al-Razi, Fakhr al-Din (1149–1209)
A leading proponent of the late Ash‘ari theological school that developed in Iran and Central Asia in the 12th through 16th centuries, Muhammad b. ‘Umar Fakhr al-Din al-Razi is known primarily for his contributions to Sunni theology and Qur’anic exegesis, on which he wrote prolifically, in addition to writing on jurisprudence, philosophy, medicine, and astrology. He was born in Rayy, Iran, and after studying in Maragha he spent the remainder of his life debating with intellectuals of various types throughout Central Asia. He received patronage from both the Khwarazmshahs and the Ghurids, dynasties that were hostile to one another.
Although Razi did not compose a work on rulership or governance, he did address various political issues in his works on theology, philosophy, and Qur’an commentary. In so doing, he made significant contributions to the development of Islamic political thought. His views in this area were influenced by those of the Mu‘tazilis as well as of the philosopher Ibn Sina.
The central concept of Razi’s political thought is prophecy. Following the basic principles of Muslim theology, he held that prophets are human beings through whom God communicates with humankind. Among these prophets are messengers who bring new versions of God’s laws, and thus new religions. Razi wrote that the prophets who communicate God’s laws should be invested with political authority. He also argued that prophets are infallible, although he admitted that they could commit major sins before, and unintentional sins after, their prophetic missions.
Razi’s political theory, which he discussed under the rubric of “practical science,” was shaped by the philosophical tradition in Islam. In accordance with Ibn Sina’s teaching on prophecy, he held that prophets are a sociopolitical necessity, since only prophets are capable of introducing laws that organize human life. Also following Ibn Sina, he defined prophecy as a perfection of the human soul. According to this teaching, a prophetic soul is one that has developed its imaginative and intellective faculties such that it may receive intelligible forms from the higher heavenly souls. It is the prophet’s intellectual perfection that places him in a position to legislate and direct the Muslim community.
On the issue of the leadership of the Muslim community and the political concept of the imamate, topics that he addressed in his Compendium and Book of Forty Questions, Razi polemicized against the postulates of Twelver Shi‘i theologians. These theologians have argued that the imamate is a logical consequence of God’s benevolence or grace, and it is incumbent upon God by virtue of his benevolence to invest mankind with an imam, just as it is incumbent upon God to send prophets to humankind. Following his Ash‘ari colleagues as well as many Mu‘tazili scholars, Razi held that the imamate is necessary only as a matter of tradition and scripture. Also in opposition to Twelver Shi‘i ideas, Razi held that it is incumbent upon the intellectuals of the Muslim community, not upon God, to designate an imam, by way of election.
Razi addressed the issue of the moral status of jihad against non-Muslims in his commentary on the Qur’an. In his milieu, many saw a tension between supporting jihad against non-Muslims and maintaining the Qur’anic precept that “there is no compulsion in religion” (2:256). The great majority of scholars interpreted this verse to mean that, while compulsion in religion was valid at the political level, it was inappropriate and futile to attempt to compel inner conviction. Under the influence of the Mu‘tazilis, Razi interpreted the verse to mean that God intends that individuals have choice in religious belief. He argued that this world is an abode of trial or testing and that compulsion in religion at the level of conviction would nullify this idea. The use of compulsion in conversion, he argued, is incompatible with the moral responsibility that has been granted by God to human beings in this world.
See also Ash‘aris; caliph, caliphate; Central Asia; exegesis; Ghurids (1009–1215); Ibn Sina, Abu ‘Ali (980–1037); imamate; jihad; jurisprudence; Mu‘tazilis; philosophy; Shi‘ism; theology
Further Reading
Patricia Crone, God’s Rule: Government and Islam, 2004; Fathalla Kholeif, A Study on Fakhr al-Din al-Razi and His Controversies in Transoxiana, 1966; Ann Lambton, State and Government in Medieval Islam, 1981.
TARIQ JAFFER