CHAPTER 4
ETHNIC FOOD PLANTS AND ETHNIC FOOD PREPARATION OF NORTH-EAST INDIA
CONTENTS
4.3 Ethnic Food Plants and Ethnic Foods of North-East India
ABSTRACT
Ethnic food systems, diversity of food plants, culinary methods and sociocultural implications of ethnic foods in North Eastern Region (NER) of India are reviewed in this chapter. Evaluation of available information implicates great diversity in food plants among ethnic groups of NER.
In NER though many foods have common ingredients, methods of preparation, nomenclature and their cultural values differ. This speaks of the intricate link of food systems with ethnic, linguistic, cultural and biological diversity. One of the significant aspect of this review is the invaluable role of women in the preservation of ethnic food traditions and the associated traditional knowledge. Maintenance of ethnic food systems or food culture poses a real challenge against the onslaught of globalization, climate change and biodiversity loss. Jhum (slash and burn agriculture), particularly in Northeast India, poses serious threat to natural habitats of wild foods. Nonetheless, ethnic foods provide multitude of opportunities for preservation of cultural heritage, research and development. The diverse ethnic foods can provide a platform for ecotourism through which the local food systems can be popularized and promoted. All these can help in realization of the value of ethnic food plants and food systems, and present a case for their conservation.
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Food is not only a necessity of life, but also a significant cultural reflection of people’s community and background (Wakefield et al., 2007). It is a necessary commodity for sustenance and is deeply associated with the social facets of life. Food has always been linked to environmental conditions with production, storage and distribution, markets all sensitive to weather extremes and climate fluctuation (Ingram et al., 2010). The geographical and economic environment of a region has a significant impact on foods, their availability and usage. Different cultures or ethnic groups have traditional dietary patterns, preparation methods and eating practices associated with them. Food and food systems play a central role in every culture and eating socially has less to do with nutrition than with communication and relationships. The culinary methods and the ways of serving and consuming food, which vary from culture to culture, can have an important influence on social and familial relationships. Food has also played an important role in religion, helping to define the separateness of one creed from another by means of selective use of foods and dietary taboos. Ceremonies, oral traditions such as stories, songs and oral histories and other cultural practices such as reciprocity are important cultural elements in the maintenance and transmission of knowledge and practices of traditional food and agro-ecosystems. The indigenous tribes residing in different regions of the world largely depend on either shifting cultivation systems or forest based food products for their sustainable survival. The people adhere to their indigenous knowledge pertaining to agriculture, food, medicine and natural resource management. The indigenous people are habituated to live and survive with the forest and jhum (slash and burn) cultivation culture, which ensures a range of ethnic foods rich in nutrition and compatible to culture and ethnicity of tribes (Singh et al., 2007). Women, on the other hand, have played a magnificent role in almost all cultures. Women folks have been actively involved in accumulating wild food plants and non-vegetarian foods through trial and error (Kar, 2004; Singh and Singh, 2006). They have been gathering knowledge on wild foods through their long years of collection and utilization of wild products. Collection and conservation of many local crops, ethnic vegetables, and wild edible fruits used in ethnic food systems are mainly practiced by the indigenous women folk. These practices have transformed women into users, preservers and managers of agro-biodiversity (FAO, 1996) and plant genetic resources in general. Women are, therefore, regarded to be the source of traditional knowledge which is passed on from generation to generation maintaining culture through food systems.
Fermentation is also one of the oldest forms of food processing technologies in the world. It is a widespread tradition in all cultural societies. Indigenous fermented foods have been prepared and consumed for thousands of years and are strongly linked to culture and tradition. Knowledge about traditional fermentation technologies particularly alcoholic beverage is usually transmitted through female members only as the task is usually accomplished by women folk. These fermented products have been adopted over generations and have gained importance in meeting the technical, social and economic requirements of the people. Traditional foods both fermented and non-fermented are important for food security, subsistence, livelihoods, conservation, cultural and ethnical practices. Indigenous people also have developed sound knowledge system on survival under intense condition of food scarcity by shifting to unconventional resources during the period.
4.1.1 WHY STUDY ETHNIC FOOD SYSTEMS?
Indigenous people comprise about 5.5% of the world’s population, yet they are disproportionately represented among the poor and food insecure, in both developed and developing countries (Woodley et al., 2009). Their relationship with traditional lands and territories forms a core part of their identity and spirituality and is deeply rooted in their culture, language and history. Since land and its resources form the basis of Indigenous Peoples’ subsistence activities, losing control of these factors undermines their food and livelihood security and can threaten their survival as well. Furthermore, the people’s overall health, well-being and cultural continuity are directly related to their ability to eat traditional foods and continue their traditional food practices. These traditional foods and food practices are deeply intertwined with their cultures and value systems, and play an important role in religious ceremonies and spirituality, as well as in songs, dances and myths. While their agroecological and food systems offer some signs of resilience and adaptation, a range of factors are increasingly threatening these systems and Indigenous peoples’ well-being.
Food has always played a major role in addressing major significant issues of the processes of ethnic identity, the transmission of ethnic consciousness and the maintenance of ethnic group boundaries. Therefore, there always exist a link between food and ethnicity, a relationship about which many assumptions have been made with little empirical evidence. There is enormous scope in investigations of traditional food systems. Ethnic foods present opportunities for rural development. Good nutritional contents, nutraceuticals, food security, culture, livelihoods, conservation of crop varieties and tourism are some strong features of traditional foods. In the process of maintenance of traditional food systems, indigenous people around the world have contributed towards conservation of many varieties of crops (popularly referred as ‘folk varieties’) and biodiversity. When staple foods are in short supply, wild plants have been exploited by indigenous peoples around the world as source of energy and sustenance; even unpalatable plants form source of famine food during shortage of staple foods (Minis, 1991; Turner and Davis, 1993; Paul et al., 2011). Study on ethnic foods of indigenous cultures can promote better understanding, transparency and accountability amidst Indigenous Peoples. Such study would enable the people to monitor the impacts of some key trends and development interventions on their lives; it would rather assist public services, development practitioners, governments, NGOs and international agencies to understand, recognize and respect dimensions of Indigenous Peoples’ livelihoods that are important for them. It would also provide decision-makers with the key facts regarding the cultural dimensions of Indigenous Peoples’ food and agro-ecological systems that are essential for sound and appropriate policy design. And, it would ensure legitimacy and accountability to all stakeholders by identifying good practices, facilitating lesson-learning as well as measuring progress and achievements.
However, despite great opportunities in ethnic food systems, the impact of globalization triggered by technological development is gradually jeopardizing cultural practice which is likely to create discontinuity in the food-culture relationship. Introduction of fast foods through globalization process, accompanied by decrease in the use of traditional foods by local tribes has resulted in many diseases notably heart diseases and anemia, particularly to pregnant and lactating women (Mao and Odyou, 2007). Linguistic and cultural diversity have been threatened by processes of globalization (such as acculturation, market expansion, and biodiversity loss) as well as through scientific education and assimilation policies and programs. The loss of indigenous languages can undermine their ability to maintain their traditional knowledge and food systems. Endogenous institutions play an important role in ensuring the continuity of traditional food systems and agro-ecosystems through the transmission of related traditional knowledge, beliefs and practices across generations; continuation of this traditional system is valued considering the fact that culture is not static but highly dynamic. In this context, it is critical to identify factors that interfere with or provide opportunities for elders to pass on their knowledge to the youths as well as to identify skills, traditional knowledge and practices that are no longer appropriate to the changing environment. Indigenous peoples’ access to forest resources is strongly influenced with places, ecological processes and species. Local food system is susceptible to change with fluctuation in local environment and influence of other cultures. Climatic change stands to impact the species and ecosystem that constitute tribal traditional foods that are vital to tribal culture, economy and traditional ways of life. The preservation and maintenance of traditional knowledge and associated subsistence practices that accompany food acquisition are threatened. As traditional foods are affected by climate change through habitat alterations and change in the abundance and distribution of species, there is a resulting erosion of traditional practices and knowledge (Kuhnlein and Recerveur, 1996; Nabhan, 2010; Lynn et al., 2013).
The main goal of this review is to explore the nature of ethnic food systems, diversity of food plants, culinary methods and socio-cultural implications of ethnic foods in North Eastern Region (NER) of India. The indigenous people of NER live in close proximity with nature and they are well adapted to subsist on forest and forest based products. Although ethnic and cultural diversity vis-a-vis dietary diversity in these two regions have been cited by many reports, a detailed and systematic ethnobotanical study of food plants and food preparation is required for documentation and to promote traditional knowledge of the indigenous tribes and the use of plants and plant products as food and means of their survival. Such effort help in organizing scattered information in one report and provide ready reference for researchers interested in the ethnobotany of Northeast India. It helps to understand the diversity, exploitation and utilization of plant resources by ethnic people and human-food-environment nexus in the regions.
The geographical details and the tribal diversity has been given in Chapter 2.
4.2 DATA ACQUISITION
Information for writing this review was gathered using research publications, books and online repositories. Systematic online searches was also made using the following keywords ‘ethnic foods,’ ‘indigenous cultures of Northeast India,’ ‘wild edible plants of Northeast India,’ ‘fermented products of Northeast India’ and ‘food and culture,’ ‘indigenous tribes of Andaman Islands’ and ‘cultural diversity in the Andaman Islands’. Research publications and reports of different organizations were also accessed to collect data on ethnic food plants and food products. The information was then organized into two sections. The first section discusses on the ethnic food system of NER in which ethnic food plants, preparation methods and food products of the region is enumerated. In the next section, ethnic food of the aboriginal tribes of Andaman Islands is presented. Challenges and opportunities for ethnic foods of NER as well as the Andaman Islands are also discussed.
4.3 ETHNIC FOOD PLANTS AND ETHNIC FOODS OF NORTH-EAST INDIA
4.3.1 DIVERSITY OF ETHNIC FOOD PLANTS AND ETHNIC FOODS
The NER is a constituent of two biodiversity hotspots, namely Eastern Himalaya and Indo-Burma. A large number of indigenous and immigrant ethnic groups inhabit this region with bewildering physical and cultural features. Different ethnic groups adhere to different dialects and socioreligious customs. These communities have always generated passed-on traditional knowledge from generations to generations, the knowledge which is based on their needs, instinct, observation, trial and error experiences. Agriculture through jhum or shifting cultivation remains their main occupation since time immemorial. However, the agricultural products being inadequate, people of the region indispensably use wild resources for sustenance as well as livelihoods. Forest products do not only account for their food requirement but also supplement traditional medicinal practices, construction materials and animal feeds. Apart from that, the products also harbor cultural value amidst the different ethnic groups. There is great body of information on the ethnobotany of indigenous people of NER (Dutta and Dutta, 2005; Agrahar-Murugkar and Subbulakshmi, 2006; Bhutani, 2008; Shankar and Rawat, 2008; Mao et al., 2009).
Jain and Shanpru (1977) surveyed wild edible plants of bazaar of Meghalaya. Arora (1990) has given an account of native food plants of the tribals in northeast India. Wild edible plants of Arunachal Pradesh were dealt by Haridasan et al. (1990). Maikuri (1991) has given nutritional value ofsome lesser-known wild food plants and their role in tribal nutrition. Wild edible plants constitute the major food component of the rural life in Mizoram. Diversity, endemism and economic potential of wild edible plants of Indian Himalayas was dealt by Samant and Dhar (1997). Lalramnghinglova (1999) reported 116 food plants from Mizoram. Common wild vegetables of Nyishi tribe of Arunachal Pradesh were given by Murten (2000). Samati (2004) reported 55 taxa of kitchen garden plants documented during field visits in Jaintia Hills, eastern district of Meghalaya, with botanical notes about their local names, useful parts, uses, etc.
Famines in Mizoram are mainly caused by bamboo flowering and they are called ‘Thingtam’ and ‘Mautam’. Thingtam famine is caused by the flowering of Bambusa tulda Roxb. (Rawthing) and ‘Mautam’ famine by flowering of Melocanna baccifera (Roxb.) Kurz. (Mau-tak). These two bamboo species produce flowers every 48 years periodically in Mizoram. ‘Thingtaan’ occurred in 1724, 1785, 1833, 1881, 1929, and 1977 and ‘Mautam’ famine occurred in 1767, 1815, 1863, 1911, and 1959. During such situation wild edible plants play a significant role in the sustenance of rural life in Mizoram. Lalramnghinglova (2002) enumerated 78 wild edible and famine food plants from Mizoram. The wild edibles of Mizoram include vegetables, fruits, spices and condiments. Three species are reported to use their tubers and rhizomes as vegetables (Sahoo et al., 2010). The tubers of Amomum dealbatum and Diocorea alata are eaten boiled or roasted vegetables. The rhizomes of Arisaema leschenaulti are eaten as boiled vegetables. Young shoots and leaves of different plant species are gathered and then eaten raw or cooked as vegetables. There are 20 species used by the tribals in the studied areas. Young leaves of Acacia spp, Eurya japonica, Garcinia lancifolia are eaten boiled or fried vegetables. Young shoots from Adiantum caudatum, Cephalostachyum capitatum, Dysoxylum procerum, Rhus acuminata, Bambusa spp., Adiantum phillippense, Melocana bambosoides are used by the tribes (Sahoo et al., 2010). Fruits are another important NTFPs collected by the villagers mainly for self-consumption but sometimes some fruits are also sold in the market. There are 34 fruit plant species commonly used in the studied villages. The commonly sold fruits are Artocarpus heterophyllus, Emblica officinalis, Mangifera indica, Musa paradiasica, Protium serratum and Rhus javanica (Sahoo et al., 2010).
Sundariyal and Sundariyal (2000, 2001) described potential of wild edible plants in the Sikkim Himalayas. Das and Choudhury (2003) has surveyed non-conventional foods of southern Assam. Gajurel et al. (2006) described indigenous knowledge on wild plants use by the Adi tribes residing along the banks of Sing river towards south western boundary of the Dehang Debang Biosphere reserve. About 150 wild plant species are utilized by these tribes for various purposes; of these about 85 plant species are found to be edible. Among these, most of the species are utilized as vegetables and fruits, while a few are used as medicine and for other needs. Angami et al. (2006) recorded 118 wild edible plant species from Arunachal Pradesh consumed by the ethnic tribes. Use of traditional and underutilized leafy vegetables of Sub-Himalayan Terai region of West Bengal was given by Jana (2007). A census on edible flowers found in the valley districts of Manipur was given by Devi et al. (2009). Various traditional foods consumed by the ethnic Khasi tribe of Meghalaya were sampled, standardized and evaluated by Blah and Joshi (2013) for their nutritional contents. Diversity of food composition and nutritive analysis of edible wild plants in Northeast India was given by Saha et al. (2014). They recorded 289 plant species used by selected tribal communities, among them 75 species for fruit, 65 vegetables, 18 mushrooms, 163 as medicinal plants, 13 as spices and 11 species for making local drinks and beverages. Devi et al. (2014) discussed the ethnobotanical aspects of Allium species of Arunachal Pradesh. They reported that bulbs of 9 species of Allium are being used by the tribal communities as vegetable and condiment.
A list of selected ethnic food plants and food items among the indigenous tribes of NER is presented in Table 4.1.
It is evident from the information given in Table 4.1 that the ethnic groups employ common plants from ambient environment for the preparation of their foods. But there is no unanimity among the cultural groups in the preparation method and the names given to the dish. One similarity that has been observed is the use of three species of Musa for preparing food additive, which is still vibrant among the people of NER. This herbal additive is generally used for seasoning food and to increase flavor. Another notable feature is the cultural value ascribed to foods among the Karbi ethnic group. In summary it reflects optimum use of plant resources by ethnic cultures for food. Some important ethnic food plants of NER have been supplemented in Plate 1 (Figures 4.1–4.8).
TABLE 4.1 Ethnic Food Plants and Foods of NER
PLATE 1
FIGURE 4.1 Gnetum gnemon L.
FIGURE 4.2 Hibiscus sabdariffa L.
FIGURE 4.3 Bamboo shoots in local market.
FIGURE 4.4 King chili (Capsicum chínense Jacq.).
FIGURE 4.5 Pods of Glycine max (L.) Merr.
FIGURE 4.6 Sesamum indicum L.
FIGURE 4.7 Pandanus, an important .food in the Andamans.
FIGURE 4.8 Colocasia esculenta (L.) staple Schott
4.3.2 CULINARY METHODS AND FOOD PRODUCTS
The indigenous people of NER are mostly meat lovers with very few vegetarians. They are also very much fond of boiled foods and the inclusion of chilies in their food. Oil is seldom used for cooking food. Although there are many similarities in the ingredients of food, yet the method of preparation varies among the tribes. The culinary methods of ethnic foods are broadly categorized into different forms:
Boiled : This is the simplest and most common culinary method. Foods are simply cooked with water usually with a pinch of salt; often the dish is flavored with local herbs like garlic, onion, sesame, etc.
Roasted : The food (usually meat) are chopped into fine pieces and screwed in a wooden skewer and placed over fire until the food is ready for consumption.
Smoked : The food materials are spread over a wooden or bamboo mesh and placed above the fireplace till the food is ready to consume. Often raw foods are smoked and stored for future consumption.
Baked : Food is wrapped in plant leaves and shoved in the hot ashes or charcoal. Sometimes food (potatoes, tomato, tubers, yams, meat, fish, etc.) are shoved under hot ashes and are taken only when the food is ready to be eaten.
Steamed : Food is firstly mixed together with spices and condiments and then shoved in hollow bamboo tubes. The filled bamboo tubes are then placed over fire to cook (Plate 2, Figure 4.9). Food prepared by this method is considered revered.
Stir fried : Vegetables are simply stir fried by adding a pinch of salt and garlic. Very often, powdered black sesame seeds and a few chilies are also added to bring flavor to the dish.
Fermentation : Fermentation is the traditional technology for processing ethnic foods. Fermented foods are source of cultural heterogeneity and usually each type has strong affiliation with ethnic group. Plants like bamboo shoots, soybean and mustard and fish are often fermented to produce foods of strong aroma and taste. Rice and other cereals are fermented to produce beverage, a product that is as diverse as the ethnic tribes of NER.
The diverse ethnic foods of NER come in different taste and aroma. Criteria of food selection differ between cultural societies and thus the preference and palatability. Most ethnic foods have unique aroma that is usually not mistaken by consumer familiar with the region. Some foods emit strong pungent smell that is not liked or tolerable by individuals from other culture. Many foods are prepared from fresh collection while an equal number of plants are fermented to produce desired taste and aroma according to the preference of the people. For larger audience, ethnic foods of NER are discussed under non-fermented and fermented foods. This review however, is limited to plant foods only.
4.3.3 NON-FERMENTED ETHNIC FOODS
Eromba : Eromba is an ethnic cuisine of the Meitei people of Manipur. It is prepared from many ingredients but chilli is the major one hence, the item is hot even without addition of spice. Potato, fermented bamboo shoots, taro, chilli and fermented fish are boiled and then smashed to produce a hot item which is taken as side dish (Plate 2, Figure 4.10). Often mint or coriander is added to flavor to the food. Eromba is favorite among the Meiteis because of its simple culinary method but great taste. Eromba can be prepared with any seasonal vegetables (veg eromba) and meat or fish (non-veg eromba) as well. Veg types eromba are traditionally served in shrines during ritual occasions and household rituals.
Hanmoi : This dish is prepared by the Karbis. It consists of many green herbs including Gnetum gnemon, Rhynchotecum ellipticum, and Raphidophora sp. with the addition of few pieces of dry fish calledManthu and a small amount of food additive called Pholo (Plate 2, Figure 4.11). Hanmoi is used as ritual offerings to local deities and forms integral part of rituals. Pholo is prepared out of the ashes of bamboo, sesame, mustard and banana. The ash is placed on a conical bamboo craft called Pholobisir and water is poured from above and drained through the plant material which is collected in a container at the bottom. The drained water called Pholo is highly alkaline and used in cooking and to certain extent for washing clothes and as hair wash.
Hanserong anempo : It acts as a food additive which is processed and prepared by the Karbi tribe during a religious feast called Cho-Jun. The additive is generally prepared from the seeds of the plant Hibiscus sabdariffa which is roasted and pounded into fine powder. The powdered substance is then ready to be consumed either in raw form or as food additive.
Hanthor : It is a sour dish and the Karbis generally include this dish in their local diet served at lunch during hot summers. The dish generally consists of plants like Hibiscus, Acacia, Polygonum and Dillenia cooked together with either brinjal or lady’s finger and by adding a few pieces of dry fish called Manthu. Ground powder seeds of Sesamum sp. are added if desired, to reduce the sourness of the dish and enhance the taste (Plate 2, Figure 4.12).
Him duk/Sang aduk : This is a very common food of the Karbis which is served in almost all occasions. The food is prepared out of rice grains which are previously soaked and roasted in a cooking pot. The roasted rice grains are then coarsely pounded in a wooden mortar and with pestle by women only. The coarse powder is then taken out and the first handful amount of the sang aduk is offered to the local deity; offerings are also made to the deceased ancestors so that they bestow their blessings on the living members before they begin any auspicious or inauspicious occasion or ceremonies. The food is generally taken with pieces of homemade jaggery and red tea.
Him-et : It is another ethnic food of the Karbis which is also prepared during the ritual Cho-Jun. On the occasion rice previously soaked is pounded with pestle in wooden mortar usually by women. Then they add fresh rhizomes of turmeric (Curcuma longa L.) and pound them together with the rice grains. The mixture is then cooked along with pork fat and consequently salt is added according to individual’s taste.
Jadoh : Jadoh is the ethnic food of the people of Meghalaya. The food is generally prepared from rice (Oryza sativa L.) cooked together with pork or chicken or fish intestines. It is the most preferred dish in Meghalaya and almost found at every household and every Khasi food stalls. During rituals, Jadoh is cooked with meat of the animals sacrificed (Plate 2, Figure 4.13).
Kolakhar : Kolakhar is a type of food additive which is widely used among the rural folk of Assam. The food additive is derived from banana plant (Musa sp.) where the rhizomes, trunk and peels are commonly used for the preparation of Kolakhar. The plant parts are cut into pieces and dried which is then burnt into ashes and extracted with water. The extracted substance is the Kolakhar which is used in the preparation of the dish called Khar, a famous ethnic cuisine of Assam. Kolakhar is also used widely for washing purposes.
Lungseiji : It is the ethnic food prepared by the Khasi women from tender shoots of Bambusa nutans. After cleaning the sheaths, the tender shoots are sliced into thin pieces and cooked by boiling with salt and garlic. This is directly eaten after adding sesame powder or eaten fried.
Nempo : This is powdered seeds of Sesamum orientale. The seeds are first fried and then grounded into powder. Nempo is the most important food additive of the Karbis and consumed in all occasions. The food is so important that every household is expected to keep nempo ready for consumption. Legacy of nempo exist in Karbi society as a proverb, osomar nempo chori, nangning ludet ji (children should not eat nempo, else you will not become wise). The moral of this proverb emphasizes the importance of nempo: children are very fond of nemp for its taste and will even exhaust the food, so the proverb is being used as a deterrent.
PLATE 2
FIGURE 4.9 Rice being cooked in bamboo tubes.
FIGURE 4.10 Eromba, ethnic food of the Meiteis of Manipur.
FIGURE 4.11 Leaves of Gnetum gnemon cooked with dry fish for hanmoi, Karbi food for ritual offering.
FIGURE 4.12 A sour dish prepared from hanserong (Hibiscus sabdariffa) by the Karbis.
FIGURE 4.13 Jadoh, ethnic food of the Jaintia tribe being served during ritual feast.
FIGURE 4.14 Saya a-an, ethnic food of the Karbi tribe; rice is cooked with fresh turmeric.
Saya a-an : This is the ethnic food of the Karbis which is generally cooked and served only during religious feast called Cho-Jun. The dish is prepared out of pork blood and pork fat cooked together with broken grain rice (Oryza sativa L.). Fresh rhizomes of turmeric (Curcuma longa L.) are added so that the food appears yellow (Plate 2, Figure 4.14). This ethnic dish is prepared by women and the dish is served at the end of the occasion when the traditional shamans finishes their propitiations and offerings to Arnam Kethe, supreme deity of the Karbis.
Up-vai : It is a dish prepared out of the fresh and tender bamboo shoots by the Karbi tribe. The shoots are usually collected by the women folk and after removing the sheaths, the shoots are cut in thin slices and cooked with the addition of water and salt. For the Karbis, it is taboo to consume up-vai before propitiation of community religious festival called Rongker. Often sesame powder and Ocimun species are added to enhance the flavor.
4.3.4 FERMENTED ETHNIC FOODS
Based on the intoxicating property, fermented ethnic foods of the NER can be broadly classified into alcoholic and non-alcoholic products. The latter is part of regular diet of the people and usually has strong odor and taste. Alcoholic products or beverages are consumed in daily life and on social occasions. As per tribal culture it is customary to serve beverages during marriages and rituals as offerings to ancestral spirits and deities. A brief description of non-alcoholic and alcoholic ethnic foods is provided in the following subsections.
4.3.4.1 Non-Alcoholic Foods
Aagya : It is the fermented soybean food prepared by the women of Galo tribe of Arunachal Pradesh. Desired quantity of soybeans is boiled and the boiled seeds are wrapped in leaves of Pyrnium pubinerve and left for fermentation. The fermented mass is collected as the Aagya which is consumed after mixing it with vegetables.
Akhuni : It is the traditional food of the Nagas and it is basically prepared from soybean, Glyxine max. The beans are boiled and wrapped in leaves of Musa, Phrynium or Macaranga (Plate 3, Figure 4.15). It is then kept over the fireplace for the fermentation process for a week. The fermented beans now called Akhuni is ready for use and consumed either in the form of chutney cooked with tomatoes and chilies or akhuni is cooked with meat (Mao and Odyou, 2007).
Anishi : Anishi is the traditional fermented food of the Naga tribe prepared from the leaves of Colocasia (Plate 3, Figure 4.16). The leaves are properly washed and placed one above the other and wrapped around with banana leaf which is kept aside for few days till the leaves turn yellow in color. The leaves are then ground into paste and cakes are made out of the paste which is dried over the fireplace in the kitchen. The cakes are often cooked with pork which is one of the favorite ethnic dishes of the Nagas (Mao and Odyou, 2007).
Bekang : Bekang is the integral food component of all boiled foods in Mizoram. It is prepared by Mizo women out of fermented soybeans. The soybean seeds are crushed and boiled and the boiled seeds are wrapped in leaves of belphuar tree. The wrapped seeds are kept near a fireplace and left for fermentation. The fermented mass is then consumed directly after the addition of chilies, ginger and salt.
Hawaizaar : This is a dish made out of fermented soybeans by the women of Meitei community of Manipur. The soybeans are boiled until soft and the beans are wrapped in cotton cloth and tied with banana leaves (Plate 3, Figure 4.17). It is then kept under a bamboo basket and covered with rice husk and pressed with stone and kept above the fireplace for the fermentation process. The fermented soybean is then used in the preparation of the ethnic dish called Cheigem pomba.
Kinema : Kinema is an important food component of the ethnic communities of Sikkim. It is generally prepared by fermenting whole-soybean seeds. To prepare Kinema, soybeans are soaked in water and cooked until the beans are soft and tender. The cooked beans are finely splitted using a wooden mortar and pestle and the paste is wrapped with fern fronds Glaphylopteriosis erubescens, Ficus leaves or banana leaves. Sometimes fresh firewood ashes are also added during the preparation of Kinema. The wrapped bean paste is then kept over the fireplace for the fermentation process. The preparation of Kinema varies from place to place and it is restricted to household level.
Soibum : This fermented bamboo shoot is prepared by the women folk of the Meitei community living in Manipur. Women collect the emerging bamboo shoots and after removing the peels, the shoots are cut into pieces and the product is squeezed out and left to dry. The dried bamboo parts are then mixed with salt and bits of turmeric and kept in an earthen pot with an addition of little amount of water. The pot is sealed and left for fermentation (Plate 3, Figure 4.18).
Tuaithur : It is an ethnic fermented bamboo shoot product prepared and consumed by the Hrangkhol, Baite and Hmar of Dima Hasao district, Assam; it is similar to other fermented bamboo shoot products of NER. Bamboo shoots are chopped into pieces with knife. It is thoroughly washed with water, drained and pressed in a conical basket made of bamboo or bottles. The container is made airtight with a lid and fermented under natural anaerobic condition for about a week.
Tungrymbai : Tungrymbai is a traditional fermented food product prepared from soybean seeds used in Meghalaya by the indigenous Khasi tribes (Sohliya et al., 2009). Soybean seeds are first soaked in water and cooked until they are soft and tender. The cooked beans are placed in basket lined with leaves of Phyrnium pubinerve and covered with jute bags and left to ferment naturally. The fermented mass is collected, cooked by adding salt, ginger and chilies and consumed as a side dish along with rice and vegetables (Plate 3, Figure 4.19).
Up-thor: This is the fermented bamboo shoots processed and prepared by the Karbi tribe. Young and tender shoots of bamboo are collected usually during September to November. The shoots are peeled and either cut in thin slices or pounded in wooden mortar with pestle. The pounded mass or the sliced bamboo shoots are placed in bamboo tubes called langpong. The bamboo tubes are sealed tightly and left to ferment naturally. The housekeeper (i.e., woman) checks the bamboo tubes timely and when a particular smell is emitted, it indicates that the shoots are fermented and ready to consume. In the present time due to scarcity of bamboo tubes, bamboo shoots are fermented in plastic, metal or earthen containers (Plate 3, Figure 4.20).
PLATE 3
FIGURE 4.15 Akhuni, fermented soya bean food of the Angami Naga.
FIGURE 4.16 Anishi, ethnic food of the Naga prepared by fermented taro leaves.
FIGURE 4.17 Hawaizar, fermented soya bean based food of the Meitei community of Manipur.
FIGURE 4.18 Soibum, fermented bamboo shoots of the Meitei community.
FIGURE 4.19 Tungrymbai, a traditional fermented soybean food product of the Khasi tribes.
FIGURE 4.20 Upthor, bamboo shoots being fermented in plastic containers by the Karbi ethnic tribe.
4.3.4.2 Ethnic Beverages (Alcoholic Foods)
Apart from food, people of NER are well known for brewing household beverages. The tribal people of the region have been producing and consuming various kinds of alcoholic drinks since time immemorial. Such methods are unique and are still practiced in its raw form. Each of these beverages prepared by the indigenous tribe holds a special recognition and importance in the social and cultural lives of the tribals in NER. Brewing of alcoholic beverage is regarded as an important household cum societal activity among different tribal communities (Sharma and Mazumdar, 1980). Alcoholic beverage is consumed in day-to-day life both as a refreshing as well as an invigorating drink. Consumption of rice beer is indispensable in almost all the occasions like rituals, festivals, marriages, funerals and social gatherings. But preparation of alcoholic beverage for certain occasions like marriage and rituals is considered sacred and holy where women folk recite incantations for good product. Because during such instances, it is customary to offer rice beer to the deities and ancestral spirits as it is believed to appease them; often guests are honored with rice beer as a mark of respect. The indigenous beverages are consumed in large quantities during auspicious occasions or festivals and hence, the preparation starts months before the occasion. The role of women is indispensable in the brewing of alcoholic beverages either for consumption or for the use in rituals. In all cultures, brewing of alcoholic beverages is the domain of women folk and, therefore, the associated traditional knowledge is transmitted through them. There is no age, gender or status restriction for consumption of indigenous liquor during rituals and ceremonies. Thus, indigenous alcoholic beverages have strong religious importance and are deep rooted with the socio-cultural practices of the various ethnic groups of NER. Beverage is believed to have therapeutic potentials and folks often use it after hard day’s work to relive stress and tiring body and muscles.
Preparation of alcoholic beverage is much elaborate than non-fermented foods. All cultures use starter cakes (Plate 4, Figure 4.21) in fermentation of substrates for production of beverages in which rice is the chief ingredient along with many plant parts (Table 4.2). The method of preparation and processing of starter cakes practiced by different cultures is almost similar but there exists prominent variation in the number and types of plants used during the preparation of starter cakes (Figure 4.21a). On evaluation of all reports accessed, sixty four plants distributed in thirty nine botanical families are used in preparation of starter cakes. There is also great variation in the number plants used among the tribes/groups. Highest number of plants (i.e., forty) was used by the Deori ethnic group in the preparation of modpitha, starter cake. These plants are blended to add flavor or aroma and/or to increase the strength of the products. A list of plants employed in the preparation of starter cakes by different ethnic groups of NER is presented in Table 4.2. Depending upon the available regional ingredients and manufacturing procedures, alcoholic beverages are known under a variety of local names, and each type yields unique odor and different taste of the liquor. Rice is the predominant substrate across cultural groups; one publication (Teron, 2006) reported use of other substrates like Eleusine corocana, Musa and Citrullus vulgaris amongst the Karbi ethnic group. Use of millets as substitute of rice for fermentation was also reported among the Khasis (Tanti et al., 2010) and the Adi-Galo tribe of Arunachal Pradesh (Shrivastava et al., 2012).
The methods for beverage production among the tribes differ and follow their own indigenous protocols employing different starter cultures, although most of them use similar substrates for fermentation (Tanti et al., 2010). For its taste and aroma, beer from glutinous rice is considered revered over beer produced from other rice varieties. The principle of alcoholic beverage manufacturing consist of the saccharification of steamed rice starch by fungal enzymes under aerobic solid state fermentation and the molded mass is mixed with water and allowed to undergo submerged alcoholic fermentation by yeasts using traditional starter cakes (Blandino et al., 2003; Sujaya et al., 2004 Dung et al., 2007). In western countries barley malt is used as both the source of starch and the saccharifying agent. By contrast, in Asian countries, alcoholic beverages are produced with rice as the major source of starch and the saccharifying agent. The various alcoholic beverage and the methods of brewing the beverages are discussed briefly below:
PLATE 4
FIGURE 4.21 Starter cakes being sold by women in a local market.
FIGURE 4.22 Extraction of poro apong, rice beer of the Mishing community.
FIGURE 4.23 Fermentation of substrate for production of atingba, beverage of the Meitei people.
FIGURE 4.24 A Karbi woman extracting hor, rice beer.
FIGURE 4.25 Judima, rice beer (in bottles) of the Dimasa ethnic group prepared from sticky rice variety (in basket).
FIGURE 4.26 Production of zutho, alcoholic beverage of the Angami tribe.
TABLE 4.2 Plants Used by Ethnic Groups of NER in Preparation of Various Starter Cakes
FIGURE 4.21A a Plant ingredients used in preparation of starter cakes among cultural groups of NER.
Apong: Apong is an alcoholic beverage prepared by the Mishings of Assam. The starter culture called e’pob is prepared with rice flour and leaves of many plants (Table 4.2). Earlier about fifty plants are known to be used, but today, due to erosion of knowledge only 26 plants are used in the preparation of starter cakes (Pegu et al., 2013). The leaves are cleaned and dried on a bamboo mat called opoh. Previously soaked rice and the leaves are ground separately and mixed together in a vessel by adding little amount of water to make a dough. From the dough, oval shaped balls are made and sun-dried. For production of apong, boiled rice (preferably aromatic variety) is spread on a kolpat (banana leaf) and powdered e’pob is added to it; the whole mixture is kept in an earthen pot for fermentation. After about 5 days, little water is added to the fermented product and filtered to get the apong (Plate 4, Figure 4.22). Two forms of apong are produced by the Mishing people (Pegu et al., 2013). The one which is produced by fermentation of cooked rice with locally prepared e’pob is called Nogin Apong. Another type, po:ro apong is produced by fermenting mixture of cooked rice, ash of partially burned paddy husk and straw with e’pob. Preparation ofpo:ro apong is tedious and time consuming for which this beverage is usually prepared during festivals and rituals. Po:ro apong is usually produced from glutinous or sticky rice varieties, and also use the best quality e’pob for fermentation.
Atingba/Yu: It is the alcoholic beverage of the Meitei tribe of Manipur state. The starter culture used for the purpose is hamei (Jeyaram et al., 2008) prepared with powdered rice and barks of the plant yangli (Albizia myriophylla). With the addition of water to the mixture, flat cakes are made out of it and kept over rice husks in bamboo baskets. After a few days, the cakes swell, produces alcoholic flavor and yellowish coloration which are stored for a year (Tamang et al., 2007; Jeyaram et al., 2008, 2009). Atingba is produced by fermentation of cooked glutinous rice with powdered hamei (5 cakes for 10 kg rice). The substrate is kept in mud pots covered with ‘hangla’ (Alocasia sp.); it is left for 3-4 days during summer and 6-7 days in winter. This is followed by 2-3 days of submerged fermentation in earthen pots (Plate 4, Figure 4.23). The beverage (i.e., atingba) is obtained after filtration (Kar, 2004)
Choko/Jonga-mod: Choko or jonga-mod is the local rice beer of the Rabhas, one of the large tribal groups of Assam and widely scattered but mostly concentrated in the undivided Goalpara, Kamrup and Darrang districts of Assam (Deka and Sarma, 2010). Several herbs with known medicinal property are used by the Rabhas in the preparation of ricebeer. The starter cake bakhor, surachi or phap is usually prepared by mixing the plant parts (Table 4.2) with rice paste (mainly rice variety Sali and Ahu) and a considerable amount of old rice beer cakes. To prepare choko (rice-beer), firstly cooked rice is placed over a broad bamboo mat and allowed to cool. To this, certain amount of starter cake is added and the mixture is kept in jonga, an earthen pitcher. It takes 4-5 days during summer and 7-8 days during winter for the choko or rice beer to attain the actual stage of drinking. The rice beer is then again fermented after adding some quantity of water and starter cakes. After 3-4 days, rice beer is again collected through local distillation process using both earthen and metallic pots; the resulting product is strong liquor known as fotika (Deka and Sarma, 2010).
Hor: Hor is the indigenous alcoholic beverage of the Karbis, the main inhabitants of Karbi Anglong district of Assam state and scattered in almost all the states of NER. The starter cake used in the production of hor is called thap (Teron, 2006) prepared from rice and many plants, the chief constituent being either leaves of Croton joufra or bark of Acacia pennata (Table 4.2). The ingredients are pounded into fine powder and some amount of previously prepared thap called thap aphi is added to the mixture. Round flat cakes are made out of it and they are dried in the sun for a few days and kept near fire place for future use. Hor is produced by fermenting cooked rice with thap. Cooked rice is mixed with adequate amount of powdered thap and the mixture is stored in pho-le (cooking utensil) and left for fermentation. After 3-4 days hor lang or beer is produced (Plate 4, Figure 4.24). Hor arak (alcohol) is distilled from it after addition of aliquot quantity of water (Teron, 2006).
Jou: Jou is prepared by the Bodos, one of the largest linguistic groups in Northeast India and among the earliest settlers of Assam (Das and Deka, 2012). The starter cakes known as angkur is prepared from rice flour and different plants such as agarsita (Xanthium strumarium) and dongphang rakhep (Scoparia dulcís) and either roots or leaves of lokhunath (Clerodendrum viscosum). For preparing the beer, either glutinous or non-glutinous rice is used as substrate. When glutinous rice is used, the product is known as maibra joubishi and when non-glutinous rice is the substrate the product is referred as matha joubishi. The cooked rice is mixed with powdered angkur and the mixture is put inside a container and sealed for one night. After this, a little water is added to it and left in a baiphu (earthen pot) covered with banana leaves for at least 3 days. The fermented mass is further mixed with water and strained in order to get the liquid jou (Das and Deka, 2012).
Judima: Judima is the alcoholic beverage of the Dimasas, one of the earliest indigenous ethnic groups of North-Eastern India (Das et al., 2012; Arjun et al., 2014). They are mostly found in the Dima Hasao district (formerly North Cachar Hills) of Assam and Dimapur in Nagaland State. Umhu or humao is the starter cake for producing judima which is a mixture of rice and bark of themra (Acacia pennata) (Terangpi et al., 2013). Usually scented variety of rice is boiled, cooled and then mixed with powdered humao and kept in a large container for fermentation. After about a week, slightly yellowish judima comes out of the substrate which indicates the completion of fermentation; the beer turns red on prolonged storage (Plate 4, Figure 4.25). Often water is added to the fermented mass, mixed properly and the beer is extracted by filtration.
Kiad: Local liquor of the Jaintia tribe (also known as Pnar or Synteng) of Meghalaya, kiad is produced by fermentation of rice substrate with the starter cake known as thiat (Samati and Begum, 2007; Jaiswal, 2010). Thiat is prepared by pounding leaves of khawiang (Amomum aromaticum) and water-soaked Kho-so (local variety of rice); water is added to turn the mixture into dough from which small round cakes are made and processed by exposing to sunlight or held above the fire place. For brewing kiad, boiled rice is mixed with 2-3 finely crushed thiat and the mixture is left for about 2-3 days. The fermented mash, known as jyndem, is distilled and the distillate is known as kiad (Samati and Begum, 2007; Jaiswal, 2010).
Opo: Opo is the local rice beer produced by the Adi-Galo tribe of Arunachal Pradesh who lives in Pasighat sub-division of East Siang district (Das and Deka, 2012). The starter cake siiyeh or opop is prepared with leaves and barks of the plants dhapat (Clerodendrum viscosum) and lohpohi (Vernonia species). For production of opo, rice is boiled and spread on a bamboo mat to cool. Then half-burnt rice and powdered opop are added and the mixture is put in a plastic container, the walls of which are covered with leaves of a local Zingeberous plant called oko. The mouth is also sealed with oko leaves and is left undisturbed for about 5 days. The contents are then mixed well and again left in the same manner for a longer duration. The product becomes ready after about 20 days of fermentation and kept for longer durations for production of more beverages. For filtration, a special type of funnel called perpur is used where oko leaves are used as the filter. To the fermented mass, hot water is poured over slowly in order to obtain opo as the filtrate.
Sujen: This beverage is indigenous rice beer of the Deoris who mostly scattered in upper Assam (Deori et al., 2007). The starter cake is called mod pitha is prepared from rice flour and various plant parts (Table 4.2). After pounding the mixture into powder in dheki (wooden implement) along with the old modpithas, the mixture is made into paste and small round cakes are prepared out of the paste and covered with straws and kept in Kula (bamboo container) above the fire place for drying until the mod pitha becomes hard. Glutinous rice is fermented with mod pitha in an earthen pot for about 4-5 days. It is then diluted and filtered to produce sujen which can be stored for up to 1 or 2 months (Deori et al., 2007).
Xaj Pani: Xajpanior kolohpani is the local beverage prepared by the Ahoms, who are of Tai origin scattered all over Assam mostly concentrated in Upper Assam (Das and Deka, 2012). The starter cake known as vekur pitha, which literally means fungus-infested balls, consists of rice and parts of several plants (Table 4.2). The mixture is pounded into coarse powder and small round cakes are made from the paste. The cakes are processed by drying in sunlight or placed over fireplace. Xajpani is produced by fermenting rice (either glutinous or non-glutinous) with powdered vekurpitha in a koloh (earthen pot). This is kept in a closed room for 3 to 5 days. After this, a considerable amount of water is added to the fermented mass and left for about 10 minutes. Filtration is done by straining the mass using a cloth (Das and Deka, 2012).
Zutho and Litchumsu: Zutho and Litchumsu are the local alcoholic brews prepared by the Angami tribe and the Ao tribe of Nagaland respectively (Das and Deka, 2012). The starter cake used in the preparation of zutho is known aspiazu. The latter is prepared by soaking un-hulled rice for about 3-4 days and the grains are allowed to germinate. After being dried in the air, the sprouted grains are pounded on a wooden mortar with a pestle. The powder obtained is known as piazu. For production of zutho, boiled rice is fermented by adding some quantity of piazu. After completion of fermentation (i.e., 3-4 days), some amount of water is added to the fermented mass (Plate 4, Figure 4.26). Zutho is filtered by using a bamboo or plastic mesh and usually served in bamboo cups (Das and Deka, 2012).
4.3.5 FOOD SYSTEMS AND CULTURE
Food, cooking, and eating habits play a central role in every culture. Habits of eating and drinking are invested with significance by the particular culture or sub-culture to which they belong. Food is an appropriate mediator because when we eat, we establish a direct identity between ourselves (culture) and our food (nature) (Leach, 1976). The food systems of Northeast India have a close association with the ethnic groups and describe their culture. Each of the cultural groups has their own way of food selection not only in the domestic region but even in the wild. Their ways and choice of cultivating food crops also differs to some extent. The ethnic communities practice unique culinary methods producing food with a different taste, color and odor. Basically, the traditional food systems of Northeast India are incomplete without a steaming platter of steamed rice, varied green vegetables and predominance of meat and fresh water fishes. Though Northeast states has its own identifiable culinary method, each of them has a taste for the pungent bamboo shoot, fermented soya beans, fermented fish and fermented meat amongst others. Bamboo shoot is a popular food material in almost every tribal food system and widely used as a souring agent in every tribal dish. Some notable fermented ethnic foods of NER include akhuni (Nagaland), kinema (Sikkim) and tungrymbai (Meghalaya). These (i.e., ethnic foods) are significant ingredients used to create a pungent aroma in various dishes; also used as a pickle with lots of chilies stuffed along with it. The world’s hottest chilli popularly known as King Chilli (Capsicum chínense Jacq.) or raja mircha, variously referred as u-morok in Manipur and bhoot jolokia in Assam, is widely relished. None of the pork dishes in Nagaland is complete without this fiery chilli. Karbis of Assam maintain rich tradition and culture and introduction of their ethnic food generally begins with certain rituals. No ritual is complete without offering hanmoi and hor to local deities and ancestral spirits. A recipe which is practiced as an age-old tradition includes the use of rice flour during ritual (seh-karkli) when chicken is sacrificed to the deity and the meat is cooked with rice flour and served with banana leaves, much like the Bodos who prepares a stew out of chicken and rice called onlawangkhrai. Rice is fundamental and apart from cooking rice in utensils, the tribals steam them in hollow bamboo tubes. Among the Karbis, rice cooked in bamboo tube is offered to deity during the ritual Rek Anglong. Karbis have a rice preparation, called sayaa-an, with the intestines of pork along with the blood and it is usually served during a ritual called Chojun. During this ritual pig’s blood cooked with leaves of suvat (Begonia species) in a revered item. Also the Karbis do not cook sour dishes when member of a family dies on the belief that other members attending the dead rites will heap curse on them. Likewise, the tribes in Meghalaya also have a dish called jadoh prepared from rice and liver of pig. Despite predominance of meat in ethnic food, the people of Northeast are heavy vegetable consumers as well for the fact that vegetables grow naturally in abundance. In Assam, the ethnic food begins with a dish called kolakhar; the dish is prepared from papaya with additive called khar (alkali solution) derived from banana plants (Musa species) (Deka and Talukdar, 2006). Some women in rural Assam have been able to grow long and healthy hair using kolakhar alone (Anonymous, 2002; Deka and Talukdar, 2006). Likewise, the khar-based dish is also vibrant in the Karbi ethnic food system, where the food additive called pholo is cooked with vegetables, and few pieces of dry fish. Pholo is usually extracted from the burnt ashes of banana peels and other plants which are placed in a conical bamboo craft called pholobisir and water is poured into it. The drained solution collected from the craft is the ingredient pholo or khar
In Sikkim, people ferment leafy vegetables like leaves of mustard, radish, cauliflower and sundried for future consumption. They call these preparations as sinki. Sikkim is also famous for cottage cheese, big momos and thukpa which are prepared from flat noodles along with meat and vegetables. Like pork, chicken, duck and other meat, fish is also very popular and prepared through varied methods. Fresh water fish is barbecued in banana leaves in Meghalaya, Assam and other states. Fish intestines are also relished along with fermented or dried fish and green chilies as chutney. The Reangs of Tripura love to cook their vegetables in hollow bamboo over charcoal fire. The preparation and consumption of food provides, moreover, a material means for expressing the more abstract significance of social systems and cultural values. It shows what people are prepared to take inside their bodies; it reflects their social identities, and their membership of social groups.
4.4 CONCLUSION
Based on the above information it can be said that the NER is a melting pot of high cultural and ethnic diversity. Wild plants continue to play vital role in food security and nutrition of the people. The NER display intricate link among four diversitiesethnic, cultural, dietary and linguistic. There is perfect exhibition of linguistic diversity with ethnic foods. It is amazing that the starter cakes which have almost same major components are referred by different names among the cultures. A supplement to this fact is soybean-based fermented foods being referred by varied names. They have knowledge of fermentation and the role of microbes in the process. Indigenous technology of alcoholic beverage production is an explicit expression of traditional knowledge and innovations of minds. Their practice is not without scientific reasoning. Old starter cakes which are added during preparation of fresh ones, is a source of inoculum and the various ingredients of starter cakes acts as medium for microbial growth. Preservation of the starter cakes (which is loaded with microbes) for years by keeping near fire place can be regarded synonymous with biological principle of maintaining microbial culture at a particular temperature. Starter cake is equivalent to microbial inoculum which is added to substrate before fermentation. The technology of extracting beer and liquor is an apt display of scientific principles of filtration and distillation. There is however, gradual dilution of ethnic food systems due to intrusion of modern foods and influence of modern culture.
The traditional foods consumed by the indigenous tribes of the NER is deeply associated with forest products and intimately connected to virtually all aspects of their socio-cultural, spiritual life and health. These indigenous communities now has undergone a rapid change by not only due to introduction of clothes but has also their diets have undergone change over the past few years due to intervention of modern crop varieties, materialistic life, awareness created by visitors and current trend towards increasing use of commercially processed foods. For the tribes, transformation of ethnic food system has been radical, as people have moved from a diet in which the majority of nutrients are drawn from local food, to more generic diet of store-bought food, most of which are produced and processed far away from their locality. More exploration, analysis and documentation of the ethnic foods consumed by the tribal communities of the NER can be undertaken along with its associated dynamics to understand food consumption pattern and availability, nutritional and medicinal values and associated cultural and social aspects of ethnic foods.
Continuation or maintenance of ethnic food systems or food culture poses a real challenge against the onslaught of globalization and climate change. Even rural markets around the globe have become flooded with factory-produced foods which are more palatable than less-processed ethnic foods. Availability of food plants is another cause of concern for preservation of food cultures. Jhum (slash and burn), particularly in Northeast India, have degraded large area of natural habitats of wild foods. Encroachment and agricultural expansion are other major factors that are threatening survival of wild foods. Nonetheless, ethnic foods provide multitude of opportunities for preservation of cultural heritage, research and development. The foods are purely organic and abound with many health benefits. Baruah and Bora (2009) suggested use of the rich nutritional profiles of indigenous vegetables of NER in nutritional schemes. The diverse ethnic foods provide a platform for ecotourism through which the local food systems can be popularized and promoted. This will encourage continuation of cultural practices and conservation of the associated indigenous knowledge. Ethnic food systems provide good scope for academic discourse covering scores of areas like traditional knowledge, wild foods, food security, management of plant resources, intellectual property, local development, etc. Research on ethnic foods and the ingredients can help in evaluation of the chemical constituents and food value. This in turn will be useful for validation of ethnic food systems. Being nutritious (as studies so far suggests) ethnic alcoholic beverages should be developed for local, national and international markets through value additions. Last but not the least, wild food plants are tolerable to environmental stress (Paul et al., 2011) and therefore this group of plants could form viable source of novel genes for improvement of conventional crops. Concerted multidisciplinary approach can help in realization of the value of ethnic food plants and food systems and present a case for their conservation.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I am grateful to Miss Ni-et Teronpi and Shabana Hassan for their assistance in preparing this review.
KEYWORDS
- Conservation
- ethnic plants
- ethnobotany
- food systems
- North-east
- traditional knowledge
REFERENCES
1. Agrahar-MurungkarD., SubbulakshmiG.. (2006). Preparation techniques and nutritive value of fermented foods from the Khasi tribes of Meghalaya. Ecology of Food and Nutrition. 45:27–38.
2. AngamiA., GajurelP.R., RethyP., SinghB., KalitaS.K.. (2006). Status and potential of wild edible plants of Arunachal Pradesh. Indian J. Trad. Knowl. 5(4):541–550.
3. Annonymous (2002). Aamar Axom ,an Assamese Daily published from Guwahati, July13, 2002.
4. AijunJ., VermaA.K., PrasadS.B.. (2014). Method of preparation and biochemical analysis of local tribal wine Judima: an indigenous alcohol used by Dimasa tribe of North Cachar Hills District of Assam. India. International Food Research J. 21(2):463–470.
5. AroraR.K.. (1990). Native food plants of the tribals in northeast India. In: JainS.K., editor. Contribution to Ethnobotany of India. Jodhpur: Scientific publishers; p. 137–152.
6. BaruahA.M., BorahS.. (2009). An investigation on on source of potential minerals found in traditional vegetables of North-eastern India. Intern. J. Food Science and Nutrition. 60(S4):111–115.
7. BhutaniK.K.. (2008). Herbal wealth of Northeast India. National Institute of Pharmaceutical Science and Research, Punjab: Database and Appraisal.
8. BlahM.M., JoshiS.R.. (2013). Nutritional content evaluation of traditional recipes consumed by ethnic communities of Meghalaya, India. Indian J. Trad. Knowl. 12(3):498–505.
9. BlandinoA., Al-AseeriM.E., PandiellaS.S., CanteroD., WebbC.. (2003). Cereal-based fermented foods and beverages. Food Res. Intern. 36:527–543.
10. DasP.S., ChoudhuryM.D.. (2003). A survey of non-conventional foods of southern Assam. J. Econ. Taxon. Bot. 27(2):416–420.
11. DasA.J., DekaS.C.. (2012). Mini Review Fermented foods and beverages of the North-East India. Intern. Food Res. J. 19(2):377–392.
12. DasA.J., DekaS.C., MiyajiT.. (2012). Methodology of rice beer preparation and various plant materials used in starter culture preparation by some tribal communities of North-East India-A survey. Intern. Food Res. J. 19(1):101–107.
13. DekaD., SarmaG.N.. (2010). Traditionally used herbs in the preparation of rice-beer by the Rabha tribe of Goalpara, district. Assam. Indian J. Trad. Knowl. 9(3):459–462.
14. DekaD.C., TalukdarN.N.. (2006). Chemical and spectroscopic investigation of Kolakhar and its commercial importance. Indian J. Trad. Knowl. 6(1):72–78.
15. DeoriC., BegumS.S., MaoA.A.. (2007). Ethnobotany of sujen, a local rice beer of Deori tribe of Assam. Indian J. Trad. Knowl. 6(1):121–125.
16. DeviA., RakshitK., SaraniaB.. (2014). Ethnobotanical notes on Allium species of Arunachal Pradesh. India. Indian J. Trad. Knowl. 13(3):606–612.
17. DeviK.S., DeviY.S., SinghP.K.. (2009). A census on edible flowers found in the valley districts of Manipur. J. Econ. Taxon. Bot. 33:232–239.
18. DungN.T.P., RhomboutsF.M., NoutM.J.R.. (2007). Characteristics of some traditional Vietnamese starch-based rice wine starters. Food Microbiol. 23:331–340.
19. DuttaB.K., DuttaP.K.. (2005). Potential of ethnomedicinal studies in Northeast India: An overview. Indian J. Trad. Knowl. 4(1):7–14.
20. FAO. (1996). The state of food and agriculture. Rome: Italy.
21. GajurelP.R., RethyP., SinghB., AngamiA.. (2006). Ethnobotanical studies on Adi tribes in Dehang Debang Biosphere Reserve in Arunachal Pradesh, Eastern Himalaya. Ethnobotany. 18:114–118.
22. HaridasanK., BhuyanL.R., DeoriM.L.. (1990). Wild edible plants of Arunachal Pradesh. Arunachal forest News. 8:1–8.
23. IngramJ., EricksenP., LivermanD.. (2010). Preface. UK: Food Security and Global Environmental Change. Published by Earthscan; p. 13–15.
24. JainS.K., ShanpruR.. (1977). Survey of wild edible plants of bazar of Meghalaya. Bull. Meghal. Sci. Soc. 2:29–34.
25. JaiswalV.. (2010). Culture and ethnobotany of Jaintia tribal community of Meghalaya, Northeast India A mini review. Indian J. Trad. Knowl. 9(1):38–44.
26. JanaJ.C.. (2007). Use of traditional and underutilized leafy vegetables of SubHimalayan Terai region of West Bengal. Acta Hort. 752:571–575.
27. JeyaramJ., SinghT.A., RomiW., DeviA.R., SinghW.M., DayanidhiH., SinghN.R., TamangJ.P.. (2009). Traditional fermented foods of Manipur. Indian J. Trad. Knowl. 8(1):115–121.
28. JeyaramK., SinghW.M., CapeceA., RomanoP.. (2008). Molecular identification of yeast species associated with ‘Hamei’: A traditional starter used for rice wine production in Manipur. India. Intern. J. Food Microbiol. 124:115–125.
29. KarA.. (2004). Common wild vegetables of Aka tribes of Arunachal Pradesh. Arunachal For. News. 3(3):305–313.
30. KuhnleinH.V., ReceveurO. (1996). Dietary change and traditional food systems of idegenous peoples. Annu Rev Nutr. 16:417–442. doi:10.1146/annurev. nu.16.070196.002221.
31. LalramnghinglovaH.. (1999). Ethnobotanical and agroecological studies on genetic resources of food plants in Mizoaram state. J. Econ. Taxon. Bot. 23:737–644.
32. LalramnghinglovaH.. (2002). Ethnobotanical study on the edible plants of Mizoram. Ethnobotany. 14:23–33.
33. LeachE.R.. (1976). Culture and Communication. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
34. LynnK., DaigleJ., HoffmanJ., LakeF., MichelleN., RancoD., VilesC., VoggesserG., WilliamsP.. (2013). The impacts of climatic change on tribal traditional foods. Climate Change. 120:545–556.
35. MaikhuriP.K.. (1991). Nutritional value of some lesser-known wild food plants and their role in tribal nutrition: A case study in North east India. Trop. Sci. 31:397–405.
36. MaoA.A., OdyouM.. (2007). Traditional fermented foods of the Naga tribes of North-eastern India. Indian J. Trad. Knowl. 6(1):37–41.
37. MaoA.A., HynniewtaT.M., SanjappaM.. (2009). Plant wealth of Northeast India with reference to ethnobotany. Indian J. Trad. Knowl. 8(1):96–103.
38. MinisP.E.. (1991). Famine foods of the Northern American desert borderlands in historical context. J. Ethnobiol. 11(2):231–257.
39. MurtemG.. (2000). Common wild vegetable of Nyishi tribe of Arunachal Pradesh. Arunachal For News. 18:64–66.
40. NabhanG.P.. (2010). Perspectives in ethnobiology: ethnophenology and climatic change. J. Ethnobiol. 30:1–4.
41. PaulA.K., ChakmaP., NaharN., AkberM., FerdausiD., et al. (2011). A survey of non-conventional plant items consumed during times of food scarcity by the Chakma people of Hatimara village of Rangamati district. Bangladesh. American-Eurasian J. Sustainable Agriculture. 5(1):87–91.
42. PeguR., GogoiJ., TamuliA.K., TeronR.. (2013). Apong, an alcoholic beverage of cultural significance of the Mishing community of Northeast India. Global J. Interdisciplinary Social Sci. 2(6):12–17.
43. SahaD., SundriyalM., SundriyalR.C.. (2014). Diversity of food composition and nutritive analysis of edible wild plants in a multi-ethnic tribal land, Northeast India: an important facet for food supply. Indian J. Trad. Knowl. 13(4):698–705.
44. SahooU.K., LalremruataJ., JeeceeleeL., LalremruatiJ.H., LalliankhumaC., LalramnghinglovaH.. (2010). Utilization of Non timber forest products by the tribal around Dampa tiger reserve in Mizoram. The Bioscan. 3:721–729.
45. SamantS.S., DharU.. (1997). Diversity, endemism and economic potential of wild edible plants of Indian Himalaya. Int. J. Sustain Dev. World Ecol. 4:179–191.
46. SamatiH.. (2004). Kitchen garden plants of Pnar tribe in Jaintia hills district, Meghalaya. Ethnobotany. 16:125–130.
47. SamatiH., BegumS.S.. (2007). Kiad, a popular local liquor of Pnar tribe of Jaintia hills district. Meghalaya. Indian J. Trad. Knowl. 6(1):133–135.
48. ShankarR., RawatM.S.. (2006). Medicinal plants for change in the socio-economic status in rural areas of North East India. Bulletin of Arunachal Forest Res. 22:58–63.
49. SharmaT.C., MazumdarD.N.. (1980). Eastern Himalayas: A study on Anthropology and Tribalism. New Delhi: Cosmo Publications; p. 17–31.
50. ShrivastavaK., GreeshuaA.G., SrivastavaB. (2012). Biotechnology in TraditionA process technology of alcoholic beverages practiced by different tribes of Arunachal Pradesh, North East India. Indian J. Trad. Knowl. 11(1):81–89.
51. SinghA., SinghR.K., SurejaA.K.. (2007). Cultural significance and diversities of ethnic foods of Northeast India. Indian J. Trad. Knowl. 6(1):79–94.
52. SinghP.K., SinghK.I.. (2006). Traditional alcoholic beverage, Yu ofMeitei communities of Manipur. Indian J. Trad. Knowl. 5(2):184–190.
53. SohliyaI., JoshiS.R., BhagobatyR.K., KumarR.. (2009). Trungrymbai: A traditional fermented soybean food of the ethnic tribes of Meghalaya. Indian J. Trad. Knowl. 8(4):559–561.
54. SujayaI.N., AntaraN.S., SoneT., TanuraY., AryantaU.R., YokotaA., AsanoK., TomitaF.. (2004). Identification and characterization of yeasts in brem: a traditional Balinese rice wine. World J. Microbiol. Biotech. 20:143–150.
55. SundariyalM, SundariyalR.C.. (2000). Potential of wild edible plants in the Sikkim Himalaya: Conservation concerns. J. Non Timber forest Prod. 7:253–262.
56. SundariyalM, SundariyalR.C.. 2001. Wild edible plants of Sikkim Himalayas: Nutritive values of selected species. Econ. Bot. 55(3):377–390.
57. TamangJ.P., DewanS, TamangB, RaiA, SchilingerU, HolzapfelW.H.. 2007. Lactic acid bacteria in Hamei and Marcha of North East India. Indian J. Microbiol. 47:119–125.
58. TantiB, GurungL, SarmaH.K., BuragohainA.K.. 2010. Ethnobotany of starter culture used in alcohol fermentation by a few ethnic tribes of Northeast India. Indian J. Trad. Knowl. 9(3):463466.
59. Terangpi, R., Basumatary, R., Tamuli, A.K.., & Teron, R. 2013. Pharmacognostic and physicochemical evaluation of stem bark of Acacia pennata (L.) Willd., a folk plant of the Dimasa tribe of Assam. J. Pharmacognosy and Phytochem . 2(2), 234-240.
60. TeronR. 2006. Hor, the traditional alcoholic beverage of Karbi tribe in Assam. Natural product Radiance. 5(5):377–381.
61. TurnerN.J., DavisA. 1993. “When everything was scarce”: The role of plants as famine foods in Northwestern North America. J. Ethnobiol. 13(2):171–201.
62. WakefieldS, YeudallF, TaronC, ReynoldsJ, SkinnerA. 2007. Growing urban health: Community gardening in South-East Toronto. Health Promotion Intern. 22(2):92–101.
63. WoodleyE, CrowdeyE, de PryekJ.D., CarmenA. 2009. Cultural indicators of indigenous people’s food and agro-ecological systems. United Nations: Mountain Policy Project.