Index

Adanson, Michel, 27, 91, 92

Afonso I, King, 23

African agricultural ceremonies, 47, 48

Homowo Festival, 39

African currencies, 17, 18–20, 26, 75

African environment: climate zones, 35–36

constraints on agriculture, 10, 34–37

Harmattan season, 35

African ethnic groups: Akan, 13, 57–58, 63, 83, 101–2, 118–19, 121

Balanta, 44, 46

clusters in American colonies, 4

Fon-Ewe, 47

Ga, 39

Gola, 72

Gullah, 108

Ibo, 115, 121, 127

scholarship on, 9–10 172n. 37

Wangara, 15, 17

Yoruba, 24

African guilds, 23, 75

African modes of production: kinship-based, 34, 46–47, 73, 172n. 40

market-based, 46, 48

patronage networks, 29, 74

tribute-based in Africa, 34, 46–48, 73

African population, 20–21

African states: Akwamu, 73

Akwapem, 101–2

Asante, 25–26, 73, 101–2, 141

Banda chieftaincy, 25

Bondu, 41

Bono, 101–2

Borno, 15

Dagomba, 25

Futa Toro, 41, 91

Gonja, 25, 73

Kanem, 15

Songhay Empire, 14–15

African towns: Ardra, 90

Begho, 21–22

Benguela, 19–20

Benin, 21, 75, 90

Calabar, 50–51

Cape Coast, 15, 21, 26, 66

development in West Africa, 20–22

development in West Central Africa, 21–22

Elmina, 26–27, 112

Gao, 15, 21

Ibadan, 21

Jenne, 15, 21, 91

Kano, 21–23, 75

Katsina, 21

Keta, 73, 92

Kommenda, 26

Kong, 41

Kormantin, 26

Koumbi-Saleh, 21

Luanda, 20

Luango, 20, 22

Mbanza Kongo (Sao Salvador), 20–23, 30

Mouri, 26

Niani, 21

Old Oyo, 21

Salaga, 145

Sansanding, 99

Sego, 75

Sokoto, 21, 24

Timbuktu, 15, 21, 75

town walls, 22–23

Whydah, 47, 90

Agricultural practices: African crop zones, 40–45

crop mixtures in Africa, 7, 9–10, 34–35, 39–43, 45, 47, 91, 112

crop mixtures in the Caribbean, 55–58

crop mixtures in South Carolina, 61–63

crop mixtures in Virginia, 60–61

crop rotations in Africa, 42–45, 56, 84

crop rotations in the Caribbean, 57–58

English colonial practices, 52, 53, 61, 63

fertilization methods in Africa, 35, 43, 45–47

fertilization methods in Jamaica, 56

inventive self-reliance, 39

irrigation, 6, 62, 91, 122–23

Native American fertilization methods, 56, 70

Native American practices, 52, 56, 60–61, 70

origins in Africa, 9

rotational bush fallow, 45

shifting cultivation, 44

tillage methods in Africa, 43–44

tillage methods in Jamaica, 56–58, 69, 80, 97

tillage methods in Maryland, 61

tillage methods in South Carolina, 63, 103–4, 108, 124

tillage methods in Virginia, 60–61, 70–71

Akeyeampong, Emmanuel, 141

Alexander, Charles, 121

Alexandria, Virginia, 118

Allen, Richard, 142

American Revolution, 4–5, 58, 63, 84, 87–88, 117, 119

Ancestors, 142

Bassar ironworkers, 26

coastal Georgia, 133

Gold Coast, 28

grave goods, 65

Middle Passage, 51

North Carolina, 137, 147

Andros, Emund, 82

Anguilla, 79–80

Animals/birds, 136, 137, 143, 149–50

instruments of violence, 139–41

planters compared to, 138–139

slave status compared to, 139–40, 144

Anquandah, James, 13, 157n. 32

Antigua, 5, 55, 121. See also Lucas family

Apprenticeships: Africa, 23, 27, 30–31

slave, 112, 118–19

Archeology, 9, 26, 65, 89–90, 115–16

Atlantic world: indigo, 93

movement of people, 7

movement of crops, 6, 40, 49–50, 66, 71, 82

Austin, George, 104, 106

Bacon’s Rebellion, 3–4, 70

Bahamas, 55, 78, 80

Bailey, Ronald, 1

Baker, Brooks, 118

Balandier, Georges, 48

Barbados: cassava, 52, 76

cotton, 4, 10, 52, 76–78, 81

English workers, 52, 112

food production, 52–55

founding, 76

indigo, 4, 11, 89, 93–94

maize, 52

migrants to mainland, 5, 83, 100

Native American workers, 52, 76

non-agricultural labor, 112, 114–15

slave codes, 5, 81

slave population, 2–3

slave trade to, 3–4, 89, 93

sugar, 3, 5–6, 54, 69, 76

sweet potatoes, 52

tobacco, 5, 10, 52, 68–69, 76, 112

tobacco pipe, 65

Barbot, Jean, 28, 41–42, 50, 53–54, 111–12

Barth, Heinrich, 75

Bassar ironworks, 25–26, 117

Beans: slave ships, 50

South Carolina, 61, 100

Virginia, 60

West Africa, 41–42, 45, 164n. 27

West Central Africa, 43

Bechet, Sidney, 144, 148

Belinga, Samuel M. Eno, 31

Bellin, Jacques-Nicolas, 79

Bello, Muhammad, 24

Bembe copperworks, 30

Berkeley, Sir William, 33, 81

Berlin, Ira, 6

Bermuda, 52, 67–68, 89, 112

Biet, Antoine, 54, 68, 77

Bight of Benin, 4, 94

Bight of Biafra, 4, 70, 83, 84, 94

Bixby, Joseph, 121

Blacksmiths: English, 112

Jamaican, 117

slave, 2, 8, 11, 116–17, 118, 121, 123, 125, 127, 174n. 59

West African, 23, 24–26, 31, 112, 116–17

West Central African, 18, 30, 116–17

Blome, Richard, 78, 114

Boatmen, slave, 71. See also Canoes

Brahm, William de, 104–5

Braudel, Fernand, 13

Bricklayers: English, 112

slave, 57, 112, 115, 121

Bryant, Charles, 51–52

Buford, James, 125

Byrd I, William, 5, 60

Byrd II, William, 118

Cadomosto, Alvise, 41, 72

Caillie, Rene, 41, 45

Canal building, 122

Canoes: Gold Coast, 27–28, 111–12

Native American, 113

North America, 120–21, 128

used by slave fugitives, 114, 128

West Central Africa, 30

Cape Verde Islands, 93

Carney, Judith, 6–7, 184n. 47

Carpenters, English, 101, 112

slave, 83, 97, 115, 117, 121, 123, 125, 127

Carter, Landon, 82

Cassava: the Bahamas, 55

Barbados, 52–53, 76

Jamaica, 55

migration from the Americas, 40

Native Americans, 113

slave ships, 51

South Carolina, 84

Upper Guinea, 41–42

West Africa, 42, 45

West Central Africa, 43

Caste system, West African, 10, 23–24

Catesby, Mark, 62–63

Charleston, South Carolina, 122

Collins, Josiah, 122

Colonoware, 121–22

Cook, James, 104, 106

Coopers: English, 112

slave, 71, 115, 117, 118, 121, 123

Copper workers: Jamaican, 116

West Central African, 18, 30, 116–17

Cotton: African plantations, 72

Anguilla, 79, 80

the Bahamas, 55, 70, 78, 80

Barbados, 4, 10, 52–54, 76–78, 100, 112

Benue River, 47

colonial American, 2, 4, 7, 10, 11, 65, 81

Delany on, 128

England, 76

Europe, 76

exports, 76–77, 79, 175n. 75

genuses, 79

Georgia, 124, 126

gins, 74, 81, 84

Jamaica, 4, 10, 78–79

Liberia, 72

Louisiana, 125, 140

Maryland, 83

origins in Africa, 9

plantation management, 80

Senegambia region, 66, 72, 91

Sierra Leone, 72

skills, 11, 71, 72, 73, 74, 80, 81, 84

Slave Coast, 75

South Asia, 81

South Carolina, 4–5, 83–85, 99, 100, 109, 124

Tortola, 79

Upper Guinea, 41–42, 72

Virginia, 82, 175–76n. 84, 176n. 85

West Africa, 9, 40, 41, 43, 71–76, 173–74n. 57

West African gardens, 45

wicks, 75, 81, 173n. 53. See also Spinners; Textiles; Weavers

Courteen, William, 76

Cowry Shells, 17

Coxe, Tench, 83

Cromwell, Nicholas, 101

Cromwell, Oliver, 55

Cromwell, Patrick, 101

Crop storage: Africa, 39–40, 49, 185n. 64

Barbados, 55

Maryland, 61

South Carolina, 124

Cuba, 114, 125

Cultural capital, 49, 66, 81

Dalton, Joseph, 100

Dapper, Olfert, 91

Delany, Martin, 6, 33, 87, 128

De Marees, 15, 16, 27, 53, 90, 111

Dickinson, Samuel, 122

Disease: malaria, 3

trypanosomiasis, 2, 34

yellow fever, 3, 137

Divers, African, 7, 113–14

Doegood, Robert, 50

Dorrell, John, 78

Du Bois, W. E. B, 65, 131

Dun, Edward, 68

Edwards, Bryan, 56, 91

Eltis, David, 7

Epps, Edwin, 125

Equiano, Olaudah, 46, 70, 66, 75–76

Exports: American tobacco, 71

Caribbean, 175n. 75

cotton from Barbados, 76, 77

indigo from South Carolina, 87, 100, 102

Jamaican tobacco, 69

West African indigo, 90

Eyten, Ph., 90, 92

Faulkner, Rev. William, 124, 139

Finch, William, 41, 66

Fishing: colonial America, 11

equatorial Africa, 31

English, 112

Gold Coast, 10, 15, 26–28, 112, 120

Maryland, 61, 120

Native American, 113

nighttime, 27, 120

skills, 27, 120–21

slaves, 114, 119–21

South Carolina, 7, 119, 120, 121

Upper Guinea, 27

West Africa, 22

West Central Africa, 18, 29–30, 36

work songs, 27

Fletcher, Daniel, 76–77

Floodplains: North Carolina, 123

South Carolina, 62

West Africa, 41, 44, 91

Flowers, 132, 149

Ford, William, 137

Forests: African workers in South Carolina, 63

Barbados, 52

in black consciousness, 136, 141–42, 148, 189–90n. 60

deforestation in Africa, 26

slave refuge, 141–42, 144, 145, 146, 147, 151, 152, 153

West Africa, 14, 17, 21, 28, 34–37, 40, 146

West Central Africa, 29, 40, 36–38, 40, 43–44, 146

French Caribbean: African crops, 52

indigo, 87, 95, 98–99, 101, 103

livestock, 116

Gaillard, Samuel Gourdin, 124

Garden, Alexander, 84

Gardens: African, 10, 40, 42, 45, 49, 66–67

Bermuda, 89

Caribbean, 52, 56, 81

Georgia, 124

Maryland, 61, 83

in slave consciousness, 149

South Carolina, 61, 63, 124

Gender: African divisions of labor, 8, 10, 27, 30–31, 34, 47–48, 72–75, 92

African iron production, 26

colonial South Carolina, 3

colonial Virginia, 4

transformation in slave labor divisions, 108, 126

Ginger: Barbados, 77, 100

colonial American, 5–7

Jamaica, 97

Slave Coast, 47

South Carolina, 61, 83–84, 100

Virginia, 61

Gold, 14, 17, 25, 31, 112, 116–17

Gold Coast, 10, 111–12

fishing, 26–28, 119, 127

food production, 41, 46–47

goldsmiths, 112

ideologies, 141

influence on colonial indigo production, 101–2

slave trade, 3–4, 25, 50, 70, 101–2, 119

sugar, 53–54

textiles, 127

tobacco imports, 66

woodworking, 28. See also African ethnic groups, Akan Goodson, Thaddeus, 136–37

Gourds: Upper Guinea, 41–42

Benue River, 47

Native American, 113

Gray, Lewis Cecil, 88

Groundnuts: Benue River, 47

Florida, 124

Georgia, 124

Jamaica, 57

migration from the Americas, 40

slave ships, 50

South Carolina, 124

Upper Guinea, 42

West Central Africa, 43

Grove, William Hugh, 60, 82

Guatemala, 87, 93, 95, 103

Guinea corn: Barbados, 55

Benue River, 47

colonial America, 81

exports, 56

Jamaica, 56, 57

migration from Africa, 51–52

Slave Coast, 47

South Carolina, 61–62, 83

West Africa, 42, 44

West Central Africa, 43

Guyer, Jane, 31

Gwynn, Charles, 106

Hall, Gwendolyn Midlo, 6–7

Harlan, J. T., 44

Hilliard, William, 53, 68, 77

Housing: Delany on, 129

Georgia, 111, 128

Gold Coast, 112

Jamaica, 57, 115, 117

South Carolina, 121, 129

Virginia, 118, 121

Hughes, Griffith, 55

Hunting, 18, 23, 31, 36

Hurston, Zora Neale, 144

Indentured servants: Anglo-American colonies, 1, 2, 33

artisans, 112

Barbados, 52, 55, 77, 94

Bermuda, 67, 88

inter-racial relations, 10

Jamaica, 94

Heinrich von Uchteritz, 77

Virginia, 4, 58–59, 70–71. See also Inter-racial labor

Indigo: Africa, 9, 40, 82

Bahamas, 70, 77–78

Barbados, 89, 93, 94, 100

Bermuda, 89

colonial American, 2–5, 7, 11, 81

Delany on, 128

dyeing, 11, 75, 90, 92, 93, 97, 108, 124, 125–26, 179n. 38

exports, 87, 89–90, 94–95, 100, 102

Florida, 125–26

French Caribbean, 87, 101

genuses, 95, 97, 180n. 47

Georgia, 126

Gold Coast, 92

Guatemala, 87, 93

Jamaica, 69, 79, 94–99

Lucas estate, 100–102, 121

plantation management, 97, 102–3

Senegambia region, 66, 92

Sierra Leone, 90

skills, 11, 92–95, 97–99, 101–5

Slave Coast, 90, 92

slave mortality, 99

South Asia, 11, 88, 95, 97–98, 108–9

South Carolina, 4, 11, 62, 84, 87–89, 100–109, 124, 126

Upper Guinea, 41–42

vats, 11, 97–99, 101, 104–5, 107

Virginia, 82, 176n. 85, 178n. 28

West Africa, 9, 89–93, 95, 97

Inter-racial labor: Caribbean, 52–53, 55

conflict, 120

non-agricultural workers, 112, 114

South Carolina, 83–84, 100

Spanish American indigo workers, 93, 95

tobacco workers, 67–70

Virginia, 58–60. See also Indentured servants; Native Americans

Ivory, 23, 112

Izard, Ralph, 84

Jamaica: cotton production, 4, 10, 78–79

English colonization, 3, 55, 112–13

food production, 55–58

indigo, 11, 79, 94–99

non-agricultural labor, 115–16

slave codes, 5

slave trade to, 2–4

slave population, 2, 3, 57, 94

tobacco production, 5, 10, 68, 69–70

Jamestown, Virginia, 33

Jefferson, Thomas, 62, 82; 118, 139, 176nn. 85, 86

Jobson, Richard, 66, 72

Kimbrough, Jessie, 134

Kinship, Africa, 18, 25, 34, 44, 46–47, 73, 172n. 40

related to work regime, 6

Balanta, 44

slaves in Maryland, 83

slaves in South Carolina, 3

Knowledge: elders as repositories of, 123

embodied, 9, 30–31, 46, 48–49, 81

means of resistance, 11, 99, 114, 117, 120–21, 128

postbellum South, 125

rice production “knowledge systems,” 6–7, 62

transmission from Africa, 2, 6–8, 13, 88

wealth in, 9, 14, 27, 31, 43, 77

Labor: management strategies in Africa, 39

requirements in colonial cotton fields, 77, 80

requirements in colonial indigo fields, 97, 102

West Central African divisions of, 29–30. See also Gender; Plantations

Lake Company, 122

Land clearing: Benue River, 47–48

Caribbean, 52

Gold Coast, 46–47

Jamaica, 56, 78

Native American, 56, 60

South Carolina, 61, 63

Virginia, 60, 70

West Africa, 44–45, 74

Lander, Richard, 91

Laurens, Henry, 84, 104, 106, 108

Laye, Camara, 31, 173n. 47

Leather workers: Bassar, 25

English, 112–13

Georgia, 127

Jamaica, 115–16

slaves, 8, 11, 113, 117–18

West Africa, 24, 116

West Central Africa, 18, 29, 116

Legrand, Peter, 118

Lewis, Matthew, 115

Lewis, Nathaniel John, 149

Ligon, Richard, 114, 115

Littlefield, Daniel, 6–7

Littleton, William, 92

Livestock: Barbados, 77

Central African, 10, 18, 29, 36

colonial American, 1, 6

Delany on, 128

French Caribbean, 116

Georgia, 124

Hispaniola, 116

Jamaica, 57, 115, 116

Louisiana, 125

North Carolina, 123

restrictions on in Africa, 34–35

South Carolina, 116, 124

Venezuela, 116. See Leather workers

Lloyd, Edward, 123, 134

Lloyd, John, 84

Lomax, Alan, 134

Lopes, Duarte, 23, 136

Lucas family, 11

cotton production, 83

Eliza, 88, 89, 100–3, 119

George, 88, 101, 121

indigo production, 100–102

John, 88

Lucques, Laurent de, 43

Lynch, Thomas, 79

Maize: the Bahamas, 55

Barbados, 52–53

Cape Verde islands, 93

colonial America, 81

Delany on, 128

Georgia, 124

Gold Coast, 15, 28, 41–42

Jamaica, 55, 56, 57, 97

Maryland, 123

migration from the Americas, 40, 164–65n. 16

Louisiana, 125

Mississippi, 125

Native American, 113

Nat Turner and, 142

North Carolina, 123

Sestro, 41

Sierra Leone, 41

Slave Coast, 42, 47

slave ships, 51

South Carolina, 61, 63, 84, 103–4, 124

Upper Guinea, 41, 91

Virginia, 60

West Africa, 41–42, 44, 45, 60, 76

West Central Africa, 43, 60

Manigault, Peter, 62–63, 103–4

Markets: African, 8, 10

restrictions on slaves’, 81

West African, 14–17, 21, 24, 47, 53–54, 72–76

West African textile, 72, 74–75

West African tobacco, 66

West Central African, 18, 29–30. See also Slave trade; Trade

Maryland, 5, 61, 65, 70, 82–83, 123–24

Mathews, Maurice, 83, 100

Matthias, Samuel, 63

Medicine: Africa, 47

Caribbean, 69–70

Native American, 113

South Carolina, 108

Middle Passage, 49–51, 125, 132

Migrations: European, 1, 2, 100–101, 112–13

inter-colonial American, 2, 5–6, 61 78, 83, 88, 99–102, 121

intra-African, 39, 73. See also Indentured Servants; Middle Passage; Slave trade

Millet: Gold Coast, 27, 41–42

Senegambia region, 91

Sierra Leone, 41

Slave Coast, 42, 47

Slave ships, 51

Upper Guinea 41–42

West Africa, 28, 40–43, 45

West Central Africa, 43

Mining: African, 10–11, 17, 26, 29, 116–17

Africans in Latin America, 7, 116–17

colonial American, 1, 7, 117

Jamaica, 116–17

Minor crops: cocoa, 6

cocoyam, 45, 47

coffee, 57

flax, 82, 83, 100, 176n. 85

hemp, 82, 84, 100, 128, 176n. 85

kola, 17, 56

okra, 45

oranges, 15, 42, 50, 55, 70, 100

pumpkins, 41–42, 61

sesame seed, 62

wheat, 60–61, 100, 123

Mnemonic devices, 133–34

Modiford, Thomas, 68, 77

Mollien, Gaspar, 41, 91

Morant Bay, Jamaica, 117

Morgan, Philip, 6–7

Morrison, Toni, 126–27

Moultrie, Alex, 121

Mouzon, Henry, 104, 107

Music: antebellum South, 134, 136–38, 143, 146–48, 151–53

Gold Coast, 47, 112

instruments in colonial America, 115, 182n. 19

West African, 23, 27, 31, 91

Native Americans: agricultural practices, 52, 70, 113

Barbados, 52, 55

cotton workers, 76, 77

indigo workers, 93, 95

non-agricultural labor, 113

women, 60

workers, 1, 10, 33, 56, 59–60. See also Inter-racial labor

Natural scientists, 8, 51–52

Nevis, 68, 69

North Carolina, 122–23

Nyendael, David Van, 90

Obeng, Pashington, 141

Ogilby, John, 79

Oldmixon, John, 56

Pain, Samuel, 51

Park, Mungo, 42, 66, 74–75, 91, 92

Paternalism, 132–33, 138, 140

Peas: the Bahamas, 55; “Congo peas,” 58

English, 61

Georgia, 124

Jamaica, 56, 58

Mississippi, 125

South Carolina, 61, 84, 100, 124

Virginia, 60

Pepper: slave ships, 50–51

West Africa, 14, 15, 41–42, 45

Pereira, Pacheco, 72

Phillips, Thomas, 90

Pinckney, Charles, 103, 121

Pinckney, Charles Coatesworth, 88, 119

Pinckney, Thomas, 88

Plantains: Barbados, 53, 55

Jamaica, 55–57

slave ships, 50

Upper Guinea, 41

Poppin, Mathew, 121

Port Royal, 112

Potatoes: Antigua, 55

the Bahamas, 55

Barbados, 54–55, 76

Georgia, 124

Gold Coast, 15

Jamaica, 55, 56

South Carolina, 61, 63

Upper Guinea, 41

Virginia, 60

Pottery: African workers in colonial iron works, 117

Bassar, 25

English, 112

Gold Coast, 112

slave, 2, 115–16

South Carolina, 121–22

Virginia, 121–22

West Africa, 25, 31, 92. See also Tobacco pipes

Potts, James, 121

Powell, Henry, 76

Power: African concepts of, 141, 145

exercised by slaves, 50–51, 81, 120–21, 141–53, 184n. 47. See also Resistance; Violence

Price, Charles, 3

Provision grounds, 114

cotton grown in, 81

Jamaica, 56–58, 167n. 82

scarcity of land in Barbados, 55, 167n. 82. See also Gardens

Punt, Thomas, 78

Purry, Peter, 100

Rainfall: African agriculture, 39

Caribbean agriculture, 80

Jamaica, 56

in slave consciousness, 137–38 147–48

South Carolina agriculture, 62

Virginia agriculture, 60

West Africa, 35, 45, 91

West Central Africa, 36, 43

Ranton, William, 121

Reeder, John, 117

Religion: African, 27–31, 39, 48, 136, 141, 148, 161n. 45

Christianity, 119, 151–53

haunting, 133–34

slave, 12, 61, 108, 131, 135–37, 142, 144–48, 151

ring shout, 147, 152–53, 185n. 83. See also African agricultural ceremonies; Ancestors

Resistance, 115

African, 72–73

Middle Passage, 50–51

indigo production, 99

runaways, 12, 114, 141, 143–44, 145. See also Power, exercised by slaves

Rice: Balanta, 44

Barbados, 55

Benue River, 47

China, 7

colonial American, 2–4, 7, 65, 76, 81, 85

debate over American origins, 6–7

Delany on, 128

Gold Coast, 15, 27, 41–42

Jamaica, 55–56

Netherlands, 7

North Carolina, 122–23

“Rice Coast,” 8

Senegambia region, 66–67, 91

Sestro, 41

Sierra Leone, 41

slave ship provisions, 50

South Carolina, 62, 63, 83–84, 88, 100, 104, 124

Upper Guinea, 41

Virginia, 33

West Africa, 40–42, 44

Rich, Robert, 68, 89, 112

Richards, Paul, 39

Richardson, David, 7

Rivers: African, 17, 27–30, 44, 47–48, 73, 75, 91

in black consciousness, 133–34, 142–43, 151, 153

Caribbean, 56, 95–96, 113, 116

North America, 88–89, 120, 122, 128

Rogan, Ole Man, 133–34, 136

Rogers, Joseph, 118

Royal African Company, 1, 3–4, 50

Ruffin, Edmund, 103, 123

Salt: Gold Coast, 112

and leather working, 127

North African mines, 17

slave ships, 51

West Africa, 17

West Central Africa, 18, 20, 29

Savannah: crops grown in African, 40, 76

South Carolina, 63

West African towns, 21

West African zone, 29, 35–37, 43–44

West Central African zone, 29, 36, 38, 40

Sawyers, 117, 121

Sayle, Nathaniel, 99

Schaw, Janet, 63

Sculpture, 24, 29, 118

Senegambia region, 4, 15

agriculture, 41

cotton, 72, 74–75

indigo, 92

leather trade, 116

slave metal-worker from, 118

slave trade, 62–63, 70, 83, 104, 106, 108

tobacco, 66–67

Sierra Leone, 41, 72, 90

Skinner, Elliot, 15

Slave Coast: agriculture, 45, 47

cotton, 75–76

indigo, 90

slaves in Jamaica, 94

tobacco trade, 66

Slave mortality: American plantations, 2–4, 12

Georgia, 136–37

indigo workers, 99

Jamaica, 56–57

North Carolina, 122–23

slave ships, 51

Virginia, 60

Slave plantation overseers, 2, 134–35, 145–46

Covey, 146–47

Slave plantations/estates: Ball family, 63

Drax Hall, 117

Duckenfield Hall, 115

Garden Hill, 88

Greenpark, 57

Green Valley, 58

Lucky Valley, 97

7 Plantation, 97

Seville, 117

Somerset Place (North Carolina), 122–23, 137

Somerset Plantation (Jamaica), 57

Somerset Vale, 57, 115

Spring-vale, 57

Worthy Park, 3

Slaves: Armici Adams, 140

Rachel Adams, 124, 127

Samuel Adams, 121

Clara Allen, 127, 149

Nathaniel Allen, 122

Byrl Anderson, 124

Angola, 118

Celeste Avery, 124, 127

Betsey Bailey, 61, 124

Charles Ball, 120

Fannie Berry, 147–48

Henry Bibb, 139–40, 143–44, 151

Arrie Binns, 126

James Bolton, 126–27

Henry Brand, 124

Henry Box Brown, 119–20, 135, 136, 137–38, 139

Liza Brown, 144

Simon Brown, 124, 138–39, 144, 148

William Wells Brown, 135, 138, 146

Berkeley Bullock, 144

Patience Campbell, 126

Albert Carolina, 122

Cornelia Carter, 144

Cato, 138

Coromantee Molly, 57

Cuffee (Jamaica), 57

Cuffee (Virginia), 118

Baily Cunningham, 150

Demby (slave), 134

Edie Dennis, 150

Dick (slave), 118

Dinkie, 146

Sallie Douchard, 145

Frederick Douglass, 61, 123, 138, 141, 145–46

Callie Elder, 151

Ryer Emmanuel, 146–47

Francisco, 68, 70

Elisha Doc Garey, 151

C. W. B. Gordon, 128

Charles Grandy, 150

Rosa Grant, 147

Guinea, 118

Hagar, 108

Mildred Heard, 149–50

Sylvia Heard, 127

Fountain Hewes, 139

Julia Henderson, 153

Carrie Hudson, 151–52

Charlie Hudson, 134

Louis Hughes, 125, 149

Charles Hunter, 149

Lorenzo Ivy, 145

Harriet Jacobs, 139, 140, 146–47, 149

Benjamin Johnson, 135

Priscilla Joiner, 149

Absolom Jones, 142

Rastus Jones, 150

Frances Kimbrough, 134

Ellen Lindsey, 150

Macow, 115

Bernard Moore, 118

Lindsey Moore, 127

Mungo, 118

Solomon Northrup, 135, 137, 143, 144, 149

Old Bill, 133, 34

Old Man Okra, 111, 128, 129

Patsey, 125

Harriet Powers, 150

Sandy, 145

Philip Simmons, 122

Marrinda Jane Singleton, 148

Paul Singleton, 133

Sogo, 84, 121

Strap, 115

Ben Sullivan, 111

Shack Thomas, 124, 125–126

Tonsler, Horace, 144

Harriet Tubman, 143, 151

Nat Turner, 141–42

Rhodus Walton, 126

George White, 134, 142–43

Dye Williams, 136–37

Henry Williams, 127

John Williams, 121

Genia Woodberry, 126

Daphney Wright, 150–51

Slave ships: Arthur, 50

Camden, 122

Dorothy, 116

Elizabeth, 106

Florida, 51

Jennett, 122

Judith, 50

Pindar, 3

Providence, 50

Slave trade: Anglo-American colonies, 2–5, 9, 11, 12

compared to European migration, 1

domestic, 118, 120–21, 125, 132, 133, 34, 135, 136, 139, 143, 145, 148, 152

illegal, 11–12, 133

inter-colonial, 5

Florida, 126

Jamaica, 2–3, 94

Maryland, 70, 83

memories of capture, 125–26, 185n. 71

North Carolina, 122

South Carolina, 3, 62–63, 84, 87–88, 104, 106–108, 119–21, 125

Virginia, 3–4, 60, 70

from West Africa, 21, 24–25

from West Central Africa, 20. See also Middle Passage; Migrations, Slave ships

Sloane, Hans, 56, 69, 81

Soil: African fertility rates, 35–39

African preservation techniques, 40, 42–46

black claims on, 142

fallow, 43–44, 46–47

site of religious conversion, 152–53

West Africa, 36, 48

West Central Africa, 36, 44. See also Agricultural practices; Land clearing

South Carolina: African population of, 3–4, 119, 125

cotton, 4–5, 83–85, 99–100, 109, 124

food production, 61–63

indigo, 4, 62, 84, 87–89, 100–109, 124, 126

livestock, 116

maize, 61, 63, 84, 103–4, 124

non-agricultural labor, 119–22, 124

rice production, 6 7, 63, 83–84, 88, 100, 104, 124

slave codes, 5

Soviet Gulags, 132, 140

Spinners: Africa, 72–74, 172–73n. 44

early U.S., 119

spindle whorl in South Carolina, 65

South Carolina, 84, 118

Virginia, 118, 127

Spoeri, Felix Christian, 93–94

Spotswood, Alexander, 82

Stars, 27–28, 150–51

Sun: African agriculture, 36

religious symbol, 142, 147

sign of power, 54, 134–35, 151

Sugar: Barbados, 3, 53–55, 69, 76, 77, 112

colonial American, 2–6, 65, 76, 82, 88, 112, 114–15, 116

exports, 54, 95

Gold Coast, 53–54

Jamaica, 57, 79, 80, 95, 97

Louisiana, 125

revolution, 5, 94

South Carolina, 61

West Africa, 44

Swamps: Boggy Gut, 133–34, 136

and slave consciousness, 133–37, 139–140 143–44

South Carolina, 62

West Africa, 41, 91

Sweet potatoes: Barbados, 52

Gold Coast, 42

Louisiana, 125

Maryland, 61

Mississippi, 125

Slave Coast, 47

South Carolina, 124

West Africa, 42

West Central Africa, 43

Tailors, English, 112

slave, 23

Tayloe family, 118, 127

Taylor family, 121

Tertre, Jean Baptiste du, 98

Textiles: African currency, 17

colonial American, 2, 5, 7

English, 5

European imports to Africa, 17, 20

Florida, 125

Georgia, 121, 126, 150

South Carolina, 84–85, 124

Virginia, 82, 127, 134

West Africa, 9, 11, 23–24, 72–76, 89–93, 172n. 40

West Central Africa, 18, 20

Thistlewood, Thomas, 114

Tibeats, John, 135, 137

Tobacco: adopted in Africa, 9, 40, 66

the Bahamas, 70, 77–78

Barbados, 52–54, 68–69, 76–77

Bermuda, 52, 67–68

colonial American, 2–5, 7, 10–11, 65, 68, 76, 81–82, 85

exports, 68–69, 71

Jamaica, 69–70

Native American, 113

Nevis, 69

North Carolina, 122

Senegambia region, 66–67, 75

skills, 66–67, 69–71 69

South Carolina, 61, 100

Upper Guinea, 41–42, 91

Virginia, 7, 58–60, 69–71, 82, 176n. 85

West Africa, 45, 66–67, 76

West Central Africa, 29, 67

Tobacco pipes: Barbados, 65, 77, 112

Jamaica, 70

Maryland, 65

West African, 67, 170–71n. 10

West Central Africa, 29, 67

Tortola, 79–80

Trade: African tobacco, 66–67

colonial American, 1–2, 5–6

English-Indian, 52–53

global textile, 93

Trans-Saharan, 14–15, 17–18, 21

Virginia tobacco, 71

West African, 14–18, 21, 23, 26–28, 46, 158n. 8

West African textiles, 72–76

West African leather, 116

West Central African, 18–20, 29–30, 48. See also Markets; Slave trade

Tussac, Richard de, 52

Upland fields: Barbados, 77

South Carolina, 103–4, 126

West Africa, 41–42, 81, 82, 91

Upper Guinea, 27

agriculture, 41–42

cotton, 72

slave trade from, 50–51, 63, 84

tobacco, 66

Urbanization: African, 10

in colonial America, 112–13

Van Den Broecke, Pieter, 29–30

Villault, Nicolas, 41

Violence: colonial American militias, 3

of plantation regimes, 12, 114, 131–42, 144–45

slave codes, 6, 59, 81, 115

slave trade, 49, 51, 166n. 71

in West Africa, 25–26. See also Power; Resistance

Virginia: cotton, 4–5, 10, 82

food production, 59–61

founding, 33, 58–59

indigo, 82, 176n. 85, 178n. 28

inter-racial labor in, 58–59

non-agricultural labor, 117–20

slave trade, 3–4, 60, 70

tobacco, 3, 5, 7, 10, 58–60, 69–71, 82, 176n. 85

Vitzthum, Hilda, 132, 149

Waller, John, 113

Walrond, Humphrey, 114

Washington, George, 55, 72

Weavers: African, 24, 31, 72–76, 90

English, 84

Native American, 113

slave, 118, 123, 126, 127

Wentworth, Hugh, 78

West, Joseph, 83, 100

Western design, 55, 94, 114

Whaley, William, 112

Winyah Indigo Society, 103

Wolf, Eric, 132

Women: African agricultural workers, 10, 41, 43, 47–48, 71, 73–74

African elite, 30, 74

African iron workers, 26, 30

African textile workers, 72–74

agricultural innovators, 47, 71

American agricultural workers, 124–25

clothing, 91

colonial American indigo workers, 108

colonial American potters, 116, 122

colonial American rice production, 69–70

colonial American textile workers, 82, 84

colonial Virginia, 58–59

indigo workers, 11, 91–92

kitchen gardens, 45–46

Native American, 60, 113

pipe making, 67, 170–71n. 10

slave doctor, 69–70

slave trade, 51

traders, 15, 17, 66

Wood, Peter, 6–7, 187n. 1

Woodworkers: Barbados, 93–94

colonial America, 2, 8, 11

Equatorial Africa, 31

Georgia, 128

Gold Coast, 28

on indigo plantations, 97, 99

Jamaica, 97

Louisiana, 125

Native American, 113

Virginia, 71

West Africa, 23–24, 92

West Central Africa, 29

Work culture, 12

African agriculture, 48

African fishing, 28, 30

African ironworking, 26

Maryland agriculture, 61

South Carolina indigo production, 11, 88, 102–8

slave iron work, 122. See also African agricultural ceremonies; Ancestors; Religion

Work tools: hoes, 43, 61–63

mortars/pestles, 7, 55–56, 62–64, 91–94, 113

Yams: Antigua, 55

the Bahamas, 55

Balanta, 44

Barbados, 55

Benue River, 47–48

Gold Coast, 15, 42

Jamaica, 56, 57

migration to the Americas, 52

Mississippi, 125

slave ship provisions, 50–51

South Carolina, 61–62

Upper Guinea, 41, 42

West Africa, 45

West Central Africa, 43