Notes

Introduction

1 Ludford Bridge is also included as a battle, although it comprised little more than an artillery exchange.

2 W. Hutton and J. Nichols, The Battle of Bosworth Field (London, 1813).

3 C. Richmond, ‘The Battle of Bosworth’, History Today 35:8 (1985), 17–22, although the seeds of doubt had first been sown in J. Gillingham, The Wars of the Roses (1981).

4 D. T. Williams, The Battle of Bosworth Field (Stroud, 1996); P. J. Foss, The Field of Redmore: The Battle of Bosworth, 1485 (Newtown Linford, 1998); K. S. Wright, The Field of Bosworth (Leicester, 2002); M. K. Jones, Bosworth 1485: Psychology of a Battle (Stroud, 2002).

5 G. Foard, ‘Bosworth Battlefield: A Reassessment’, (Shocklatch, 2004). This was prepared as part of a larger study commissioned by LCC: Chris Burnett Associates, ‘Bosworth Battlefield Conservation Statement’, (Shocklach, 2004).

6 P. J. Foss, The Field of Redemore: The Battle of Bosworth, 1485 (Leeds, 1990).

7 P. Freeman and T. Pollard, Fields of Conflict: Progress and Prospect in Battlefield Archaeology (BAR International Series, 958; Oxford, 2001); D. Scott, L. Babbits and C. Haecker (eds), Fields of Conflict: Battlefield Archaeology from the Roman Empire to the Korean War, 1 & 2 (Westport, 2007).

8 The full scheme of investigation is detailed in G. Foard, ‘Bosworth Battlefield Investigation: Project Design’, (2004).

9 The full methodology as planned in 2004 is detailed in ibid.; D. Scott et al., Archaeological Perspectives on the Battle of the Little Bighorn (Oklahoma, 1989); H. Meller (ed.), Schlachtfeldarchaeologie: Battlefield Archaeology (Halle, 2009); T. L. Sutherland and A. Schmidt, ‘Towton, 1461: An Integrated Approach to Battlefield Archaeology’, Landscapes 4/2 (2003), 15–25; G. Foard, Battlefield Archaeology of the English Civil War (Oxford, 2012).

10 The methodology is discussed in connection with a range of examples of different dates, highlighting the problems even in simply locating battlefields, in G. Foard and R. Morris, The Archaeology of English Battlefields (York, 2012).

11 G. Foard, Naseby: The Decisive Campaign (Whitstable, 1995).

12 The historiography of battlefield investigation in Britain is explored in G. Foard, Battlefield Archaeology of the English Civil War.

13 G. Foard, ‘Sedgemoor, 1685: Historic Terrain, the ‘Archaeology of Battles’ and the Revision of Military History’, Landscapes 4/2 (2003), 5–15; G. Foard, ‘The Investigation of Early Modern Battlefields in England’, in H. Meller (ed.), Schlachtfeldarchaeologie: Battlefield Archaeology (Halle, Germany, 2009), 117–25.

14 G. Foard, ‘The Civil War Siege’, in C. Fitzroy and K. Harry (eds), Grafton Regis: The History of a Northamptonshire Village (Cardiff, 2000), 49–63; G. Foard, ‘The Archaeology of Attack: Battles and Sieges of the English Civil War’, in Freeman (ed.), Fields of Conflict: Progress and Prospect in Battlefield Archaeology (BAR International Series, 958, 2001), 87–103. The evidence for the Grafton siege has not yet been fully published.

15 G. Foard, ‘Integrating the Physical and Documentary Evidence for Battles: A Case Study from 17th Century England’, unpublished PhD thesis (University of East Anglia, http://ethos.bl.uk/Home.do, 2008), reworked and published as G. Foard, Battlefield Archaeology of the English Civil War.

16 T. Pollard and N. Oliver, Two Men in a Trench II: Uncovering the Secrets of British Battlefields (London, 2003); T. Pollard and N. Oliver, Two Men in a Trench: Battlefield Archaeology – the Key to Unlocking the Past (London, 2002).

17 Especially T. L. Sutherland, ‘Archaeological Evidence of Medieval Conflict – Case Studies from Towton, Yorkshire, England (1461); Agincourt, Pas De Calais, France (1415)’, in H. Meller (ed.), Schlachtfeldarchaeologie: Battlefield Archaeology (Halle, 2009), 109–15; T. L. Sutherland, ‘The Archaeological Investigation of the Towton Battlefield’, in V. Fiorato, A. Boylston, and C. Knusel (eds), Blood Red Roses: The Archaeology of a Mass Grave from the Battle of Towton AD 1461 (Oxford, 2000), 155–68; T. L. Sutherland and A. Schmidt, ‘Towton, 1461: An Integrated Approach to Battlefield Archaeology’; T. L. Sutherland, ‘Arrow Point to Mass Grave: Finding the Dead from the Battle of Towton, 1461 AD’, in D. Scott, L. Babits and C. Haecker (eds), Fields of Conflict: Battlefield Archaeology from the Roman Empire to the Korean War (Westport, Connecticut, 2007).

18 M. K. Jones, Bosworth 1485: Psychology of a Battle, 202 and 14 et seq.

19 J. Carman and P. Carman, Bloody Meadows: Investigating Landscapes of Battle (Stroud, 2006).

20 J. Keegan, The Face of Battle (Harmondsworth, 1978).

21 Vegetius: Epitome of Military Science, translated with notes and introduction by N.P. Milner, 2nd edn (Liverpool, 1996), Book III.13.

22 D. Smail, ‘Beyond the Great Divide’, History Today, 59/5 (May 2009), 21–3. For landscape study there is a wide range of work including W. G. Hoskins, The Making of the English Landscape (London, 1955) and M. W. Beresford, Time and Place (London, 1984) and various papers in journals such as Landscapes.

23 R. Griffiths and R. Thomas, The Making of the Tudor Dynasty (Gloucester, 1993), 159.

24 G. Foard, ‘English Battlefields 991–1685: A Review of Problems and Potentials’, in D. Scott, L. Babbits and C. Haecker (eds), Fields of Conflict: Battlefield Archaeology from the Roman Empire to the Korean War 1(Westport, 2007), 133–59; G. Foard, ‘The Investigation of Early Modern Battlefields in England’.

25 G. Foard, ‘Bosworth Battlefield: A Reassessment’.

26 M. Strickland and R. Hardy, The Great Warbow: From Hastings to the Mary Rose (Stroud, 2005).

Chapter 1

1 W. Hutton, The Battle of Bosworth Field (Birmingham, 1788); W. Hutton and J. Nichols, The Battle of Bosworth Field: Between Richard the Third and Henry Earl of Richmond, August 22, 1485 (London, 1813); D. T. Williams, The Battle of Bosworth Field (Leicester, 2001); A. H. Burne, The Battlefields of England (London, 1950); P. A. Haigh, The Military Campaigns of the Wars of the Roses (Godalming, 1995); M. J. Bennett, The Battle of Bosworth (Stroud, 1993); C. Gravett and G. Turner, The Battle of Bosworth: Last Charge of the Plantagenets (Oxford, 1999).

2 J. Norden, Speculum Britanniae: The Description of Hartfordshire (London, 1598). The principal evidence is found in Speed’s Atlas, reprinted in N. Nicholson, The Counties of Britain: A Tudor Atlas by John Speed (London, 1988). His earlier works provide less mapped detail: J. Speed, The History of Great Britain (London, 1611); J. Speed, A Description of the Civill Warres of England (1600).

3 The issues surrounding the location of English battlefields are discussed in G. Foard and R. Morris, The Archaeology of English Battlefields (York, 2012), with chapter 5 summarising the evidence for Barnet and Towton. This draws upon work by Warren for Barnet and a wide range of publications by Sutherland for Towton, but also presenting new data to place the evidence in context.

4 The firste [laste] volume of the chronicles of England, Scotlande, and Irelande … faithfully gathered and set forth by Raphaell Holinshed (London, 1577), p. 1420 (Early English Books On-Line). Cyndia Susan Clegg, ‘Holinshed, Raphael (c.1525–1580?)’, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, online edn, Jan 2008 [http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/13505, accessed 29 Dec 2012].

5 An extract on Bosworth from Burton’s unpublished manuscript was transcribed by Nichols in 1810 and printed in W. Hutton and J. Nichols, The Battle of Bosworth Field (London, 1813), 115–18 and 78. Burton’s evidence is reviewed by P. J. Foss, The Field of Redemore: The Battle of Bosworth, 1485 (Newtown Linford, 1998), 28–9. A collection of transcripts from public and local records from Burton’s collection is in LRO (LRO 2 D71/I/24-260).

6 W. Burton, The Description of Leicestershire (London, 1622), 47.

7 Ibid., 173.

8 Ibid., 47. Significant amendments were later made by Burton to his 1622 account, with the help of Dugdale and Cotton, which survive only in the original manuscript form, but they do not substantially alter his evidence on Bosworth. D. T. Williams, ‘William Burton’s 1642 Revised Edition of the Description of Leicestershire’, Transactions of the Leicestershire Archaeological and Historical Society, 50 (1974–5), 30–6.

9 J. Taylor, Part of This Summers Travels (London, 1639).

10 Hutton, The Battle of Bosworth Field, 94.

11 Anon, A Copy of a Letter Sent from the Lord Fairfax…Also a True Relation of a Defeat Given to Colonel Hastings by the Lord Grayes Forces, July the First; 1644. At Bosworth Field, in the Very Place Where King Richard the Third Was Slain. (London, 1644).

12 The Journeys of Celia Fiennes, http://www.visionofbritain.org.uk/text/chap_page.jsp?t_id=Fiennes&c_id=20#pn_21 Accessed 3/02/10; Prior’s map of Leicestershire 1777; J. Ogilby, Britannia (1; London, 1675) plate 82, showing Litchfield road crossing the Oxford to Derby road south of Shepey. Also see figure 4.14.

13 The Leicestershire county maps are listed in R. K. Baum, Antique Maps of Leicestershire (1972).

14 W. Ravenhill, Christopher Saxton’s Sixteenth-Century Maps: The Counties of England and Wales (Shrewsbury, 1992).

15 It is named the Sence brook on the first edition six inch Ordnance Survey mapping, but is called the Tweed on both Hutton’s map and that compiled by Pridden for Nichols’ second edition of Hutton.

16 J. D. Welding, Leicestershire in 1777: An Edition of John Prior’s Map (Leicester, 1984).

17 G. Foard, Naseby: The Decisive Campaign (Whitstable, 1995); G. Foard, Battlefield Archaeology of the English Civil War (Oxford, 2012); V. Fiorato, A. Boylston, and C. Knusel, Blood Red Roses. The Archaeology of a Mass Grave from the Battle of Towton AD 1461 (Oxford, 2000); T. Pollard (ed.), Culloden: The History and Archaeology of the Last Clan Battle (Barnsley, 2009).

18 B. Warren, Reappraisal of the Battle of Barnet, 1471 (Potters Bar, 2009). From the late medieval through to the 19th century the interpretation of the battle of Bannockburn seems to have been that it was fought near to the Roman road, close to the area where the action was fought on the first day. Both Edgar’s map of Stirlingshire in 1745 and Arrowsmith’s map of Scotland of 1807 show this location. G. Foard and T. Partida, ‘Scotland’s Historic Fields of Conflict: An Assessment’, <http://www.battlefieldstrust.com/resource-centre/battlefieldsuk/periodpageview.asp?pageid=827>; G. Foard and R. Morris, The Archaeology of English Battlefields, 15–16.

19 Foard and Morris, The Archaeology of English Battlefields, 83–5.

20 J. Nichols, The History and Antiquities of the County of Leicester (London, 1815), IV, 555–6, plate 88 and p. 643. The map is reprinted in W. Hutton and J. Nichols, The Battle of Bosworth Field, 116–7.

21 Hutton, The Battle of Bosworth Field; Hutton and Nichols, The Battle of Bosworth Field.

22 Hutton, The Battle of Bosworth Field, 7, 68–72.

23 Ibid., 7–8.

24 J. Throsby, Select Views of Leicestershire (Leicester, 1789), I, 338.

25 Foss provides a detailed critique of Hutton and further assessment is made by both Williams and Jones. P. J. Foss, The Field of Redemore: The Battle of Bosworth, 1485, 19–22; M. K. Jones, Bosworth 1485: Psychology of a Battle (Stroud, 2002), 148–9. Only the most substantial errors are discussed here, as most are detailed by Foss, in his rejoinder to Williams’ misleading and poorly argued response to Foss’s own 1990 book. D. T. Williams, The Battle of Bosworth Field, 37–8; P. J. Foss, Getting History Right: A Critique of D T Williams, 1996 (1996). See also D. T. Williams, ‘A Place Mete for Twoo Battayles to Encountre’: The Siting of the Battle of Bosworth’, The Ricardian, VII/90 (1985), 86–96; Jones, Bosworth 1485: Psychology of a Battle, 26–7 and 157.

26 Hutton, The Battle of Bosworth Field, 68.

27 Hutton and J. Nichols, The Battle of Bosworth Field, 144–5.

28 Terrier of Sutton Cheney in 1788, LRO DE40/22/4; Inclosure Award of Sutton Cheney in 1797, LRO C43–861; Inclosure map of Sutton Cheney in 1797, TNA MPL:1/39.

29 Hutton, The Battle of Bosworth Field, 94.

30 Hutton and J. Nichols, The Battle of Bosworth Field, 71, 77 and 144–5.

31 Ibid., 96 and 144–5.

32 Hutton, The Battle of Bosworth Field, 94 et seq.

33 R. Brooke, Visits to Fields of Battle in England of the Fifteenth Century (London, 1857).

34 C. R. B. Barrett, Battles and Battlefields in England (London, 1896); J. Gairdner, ‘The Battle of Bosworth’, Archaeologia, 58/1 (1896), 159–78.

35 A. H. Burne, The Battlefields of England (London, 1996), 137–55.

36 D. T. Williams, The Battle of Bosworth, 22 August 1485 (Leicester, 1973); C. Gravett and G. Turner, The Battle of Bosworth: Last Charge of the Plantagenet; M. J. Bennett, The Battle of Bosworth, though in a later edition Bennett transfers his allegiance to the Foss site.

37 Williams, The Battle of Bosworth Field, 37 and 17.

38 Ibid., 14–15.

39 J. Hollings, ‘Scene of the Death of Richard III’, Notes & Queries (series 2), 6/150 (1858), 391–92.

40 Williams, The Battle of Bosworth Field, 28 and 36.

41 J. Gillingham, The Wars of the Roses (1981), 242–6; C. Richmond, ‘The Battle of Bosworth’, History Today, 35:8 (1985), 17–22.

42 P. J. Foss, The Battle of Bosworth: Where Was It Fought? (Stoke Golding, 1985); the most detailed terrain map is in P. J. Foss, ‘A Significant Document: The Hinckley-Lyre Agreement (1283) and the Site of the Battle of Bosworth’, Hinckley Historian, 22 (1988), though the extensive conjectural marsh extent does not match that shown in manuscript or other published plans; P. J. Foss, The Field of Redemore: The Battle of Bosworth, 1485 (Leeds, 1990); P. J. Foss, The Field of Redmore: The Battle of Bosworth, 1485 (Newtown Linford, 1998); T. V. Parry, A Guide to the Parish Church of St James the Greater, Dadlington (1993); T. V. Parry, A Church for Bosworth Field (1998).

43 M. Drayton, Poly-Olbion (1622); Vegetius: Epitome of Military Science, translated with notes and introduction by N. P. Milner, second edn (Liverpool, 1996);The Book of Fayttes of Armes and of Chyualrye, Translated and Printed by William Caxton from the French Original of Christine de Pisan, ed. A. T. P. Byles, Early English Text Society (London, 1932).

44 M. J. Bennett, The Battle of Bosworth (Gloucester, 1985).

45 F. R. Twemlowe, The Battle of Blore Heath (Wolverhampton, 1912); J. T. Page, ‘Sedgemoor’, Somerset and Dorset Notes and Queries (1935), 241.

46 D. Scott et al., Archaeological Perspectives on the Battle of the Little Bighorn (Oklahoma, 1989); the wider development of battlefield studies in nineteenth and twentieth century England is reviewed in G. Foard, Battlefield Archaeology of the English Civil War.

47 English Heritage, ‘Battlefield Report: Bosworth 1485’ (1995); Letter of 12 October 1994 from Mr D J Knight, in the English Heritage Designations Bosworth battlefield file. D. Starkey, ‘Or Merevale?’, History Today, 35 (October 1985), 62.

48 Minutes of Bosworth Battlefield Archaeology Working Group, from English Heritage’s Bosworth Battlefield designations file.

49 Chris Brook, pers. comm.

50 K. S. Wright, The Field of Bosworth (Leicester, 2002).

51 Ibid., 75–7. The plans are all sketched and so mapping to a modern OS base has proved difficult.

52 Jones, Bosworth 1485: Psychology of a Battle; D. Starkey, ‘Or Merevale?’.

53 See chapter 3.

54 York Memoranda, M. J. Bennett, The Battle of Bosworth, 155. Bennett gives ‘Rodemore’ but this was shown by Attreed to be a misreading of ‘Redemore’ current since Davies; Foss, pers. comm.; R. Davies, Extracts from the Municipal Records of the City of York During the Reigns of Edward IV, Edward V, and Richard III (London, 1843); L. Attreed, York House Books 1461–1490 (Stroud, 1991).

55 Bennett, The Battle of Bosworth, 160.

56 Ibid., 159.

57 The document for the villages is given in full by K. S. Wright, The Field of Bosworth, 14, quoting W. Campbell, Materials for the History of the Life of Henry VII (1) 188 and 121.

58 Jones, Bosworth 1485: Psychology of a Battle, 151–2.

59 A. Goodman, The Wars of the Roses: Military Activity and English Society 1452–97 (London, 1981); P. J. Foss, The Field of Redemore: The Battle of Bosworth, 1485.

60 Jones, Bosworth 1485: Psychology of a Battle, 146–7.

61 Ibid., 146.

62 Ibid., 155–6.

63 Ibid., 154–5. An extract of the 1763 and 1716 maps showing Bloody Bank and Royal Meadow is given by K. S. Wright, The Field of Bosworth, after p. 16. In 1716 it seems to have been named Tenter (P)ill.

64 Excavation by Mr Alan F. Cook in 1965, recorded in the Leicestershire Sites and Monuments Record.

65 Foss, The Field of Redemore: The Battle of Bosworth, 1485, 30–1 where Foss also shows that it appears as ‘Redesmore’ in the Londoner’s Notes MS and in the Scottish copy of Fabyan.

66 Jones, Bosworth 1485: Psychology of a Battle, 152–3.

Chapter 2

1 British Library MS Cotton Nero D. VI., f. 91v and 92r, printed in S. Armitage-Smith, John of Gaunt (London, 1904), appendix II.

2 A. Curry, ‘Disciplinary ordinances for English and Franco-Scottish Armies in 1385: an international code’, Journal of Medieval History, 37 (2011), 269–94; British Library Additional Manuscript 33,181.

3 The Heralds’ Memoir 1486–1490. Court Ceremony, Royal Progress and Rebellion, ed. E. Cavell (Donington, 2009), 111–13.

4 C. J. Philpotts, ‘The French plan of battle during the Agincourt campaign’, English Historical Review, 99 (1984), 64–6, from British Library MS Cotton Caligula D. V. f. 43v–44r.

5 Chroniques de Jean Molinet, ed. G. Doutrepont and O. Jodogne, 3 vols (Brussels, 1935–7), i, 433, 435–6.

6 Norfolk Record Office, NCC Wills Register Caston, folio 256v; J. R. Alban, ‘The will of a Norfolk soldier at Bosworth’, The Ricardian, 22 (2012), 1–7.

7 The latter were a collaborative effort. Holinshed himself died in 1580 and therefore was only directly involved in the first edition. See A. Patterson, Reading Holinshed’s Chronicles (Chicago and London, 1994). The two editions are presented as parallel texts at www.cems.ox.ac.uk/holinshed/. See also P. Levy, Tudor Historical Thought (San Marino, Ca, 1971), 182–6. Also useful is M. McKisack, Medieval History in the Tudor Age (Oxford, 1971).

8 The Crowland Chronicle Continuations: 1459–1486, ed. and trans. N. Pronay and J. Cox (London, 1986). For general discussion on this and other works noted in this outline see A. Gransden, Historical Writing in England II. c. 1307 to the early sixteenth century (London, 1982). Translations of many of the works cited are to be found in M. Bennett, The Battle of Bosworth, 2nd edn (Stroud, 2000). The project has produced new transcriptions and translations which will be made available through the Archaeological Data Service.

9 Chroniques de Jean Molinet, ed. G. Doutrepont and O. Jodogne, 3 vols (Brussels, 1935–7).

10 For instance, Philippe de Commynes, Mémoires, ed. J. Calmette, 2 vols (Paris, 1925); Johannis Rossi, Antiquarii Warwicensis Historia Regum Angliae, ed. T. Hearne (Oxford, 1716); Chronicles of London, ed. C. L. Kingsford (Oxford, 1905); The Great Chronicle of London, ed. A. H. Thomas and I.D. Thornley (London, 1938); Robert Fabyan, Chronycle (London, 1533).

11 In this study the on-line critical edition and translation by D. F. Sutton of the 1555 printing has been used since it is the only full version accessible (http://www.philological.bham.ac.uk/polyverg). An edition and translation of the work from the accession of Henry VII to 1537 is also in print: The Anglica Historia of Polydore Vergil, 1485–1537, ed. D. Hay (Camden Society, new series, 74 (1950)). The sixteenth-century translation is printed as Three Books of Polydore Vergil’s English History, Comprising the Reigns of Henry VI, Edward IV and Richard III, ed. H. Ellis, Camden Society (London, 1844). For discussion see D. Hay, Polydore Vergil. Renaissance Historian and Man of Letters (Oxford, 1952).

12 M. Hicks, ‘Crowland’s world. A Westminster view of the Yorkist age’, History, 90 (2005), 172–90; idem, ‘The second anonymous continuation of the Crowland Abbey Chronicle 1459–86 revisited’, English Historical Review, 122 (2007), 349–70.

13 Historia Regis Henrici Septimi a Bernardo Andrea Tholosate conscripta, ed. J. Gairdner, Rolls Series (London, 1858), English translation from M. Bennett, The Battle of Bosworth (2nd edn, Stroud, 2000), 141. That said, his account of the battle of Stoke is extremely undetailed. See M. Bennett, Lambert Simnel and the Battle of Stoke (Gloucester, 1987), 131–3.

14 A. Hanham, Richard III and His Early Historians, 1483–1535 (Oxford, 1975), 54, 131.

15 These are printed in the third volume of Bishop Percy’s Folio Manuscript, ed. J. W. Hales and F. J. Furnivall, 3 vols (London, 1868. For a prose summary of The Ballad of Bosworth Fielde, probably late sixteenth-century, see British Library Harleian 542, printed in Leicestershire and Rutland Notes and Queries, ed. J. and T. Spencer, 1 (1881–91), 53–8. We are grateful to Professor John McGavin of the Department of English, University of Southampton, for advice on the ballads.

16 Hanham, Richard III, p. 54. Epistolas y otros varios tratados de Mosén Diego de Valera, ed. José A. De Balenchana (Madrid, 1878), 91–6; E. M. Nokes and G. Wheeler, ‘A Spanish account of the battle of Bosworth’, The Ricardian, 2, no. 36 (1972), 1–5; A. Goodman and A. Mackay, ‘A Castilian Report of English Affairs, 1486’, English Historical Review, 88 (1973), 92–9.

17 A. Spont, ‘La milice des francs-archers (1448–1500)’, Revue des questions historiques, 61 (1897), 474, cited in M. K. Jones, Bosworth 1485. The Psychology of a Battle (Stroud, 2002), 222.

18 A. V. Antonovics, ‘Henry VII, king of England, “By the Grace of Charles VIII of France”’, Kings and Nobles in the Later Middle Ages. A Tribute to Charles Ross, ed. R. A. Griffiths and J. Sherborne (Gloucester, 1986), 169–84.

19 For a useful summary, although not footnoted, see M. K. Jones, ‘Richard III as a Soldier’, in Richard III. A Medieval Kingship, ed. J. Gillingham (Collins and Brown: London, 1993), 93–112.

20 J. Ross, John de Vere, Thirteenth Earl of Oxford, 1442–1513. ‘The Foremost Man of the Kingdom’ (Woodbridge, 2011), 65–71.

21 L. Gill, Richard III and Buckingham’s Rebellion (Stroud, 1999), 58; C. D. Ross, Richard III (London, 1981), 76–8.

22 M. C. E. Jones, ‘For My Lord of Richmond, a pourpoint … and a palfrey’: Financial Evidence for Henry Tudor’s Exile in Brittany 1471–1484’, The Ricardian, 13 (2003), 292–3.

23 Gill, Richard III and Buckingham’s Rebellion, 75, 71. Ross, Richard III, 105–10.

24 Gill, Richard III and Buckingham’s Rebellion, 72–3.

25 British Library Harleian Manuscript 433, ed. R. Horrox and P. W. Hammond, 4 vols (Stroud, 1979), ii, 114.

26 Ibid., ii, 63.

27 Gill, Richard III and Buckingham’s Rebellion, 79.

28 C. S. L. Davies, ‘Richard III, Brittany and Henry Tudor, 1483–1485’, Nottingham Medieval Studies, 37 (1993), 110–26.

29 Calendar of Patent Rolls 1476–85, 397–401.

30 R. Horrox, Richard III. A Study in Service (Oxford, 1989), 275–77.

31 Calendar of Patent Rolls, 1476–85, 488–2; Harleian 433, ii, 182; R. A. Griffiths and R. S. Thomas, The Making of the Tudor Dynasty (Gloucester, 1985), 121.

32 Calendar of Patent Rolls, 1476–1485, 545.

33 J. Ashdown-Hill, The Last Days of Richard III (Stroud, 2010), 27–33.

34 Calendar of Patent Rolls 1476–1485, 517, 547. There is some debate on whether these orders belong to 1485 or 1484, but I am convinced by the argument of Davies that they do date to 1485 (‘Richard III, Brittany and Henry Tudor’, 123–260.

35 Crowland Continuation, 176–7.

36 Molinet, i, 434.

37 Harleian 433, ii, 228–9. These are not found in the Calendar of Patent Rolls, however.

38 The Paston Letters, ed. J. Gairdner, 6 vols. (London, 1904), vi, 81–4; Harleian Manuscript 433, ii, 230 although the text there is incomplete.

39 Crowland Continuation, 177–9.

40 The York House Books 1461–1490: House Books One and Two/Four, ed. L. C. Attreed, 2 vols (Stroud, 1991), i, 366.

41 Calendar of Close Rolls 1476–85, 431, 433.

42 Historical Manuscripts Commission. Twelfth Report Appendix Part IV. The Manuscripts of his Grace the duke of Rutland, GCB, preserved at Belvoir Castle, vol. 1 (London, 1888), 7–8.

43 L. Boatwright, ‘The Buckinghamshire Six at Bosworth’, The Ricardian, 13 (2003), 65.

44 T. Richardson, ‘The Bridport Muster Roll of 1457’, Royal Armouries Yearbook, 2 (1997); Kingsford’s Stonor Letters and Papers 1290–1483, ed. C. Carpenter (CUP, 1996), 352–3 (document 258).

45 York House Books, i, 367–68.

46 This is found in transcripts made by Drake in the eighteenth century of folios of the York House Books which are no longer extant: York House Books, ii, 371.

47 York House Books, i, 368.

48 This is proposed by Colin Richmond, ‘1485 and all that, or what was going on at the battle of Bosworth’, Richard III: Loyalty, Lordship and Law, ed. P. Hammond (London, 2000), 204.

49 L. Attreed, The King’s Towns. Identity and Survival in Late Medieval English Boroughs (New York: Peter Lang, 2001), 198– 200.

50 Calendar of Patent Rolls 1452–61, 406–10.

51 Attreed, King’s Towns, 200.

52 Devon Record Office, Exeter receiver’s account 2 Richard III to 1 Henry VII, m. 2, cited in H. Kleineke, ‘Ye kynges cite: Exeter in the Wars of the Roses’, The Fifteenth Century, 7 (2007), 149.

53 Ibid., 148–9.

54 The Coventry Leet Book, ed. M.D. Legge, Early English Text Society (London, 1907–13).

55 Guildhall Library, London, Journal IX folio 78d, cited in D. J. Guth, ‘Richard III, Henry VII and the City: London Politics and the ‘Dun Cow’’, in Kings and Nobles in the Later Middle Ages. A Tribute to Charles Ross, ed. R. A. Griffiths and J. Sherborne (Gloucester, 1986), 192.

56 Ibid., 193.

57 Vergil 25 Eng. 21.

58 Paston Letters, vi, 85; Paston Letters and Papers, ii, 443–4.

59 Paston Letters, iii, 138–9.

60 Crowland Continuation, 178–9.

61 Parliament Rolls of Medieval England 1275–1504, XV, ed. R. Horrox (Woodbridge, 2005), 213, cited in Boatwright, ‘The Buckinghamshire Six’, 56.

62 Howard Household Books 1462–1471, 1481–1483, introduction by Anne Crawford (Stroud, 1992), Book II, 480–90.

63 Parliament Rolls of Medieval England, XV, 5.

64 Crowland Continuation, 171.

65 A. E. Goodman, The Wars of the Roses (London, 1981), 137.

66 Richmond, ‘1485’, 205.

67 M. Bennett, Lambert Simnel and the Battle of Stoke (Gloucester, 1987), 136, from Polydore Vergil.

68 Calendar of Inquisitions Post mortem Henry VIII, vol. ii, nos 81, 95. For other examples see L. Boatwright, ‘The Buckinghamshire Six at Bosworth’, The Ricardian, 13 (2003), 57

69 J. Hunter, History of South Yorkshire (London, 1828), I, 75, and W. E. Hampton, Memorials of the Wars of the Roses (reprinted, Upminster, 1979), no. 401.

70 P. L. Homer, ‘Studies in the Military Organization of the Yorkist Kings’, unpublished Ph. D. thesis, University of Minnesota, 1977, 195–202. For the army in general see J. R. Lander, ‘The Hundred Years War and Edward IV’s 1475 campaign in France’, Tudor Men and Institutions. Studies in English Law and Government, ed. A. Slavin (Baton Rouge, 1972); F. P. Barnard, Edward IV’s French Expedition of 1475: The Leaders and their Badges (Oxford, 1925).

71 See M. Hicks, ‘Dynastic Change and Northern Society: The career of the fourth earl of Northumberland, 1470–1489’, Northern History, 14 (1978), 78–117.

72 Howard Household Books, Book II, 480–90. For discussion see A. Crawford, Yorkist Lord. John Howard, duke of Norfolk, c. 1425–1485 (London, 2010), 130–1.

73 J. Ashdown Hill, Richard III’s ‘Beloved Cousyn’. John Howard and the House of York (Stroud 2009), 46–9.

74 Richmond, ‘1485’, 207.

75 Crawford, Yorkist Lord, 67.

76 Richmond, ‘1485’, 202.

77 Davies, ‘Richard III, Brittany and Henry Tudor’, 122.

78 Crowland Continuation, 179.

79 Vergil 25:20.

80 The Song of the Ladye Bessiye gives 1,000 men to Lord Stanley, 500 men to Sir William, 300 to Edward, son of Lord Thomas, 1,000 to Lord Strange, 1,500 to Sir John Savage, and 1,000 to Gilbert Talbot (verses 17–22) but later multiplies some of these ten-fold (verses 199–200).

81 D. Clayton, The Administration of the County Palatine of Chester 1442–1485, Chetham Society, 3rd series, vol. 35 (Manchester, 1990), 115

82 Vergil 25:23.

83 W. H. Dunham, Lord Hastings’ Indentured Retainers 1461–1483 (Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences, 1955).

84 Horrox, Richard III, 310.

85 A. J. Pollard, North-Eastern England during the Wars of the Roses (Oxford, 1990), 364.

86 York House Book, i, 372.

87 ‘Ballad of Bosworth Fielde’, 233–58, Richmond, ‘1485’, 214, with reference to Cumbria in particular; Pollard, North-Eastern England, 363–5.

88 Horrox, Richard III, 317.

89 K. Dockray, ‘Richard III and the Yorkshire Gentry’, Richard III: Loyalty, Lordship and Law, ed. P. Hammond (London, 2000), 50; Ross, Richard III, 118–19, 124.

90 A. R. Myers, The Household of Edward IV. The Black Book and the Ordinance of 1478 (Manchester 1959), 108.

91 Harleian 433, ii, 212 (Jan. 1485).

92 Horrox, Richard III, 232.

93 British Library Add MS 12,060 folios 19–20; R. M. Warnicke, ‘Sir Ralph Bigod: a Loyal Servant to King Richard’, The Ricardian 6 (1984).

94 According to annals ascribed to William Worcester: Letters and Papers illustrative of the Wars of Henry VI in France (Rolls Series, 1864), vol. 2 part ii, 788.

95 Horrox, Richard III, 282–3.

96 Epistolas…de Valera, 93; Molinet, iii, 87.We are grateful to Michael Bletzer, Department of Anthropology, Southern Methodist University, Dallas, Texas, for providing further information on Salazar. For negotiations of 1484 see Letters and papers illustrative of the reigns of Richard III and Henry VII, ed. J. Gairdner, 2 vols. (London, 1861–63), ii, no. II.

97 Davies, ‘Richard III, Brittany and Henry Tudor’, 116.

98 Harleian 433, ii, 213, 217, 228.

99 Calendar of Patent Rolls 1476–85, 509–10, Harleian 433, ii, 143.

100 D. Grummitt, The Calais Garrison. War and Military Service in England, 1436–1558 (Woodbridge: Boydell Press, 2008), 14. He also notes the offer by some of the garrison soldiers after Richard’s defeat to serve Maximilian, citing C. S. L. Davies, ‘Bishop John Morton, The Holy See and the Accession of Henry VIII’, English Historical Review, 102 (1987), 27.

101 Tyrell continued in office under Henry VII, and men serving under him in the garrison received pardon in July 1486. See Grummitt, Calais Garrison, 78.

102 Horrox, Richard III, 292.

103 M. C. E. Jones, ‘For My Lord of Richmon, a pourpoint … and a palfrey’: Financial Evidence for Henry Tudor’s Exile in Brittany 1471–1484’, The Ricardian, 13 (2003), 292–3.

104 Boatwright, ‘The Buckinghamshire Six’, 59.

105 Calendar of Entries in the Papal Registers relating to Great Britain and Ireland. Papal Letters 1484–1492, xiv (London, 1960), 20.

106 Horrox, Richard III, 324, 281.

107 M. Condon, Ricardian, 1982.College of Arms Arundel 51, folio 28. I am grateful to Gemma Watson for this reference.

108 J. Ross, John de Vere, Thirteenth Earl of Oxford, 1442–1513. ‘The Foremost Man of the Kingdom’ (Woodbridge, 2011), 82–3.

109 Calendar of Patent Rolls 1476–85, 526.

110 Ross, De Vere, 83–4.

111 S. Cunningham, Henry VII (London, 2007), 27.

112 Calendar of Patent Rolls 1485–94, 18. His lands in Cranbrook, Kent, were in Richard’s hands because of forfeiture (ibid., 402).

113 Crowland Continuation, 180–1.

114 M. K. Jones, ‘The Myth of 1485. Did France Really Put Henry Tudor on the English Throne?’. The English Experience in France, c. 1450–1558, ed. D. Grummitt (London, 2002), 92.

115 Ross, Richard III, 202

116 The National Archives E 404/79/102. These were not paid for until this order was made on 4 February 1486.

117 Calendar of Patent Rolls 1485–94, 10.

118 A. Hewerdine, The Yeomen of the Guard and the Early Tudors: The Formation of a Royal Bodyguard (London, 2012), 9–11, 189–90. An Anthony Woodshawe was a member of the Yeoman of the Guard in 1513 (67). Thomas Woodshawe was a yeoman-farmer from Tamworth, and had possibly been recruited by John Savage. Thomas also received royal patronage, becoming escheator for Staffordshire in 1487 and a gentleman usher of the chamber in 1495. R. Skinner, ‘Thomas Woodshawe, ‘Grasiour’ and Regicide’, The Ricardian, 9 no. 121 (1993), 195–203.

119 Jones, ‘Myth of 1485’, 86–105; A. V. Antonovics, ‘Henry VII, king of England, “By the Grace of Charles VIII of France”’, Kings and Nobles in the Later Middle Ages. A Tribute to Charles Ross, ed. R. A. Griffiths and J. Sherborne (Gloucester, 1986), 169–84; C. S. L. Davies, ‘Richard III, Brittany and Henry Tudor, 1483–1485’, Nottingham Medieval Studies, 37 (1993), 110–26.

120 Paris, Bibliothèque Nationale de France, nouvelles acquisitions françaises 7642, folios 159v–160r, cited in Jones, ‘Myth’, 99.

121 Paris, Archives Nationales, MC: Et/XIX/1/Rés. 269 (Minutier Central des Notaires de Paris), cited in Jones, ‘Myth’, 101. It may also be that Tudor did not wholly trust Dorset.

122 Jones, ‘Myth’, 104, with fuller discussion in Bosworth. Psychology of a Battle.

123 L. Visser-Fuchs, ‘Phantom Bastardy and Ghostly Pikemen. Bosworth 1484. Psychology of a Battle, by Michael K. Jones’, The Ricardian 14 (2004).

124 For the discussion which follows, see, in addition to A. Spont, ‘La milice des francs-archers (1448–1500)’, Revue des questions historiques, 61 (1897), P. Contamine, Guerre, état et société à la fin du moyen âge (The Hague and Paris 1972), 343–44; D. Potter, Renaissance France at War: Armies, Culture and Society c. 1480–1560 (Woodbridge, 2008), 102–3, 106.

125 Spont, ‘La milice’, 472.

126 Archives Nationales JJ/281/1, cited in Jones, ‘Myth’, 104.

127 Complete Peerage, II, 15, where it is suggested he was of Breton origin although he may have been a Savoyard; Goodman and Mackay, ‘Castilian Report’, 94–5.

128 S. B. Chrimes, Henry VII (London, 1972), 40 note 2.

129 André, 29.

130 Spont, ‘La milice’, 474; Jones, Bosworth, appendix.

131 Molinet, i, 434.

132 Goodman and Mackay, ‘Castilian Report’, 92–9.

133 Commynes, 306, 234.

134 Contamine, Guerre, état et société, 343.

135 Commynes, 306.

136 N. McDougall, James III. A Political Study (Edinburgh, 1982), 215–6.

137 John Major, A History of Greater Britain, ed. A. Constable (Scottish Historical Society, 1892), 393.

138 The Historie and Cronicles of Scotland from the Slauchter of King James the First to the Ane Thousande Fyve Hundreith Thrie Scoir Fyftein Yeir, written and collected by Robert Lindesay of Pittscottie, ed. A. J. G. Mackay, 3 vols (Scottish Text Society, 1899–1911), i, 190.

139 R. A. Griffiths and R. S. Thomas, The Making of the Tudor Dynasty (Gloucester, 1985), 129.

140 Bosworth, 155. C. S. L. Davies, ‘The Wars of the Roses in European Context’, in The Wars of the Roses, ed. A. J. Pollard (London, 1995), 244.

141 Griffiths and Thomas, Making of the Tudor Dynasty, 129.

142 Chrimes, Henry VII, appendix.

143 Cited in Griffiths and Thomas, Making of the Tudor Dynasty, 120. See Rosemary Horrox, ‘Henry Tudor’s letters to England during Richard III’s reign’, The Ricardian, 6, no. 80 (1983), 155–8.

144 S. B. Chrimes, ‘The landing place of Henry of Richmond, 1485’, Welsh History Review 2 (1964), 173–80.

145 The History of the Gwydir Family, written by Sir John Wynn, ed. J. Ballinger (Cardiff, 1927), 28. John Wynn (d. 1627) completed this history in 1616.

146 Griffiths and Thomas, Making of the Tudor Dynasty, 131.

147 Harleian 433, iii, 172–3.

148 It was claimed in the early seventeenth century that this letter was seen in confiscated archives of Rhys’s grandson but then destroyed. R. A. Griffiths, Sir Rhys ap Thomas and his Family. A Study in the Wars of the Roses and Early Tudor Politics (Cardiff, 1993), 39.

149 Griffiths, Sir Rhys ap Thomas, 43.

150 G. A. Williams, ‘The Bardic Road to Bosworth’, Transactions of the Honourable Society of Cymmrodorion (1986), 14.

151 Griffiths, Rhys ap Thomas, 217.

152 G. Grazebrook, ‘An unpublished letter by Henry, earl of Richmond’, Miscellanea Genealogica et Heraldica, 4th series, V (1914), 30–9.

153 John was MP for Radnorshire in 1542.

154 Griffiths, Rhys ap Thomas, 41.

155 ‘The Song of the Lady Bessiye’ even claims he provided 8,000 ‘speres’. Cited in Griffiths, Rhys ap Thomas, 43.

156 Griffiths, Rhys ap Thomas, 48 note 17. These were 6 men-at-arms with pages, 250 demi-lances and 260 infantry, although he eventually provided 12 lances, 286 demi lances, and 292 archers.

157 Griffiths, Rhys ap Thomas, 43 note 60.

158 Griffiths, Rhys ap Thomas, 45. After Blackheath he was dubbed a banneret and he became a knight of the Garter in 1499.

159 He appointed to the lucrative office of feodary of Wallingford, one of the foreign manors of the duchy of Cornwall. Materials for a History of the Reign of Henry VII, ed. W. Campbell, 2 vols, Rolls Series (London, 1873), vol. 1, 156; Calendar of Patent Rolls 1485–94, 31. In August1488 he was also given a life grant of £6 per annum from money which the abbot and convent of Shrewsbury were obliged to pay for timber (ibid., 219).

160 Griffiths and Thomas, Making of the Tudor Dynasty, 150.

161 Horrox, Richard III, 317.

162 Horrox, Richard III, 318.

163 Clayton, Administration of the County Palatine of Chester, 117.

164 Grummitt, Calais Garrison, 78.

165 Dunham, Lord Hastings Indentured Retainers, 26.

166 Guth, ‘Richard III, Henry VII and the City’, 196–7.

167 These are found mainly in Calendar of Patent Rolls 1485–94.

168 Ross, Richard III, 118 n. 44, 124.

169 As Horrox notes in her introduction to the Nov. 1485 parliament, Parliament Rolls of Medieval England, XV, 88.

170 I am grateful to Aleksandr Lobanov for this example.

171 Curry, Agincourt. A New History, appendix B.

172 P. Hammond, Richard III and the Bosworth Campaign (Barnsley, 2010), 76.

173 Vergil, 25 Eng. 23, 24.

174 Molinet, i, 434–5.

175 Philippe de Commynes, Mémoires, ed. J. Calmette, 2 vols (Paris, 1925), ii, 306, 235.

176 Murray Kendall, Richard III, 361; Bennett, Bosworth, 103; Hammond, Richard III and the Bosworth Campaign, 74–5.

177 Fabyan, 672; Great Chronicle of London, 237.

178 Epistolas…de Valera, 92–3.

179 Crowland Continuation, 180–1,178–9, 184–5.

180 Murray Kendall, Richard III, 361; Bennett, Bosworth, 103; Hammond, Richard III and the Bosworth Campaign, 78.

181 P. L. Homer, ‘Studies in the Military Organization of the Yorkist Kings’, unpublished PhD thesis, University of Minnesota, 1977, 177.

182 Domini Mancini, The usurpation of Richard III. Ad Angelum Catonem de occupatione regni Angliae per Ricardum tercium libellus. ed. C. J. Armstrong (2nd edn, Oxford, 1969), 99.

Chapter 3

1 Epistolas y otros varios tratados de Mosén Diego de Valera, ed. José A. De Balenchana (Madrid, 1878), 91–6; E. M. Nokes and G. Wheeler, ‘A Spanish account of the battle of Bosworth’, The Ricardian, 2, no. 36 (1972), 1–5; A. Goodman and A. Mackay, ‘A Castilian Report of English Affairs, 1486’, English Historical Review, 88 (1973), 92–9.

2 In order to avoid an excessive number of references in this chapter, the relevant sections of the main narrative accounts mentioned are cited here. The Crowland Chronicle Continuations: 1459–1486, ed. and trans. N. Pronay and J. Cox (London, 1986), 178–85; Chroniques de Jean Molinet, ed. G. Doutrepont and O. Jodogne, 3 vols (Brussels, 1935–7), 433–5; The Great Chronicle of London, ed. A. H. Thomas and I. D. Thornley (London, 1938), 237–8; Polydore Vergil, Historia Anglica, 1555 edition, http://www.philological.bham.ac.uk/polyverg, section 25, chaps 20–25; Three Books of Polydore Vergil’s English History, Comprising the Reigns of Henry VI, Edward IV and Richard III, ed. H. Ellis, Camden Society (London, 1844), 216–25.

3 P. Murray Kendall, Richard III (London, 1955), 350.

4 Crowland Continuation, 179.

5 Norfolk Record Office, NCC Wills Register Caston, f. 256v, printed in Alban, ‘Will of a Norfolk Soldier at Bosworth’, 7.

6 Records of the Borough of Nottingham, vol. iii, 1485–1547 (London, 1885), 238.

7 Ibid, 427, 300.

8 This is also the view of Richmond, ‘1485’, 204.

9 M. Hicks, ‘The Second Anonymous Continuation of the Crowland Abbey Chronicle 1459–86 Revisited’, English Historical Review, 122 (2007), 349–70.

10 Crowland Continuation, 179.

11 Murray Kendall, Richard III, 353.

12 Great Chronicle, 236

13 Records of the Borough of Nottingham, iii, 237.

14 Alban, ‘Will of a Norfolk Soldier’, 3.

15 Simnel’s army marched on average 20 miles (32 km) per day in 1487 (Bennett, Lambert Simnel and the Battle of Stoke, 85).

16 A. Sutton, ‘The Making of a Minor London Chronicle in the Household of Sir Thomas Frowyck (died 1485)’, The Ricardian, vol. 10, no. 126 (1994), 86–103. I am grateful to Lynda Pidgeon for this reference.

17 R. Holinshed, Chronicles of England, Scotland and Ireland (first edn 1577–8), 1416 (EEEBO edn, STC (2nd edn) 13568b).

18 P. Hammond, The Battles of Barnet and Tewkesbury (Gloucester, 1990), 85.

19 However, it is also worth noting that Merevale abbey was linked to the Lords Ferrers as founders. One of Richard’s leading supporters who died alongside him at the battle, Sir Walter Devereux, had married into the family and been created Lord Ferrers. J. D. Austin, Merevale and Atherstone: 1485. Recent Bosworth Discoveries (Atherstone, 2004), 1.

20 The National Archives (TNA) E 404/79/339 E 404/79/340, with facsimiles and transcripts in S. Cunningham, Richard III: A Royal Enigma (Kew, 2003), 70–1.

21 Crowland Continuation, 179.

22 Calendar of Entries in the Papal Registers, 14 (1960), 17, 19.

23 Bosworth Fielde, verses 105–11, Song of the Lady Bessiye, Lines 875–6.

24 Molinet, i, 435.

25 Vergil, 25 Eng. 23.

26 York House books, i, 368.

27 Gregory’s Chronicle, ed. J. Gairdner, Camden Society (London, 1876), 204; Historie of the Arrivall of Edward IV, ed. J. Bruce, Camden Society (London, 1838), 18; A Chronicle of the First Thirteen Years of the Reign of King Edward the Fourth by John Warkworth, ed. J. O. Halliwell, Camden society (London, 1839), 16.

28 Paper presented to the ‘Bosworth Revisited’ conference, 19 August 2006.

29 Arrivall, 24.

30 Parliament Rolls of Medieval England, XV, 108.

31 British Library Additional MS 12,060, folios 19–20, bound within a book entitled ‘Lord Morley on Transubstantiation dedicated to Queen Mary’. This is dated to c. 1553.

32 Crowland Continuation, 180–1; Vergil 25 Eng. 23.

33 Molinet, i, 435. ‘Les Francois pareillement firent leurs preparations en marchans contre les Englèz, estant aux champz à ung quart de lieue.’

34 R. E. Zupko, French Weights and Measures Before the Revolution. A Dictionary of Provincial and Local Units (Bloomington and London, 1978), 95–96. A league in fifteenth-century England was only slightly longer at 3 miles (4.8 km): R. D. Connor, The Weights and Measures of England (London, 1987), 75.

35 Arrivall, 28; Goodman, Wars of the Roses, 167–8.

36 Molinet, i, 434–5. ‘Le roy fit tirer les engiens de son armée contre le comte de Ricemont; et adonc les Franchois, cognoissans par le trait du roy la situation du lieu et manière de sa bataille, eurent, pour eviter le trait desdis engiens, advis d’assambler de costé à la bataille dudit roy et non point de front.’

37 Epistolas…de Valera, 93.

38 Vergil, 25 Eng. 23.

39 A. Curry, The Battle of Agincourt. Sources and Interpretations (Woodbridge, 2000), 226.

40 A. Spont, ‘La milice des Francs-Archers (1448–1500)’, Revue des Questions Historiques, 61 (1897), 474.

41 Vergil, 25 Eng. 23.

42 Vergil, 25 Latin 23. We are grateful to Professor Brian Kemp for advice on the translation.

43 Three Books of Polydore Vergil’s English History, 222.

44 Hall, 420–1.

45 Bennett, Bosworth, 135 translates this as ‘the thickest of the fight’ but that is taking it too far.

46 Recueil des croniques… par Jean de Waurin, v, 669.

47 Ibid., v, 320.

48 Vegetius: Epitome of Military Science, translated with notes and introduction by N.P. Milner (Liverpool University Press, second edn, 1996), 106.

49 Vergil, 25 Eng. 24.

50 Vegetius, 101. Richard owned a copy of this work (British Library Royal MS 18 A X11). See A. F. Sutton and L. Visser-Fuchs, Richard III’s Books: Ideals and Reality in the Life and Library of a Medieval Prince (Gloucester, 1997). For general discussion on the work, see C. T. Allmand, The De Re Militari of Vegetius. The Reception, Transmission and Legacy of a Roman Text in the Middle Ages (Cambridge, 2011).

51 Vergil 24 Eng. 16.

52 Molinet, i., 435–6.

53 Vegetius, 93.

54 The book of fayttes of armes and of chyualrye, translated and printed by William Caxton from the French original of Christine de Pisan, ed. A. T. P. Byles, Early English Text Society (London, 1932).

55 The Book of Deeds of Arms and of Chivalry, ed. C. C. Willard (Pennsylvania State University Press, 1999), 103. The battle is also mentioned on pages 75 and 77. It is likely that these examples were taken by Christine from Valerius Maximus, Factorum ac dictorum memorabilium libri, book VII, iv.

56 A. Curry, The Battle of Agincourt. Sources and Interpretations (Woodbridge, 2000), 48–53.

57 Curry, Sources, 133. Note that elsewhere Juvenal gives much emphasis to the muddy conditions in which the French found themselves at Agincourt.

58 Recueil des croniques, v, 69. See also the discussion in Goodman, Wars of the Roses, 169 on archer shoot-outs at the beginning of battles.

59 Vergil, 25 Eng. 22.

60 Vergil, 25 Eng. 21.

61 Great Chronicle, 237.

62 Molinet, i, 435.

63 Goodman and Mackay, ‘Castilian Report’, 92–9.

64 Goodman and Mackay, ‘Castilian Report’, 96.

65 Crowland Continuation, 182–3.

66 Vergil, 25 Eng. 25.

67 Johannis Rossi, Antiquarii Warwicensis Historia Regum Angliae, ed. T. Hearne (Oxford, 1716), 218.

68 Fabyan, 227.

69 York House books, vol. 1, 369.

70 ‘1485 and all that, or what was going on at the battle of Bosworth’, Richard III: Loyalty, Lordship and Law, ed. P. Hammond (London, 2000), 205.

71 Recueil des croniques, v, 645.

72 Epistolas … de Valera, 93; Great Chronicle, 237.

73 Vergil 25 Eng. 24.

74 Vegetius, 83.

75 Recueil des croniques, v, 320, 662; Warkworth, 16.

76 Cited in Fiorato et al, Blood Red Roses, 15.

77 Molinet, i, 435–6.

78 Crowland Continuation, 182–3.

79 Song of the Lady Bessiye, 250.1022.

80 Vergil, 25 Eng. 24.

81 O. Miller, ‘Stafford and Van Dyke’, in For Veronica Wedgwood These: Studies in Seventeenth-Century History, ed. R. Ollard and P. Tudor-Craig (London, 1986), 123.

82 York House books, vol. 2, 734.

83 Great Chronicle, 238; Hanham, Richard III and his Early Historians, 115.

84 Vergil, 25 Eng. 25.

85 Hanham, Richard III and his Early Historians, 133.

86 Note the similarity of his account of the aftermath of Stoke: ‘having gathered the spoils of the slain and committed their bodies for burial., the king proceeded to Lincoln … (Bennett, Lambert Simnel and the Battle of Stoke, 138).

87 Curry, Sources, 170; Curry, Agincourt. A New History, 233.

88 TNA C 82/367/15, transcribed in O. D. Harris, ‘The Bosworth Commemoration at Dadlington’, The Ricardian, vol. 7, no. 90 (1985), 124.

89 T. V. Parry, A Church for Bosworth Field (privately printed, 1987).

90 In a paper delivered to the Shropshire Archaeological Society.

91 Harris, ‘Bosworth Commemoration’, 125. For the text see W. A. Pollard and G. R. Redgrave, Short Title Catalogue of Books Printed in England, Scotland and Ireland 1475–1640, revised by Jackson, Ferguson and Pantzer, vol. 2 (London, 1976), no. 14077, c. 37, and W. A. Jackson, ‘Three Printed English Indulgences at Harvard’, Harvard Library Bulletin, 7 (1953), 229–31.

92 D. T. Williams, The Battle of Bosworth Field (Leicester, 1973), 37.

93 Vergil, 25 Eng. 24.

94 Molinet, i, 436.

95 Epistolas … de Valera, 93.

96 Calendar of Inquisitions post mortem Henry VIII, vol. ii. See also Calendar of Fine Rolls 1485–1509, 1–7 for writs of diem clausit extremum.

97 Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, on-line edition, article 22990.

98 York House books, vol. 2, 737.

99 York House books, vol. 2, 736.

100 York House books, vol. 2, 734.

101 Crowland Continuation, 182–3.

102 Vergil, 25 Eng. 24.

103 Vergil, 25 Eng. 24.

104 D. T. Williams, ‘The Hastily Drawn Will of William Catesby’, Transcactions of the Leciestershire Archaeological and Historical Society, 51 (1975–6), 49, citing TNA PROB 11/7, Reg. Logge f. 15.

105 Crowland Continuation, 182–3; Horrox, Richard III, 261.

106 Molinet, i, 435.

107 Complete Peerage, ix, 612; Crawford, Yorkist Lord, 133; J. Ashdown-Hill, ‘The Opening of the Tombs of the Dukes of Richmond and Norfolk, Framlingham, April 1841: the Account of the Reverend J. W. Darby’, The Ricardian, 18 (2008), 100–107.

108 Great Chronicle, 237–8.

109 Molinet, i, 435–6.

110 Epistolas … de Valera, 93–4.

111 British Library Vitellius A XVI, in Chronicles of London, ed. Kingsford, 193.

112 Vergil, 25 Eng. 25.

113 Ashdown-Hill, Last Days of Richard III, 91–2.

114 York House Books, vol. 2, 735–6.

115 York House Books, vol. 2, 735.

116 Crowland Continuation, 182–3.

117 Archives Nationales de France JJ 218 f. 11, cited in Jones, ‘Myth’, 104.

118 Vergil 25 Eng. 24.

119 The Coventry Leet Book, Early English Text Society (London, 1907–13), 529–30.

120 Fabyan, 673; Chronicles of London, 193.

121 Tudor Royal Proclamations. Volume 1: the Early Tudors (1485–1553), ed. P. Hughes and J. F. Larkin (New Haven and London, 1964), 3–5.

122 Calendar of Patent Rolls 1485–1494, 4–16.

123 Parliament Rolls of Medieval England XV, 108.

124 Calendar of State Papers Venetian vol. 1, 1202–1509, ed. R. Brown (London, 1864), 156.

125 Ibid.,158.

126 Great Chronicle, 237.

127 Kingsford, Chronicles of London, 193.

128 The Chronicle of Calais in the reigns of Henry VII and Henry VIII to the year 1540, ed. John Gough Nichols (Camden Soc., 35, 1846), 1.

129 Harris, ‘The Bosworth Commemoration at Dadlington’, 124.

130 Robert Fabyan, Chronycle (London, 1533), STC (2nd ed.) 10660, 227.

131 Vergil, 25 Eng. 23.

132 Edward Hall, Chronicle (London, 1809; repr. New York, 1965), 413–4, 419.

133 Holinshed, 1416, 1422. (EEBO edn, STC (2nd ed.) 13568b).

134 Calendar of Patent Rolls 1485–1494CPR 1476–85, 471, grant of 15 Sept 1484, but backdated to 18 October 1483.

135 Calendar of Patent Rolls 1485–1494, 44, 111.

136 Calendar of Patent Rolls 1485–1494, 275.

137 York House books, i, 368.

138 F. Drake, Eboracum, or the History and Antiquities of the City of York (London, 1736), 121–3.

139 The names of Thomas [recte John], earl of Lincoln, Thomas earl of Surrey, son of the duke [of Norfolk] and Francis Viscount Lovell are interpolated after the name of the duke of Norfolk.

140 T. Thornton, ‘The battle of Sandeforde: Henry Tudor’s understanding of the meaning of Bosworth’, Historical Research, 78 (2005), 436–42.

141 College of Arms, MS 2M6. Printed in R.F. Green, ‘Historical notes of a London citizen, 1483–1488’, EHR, 96 (1981), 589.

142 Anne Sutton, ‘The Making of a Minor London Chronicle in the Household of Sir Thomas Frowyck (died 1485)’, The Ricardian, vol. 10, no. 126 (1994), 86–103. For the writ see Calendar of Fine Rolls 1485–1509, 2.

143 Foss, Field of Redemore, 13.

144 Johannis Rossi, Antiquarii Warwicensis Historia Regum Angliae, ed. Thomas Hearne (Oxford, 1716), 218.

145 Epistolas … de Valera, 92.

146 The Parliament Rolls of Medieval England 1275–1504, XV ed. R. Horrox (Woodbridge, 2005), 108

147 Calendar of Patent Rolls 1485–1494, esp. 4–16.

148 Bodleian Library MS Ashmole 1448 folios 275, 287, cited in A. Hanham, Richard III and his Early Historians 1483–1535 (Oxford, 1975), 107–8. The entry in the genealogy, in the original Latin is: ‘Margareta filia et heres duc[is] Som[er]sett nupta fuit cometi de Richemonde fr[atr]e Henric[i] reg[is] sixti ex p[ar]te matris sue et ex eo habuit filiu[m] no[m]i[n] e Henricu[m] q[ui] sup[er]abat Rica[r]d[um] Rege[m] t[er] tium sup[er] Brownehethe et adep[tus] e[st] regnu[m] et in uxore[m] duxit Elisab[et] filia[m] p[rim]ogenita[m] regis Edwardi quarti et c[etera]’ (transcription thanks to IMS, University of Leeds) Discussed in P.J. Foss, (1990) The field of Redemore: the battle of Bosworth, 1485. Leeds, 19 & 48 n.31, who notes that it has been suggested as simply a mistranslation from the Welsh for ‘red moor’.

149 P. Morgan, ‘The Naming of Battlefields in the Middle Ages’, in War and Society in Medieval and Early Modern Britain, ed. D. Dunn (Liverpool, 2000), 44.

150 Burton (1622), 47.

151 Vergil, 25 Eng. 24.

152 Hall, 418.

153 Three Books of Polydore Vergil’s English History, 223.

154 Holinshed, 1420 (EEBO edn, STC (2nd ed.) 13568b).

Chapter 4

1 E.g.: S. J. Parry, Raunds Area Survey: An Archaeological Study of the Landscape of Raunds, Northamptonshire 1985–94 (Oxford, 2006).

2 The methodology is given in D. Hall, The Open Fields of Northamptonshire (38; Northampton, 1995). Large scale mapping resulting from this work is presented in T. Partida, D. Hall, and G. Foard, An Atlas of Northamptonshire: The Medieval and Early Modern Landscape (Oxford, 2012).

3 L. A. Parker, ‘Enclosure in Leicestershire, 1485–1607’, unpublished PhD thesis (University of London, 1948).

4 The original reports are available online, as part of the Bosworth project archive, from the Archaeology Data Service: http://archaeologydataservice.ac.uk/

5 Many of the land drains are recorded on maps held by the Wollaston Estate, which owns much of the eastern and northern part of the basin. This evidence was examined but not mapped in the project. New and replacement drainage continues, as with the small scale but locally important installation of new drains in the field containing Fen Hole in 2009.

6 R. Burton, ‘Bosworth Field Investigation:Soil Survey Report’ (Silsoe, 2006); R. Burton, ‘Bosworth Field Investigation: Additional Soil Survey Reports 2007 & 2008 & 2009’ (2009).

7 B. Gearey et al., ‘Bosworth Fields, Leicestershire: Palaeoenvironmental Survey and Assessment’ (2008).

8 P. Masters, ‘Geophysical Survey at Bosworth Battlefield, Shenton, Leicestershire’ (Shrivenham, 2008).

9 Richard Mackinder, pers. comm.

10 J. Wheeler and G. T. Swindles, ‘A Multiproxy Stratigraphic and Palaeoenvironmental Assessment of Lowland Sediments from The Proposed Site of Bosworth Battlefield, Leicestershire’ (Bradford, 2009).

11 Graeme Swindals, pers. comm.

12 Dadlington court rolls: LRO DE226/4/11(1620), 6D40/4/4 (1599), DE226/4/16 (1632).

13 Burton, The Description of Leicestershire; Dadlington court rolls, LRO 6D40/4/4 & DE226/4/16.

14 Project archive reports: T. Partida and G. Foard, ‘Bosworth Battlefield Survey: Post Medieval Historic Mapping Report’ (2009); M. Page, ‘Report on the Documentary Sources for the Reconstruction of the Historic Landscape of Bosworth Battlefield’ (2009).

15 L. A. Parker, ‘Enclosure in Leicestershire, 1485–1607’; M. Page, ‘Report on the Documentary Sources for the Reconstruction of the Historic Landscape of Bosworth Battlefield’.

16 Leicestershire HER, number: MLE3243, W. G. Hoskins, Essays in Leicestershire History (Liverpool, 1950), 101–4; Hartley R F. 2008. Medieval Earthworks of South-West Leicestershire (Hinckley & Bosworth), 65; Also in in Leicestershire HER: P. Roberts, 1999, ‘Report on Geophysical Survey, on the SW of Ambion Hill’, unpublished report; Mercer, E J F. ‘Geophysical Survey Report, Bosworth Battlefield Visitor Centre’, unpublished report.

17 See Chapter 3 for Holinshed’s comment that Ambion Hill was where Richard pitched his camp.

18 The sources used were principally the RAF vertical air photographs of the mid to late 1940s held by Leicestershire Record Office. Our study reworked this evidence and added various other photography including the HSL vertical air survey of 1969 and the 1999/2000 colour vertical survey also held by LCC.

19 P. J. Foss, The Field of Redemore: The Battle of Bosworth, 1485; G. Foard, ‘Bosworth Battlefield: A Reassessment’ (Shocklatch, 2004).

20 D. Hall, The Open Fields of Northamptonshire; T. Partida, D. Hall, and G. Foard, An Atlas of Northamptonshire: The Medieval and Early Modern Landscape.

21 D. Hall, ‘Survey of the Open-Fields for the Bosworth Battlefield Survey’ (2009).

22 For an example of ridge and furrow mapping using geophysical survey see Powlesland’s work in the Vale of Pickering: http://www.landscaperesearchcentre.org/atlas/kml/MAGrigandF. kmz accessed17/07/2012.

23 Hutton, The Battle of Bosworth Field, 94.

24 T. Partida and G. Foard, ‘Bosworth Battlefield Survey: Post Medieval Historic Mapping Report’.

25 British Library, Galba EIII.13, f.170. The document was identified by Barrie Cox.

26 G. F. Farnham, ‘Medieval Manorial History’, Transactions of the Leicestershire Archaeological and Historical Society, (1926), 217–21 and 206–27 gives the Stoke Golding Sale of 1605 which immediately followed enclosure, which he records from Chancery as 2 Jas I H.14–19, 13 Feb 1604. The analysis was also informed by the notes kindly provided by Foss from his own attempt at a reconstruction.

27 LRO 6D40/4/4 (1599).

28 B. Cox, ‘Bosworth Battlefield: Notes on Associated Toponyms’.

29 Foss, The Field of Redmore: The Battle of Bosworth, 1485, 52.

30 LRO DE40/22/4.

31 Hartley’s ridge and furrow maps in Leicestershire HER; J. D. Welding, Leicestershire in 1777: An Edition of John Prior’s Map; BL Ordnance Surveyors Drawings, sheet 259, 1814.

32 The names are from M. Page, ‘Report on the Documentary Sources for the Reconstruction of the Historic Landscape of Bosworth Battlefield’, and the analysis draws upon B. Cox, ‘Bosworth Battlefield: Notes on Associated Toponyms’ (2009).

33 P. J. Foss, ‘The Battle of Bosworth: Towards a Reassessment’, Midland History, 13 (1988), 21–33; P. J. Foss, ‘The Sutton Cheney Estates: The Pre Enclosure Landscape’, The Hinckley Historian, 20 (1987), 19–26; P. J. Foss, The Field of Redmore: The Battle of Bosworth, 1485.

34 M. Gelling, Place-Names in the Landscape (London, 2000), 26.

35 View of frankpledge with court of Thomas Grey armiger held there 29 Mar 1 & 2 Philip & Mary (1555): ‘It is ordained that all inhabitants there should make new hedges and ditches/in le fener/(interlineated) between Dadlington, Upton and Shenton sufficiently before Easter on pain of each of them 6s 8d.’, LRO 2D71/I/98.

36 In Fen Close according to Alf Oliver and at Fen Hole according to Mick Rogers.

37 Hutton, The Battle of Bosworth Field, 68; Hutton and Nichols, The Battle of Bosworth Field, 144.

38 ‘They will that Redmore dyke should be scoured before All Saints on pain of 12d.’ Dadlington Court Roll: 30 May 1530, LRO 2D71/I/56.

39 Foss, The Field of Redmore: The Battle of Bosworth, 1485, 35.

40 Ibid., 72.

41 Ibid., 19–20.

42 Sources: Prior’s map of Leicestershire, 1777; J. Ogilby, Britannia, plate 82; maps of Shenton and Upton in 1727; 1605 enclosure document for Stoke Golding; Hinckley–Tamworth road, otherwise Heath Lane, is in TNA Chancery Proceedings Jas I c.2 bundle S39 no. 47, 1618–19.

43 Foss, The Field of Redmore: The Battle of Bosworth, 1485; Mill Field on the 1843 tithe map of Dadlington is the old mill lying towards Shenton in 1735: LRO 2D71/12. This is mentioned in late medieval documents relating to the tithes, which are discussed by Foss. Another mill site lay to the east of the village in 1777: LRO 2D71/21. A Mill Field also existed in the open fields of Sutton Cheney: LRO DE40/22/4.

44 J. D. Welding, Leicestershire in 1777: An Edition of John Prior’s Map; A. Cossens, The Turnpike Roads of Leicestershire and Rutland (2003). There is a brief chapter in the Victoria County History of Leicestershire, 2, 67–91, dealing with road systems but it is extremely out of date and provides little useful detail.

45 B. Cox, ‘Bosworth Battlefield: Notes on Associated Toponyms’.

46 Wright, The Field of Bosworth, plan before p.17.

47 Ibid., plan before p. 17 & pp. 49–51. P. J. Foss, ‘The Sutton Cheney Estates’, The Hinckley Historian, 20 (Autumn 1987). Reconstruction of the furlong names from the terrier onto Hall’s furlong pattern using the evidence of later field names: terrier of Sutton Cheney in 1788, LRO DE40/22/4; Inclosure Award of Sutton Cheney in 1797, LRO C43–861; Inclosure map of Sutton Cheney in 1797, TNA MPL:1/39.

48 See Chapter 3. T. Thornton, ‘The Battle of Sandeford: Henry Tudor’s Understanding of the Meaning of Bosworth Field’, Historical Research, 78/201 (2005).

49 Hutton and J. Nichols, The Battle of Bosworth Field, 159–60; P. A. Scaysbrook, The Civil War in Leicestershire and Rutland (1992), 66–7.

50 Foss, The Field of Redmore: The Battle of Bosworth, 1485, 44–5.

51 Ibid., 37–8.

52 Leicestershire HER.

53 The earthworks of several small irregular pits can still be seen in the field south of the road and immediately east of Fen Meadow. These are visible on the ground, on NERC thermal imagery for the Bosworth survey, of which a copy exists in the Leicestershire HER, and on the RAF vertical air photograph CPE/UK/2555/3026.

54 R. Burton, ‘Bosworth Field Investigation: Additional Soil Survey Reports 2007 & 2008 & 2009’, 7. Rodney Burton, pers. comm.

Chapter 5

1 A. Rimmer, Our Old Country Towns (1881), 113. W. Hutton and J. Nichols, The Battle of Bosworth Field (London, 1813), 153–9.

2 A small number of these chance finds are preserved by Leicestershire Museum Service. P. J. Foss, The Field of Redemore: The Battle of Bosworth, 1485 (Newtown Linford, 1998), 71–5. Images of several artefacts are given in M. J. Bennett, The Battle of Bosworth (Stroud, 1993), 133–7.

3 W. Burton, The Description of Leicestershire, 47 and the unpublished 1642 version of the text in Staffordshire Record Office, 649/4/3.

4 G. Foard and R. Morris, The Archaeology of English Battlefields (York, 2012), 50.

5 Foss, The Field of Redemore: The Battle of Bosworth, 1485, 72.

6 An image is in M. J. Bennett, The Battle of Bosworth, 101.

7 J. Ashdown-Hill, ‘The Bosworth Crucifix’, Transactions of the Leicestershire Architectural and Archaeological Society, 87 (2004), 83–96.

8 Foss, The Field of Redmore: The Battle of Bosworth, 1485, 73–5. An image of one example, apparently of cast iron, is given in M. J. Bennett, The Battle of Bosworth, 133. Others are in K. S. Wright, The Field of Bosworth (Leicester, 2002) between p.84 and 85.

9 Find by Mr Wragg near Crown Hill, Anon, ‘Relics of Hinckley and District’, Hinckley Historian, 44 (1999), 6.

10 Foss, The Field of Redemore: The Battle of Bosworth, 1485, 74–45; Wright, The Field of Bosworth, 132.

11 V. Fiorato, A. Boylston, and C. Knusel, Blood Red Roses: The Archaeology of a Mass Grave from the Battle of Towton AD 1461 (Oxford, 2000).

12 Foard and Morris, The Archaeology of English Battlefields, 30–4 upon which the following discussion draws.

13 T. L. Sutherland, ‘Locating and Quantifying the Dead from the Battle of Towton: Analysing the Available Data’, Fields of Conflict Conference II (Åland, Finland (unpublished), 2002).

14 T. L. Sutherland, ‘Archaeological Evidence of Medieval Conflict – Case Studies from Towton, Yorkshire, England (1461) and Agincourt, Pas De Calais, France (1415)’, in H. Meller (ed.), Schlachtfeldarchaeologie: Battlefield Archaeology (Halle, 2009), 109–15.

15 A. H. Burne, The Battlefields of England (London, 1996). Examples are Culloden 1746, Naseby 1645, Edgehill 1642, Towton 1485, Lutzen 1632, Sedgemoor 1685. T. Pollard (ed.), Culloden: The History and Archaeology of the Last Clan Battle (Barnsley, 2009), plate 13; G. Foard, Naseby: The Decisive Campaign (Whitstable, 1995), 35–6; G. Foard, Battlefield Archaeology of the English Civil War (Oxford, 2012), 143; T. L. Sutherland, ‘Arrow Point to Mass Grave: Finding the Dead from the Battle of Towton, 1461 AD’, in D. Scott, L. Babits, and M. Haecker Charles (eds), Fields of Conflict: Battlefield Archaeology from the Roman Empire to the Korean War (Westport, Connecticut, 2007); André Schürger, pers. comm.; Foard and Morris, The Archaeology of English Battlefields, 118.

16 For example at East Stoke: Foard and Morris, The Archaeology of English Battlefields, 33.

17 This is most clearly documented for Pinkie, East Lothian, 1545: W. Patten, The Expedicioun (London, 1548).

18 J. Nichols, The History and Antiquities of Hinckley (1782), 100–1.

19 Hutton and Nichols, The Battle of Bosworth Field, 99.

20 Wright, The Field of Bosworth, 112, 129 and map after p. 124.

21 Ibid., 130, 134 and plan before p. 121.

22 Ibid., 136, and R. Brooke, Visits to Fields of Battle in England of the Fifteenth Century (London, 1857), 173.

23 Wright, The Field of Bosworth, 133–4. The location is at approximately grid ref ⁴38600 ²99320.

24 Hutton and Nichols, The Battle of Bosworth Field, 144.

25 C. Enright, ‘Detecting Mass Graves on Historic Battlefields’, MSc (Cranfield University, 2010).

26 Foss, The Field of Redemore: The Battle of Bosworth, 1485, 39–40.

27 Sutherland, ‘Archaeological Evidence of Medieval Conflict – Case Studies from Towton, Yorkshire, England (1461) and Agincourt, Pas De Calais, France (1415)’.

28 Foard and Morris, The Archaeology of English Battlefields, 86.

29 Ibid.; D. Scott and A. Mcfeaters, ‘The Archaeology of Historic Battlefields: A History and Theoretical Development in Conflict Archaeology’, Journal of Archaeological Research 19 (2011), 103–32. T. Pollard and I. Banks, ‘Now the Wars Are Over: The Past, Present and Future of Scottish Battlefields’, International Journal of Historical Archaeology, 14/3 (2010), 414–41.

30 Foard, Battlefield Archaeology of the English Civil War; C. M. Haecker, A Thunder of Cannon: Archeology of the Mexican-American War Battlefield of Palo Alto (Southwest Cultural Resources Center Professional Papers; Santa Fe, 1994); D. Scott et al., Archaeological Perspectives on the Battle of the Little Bighorn (Oklahoma, 1989); Pollard (ed.), Culloden: The History and Archaeology of the Last Clan Battle; Scott, Babits, and Haecker (eds.), Fields of Conflict: Battlefield Archaeology from the Roman Empire to the Korean War (1 & 2; Westport, 2007); P. Freeman and T. Pollard, Fields of Conflict: Progress and Prospect in Battlefield Archaeology (BAR International Series, 958; Oxford, 2001).

31 Carl Dawson and Richard Mackinder, pers. comm.

32 G. Foard, ‘Bosworth Battlefield: A Reassessment’ (Shocklatch, 2004) and subsequent finds analysis by Richard Knox.

33 Ibid.

34 G. Foard et al., ‘Oudenaarde Battlefield Survey 2011–12’ (2012).

35 Fiorato, Boylston, and Knusel, Blood Red Roses: The Archaeology of a Mass Grave from the Battle of Towton AD 1461; a brief analysis of the distribution and landscape context of the archaeological evidence published to date for Towton is given in Foard and Morris, The Archaeology of English Battlefields, 85–91.

36 T. L. Sutherland, ‘The Battle of Agincourt: An Alternative Location?’, Journal of Conflict Archaeology, 1 (2005), 245–63; Sutherland, ‘Archaeological Evidence of Medieval Conflict – Case Studies from Towton, Yorkshire, England (1461) and Agincourt, Pas De Calais, France (1415)’.

37 Foard, Battlefield Archaeology of the English Civil War.

38 The core team from March 2009 to the end of 2010 comprised R. Mackinder, P. Riley, M. Green, C. Dawson, J. Palmer, B. Wright and G. Foard. Additional support was drawn from: S. Richardson, P. Hartley, B. Gethin, D. Beaumont and L. Macfarlane, with occasional assistance from other detectorists.

39 T. Pollard and N. Oliver, Two Men in a Trench: Battlefield Archaeology – the Key to Unlocking the Past (London, 2002), 158; G. Foard, S. Kilcoyne, and A. Kaestner, ‘An Analysis of Late Medieval Lead and Lead Composite Round Shot Using Neutron Tomography’, (in preparation).

40 The survey results and finds from Shrewsbury were passed to Mike Griffiths Associates, acting as consultants for the landowner Mrs Jagger, for analysis as part of their study of the battlefield and are not further discussed here. Similarly the Flodden material has been passed to Chris Burgess for inclusion within the large scale study of that battlefield, as part of the Flodden 500 anniversary celebrations.

41 Foard, ‘Bosworth Battlefield: A Reassessment’.

42 Richard Knox, pers. comm.

43 Foard, Battlefield Archaeology of the English Civil War.

44 Foard and Morris, The Archaeology of English Battlefield, 85–91.

45 Foard, Battlefield Archaeology of the English Civil War, 153.

46 Tony Abramson, pers. comm.

47 The discussion in this chapter and the next of the non-ferrous finds draws heavily upon the catalogue, prepared by Richard Knox, of the non-projectile finds that might be battle-related. The full catalogue is available with the Bosworth survey archive at http://archaeologydataservice.ac.uk/

48 Pipeline extent is based on cropmark evidence. The red lines are from Google Earth photography dated 7/6/2006 and 12/2000. The blue line defines the actual land take as recorded on Huntings VAP HSLUK699-24 taken in 1969 (copy in SMR), showing that the cropmarks provide a reasonably accurate definition of disturbed areas.

49 Observations by Peter Young in the late 1960s, reported to the author in the 1990s by Bob Leedham who assisted Young in his Edgehill research.

50 Information provided in 2010 to Richard Mackinder regarding land belonging to Upton Park.

51 Losses from Shrewsbury referred to in Sutherland, ‘Arrow Point to Mass Grave: Finding the Dead from the Battle of Towton, 1461 AD’; information on Barnet collected by the Battlefields Trust and the Hendon and District Archaeological Society.

52 Information for Fenn Lane Farm and the Wollaston Estate from Alf Oliver and Steve Smith respectively. Data for finds reported by collectors to the Portable Antiquities Officer for Leicestershire.

53 Foard, Naseby: The Decisive Campaign, 352.

54 G. Foard, R. Janaway, and A. Wilson, ‘The Scientific Study and Conservation of Battlefield Artefact Assemblages’, <http://www.battlefieldstrust.com/resource-centre/battlefieldsuk/periodpageview.asp?pageid=853&parentid=199>

55 Sutherland pers. com..

56 Foard, Naseby: The Decisive Campaign, 317; Foard, Battlefield Archaeology of the English Civil War, 143; Foard and Morris, The Archaeology of English Battlefields, 32.

57 Sutherland, ‘Arrow Point to Mass Grave: Finding the Dead from the Battle of Towton, 1461 AD’; Sutherland, ‘The Battle of Agincourt: An Alternative Location?’.

58 S. Wilbers-Rost, ‘Total Roman Defeat at the Battle of Varus (9 AD)’, in D.Scott, L. Babits, and C. Haecker (eds), Fields of Conflict: Battlefield Archaeology from the Roman Empire to the Korean War (1; Westport, 2007), 121–32.

Chapter 6

1 Vergil, 25 Eng. 24.

2 Molinet, i, 435.

3 The Ballad of Bosworth Fielde, 124. 493–6.

4 The Parliament Rolls of Medieval England 1275–1504, XV, 108.

5 V. Fiorato, A. Boylston, and C. Knusel, Blood Red Roses: The Archaeology of a Mass Grave from the Battle of Towton AD 1461 (Oxford, 2000), chapter 10.

6 The Beauchamp Pageant, ed. A. Sinclair (Donington, 2003), 6.

7 Fiorato, Boylston, and Knusel, Blood Red Roses: The Archaeology of a Mass Grave from the Battle of Towton AD 1461, 125.

8 D. Grummitt, The Calais Garrison: War and Military Service in England, 1436–1558 (Woodbridge, 2008), 119–27. Accounts run from 1436 to 1492.

9 Harleian 433, ii, 8–9.

10 A. Desplanque et al. (eds), Inventaire sommaire des Archives départementales antérieures à 1790, Nord: Archives civiles, Série B: Chambre des Comptes de Lille (8 vols, Lille, 1865–1906), viii, no. 3521. We are grateful to Prof. Bletzer for this reference.

11 Contamine, Guerre, état et société, 343.

12 M. K. Jones, Bosworth 1485: Psychology of a Battle (Stroud, 2002), 162–70, repeated, for example, in Grummitt, Calais Garrison, 122 & 191.

13 C. Rogers, ‘The Development of the Longbow in Late Medieval England and “Technological Determinism”’, Journal of Medieval History, 37 (2011), 336 note 93.

14 Bibliothèque Nationale manuscrit français 25771/893. Only five examples can be found in the counter rolls of archers turning up to muster without a bow (‘sans arc’); BN, ms. fr. 25773/1191; BN, ms. fr. 25774/1316. Lack of other equipment, such as the helmet (sallet), was more common.

15 Grummitt, Calais Garrison, 47–8.

16 Curry, Sources, 228–9.

17 T. Richardson, ‘The Bridport Muster Roll of 1457’, Royal Armouries Yearbook, 2 (1997); Kingsford’s Stonor Letters and Papers 1290–1483, ed. C. Carpenter (Cambridge, 1996), 352–3 (document 258).

18 Howard Household Books, ii, 272–3, 490, 267. See also Ashdown Hill, Richard III’s ‘Belovyed Cousin’, 47.

19 G. Foard and R. Morris, The Archaeology of English Battlefields (York, 2012), 89.

20 The following draws substantially upon the report on the medieval non-projectile finds prepared by Richard Knox which is available, in full and with photographs, in the project archive. The catalogue itself, which represents the bulk of that report, is however presented here in Appendix 2.

21 F. P. Barnard (ed.), Edward IV’s French Expedition of 1475. The Leaders and Their Badges: Being Ms.2. Ms.16 College of Arms (Oxford, 1926)

22 Note by D. Gaimster on the Chiddingly boar badge, Anon, Treasure Annual Report (London, 2000), medieval artefacts, no.155, p. 84. http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/highlight_objects/pe/t/the_chiddingly_boar.aspx; J. Cherry, The Middleham Jewel and Ring (York, 1994), 38 & 43.

23 PAS database consulted 19/12/12. References except Bosworth are YORYM-1716A4; SWYOR-1781B2; LONA3FF5; DENO-F35022; SAOM-CBC676; LEIC-F17145; NARC-F572226; SF-E3C610. This may not be the first boar symbol found on the battlefield. Nichols reports and illustrates ‘A gold seal-ring … on which is enamelled a white boar’ which he says was found ‘in Bosworth Field’ but this is a very vague location. W. Hutton and J. Nichols, The Battle of Bosworth Field: Between Richard the Third and Henry earl of Richmond, August 22, 1485 (London, 1813); 154–9. P. J. Foss, The Field of Redemore: The Battle of Bosworth, 1485 (Newtown Linford, 1998), 73. Photograph given in M. J. Bennett, The Battle of Bosworth (Stroud, 1993), 131.

24 This interpretation is based on advice from Michael Siddons. M. P. Siddons, Heraldic Badges in England and Wales, 4 vols (Woodbridge, 2009)

25 M. Foster, ‘Yorkshire Museum Hopes to Save Rare Richard III Boar Badge’, The Northern Echo, 24 July 2012. The Stillingfleet badge measures 36 × 29 mm.

26 P. Murawski, Benet’s Artefacts of England and the United Kingdom (2003)

27 Find reported to the Royal Armouries – Graeme Rimer, pers. comm..

28 Recueil des croniques… par Jean de Waurin, v, 300; Edward Hall, Chronicle (London, 1809), 561; G. Phillips, The Anglo Scots Wars: 1513–1550 (1999), 123.

29 We are grateful to Keith Dowen and others at the Wallace Collection for advice on this issue.

30 Identification by Robert Woosnam-Savage, Royal Armouries, Leeds.

31 T. L. Sutherland, ‘Archaeological Evidence of Medieval Conflict – Case Studies from Towton, Yorkshire, England (1461) and Agincourt, Pas De Calais, France (1415)’, in H. Meller (ed.), Schlachtfeldarchaeologie: Battlefield Archaeology (Halle, 2009) 109–15, 111.

32 Leicestershire HER ref: MLE20572: A medieval gold ryal of Edward IV (1464–70) found south-east of Fox Covert Farm in metal-detecting, 1st January 2000. PAS Ref. No. LEICC38AA8. HER ref: MLE20582: A medieval gold quarter ryal of Edward IV found in 1990s near North Farm.

33 Finds made by a collector, now preserved in Barnet Museum.

34 M. Geschwinde et al., ‘Roms Vergessener Feldzug. Das Neu Entdeckte Schlachtfeld Am Harzhorn in Niedersachsen.’, Jahre Varusschlacht: Konflikt (Stuttgart, 2009) 228–32.

35 B. Knarrstrom, ‘On the Trail of Early Use of Gunpowder Weapons: Evidence from Swedish Battlefields’, International Congress on Medieval Studies (Kalamazoo (summary in Avista Forum Journal, 2009, vol. 19, no.1/2), 2009).

36 Foard and Morris, The Archaeology of English Battlefields, 85–91.

Chapter 7

1 Molinet, 434–5.

2 PROME XV, 108.

3 The Ballad of Bosworth Fielde, 123.489–92 and 124.493–6.

4 Howard Household Books, ii, p. 272–3.

5 For example, in April 1484 breech loading artillery is recorded in York, while in 1485 there were 400 gunstones supplied to the Guildhall in Exeter. Devon Record Office, Exeter receiver’s account 2 Richard III to 1 Henry VII, m. 2, cited in H. Kleineke, ‘Ye kynges cite: Exeter in the Wars of the Roses’, The Fifteenth Century 7 (2007), 149. York House Books, I, p. 307.

6 M. Keen, ‘The Changing Scene: Guns, Gunpowder, and Permanent Armies’, in M. Keen (ed.), Medieval Warfare: A History (Oxford, 1999) 273–91 and 290.

7 R. D. Smith and K. Devries, The Artillery of the Dukes of Burgundy, 1363–1477 (Woodbridge, 2005). There are also a wide range of continental studies including Burgundian guns, such as R. Wegeli, Inventar der Waffensammlung des Bernischen Historischen Museums in Bern (Bern, 1948) and E. A. Gessler, Die Entwicklung des Geschutzwesens in der Scweiz (Zurich, 1918).

8 M. Strickland and R. Hardy, The Great Warbow: From Hastings to the Mary Rose (Stroud, 2005), 360–1.

9 Ibid., 370–373.

10 Grummitt, The Calais Garrison: War and Military Service in England, 1436–1558, 124. Two serpentines made at Wivenhoe, Essex for the earl of Norfolk, Howard Household Books, ii, 272–3. There was a flourishing gun making industry at the Tower of London by 1490. D. Grummitt, ‘The Defence of Calais and the Development of Gunpowder Weaponry in England in the Late 15th Century’, War in History 7 (2000) 253–72, 286.

11 Grummitt, The Calais Garrison: War and Military Service in England, 1436–1558, 124.

12 B. Hall, Weapons and Warfare in Rennaissance Europe (Baltimore, 1997), 49–50.

13 Emmanuel de Crouy-Chanel, pers. comm.

14 Smith and Devries, The Artillery of the Dukes of Burgundy, 1363–1477; Gessler, Die Entwicklung des Geschutzwesens in Der Scweiz.

15 N. Machiavelli, The Art of War (1521), trans. Neal Wood (Cambridge MA), 90–1 and 96–7.

16 Harleian 433, ii, 223.

17 Hall, Weapons and Warfare in Rennaissance Europe, 46–7, 49–50, 117–8.

18 National Army Museum, ‘Battlefield Register Report: Northampton 1460’ (London, 1995).

19 Hall, Weapons and Warfare in Rennaissance Europe, 107–9.

20 Keen, ‘The Changing Scene: Guns, Gunpowder, and Permanent Armies’, 274; A. Goodman, The Wars of the Roses: Military Activity and English Society 1452–97 (London, 1981), 30; National Army Museum, ‘Battlefield Register Report: Blore Heath 1459’, <http://www.english-heritage.org.uk/caring/listing/what-can-we-protect/battlefields/>.

21 Smith and Devries, The Artillery of the Dukes of Burgundy, 1363–1477, 189. B. Geiger, Les Guerres de Bourgogne (Au, 1999), 12–16.

22 G. Foard, ‘Lead Munitions and Other Metal Finds from the East Lothian Council Investigation at Wallyford of Part of Pinkie Battlefield’, (2008); G. Foard, ‘Lead Munitions and Other Metal Finds from the CfA Investigation at Wallyford in 2005 & 2007 of Part of Pinkie Battlefield’, (2008); G. Foard, ‘Report on Metal Finds from the Goshen Farm Metal Detecting Survey’, (2012).

23 Quoted by G. Phillips, The Anglo Scots Wars: 1513–1550 (1999), 132.

24 A. Hildred (ed.), Weapons of Warre: The Armaments of the Mary Rose, 2 vols (Oxford, 2011); http://www.tcmuseum.org/culture-history/molasses-reef-shipwreck/

25 G. Foard, ‘Integrating the Physical and Documentary Evidence for Battles: A Case Study from 17th Century England’, PhD (University of East Anglia, http://ethos.bl.uk/Home.do, 2008) further developed in G. Foard, Battlefield Archaeology of the English Civil War (Oxford, 2012). D. M. Sivilich, ‘What the Musket Ball Can Tell: Monmouth Battlefield State Park’, in D. Scott, L. Babits, and C. Haecker (eds), Fields of Conflict: Battlefield Archaeology from the Roman Empire to the Korean War (Westport, 2007). Additional analysis is now also available in D. F. Harding, Lead Shot of the English Civil War: A Radical Study (London, 2012), although lacking experimental support for the interpretations. Research now underway by André Schürger on the bullets from the 1631 battlefield of Lutzen, as part of a PhD at the University of Glasgow, may be expected to provide further advances in the methodology.

26 Anon, A Copy of a Letter Sent from the Lord Fairfax … Also a True Relation of a Defeat Given to Colonel Hastings by the Lord Grayes Forces, July the First; 1644. At Bosworth Field, in the Very Place Where King Richard the Third Was Slain (London, 1644).

27 A. Hildred (ed.), Weapons of Warre: The Armaments of the Mary Rose (Portsmouth 2011).

28 W. Hutton and J. Nichols, The Battle of Bosworth Field (London, 1813), 83. P. J. Foss, The Field of Redemore: The Battle of Bosworth, 1485 (Newtown Linford, 1998), 75, n.5.

29 D. T. Williams, The Battle of Bosworth Field (Leicester, 2001), 36.

30 K. S. Wright, The Field of Bosworth (Leicester, 2002), 82–5.

31 Foss, The Field of Redemore: The Battle of Bosworth, 1485, 73–5.

32 D. Allsop and G. Foard, ‘Case Shot: An Interim Report on Experimental Firing and Analysis to Interpret Early Modern Battlefield Assemblages’, in A Pollard and I. Banks (eds), Scorched Earth: Studies in the Archaeology of Conflict (Journal of Conflict Archaeology 3, (Leiden, 2008), 111–46.

33 Accounts of the privy wardrobe as early as 1388 refer to ‘three small cannon of brass, called handgonnes’. S. Mclachlan, Medieval Handgonnes: The First Black Powder Infantry Weapons (Oxford, 2010), 37–8.

34 A brief introduction is given by G. Rimer, ‘Early Handguns’, Royal Armouries Year Book 1 (1996) 73–8. A more detailed analysis is provided by Mclachlan, Medieval Handgonnes: The First Black Powder Infantry Weapons.

35 E.g: D. Starkey, P. Ward and A. Hawkyard, The Inventory of King Henry VIII (Report of the Research Committee of the Society of Antiquaries of London 56; London, 1998), 103–5.

36 Harleian 433, ii, 103.

37 Harleian 433, ii, 142.

38 J. Gairdner, (1876) ‘Gregory’: The Historical Collections of a London Citizen in the Fifteenth Century, Camden Society, 213–4.

39 Goodman, The Wars of the Roses: Military Activity and English Society 1452–97, 172; ‘Gregory’, 213–14, ‘Brief Notes’, 155.

40 Smith and Devries, The Artillery of the Dukes of Burgundy, 1363–1477, 248–253.

41 Grummitt, The Calais Garrison: War and Military Service in England, 1436–1558, 119–124.

42 TNA E 101/55/7 for deliveries from Tower to Calais, 55/5 for new purchases at Calais.

43 Keen, ‘The Changing Scene: Guns, Gunpowder, and Permanent Armies’.

44 Smith and Devries, The Artillery of the Dukes of Burgundy, 1363–1477, esp. 188–97; Geiger, Les Guerres de Bourgogne.

45 Grummitt, The Calais Garrison: War and Military Service in England, 1436–1558, 135 & 122; D. Grummitt, ‘Manufacture, Procurement, and Use of the Great Guns in 15th Century England’, International Medieval Congress (Leeds (unpublished), 2010); Grummitt, ‘The Defence of Calais and the Development of Gunpowder Weaponry in England in the Late 15th Century’.

46 ‘Gregory’, 213–4.

47 Strickland and Hardy, The Great Warbow: From Hastings to the Mary Rose, 399.

48 Grummitt, The Calais Garrison: War and Military Service in England, 1436–1558, 122.

49 TNA E101/62/31 reprinted in J. Davies, Thomas Audley and the Tudor ‘Arte of Warre’ (Farnham, 2002). Audley provides detail on various ways in which the Germans and French used handguns and how he considered English forces should use them.

50 J. Gairdner and R. H. Brodie (eds), Letters and Papers, Foreign and Domestic, of the Reign of Henry VIII (London, 1862–1910), 436. R. Lindsay, The History of Scotland: From 21 February, 1436. To March, 1565 by Robert Lindesay of Pitscottie, to Which Is Added a Continuation, by Another Hand, Till August 1604 (2nd edn; Edinburgh, 1749), 338.

51 Foard and Morris, The Archaeology of English Battlefields, 99.

52 Bodleian MS Ashmole 1500 f. 206.

53 P. Burley, M. Elliott, and H. Watson, The Battles of St Albans (Barnsley, 2007).

54 Edward IV is said to have returned to England in 1471 with 900 Englishmen and 300 Flemish with handguns. Warkworth,13.

55 ‘Gregory’, also quoted in J. R. Lander, The Wars of the Roses (2000), 94–5.

56 Foard, Battlefield Archaeology of the English Civil War.

57 Hildred (ed.), Weapons of Warre: The Armaments of the Mary Rose; Foard, Battlefield Archaeology of the English Civil War, 64–7; T. Richardson and G. Rimer, Littlecote: The English Civil War Armoury (Leeds, 2012).

58 Foard, ‘Integrating the Physical and Documentary Evidence for Battles: A Case Study from 17th Century England’, 117–18.

59 Foard and Morris, The Archaeology of English Battlefields, 73.

60 Finds BOS3056, 2514, 2508, 2498, 2507, 2512, 2518 and 2505.

61 Foard, Battlefield Archaeology of the English Civil War, 100–1 and 156 et seq.

62 Mclachlan, Medieval Handgonnes: The First Black Powder Infantry Weapons; R. T. W. Kempers, ‘Haquebuts from Dutch Collections’, The Journal of the Arms and Armour Society 11/2 (December 1983), 56–89.

63 G. Foard, S. A. Walton, and D. Allsop, ‘Interpreting Gunpowder Projectiles from Late Medieval Battlefields’, (in preparation); H. L. Blackmore, A Dictionary of London Gunmakers 1350–1850 (Oxford, 1985), 13–14.

64 Foard, Battlefield Archaeology of the English Civil War, 157, 77–81 and 165.

65 Anon, A Copy of a Letter Sent from the Lord Fairfax … Also a True Relation of a Defeat Given to Colonel Hastings by the Lord Grayes Forces, July the First; 1644. At Bosworth Field, in the Very Place Where King Richard the Third Was Slain.

66 André Schürger, pers. comm.

67 Foard, Battlefield Archaeology of the English Civil War, 161.

68 R. Elton, The Compleat Body of the Art Military (London, 1659).

69 Starkey, Ward and Hawkyard, The Inventory of King Henry VIII, 126.

70 Foard, Battlefield Archaeology of the English Civil War, 157; Richardson and Rimer, Littlecote: The English Civil War Armoury.

71 BOS 4515, 4599, 5410 & 5974.

72 Foard, Battlefield Archaeology of the English Civil War, 110. Rifling is referred to in the early years of the sixteenth century, but no example exists which can be dated before the 1540s. The earliest known, securely dated rifled barrels include a German wheel-lock gun dated 1542, in the Tojhusmuseet, Copenhagen. The bronze-barrelled handgun with a rifled bore, now in the Smithsonian, that was said to be associated with Maximilian I and thus dated to the end of the fifteenth century, is now believed to be a fake. Graeme Rimer, pers. comm.

73 Hildred (ed.), Weapons of Warre: The Armaments of the Mary Rose, 366–7.

74 T. L. Sutherland, ‘Guns at Towton’, Battlefield 16/1 (2011), 13; B.B.C., ‘Parts of Guns Found at Towton War of Roses Site’, <http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-york-north-yorkshire-11810487>, accessed 3/3/2011 2011.

75 British Library Add. MS 47680 f.44v, reproduced in P. Porter, Medieval Warfare in Manuscripts (London, 2000), 54.

76 The early evolution of gunpowder artillery is summarised in Keen, ‘The Changing Scene: Guns, Gunpowder, and Permanent Armies’.

77 Smith and Devries, The Artillery of the Dukes of Burgundy, 1363–1477, 255. ‘Gregory’, 213–4.

78 Indeed, one of the soldiers sent by the city of York on this occasion complained that ‘they did nothing by wait on the ordnance and baggage train, and one man had been so bored that he threatened to take the string off his bow and use it to whip his horse’. Cited in Hanham, Richard III and his early Historians, 61.

79 Arrivall, 18.

80 Warkworth, 16; Arrivall, 18; ‘Gregory’, 204, cited in Goodman, Wars of the Roses, 28.

81 PROME xii, p. 459.

82 An English Chronicle 1377–1461, ed. W. Marx (Woodbridge, 2003), 91; Recueil des croniques, v, 323.

83 Arrivall, 24–25.

84 G. Foard, S. Kilcoyne, and A. Kaestner, ‘An Analysis of Late Medieval Lead and Lead Composite Round Shot Using Neutron Tomography’, (in preparation).

85 The 97 mm round shot was fired from a gun equivalent to the largest saker in use in the seventeenth century. Foard, Battlefield Archaeology of the English Civil War, 86 et seq.

86 Foard and Morris, The Archaeology of English Battlefields, 155.

87 Sutherland, ‘Guns at Towton’.

88 Foard and Morris, The Archaeology of English Battlefields, 91.

89 Foard, Battlefield Archaeology of the English Civil War,83–92.

90 Allsop and Foard, ‘Case Shot: An Interim Report on Experimental Firing and Analysis to Interpret Early Modern Battlefield Assemblages’; Foard and Morris, The Archaeology of English Battlefields, 70; Hildred (ed.), Weapons of Warre: The Armaments of the Mary Rose.

91 Unreferenced claim in Mclachlan, Medieval Handgonnes: The First Black Powder Infantry Weapons, 50.

92 J. Davies, Thomas Audley.

93 Starkey, Ward and Hawkyard, The Inventory of King Henry VIII. Hildred (ed.), Weapons of Warre: The Armaments of the Mary Rose, 291–306.

94 H. L. Blackmore, The Armouries of the Tower of London: The Ordnance (London, 1976).

95 Foard, Battlefield Archaeology of the English Civil War.

96 I. Roy, The Royalist Ordnance Papers 1642–1646 (1; Oxford, 1964); Elton, The Compleat Body of the Art Military.

97 Audley version TNA E101/62/31 quoted by Cruickshank, Henry VIII and the Invasion of France, 72.

98 Foard, Battlefield Archaeology of the English Civil War, 83–92.

99 1,335 cast iron balls supplied for the duke of Burgundy in 1473, Emmanuel Crouy-Chanel, pers. comm. The identification of rounds before the 1470s by Smith and Devries, The Artillery of the Dukes of Burgundy, 1363–1477, 254, as being of cast iron seems to be an oversight in their analysis.

100 J. Geddes, ‘Iron’, in J. Blair and N. Ramsay (eds), English Medieval Industries (London, 1991), 167–88, 181.

101 Grummitt, ‘The Defence of Calais and the Development of Gunpowder Weaponry in England in the Late 15th Century’, 262 n.48.

102 Foard, ‘Report on Metal Finds from the Goshen Farm Metal Detecting Survey’.

103 Foard, Walton and Allsop, ‘Interpreting Gunpowder Projectiles from Late Medieval Battlefields’.

104 Round shot in Barnet Museum. For Flodden, Clive Hallam-Baker, pers. comm.

105 Bo Knarrström, pers. comm.

106 Foard, ‘Integrating the Physical and Documentary Evidence for Battles: A Case Study from 17th Century England’; Foard, Battlefield Archaeology of the English Civil War; Harding, Lead Shot of the English Civil War: A Radical Study.

107 Foard, Battlefield Archaeology of the English Civil War, 111–2; Harding, Lead Shot of the English Civil War: A Radical Study.

108 Smith and Devries, The Artillery of the Dukes of Burgundy, 1363–1477, 248–53.

109 The composition of artillery trains is given in ibid., esp. appendices 2 and 6.

110 Ibid., 253.

111 Hildred (ed.), Weapons of Warre: The Armaments of the Mary Rose, 348–60.

112 Ibid., 366–7.

113 Shot of lead diced with stone and iron. Starkey, Ward and Hawkyard, The Inventory of King Henry VIII: 4691 & 4694.

114 Blackmore, The Armouries of the Tower of London: The Ordnance, 276 & 281.

115 Hildred (ed.), Weapons of Warre: The Armaments of the Mary Rose, chapter 5.

116 Ibid., 350–358.

117 A. Harrison, ‘Neutron Science’, New Scientist, 216/2893 (2012).

118 Foard, Kilcoyne and Kaestner, ‘An Analysis of Late Medieval Lead and Lead Composite Round Shot Using Neutron Tomography’.

119 Hildred (ed.), Weapons of Warre: The Armaments of the Mary Rose, 351.

120 A discussion of various options is given in ibid., 348–50.

121 N. Nye, The Art of Gunnery (London, 1647), chapter 30.

122 R. Wright, Society of Antiquaries MS84, quoted by Hildred (ed.), Weapons of Warre: The Armaments of the Mary Rose, 354.

123 Smith and Devries, The Artillery of the Dukes of Burgundy, 1363–1477, 251–4; Hildred (ed.), Weapons of Warre: The Armaments of the Mary Rose, 348–60.

124 Foard, Walton and Allsop, ‘Interpreting Gunpowder Projectiles from Late Medieval Battlefields’.

125 For small artillery pieces Norton indicates a standard 0.25 in (c. 6 mm) but later Elton gives 0.125 in for the windage of small artillery pieces. R. Norton, The Gunner: Shewing the Whole Practise of Artillerie (London, 1628), 53.

126 J. Gairdner, (1876) ‘Gregory’, 213–4.

127 Starkey, Ward and Hawkyard, The Inventory of King Henry VIII, 5556.

128 Knarrström, pers. comm.

129 Foard, Battlefield Archaeology of the English Civil War, 51–2.

130 Hildred (ed.), Weapons of Warre: The Armaments of the Mary Rose, 351.

131 Foard, Kilcoyne and Kaestner, ‘An Analysis of Late Medieval Lead and Lead Composite Round Shot Using Neutron Tomography’.

132 Hildred (ed.), Weapons of Warre: The Armaments of the Mary Rose, 358.

133 Starkey, Ward and Hawkyard, The Inventory of King Henry VIII, 126 (5537–56).

134 Foard, Walton and Allsop, ‘Interpreting Gunpowder Projectiles from Late Medieval Battlefields’.

135 A similar form is seen in a mould for pistol calibre bullets of lead which is illustrated in Harding, Lead Shot of the English Civil War: A Radical Study, 111.

136 If one includes the maximum diameter, whether that be the depth or by including the mould ridge, then the variation in actual calibre increases to 3.2 mm, though that is principally relevant when considering the windage of the gun not the intended calibre of the round shot.

137 Hildred (ed.), Weapons of Warre: The Armaments of the Mary Rose, 358.

138 For example, it was the only bore of field gun issued to the New Model Army on its foundation in 1645, which is arguably our best guide to what English commanders then considered the most effective combination of military resources. TNA, SP28/145 f.59–63.

139 Elton, The Compleat Body of the Art Military; Burton and other sources quoted in Hildred (ed.), Weapons of Warre: The Armaments of the Mary Rose, 311 & 429.

140 Blackmore, The Armouries of the Tower of London: The Ordnance; M. C. Fissel, English Warfare 1511–1642 (London, 2001), 305 n.16.

141 Hildred (ed.), Weapons of Warre: The Armaments of the Mary Rose, 358, 329 & 339.

142 Quoted by ibid., 311; Supplement in the 1668 edition of Elton, The Compleat Body of the Art Military.

143 Howard Household Books, ii, 272–3.

144 Grummitt, ‘The Defence of Calais and the Development of Gunpowder Weaponry in England in the Late 15th Century’.

145 Cruickshank, Henry VIII and the Invasion of France, 66–8.

146 Foard, Walton and Allsop, ‘Interpreting Gunpowder Projectiles from Late Medieval Battlefields’.

147 M. H. Mortensen, Dansk Artilleri Indtil 1600 (Copenhagen, 1999); Smith and Devries, The Artillery of the Dukes of Burgundy, 1363–1477.

148 Grummitt, ‘The Defence of Calais and the Development of Gunpowder Weaponry in England in the Late 15th Century’.

149 The final phase of experimentation is recorded in The Wars of the Roses: Time Team Special (Channel 4, 2011), J. Cross (dir.).

150 Sivilich, ‘What the Musket Ball Can Tell: Monmouth Battlefield State Park’.

151 A pilot project to explore this evidence on collections of surviving early guns across Europe was undertaken in 2010–11, together with Dr Steven Walton, with a grant from the British Academy. Foard, Walton and Allsop, ‘Interpreting Gunpowder Projectiles from Late Medieval Battlefields’.

152 The only example of this type examined was an unusual gun in Berne, Switzerland which has a bore of 23 mm. EEG179 in Early European Guns database at http://www.hud.ac.uk/eeg/

153 Heresgeschichtliches Museum, Vienna: Acc.Ni81816.

154 Foard, Walton and Allsop, ‘Interpreting Gunpowder Projectiles from Late Medieval Battlefields’.

Chapter 8

1 G. Foard and R. Morris, The Archaeology of English Battlefields (York, 2012), 85–91.

2 N. Barr, Flodden, 1513 (Stroud, 2001), 94–5.

3 G. Foard, ‘Pinkie 1547: The Great Forgotten Battle of Scottish History’ (in preparation).

4 The third phase drawing in Bodleian Ms.Eng.Misc.c.13(r). The full sequence is published in C. W. C. Oman, ‘The Battle of Pinkie, September 10, 1547. As Represented in Unpublished Drawings in the Bodleian Library’, Archaeological Journal, 90:1 (1933) 1–25. Also see W. Patten, The Expedicioun (London, 1548).

5 Second phase drawing is also reproduced in Foard and Morris, The Archaeology of English Battlefields, 99.

6 Vegetius, book III, chapter 15.

7 For Agincourt, Tito Livio put the English at four deep, and the French at 31 deep. A. Curry, The Battle of Agincourt. Sources and Interpretations (Woodbridge, 2000), 61.

8 D. Eltis, The Military Revolution in Sixteenth Century Europe (London, 1998), chapter 4.

9 C. H. Firth, ‘The Battle of Dunbar’, Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, 14 (1900) 19–52, 34–5. R. Holmes, Marlborough (London, 2008), 380–9.

10 D. Chandler, Sedgemoor 1685: From Monmouth’s Invasion to the Bloody Assizes (Staplehurst, 1999), 51.

11 W. Burton, The Description of Leicestershire (London, 1622), 173.

12 R. Norton, The Gunner: Shewing the Whole Practise of Artillerie (London, 1628).

13 N. Nye, The Art of Gunnery (London, 1647), 58

14 B. P. Hughes, Firepower: Weapons Effectiveness on the Battlefield, 1630–1850 (Staplehurst, 1997), 32–3.

15 G. Foard, S. Walton, and D. Allsop, ‘Interpreting Gunpowder Projectiles from Late Medieval Battlefields’ (in preparation). Note that this experiment in field 537 and extending into 403, was undertaken before it was realised that the battle archaeology extended at least to the very southern edge of field 537. Both 35 mm and 60 mm rounds were fired, of which only two 60 mm rounds were recovered, both in field 403, so experimental rounds remain in field 537.

16 ‘The king had so great an advantage of the hill that it turned to his disadvantage, for being so much upon the descent his cannon either shot over, or if short it would not graze by reason of the ploughed lands: whereas their cannon did some hurt having a mark they could not miss.’ BL Harlean MS3783, fol. 61–2.

17 N. Machiavelli, The Art of War, trans. Neal Wood (Cambridge MA, 2001), 90–1, 96–7.

18 Ibid., 100.

19 Bodleian Ms.Eng.Misc.c.13(r).

20 Barr, Flodden, 1513, 155.

21 Foard, Battlefield Archaeology of the English Civil War, 164, 177.

Chapter 9

1 Foard, Battlefield Archaeology of the English Civil War, 175 et seq.

2 J. Carman and P. Carman, Bloody Meadows: Investigating Landscapes of Battle (Stroud, 2006).

3 D Grummit, in session on ‘Origins of Firepower: European Warfare in Transition, 1450–1550’, International Medieval Congress, Leeds 2009.

4 Vegetius, 92.