaptations) for ways to maximize learning. Some model experiences include classroom strategies such as peer-assisted learning (PAL) and others incorporate cooperative learning groups. Both approaches work especially well with meeting the divergent needs of learners.
The peer-assisted learning approach usually means two students working together with one in the role of teacher and the other as the learner—roles that are rotated as well ("pair share"). Sometimes the pairs are structured for work over a certain period of time and sometimes just for a specific task. PAL allows for differentiated instruction with partners working simultaneously on various teacher-directed tasks.
The cooperative learning approach involves students working together in small, interdependent teams of two to six students to complete assignments or activities. The teams are usually grouped heterogeneously. Teachers play an important role in ensuring that a student with a disability has a reasonable and structured role within the team. Each member of the group actively participates in the assigned task and interacts with other group members. Generally, each group member is assigned a role, such as: facilitator, reader, timekeeper, checker, praiser. All team members share responsibility for group leadership, and teachers continually observe and assess group functioning and interaction. For example, in Model 32 in Section II, fourth- and fifth-grade students form groups of five (with assigned tasks for each) to create a sound piece based on a haiku poem.
Peer-assisted learning and cooperative learning groups can be used for part of a lesson or for an entire lesson. Examples of such strategies are highlighted and integrated into the model experiences in Section II. As students in inclusive classrooms learn to work in pairs and small groups cooperatively, they develop not only music skills but also important social ones. Additionally, the music classroom becomes a more exciting and interesting learning environment. See "Tips for Cooperative-Learning Strategies" on the companion website.
As teachers apply appropriate adaptations and accommodations, they will find that many of these strategies and procedures work for all students. When teachers provide different avenues for acquiring information and knowledge, offer students various ways to demonstrate what they know, and engage and motivate students with
Table 6.1 Ten tips for reaching all learners in the music classroom
| 1 | Consult and work cooperatively with the school or district special education or ESL facilitators/teachers/paraprofessionals, speech and language pathologists, and/or occupational and physical therapists to plan instruction. |
| 2 | Establish clear objectives and evaluate each student's readiness to meet the objectives. |
| 3 | Plan concrete, action-oriented music experiences that allow students to explore through a variety of multisensory modes (visual, tactile, kinesthetic, etc.). Modify or adapt when needed. |
| 4 | Use assistive technology devices and strategies, and adapt materials and instruments to meet individual needs. |
| 5 | Try different music-making activities—singing, playing instruments, movement, etc. Match songs to the child's vocal register and tempos to the child's. |
| 6 | Increase support for each child by regularly assigning peer partners and organizing cooperative learning groups. |
| 7 | Give clear, concise directions one step at a time. Break complex tasks into smaller parts. Provide many opportunities to practice a new concept or task and allow for many opportunities to be "right," giving praise when it is earned. |
| 8 | Be consistent in expectations and procedures. Post classroom rules and procedures (with picture cues), signing charts, and other visuals. |
| 9 | Keep the noise level in the classroom to a manageable one for the auditory-sensitive student (and be aware that some students may be visually sensitive). |
| 10 | Provide recordings for students to learn the songs by ear before introducing songs in class so the in-class experience will be successful. |
appropriate challenges, their classrooms are often structured or based on the universal approach or Universal Design for Learning (UDL).
A universal approach moves in a direction that, to the extent possible, increases opportunities for students with disabilities and those who are struggling academically and/or socially to participate successfully in the same types of activities as those experienced and enjoyed by their classmates.
(Jellison, 2015: 101)
It is an approach to curriculum development, instruction, and assessment that uses instructional and assistive technology to accommodate individual learners differently while engaging all learners.
Students in the twenty-first-century classroom are diverse—culturally, economically, and linguistically, with varying needs, disabilities, and abilities. Teachers of the twenty-first century must use every teaching strategy, technological device, and resource available to create an inviting, effective learning environment that enables each individual student to be a successful learner in the elementary classroom. To get started with "What Works," consider the ten tips for reaching all learners on p. 80.
Music and very young children just naturally go together! As infants, they coo and babble; as toddlers, they make up little "singsongs" or tunes and twirl and rock to music. As prekindergartners, they create songs to go along with their play, learn to sing familiar songs, explore and play rhythm and melody instruments, and listen and move to music in all kinds of interesting ways. And as parents, caregivers, and teachers watch and guide this musical exploration, they observe and note, almost intuitively, how critical and positive these experiences are to a child's total development.
Research tells us that the years before children enter kindergarten are critical for children's overall growth and development and especially significant for their musical growth and development. Many educators believe that music aptitude is present at birth and flourishes in a nurturing environment (Gordon, 2013). The psychologist Howard Gardner suggests that music is one of the first intelligences to manifest (Gardner, 2011). Gardner also asserts that if a potential intelligence is not nurtured, it may not develop. This puts a great responsibility on parents, caregivers, and teachers of young children to provide musical experiences that will nurture their musical potential.
Play is central to the young child's learning. Everything we know about young children tells us that they learn through play. Those who work (and play) with children in early childhood educational settings and child-care centers have the joyful responsibility to create developmentally-appropriate music experiences that take place in a teacher-directed and supported play environment. This environment is very different from what they will experience later when they enter the elementary school classroom.
Figure 6.6 Discovering a sound shape drum. Photo by P. Burgess.
While we have all observed that most babies coo, babble, or move to music, there is evidence that musical responses begin in utero. For example, a number of researchers have noted that in the third trimester of pregnancy the fetus can hear and respond to external sounds evident with changes in heartbeat and movement (Abrams et al., 1998; Lecanuet, 1996; Lecanuet et al., 2000; Parncutt, 2006). There are even indications that the fetus shows a preference for low-frequency sounds (Hepper and Shadidullah, 1994; Lecanuet et al., 2000). However, by six months of age, infants show a preference for higher pitches (Trainor and Zacharias, 1998; Werner and Vandenbos, 1993). Given such findings, it is obviously never too early to begin music experiences!
The first year of a child's life is considered significant for the development of auditory/musical perceptual abilities. There is evidence that a number of "neural pathways important for music making are established during the first year of life" (The College Board, 2011: 28). For example, the newborn is able to recognize the rhythm, pitch, and expression of the mother's voice and distinguish it from other female voices (Fox, 1991: 43). Infants of 2 months are able to perceive rhythm patterns and groupings, and infants of 7 months can recognize variations in tempo and frequency (Trainor and Corrigall, 2010). Babies can even tell when a singer is singing in a different register (Trainor and Zacharias, 1998) and recognize when an accompaniment is added to a melody (Ilari and Sundara, 2009). They are able to focus and concentrate on a person singing or clapping and not be distracted when nearby activities are going on (Bahrick et al., 2004).
The results of these selected studies remind us how important the musical interaction between infants and parents/caregivers is for later musical involvement. We are encouraged to involve babies in music making by singing and chanting to them, imitating the sounds they make, providing safe toy instruments for them to play, rocking, patting, touching, and moving with them to all kinds of music.
Toddlers love to explore all kinds of sound sources—pots and pans, body sounds, found materials. You name it—they love to try it out and see and hear what it sounds like! Instruments are a natural delight. They are fascinated with musical timbres and providing them with instruments that they can manipulate will delight them no end! They are more than able to learn the names of instruments and explore how they look and make their sounds. Experimenting with a variety of musical timbres using computers is also of great interest to many youngsters too. It is definitely recommended to expose them not only to instrumental sounds, but vocal, body, and environmental ones as well.
Children of this age love to create little tunes on instruments such as small xylophones or mallet instruments. They engage readily in any kind of spontaneous music making such as inventing little "singsongs" and chants. Research shows that they become even more inventive when an adult plays the role of observer or responder, rather than the leader or director (Berger and Cooper, 2003; Tarnowski and Leclerc, 1995). Children of this age love to sing so parents, caregivers, and teachers need to share lots of songs, singing games, and rhymes with them.
Figure 6.7 Oh, is this fun! Courtesy of Creen Tones.
And do toddlers love to whirl around and dance to all kinds of music! Exposure to lots of different kinds and styles of music for their movement explorations is very appropriate and definitely recommended. It is important to note that toddlers are just gaining control of their body movements so they may be making enthusiastic jerky and punchy motions rather than graceful, controlled ones. However, some appear to be able to perceive and synchronize their movements to a steady beat (Provasi and Bobin-Begue, 2003). Props such as a dolly for rocking or a ribbon wand for swishing may be especially appropriate additions to their creative play movements (Andress, 1998).
Prekindergarten children enjoy all kinds of music experiences: performing music through singing and playing instruments, creating music, responding to music through listening and movements, and, as a result, developing important understandings about music. These musical experiences are precisely what the National Core Music Standards for prekindergarten through grade 12 articulate with a focus on the three artistic processes of performing, responding, and creating (www.nationalartsstandards.org). That prekindergartners are included in these national standards speaks volumes of the importance of the preschool years in music learning. Music educators are underscoring how critical these early childhood years are and how better alignment between the prekindergarten and kindergarten music experiences will help children grow intellectually and musically.
As prekindergarten teachers and caregivers plan music experiences specified by the standards, some background information on the three artistic processes of performing (singing, playing instruments), responding (moving to music, listening to music), and creating music follows. While each is addressed separately, almost always preschoolers are generally engaged in several of these activities during a musical experience. Through these musical experiences preschool children will develop important understandings about music that will prepare them for kindergarten and beyond.
Young children bring to the PreK classroom each and every day their own personal musical instrument—their voice. And use it they do! They use it quite naturally to sing and express themselves musically. The preschool experience should help them develop their singing skills and learn to use their voices appropriately. To do this teachers and caregivers should sing to, with, and for the young child every day. The songs can be "real" ones or ones made up to fit an activity such as inviting children to come for "circle time." Singing need not be just at circle time though, but incorporated at different times throughout the day. The motto should be "Make singing frequent, make singing playful, and make it fun!"
And children do love to sing—all kinds of songs. Nursery rhymes and folk songs are in abundance and perfect for engaging and delighting young children in early singing experiences. The best ones are usually short and simple, have repetitive parts, include only a few pitches, and are sung in the range of the young child's voice. Some young children will be able to sing songs in tune. Others will only be able to approximate the ups and downs of the melodies. This is to be expected given the relatively wide range of individual differences at this stage in their development. (For information on teaching a song, etc., refer to the Singing section in Chapter 3.)
Teachers and caregivers may note that children's singing and language/speech development seem to be related. For example, a prekindergartener's singing range is generally similar to his or her speech range and relates directly to his or her flexibility in singing different pitches. Youngsters with higher speaking voices sing with greater accuracy than those with lower speaking voices (Trollinger, 2003: 78 94). Assessing and expanding the child's speech and singing skills are critical during the preschool years. With frequent experiences exploring and expanding the "special" voices they use for singing, playing, talking, and whispering, sprinkled with lots of positive reinforcement and appropriate modeling from adults (women in head voice and men in falsetto), most children will become successful (and happy!) singers.
Figure 6.8 Happy singers! Photo by P. Burgss.
It does not take much to spark a young child's interest in playing instruments. Offering lots of opportunities for children to experiment independently and in group settings with a variety of sound sources and simple classroom instruments (even "smart" instruments in an application such as GarageBand ) is an important part of the prekindergarten musical experience and starts them on the path to becoming active music makers.
Children should become acquainted in these prekindergarten years with both nonpitched instruments such as wood blocks and rhythm sticks and pitched instruments such as xylophones and glockenspiels. Although rhythm instruments are fairly easy to play, there are special ways (and tips) for holding and playing them to get the best results (Lindeman, 2002). Young children need to get to know each instrument, just as they would get to know a new friend. And when they do, they will be adding sound sources to represent different activities in a story, accompanying a song with a rhythm instrument, and figuring out how to play simple melodies or patterns from melodies by ear on a pitched instrument.
Music without movement is nearly impossible for young children—they listen with their whole bodies and physically experience the music. "When children put music in their bodies, they learn the music, the music comes alive in them, and they become the music" (Bennett, 2012: 4). Without question, preschool children learn about music (and lots more!) quite naturally through movement.
Creative movement is probably the most natural (and playful) way for children to move in their own special ways and express themselves. That definitely means that they should have many opportunities to make up movements to music. Teachers and caregivers often use prompts such as "let's pretend" or "just suppose" to entice children to express themselves with creative movement (Miranda, 2015). And they love it when an adult "plays' with them!
Four- and 5-year-olds gain more and more control of their body movements. Even though they still are developing many psychomotor skills, they have more control and accuracy in responding to music with creative movements. They love to pretend and move in all sorts of creative ways as images and verbal cues are suggested.
Preschool children also need multiple opportunities to experience fundamental movements such as walking, marching, running, hopping, jumping, and sliding to music. As they develop these motor skills, they learn about their bodies. Through finger plays, songs, chants, and games, they clap their hands, wiggle fingers, and tap their feet—all ways to explore and move their bodies.
As with all musical experiences, teachers and caregivers should plan movement activities that are age appropriate and focus on process rather than product.
Listening is central to singing songs, playing instruments, creating music, and moving to music. However, young children need opportunities to learn to listen to music just for its own sake too. So often recorded music is played only as background music for nap time or snack time in preschools. This is worthy and appropriate, but more focused, attentive listening is especially important at the prekindergarten level as well.
Learning to listen attentively to music is a challenge for children. Successful and positive music listening experiences result when they are engaged as active participants. It appears that they listen most attentively when their teacher, parent, or caregiver is actively involved in listening attentively too, e.g., doing some movements to music, maintaining eye contact with students, and using positive facial expressions (Sims, 1986). Ways to focus their attention include using movement or visual aids to elicit responses to particular events in the music. For example, if children are listening to music that has parts with contrasting long and short sounds, they can do hand movements while seated to demonstrate what they hear. Or use puppets to show their understanding. Neither the movements nor the visual aids should detract from the listening experience! (For helpful hints for children of any age, refer to the "Guidelines to Encourage Students to Listen Attentively" on page 36 in this text.)
Being a creator comes naturally to prekindergarten children. They love to explore and experiment with new ideas and this creative nature needs to be nurtured (and cherished). To enable children to experience and expand their creative horizons, teachers and caregivers need to provide lots of time and settings for children to be able to explore and express themselves in new ways—both alone and with others. Children will thrive in an environment that is positive, encouraging, non-challenging, and respectful of individual efforts. These early experiences in creativity will help children develop self worth and self esteem.
Singing is a perfect music-making activity for creative experiences. Young children love to invent little "singsongs" or tunes to accompany their play. When and if appropriate, have them share their creations with others. Encourage and model ways to "make a picture" of what they create using pictorial or iconic notation. Children are also intrigued by making up new words for familiar songs or creating dramatizations to songs. Some even like to improvise a song about someone or something special to them.
Creative movement comes very naturally to children. They can create different movements, e.g., tapping wrists, rubbing hands back and forth to go with a familiar song. Or express themselves with free movements to a short listening selection such as "Aquarium" from Carnival of the Animals. Teachers can either set the stage for a movement experience such as this with some suggestive clues or let the children be "clueless" as they explore and experience the music for the first time.
Children can use instruments to create accompaniments for their songs. Or they can improvise musical ideas on simple classroom instruments—even virtual instruments using the GarageBand software and an iPad. To inspire a creative improvisatory experience, Sims suggests that two children create a "sound conversation" between a pair of instruments with one child starting the conversation and the other answering (Sims, 1993). Most of these creations may be created on the spot (improvised) and probably not remembered. Certainly some musical ideas might be repetitive and could be remembered (and hopefully, "pictured" some way in iconic or pictorial notation).
Prekindergarten children often understand more than they can tell, and comprehend many music concepts about timbre, dynamics, rhythm, melody, form, and texture (McDonald and Simons, 1989: 85). Sometimes questions about "comparatives" are particularly effective for bringing out a response: "Does this (clapped) beat get slower or faster?" "Let's sing the song loudly, and then quietly." In addition to fast and slow tempos and loud and soft dynamics, young children can identify long and short sounds, same and different phrases, steady beats, various selected orchestral instruments, high and low sounds, and a number of other music concepts. Once they have experiences exploring these concepts, they will be ready to describe the differences using the appropriate words.
There are many musical examples referred to in this text that can be adapted and used for prekindergarten experiences. For example, children can be invited to show (through movements) that they hear the fast and slow parts in "Boogie-Woogie Walk" (Model 5). They can chant favorite chants (see Appendix C) loudly and quietly—as well as experiment singing favorite childhood songs with different dynamics (see Section III).
Multiple experiences creating, performing, and responding to music will enable young children to develop meaningful music concepts and prepare them for future musical adventures. The stage has been set through these experiences for the next step in a child's education—kindergarten and beyond.
Just as there are various approaches to teaching music in the elementary school, early childhood programs also offer a number of curricular choices. In Chapter 5, the most prevalent elementary classroom music approaches are described—Dalcroze, Orff Schulwerk, Kodály, and Gordon's Music Learning Theory. All of these approaches have a significant early childhood component. However, many prekindergarten programs incorporate a music learning approach that matches the philosophy of their overall preschool curriculum. For example, three of the most popular early childhood schools—Montessori, Waldorf, and Reggio Emilia—all use music and visual art learning activities as a central aspect of their curricula.
Montessori schools begin with "lessons in silence" before moving on to discrimination of sound and music. Waldorf schools also believe that the experience of listening is important to develop before moving on to more formal music learning experiences. In Montessori schools there are daily musical experiences that encourage children to engage in spontaneous movement and other activities. The Waldorf curriculum also uses daily movement, dances, and song games with the purpose of nurturing children's physical and spiritual development. In Reggio-inspired schools there is a dedicated arts studio (atelier) where children receive intensive instruction from a trained arts specialist. Children's artistic work is carefully documented and then shared with teachers, parents, and other children for reflection, and negotiated by everyone regarding further ideas for including new materials and activities in the studio (Hanna, 2017).
Central to both the Montessori and Waldorf approaches are carefully selected materials and activities based on developmental stages and sensitive periods for learning. In contrast, the Reggio approach introduces materials and activities based on the children's current interests and is a part of a non-planned, emergent curriculum.
Pedagogy for singing and instrumental study in the Waldorf schools includes singing and moving to music in the " mood of the fifth," which are five-note melodies containing open fifths centering around the note A. Additionally, instruments in the early years are used only for tone color and mood and never for melodic or rhythmic purposes. As children reach higher developmental levels in the Waldorf schools, tone flutes, strings, and band instruments are introduced as regular activities in the classroom (see Association for Waldorf Music Education at www.waldorfmusic.org). In Montessori schools special instruments, created by Maria Montessori, are used, such as the Montessori bells, the Choroi interval flute, the monochord, and sets of prisms and wooden cylinders with varying pitches and sound colors. These sets of instruments provide children with ear training experiences and tactile, sensory problem-solving challenges, and can be completed at each child's own pace with little adult supervision (Burns, 2017). The selection of songs or instruments in Reggio-inspired schools is based on the music teacher, children, or other adult's suggestions.
These three curricular approaches clearly focus on what's important in early childhood music and share a common belief "in the child as an active learner in an interactive environment, who is constructing and revising her versions of the world and finding multiple means to interpret and express them." (Jordan-DeCarbo and Nelson, 2002: 232)
For information on each school, see the following websites: www.montessori.org, www.waldorfanswers.com, www.reggiochildren.it
Prekindergarten children need space, equipment, and time for musical play. In addition to large-group experiences, they need space for individual learning and, when they are ready, for small-group activities. Adequate space and equipment help music happen and allow for several kinds of learning. A music corner or separate music centers serve as an excellent choice to nurture individual learning and musical play (Kenney, 2004).
A music center or corner can include a variety of musical materials for exploration; a digital music player (with headphones) and recorded music for listening, a computer or portable tablet and music-related software, books about songs, instruments, and other music-related materials. Or individual music centers could be created if space allows.
Some ideas for four individual music centers follow.
Teachers need to devise techniques for managing the classroom activities while using music centers. For example, decide on a signal that means "stop and listen' such as flicking the light switch, or playing a "signal song' on the piano. Be sure children know how many children can use each center at the same time, and how (and where) they will wait for their "turn." Keep in mind that the teacher must circulate around the room, not spending too much time at individual centers. With good planning and organization, the music centers will be a favorite activity for the children and teacher alike, and musical play will be truly "musical."
*Special thanks to Wendell Hanna for her assistance with this description.
Abrams, R.M., Griffiths, S.K., Huang, X., Sain, J., Langford, G., and Gerhardt, K.J. (1998). "Fetal Music Perception: The Role of Sound Transmission." Music Perception, 15: 307-317.
Andress, B. (1998). Music for Young Children. Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt Brace and Co.
Bahrick, L.E., Lickliter, R., and Flom, R. (2004). "Intersensory Redundancy Guides the Development of Selective Attention, Perception and Cognition in Infancy." Current Directions in Psychological Science, 13(3): 99-102.
Bennett, P.D. (2012). Playing With the Classics . Van Nuys, CA: Alfred Music Publishing Co.
Berger, A.A. and Cooper, S. (2003). "Musical Play: A Case Study of Preschool Children and Parents." Journal of Research in Music Education, 51: 151 165.
Burns, S. (2017). "Music Education Through a Montessori Lens." NAFME E-News. www.nafme.org/music-education-montessori-lensevery-child-musical-potential.
College Board. (2011). Child Development and Arts Education: A Review of Current Research and Best Practices, p. 28. New York: The College Board. www.advocacy.collegeboard.org/preparation-access/arts-core
The Council for Exceptional Children. (2005). Universal Design for Learning: A Guide for Teachers and Education Professionals. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.
Fox, D.B. (1991). "Music, Development, and the Young Child." Music Educators Journal, 77(5): 42-46.
Gardner, H. (2011). Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences. 3rd edn. New York: Basic Books.
Gordon, E.E. (2013 edn). A Music Learning Theory for Newborn and Young Children. Chicago: GIA Publications, Inc.
Hammel, A.M. and R. Hourigan. (2011). Teaching Music to Students with Special Needs. New York: Oxford University Press.
Hanna, W. (2017). The Children's Music Studio: A Reggio-inspired Approach. New York: Oxford University Press.
Hepper, P. and Shahidullah, B.S. (1994). "Development of Fetal Hearing." Archives of Disease in Childhood: Fetal and Neonatal, 71(2): F81-F87.
Ilari, B. and Sundara, M. (2009). "Musical Listening Preferences in Early Life: Infant Responses to Accompanied versus Unaccompanied Singing." Journal of Research in Music Education, 56: 357-369.
Jellison, J.A. (2015). Including Everyone: Creating Music Classrooms Where All Children Learn. New York: Oxford University Press.
Jordan-Decarbo, J. and Nelson, J.A. (2002) "Music and Early Childhood Education." In The New Handbook of Research on Music Teaching and Learning, pp. 210-242. New York: Oxford University Press.
Kenny, S. (2004). "The Importance of Music Centers in the Early Childhood Class." General Music Today, 18(1): 28-32.
Lecanuet, J.P. (1996). "Prenatal Auditory Experience." In I. Deliege and J.A. Sloboda (eds), Musical Beginnings: Origins and Development of Musical Competence, pp. 3-36. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Lecanuet, J.P., Graniere-Deferre, C., Jacquet, A.Y., and DeCasper, A.J. (2000). "Fetal Discrimination of Low-pitched Musical Notes." Developmental Psychobiology, 36: 29-39.
Lewis, R., Wheeler, J., and Carter, S. (2017). Teaching Students with Special Needs in General Education Classrooms. 9th ed. Boston: Pearson.
Lindeman, C.A. (2002). Adventures with Sound. Fort Worth, TX: Rhythm Band Instruments, Inc.
McDonald, D.T. and Simons, G.M. (1989). Musical Growth and Development: Birth Through Six. New York: Schirmer Books.
Miranda, M. (2015). "Moving Off the Page: Tapping into Young Children's Imagination." General Music Today, 28(2): 33-35.
Parncutt, R. (2006). "Prenatal development." In G.McPherson (Ed.). The Child as Musician: A Handbook of Musical Development, pp. 1-32. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Provasi, J. and Bobin-Bègue, A. (2003). "Spontaneous Motor Tempo and Rhythmical Synchronization in 2½- and 4-year-old Children." International Journal of Behavioral Development, 27: 220-231.
Sims, W.L. (1986). "The Effect of High Versus Low Teacher Affect and Passive Versus Active Student Activity During Music Listening on Preschool Children's Attention, Piece Preference, Time Spent Listening, and Piece Recognition." Journal of Research in Music Education, 34: 173-191.
Sims, W.L. (1993). "Guidelines for Music Activities and Instruction." In M. Palmer and W.L. Sims (eds), Music in Prekindergarten: Planning and Teaching. Reston, VA: Music Educators National Conference.
Tarnowski, S.M. and Leclerc, J. (1994). "Musical Play of Preschoolers and Teacher Child Interaction." Update: Applications of Research in Music Education, 13(1): 9-16.
Trainor, L.J. and Corrigall, K.A. (2010). "Music Acquisition and Effects of Musical Experience." In M.R. Jones et al. (eds), Music Perception. Springer Handbook of Auditory Research 36.
Trainor, L.J. and Zacharias, C.A. (1998). "Infants prefer Higher-Pitched Singing." Infant Behavior and Development, 21(4): 799-806.
Trollinger, V.L. (2003). "Relationships Between Pitch-Matching Accuracy, Speech Fundamental Frequency, Speech Range, Age, and Gender in American English-Speaking Preschool Children." Journal of Research in Music Education, 51(1):78-94.
Universal Design for Learning at The Center for Applied Special Technology (CAST), www.cast.org/research/udl/index.html.
Werner, L.A. and Vandenbos, G.R. (1993). "Developmental Psychoacoustics: What Infants and Young Children Hear." Hospital and Community Psychiatry, 44(8): 624-626.