Notes

Introduction

1Daily Mail, 4 January 1912, 4; Daily Telegraph, 4 January 1912, 6; The Times, 6 January 1912, 8.

2According to the Daily Mail of 24 January 1912, £66,000 was the total reported by the committee. Some months later, with stragglers presumably accounted for, another newspaper reported that a final total of £87,000 had been reached. Hull Daily Mail, 9 September 1912, 3.

3As the newspapers noted, Sumner Ward had had considerable success with the same technique in North America, and YMCA branches in the Antipodes had adopted similar methods. On the supposed turning point that Sumner Ward’s campaigns represent, see Adrian Sergeant and Elaine Jay, Fundraising Management: Analysis, Planning and Practice (London: Routledge, 2014), 10–11.

4David Owen, English Philanthropy, 1660–1960 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1965), 470.

5Brian Harrison, ‘Philanthropy and the Victorians’, Victorian Studies 9, no. 4 (1966): 373; Brian Harrison, ‘Philanthropy and the Victorians’, idem, Peaceable Kingdom Stability and Change in Modern Britain (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1982), 219.

6Frank Prochaska, ‘Philanthropy’, in The Cambridge Social History of Britain, 1750–1950 vol. 3: Social Agencies and Institutions, ed. F. M. L. Thompson (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 358; Frank Prochaska, Women and Philanthropy in Nineteenth-Century England (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1980), 21.

7All the World, January 1900, 94.

8The Times, 8 November 1927, xii.

9A sum equivalent to over £200,000 in 1901 terms. Daily Telegraph Shilling Fund files, National Archives, Kew, NSC 21/501. The Times and Daily Mail also had national funds. For more detail on the various funds, see Andrew S. Thompson, ‘Publicity, Philanthropy and Commemoration: British Society and the War’, in Impact of the South African War, ed. D. Omissi and Andrew S. Thompson (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2001), 108.

10Out-letterbook (1891), Rathbone papers, University of Liverpool Special Collections, RP.IX.5.5.

11Letter to R. B. Martin (1882), Martin’s Bank papers, Barclays Bank Archive, 9/325.

12Frank Prochaska, ‘Charity Bazaars in Nineteenth-Century England’, Journal of British Studies 16, no. 2 (1977): 62–84.

13Martin Gorsky, Patterns of Philanthropy Charity and Society in Nineteenth-Century Bristol (Woodbridge: Boydell, 1999), 18–19.

14Alan Kidd, State, Society and the Poor in Nineteenth-Century England (London: Macmillan, 1999).

15Gorsky, Patterns of Philanthropy, 19.

16Seth Koven, The Match Girl and the Heiress (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2015).

17Robert H. Bremner, Giving: Charity and Philanthropy in History (London: Transaction Publishers, 1996).

18Thomas L. Haskell, ‘Capitalism and the Origins of the Humanitarian Sensibility, Part 1’, American Historical Review 90, no. 2 (1985): 339–61; Thomas L. Haskell, ‘Capitalism and the Origins of the Humanitarian Sensibility, Part 2’, American Historical Review 90, no. 3 (1985): 547–66.

19C. L. Brown, Moral Capital: Foundations of British Abolitionism (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 2006).

20G. Horridge, The Salvation Army: Origins and Early Days, 1865–1900 (London: Ammonite Books, 1994).

21Judith Flanders, Consuming Passions: Leisure and Pleasure in Victorian Britain (London: HarperCollins, 2006).

22Aileen Fyfe, ‘Commerce and Philanthropy: The Religious Tract Society and the Business of Publishing’, Journal of Victorian Culture 9, no. 2 (2004): 164–88.

23Gorsky, Patterns of Philanthropy; Olive Checkland, Philanthropy in Victorian Scotland: Social Welfare and the Voluntary Principle (Edinburgh: John Donald, 1980); F. K. Prochaska, ‘Philanthropy’, in The Cambridge Social History of Britain, 1750–1950, ed. F. M. L. Thompson (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, vol. iii, 1992), 357–94. Prochaska’s work tends to concentrate on the archives of London charities.

24But this is not to deny that charities shaped geographical understanding of Britain, the empire and the wider world as we will explore further in Chapter 5. See David Lambert and Alan Lester ‘Geographies of Colonial Philanthropy’, Progress in Human Geography 28, no. 3 (2004): 320–41.

25On this issue, see Julie-Marie Strange, ‘Tramp: Sentiment and the Homeless Man in the Late-Victorian and Edwardian City’, Journal of Victorian Culture 16, no. 2 (2011): 242–58; Carolyn Betensky, Feeling for the Poor: Bourgeois Compassion, Social Action, and the Victorian Novel (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2010); Susan Zlotnick, ‘The Hard Work of Victorian Fiction: Creating Compassion, Exploring Belief, and Reconciling Disharmony’, Studies in the Novel 45, no. 1 (2013): 123–30; Andy Croll, ‘Starving Strikers and the Limits of the “Humanitarian Discovery of Hunger” in Late Victorian Britain’, International Review of Social History 56, no. 1 (2011): 103–31.

26A debate that had its origins earlier in the nineteenth century: Boyd Hilton, The Age of Atonement: The Influence of Evangelicalism on Nineteenth-Century Social Thought, 1795–1865 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1988).

27See, for instance, the debate surrounding ‘Big Society’ which had its heyday around 2010. Pete Alcock, ‘Building the Big Society: A New Policy Environment for the Third Sector in England’, Voluntary Sector Review 1, no. 3 (2010): 379–89; Martin J. Smith, ‘From Big Government to Big Society: Changing the State–Society Balance’, Parliamentary Affairs 63, no. 4 (2010): 818–33.

1 The Emergence of Charity Enterprise

1New York Times, 31 August 1912, 6; Daily Mirror, 28 August 1912, 4.

2Daily Mirror, 30 August 1912, 4. See also The Times, 23 August 1912, 4; 24 August 1912, 9.

3‘William Booth funeral’ footage: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v= utDd1awwPaE (accessed 4 March 2016).

4Daily Mirror, 30 August 1912, 9.

5The Army had a trial run with the death of Catherine Booth. The death of Catherine in 1890 had demonstrated the potential of Booth funerals as a major event: 50,000 people visited Catherine Booth as she lay in state and her burial attracted significant press coverage. Pamela J. Walker, Pulling the Devil’s Kingdom Down: The Salvation Army in Victorian Britain (Berkeley, Cal.: University of California Press, 2001), 235.

6‘Funeral of children’s home founder, Doctor Barnardo’: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sD1AiGmUbJY (accessed 4 March 2016).

7Joseph Schumpeter, The Theory of Economic Development (Abingdon: Routledge, 2017).

8Catherine Casson and Mark Casson, The Entrepreneur in History: From Medieval Merchant to Modern Business Leader (Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2013), 3.

9See C. W. Leadbeater, The Rise of the Social Entrepreneur (London: Demos, 1997); John L. Thompson, ‘The World of the Social Entrepreneur’, International Journal of Public Sector Management 15, no. 5 (2002): 412–31; Ana Maria Peredo and Murdith McLean, ‘Social Entrepreneurship: A Critical Review of the Concept’, Journal of World Business 41, no. 1 (2006): 56–65; Roger Martin and Sally Osberg, ‘Social Entrepreneurship: The Case for Definition’, Stanford Social Innovation Review 5 no. 2 (2007): 27–39.

10Though it is important to note that ‘social enterprise’ is a contested concept and models vary in contemporary society, ranging from organizations that strive to improve the lives of employees (the Big Issue magazine is perhaps the best example) to large-scale corporate bodies who direct differing degrees of profits into charitable causes (e.g. the Body Shop under its founder, Anita Roddick). See, for instance, Jack Quarter, Sherida Ryan and Andrea Chan, Social Purpose Enterprises: Case Studies for Social Change (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2014), 3–23.

11Peter Shapely, ‘Charity, Status and Leadership: Charitable Image and the Manchester Man’, Journal of Social History 32, no. 1 (1998): 157–77; R. J. Morris, ‘Voluntary Societies and British Urban Elites, 1780–1850: An Analysis’, The Historical Journal 26, no. 1 (1983): 95–118; R. J. Morris, Class, Sect and Party: The Making of the British Middle Class, Leeds, 1820–1850 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1990).

12Good examples of this can be seen in the archives of the third Duke of Sutherland held in Staffordshire County Record Office (hereafter SCRO), Series D 593/V/10; the personal papers of M.P. R. B. Martin in Barclays Bank Archives, Martin’s Bank, 9/308; and the private papers of William Rathbone, at the University of Liverpool, RP IX.5.5. Some donors complicated the ‘status’ nexus by giving anonymously. Sarah Flew, ‘Unveiling the Anonymous Philanthropist: Charity in the Nineteenth Century’, Journal of Victorian Culture 20 (2015): 20–33.

13Alfred Teeboon, ‘The Nottingham and Nottinghamshire Hospital Saturday Fund, 1873–1948’, Transactions of the Thoroton Society of Nottinghamshire 84 (1981 for 1980): 68–72; Frank Prochaska, Philanthropy and the Hospitals of London: The King’s Fund 1897–1990 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1992); Keir Waddington, Charity and the London Hospitals 1850–1898 (Woodbridge: Boydell, 2000); John Woodward, ‘The British Voluntary Hospital Movement: Success or Disaster?’, Annales Cisalpines d’histoire sociale 4 (1973): 233–54.

14Peter Gurney, ‘“The Sublime of the Bazaar”: A Moment in the Making of a Consumer Culture in Mid-nineteenth Century England’, Journal of Social History 40, no. 2 (2006): 385–405; Frank Prochaska, ‘Charity Bazaars in Nineteenth-Century England’, Journal of British Studies 16, no. 2 (1977): 62–84; Vivienne Richmond, ‘Rubbish or Riches? Buying from Church Jumble Sales in Late-Victorian England’, Journal of Historical Research in Marketing 2, no. 3 (2010): 327–41.

15Frank Prochaska, Women and Philanthropy in Nineteenth-Century England (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1980).

16Pat Starkey, ‘Temporary Relief for specially Recommended or Selected Persons? The Mission of the House of Charity, Soho, 1846–1914’, Urban History 35 (2008): 96–115.

17See, for instance, The Manchester, Salford and District South African War Fund, Greater Manchester County Record Office (GMCRO), M21/1/1–M21/4/9.

18Minute book, 12 January 1886, John Rylands Library (JRL), Wood Street Mission (WSM) papers, WSM/1/1/1.

19See, for instance, Committee resolution not to take children from outside Manchester and Salford on summer holidays, 13 June 1904, JRL, WSM papers, Minute Book, WSM/1/1/2.

20Annual Report (AR), 1911, JRL, WSM papers, WSM/2/1/2/10.

21Letter book of Richard Brown, Portreeve of Tavistock, 1874, Devon Record Office (Exeter), MFC/81/1–11.

22Manchester, Salford and District South African War Fund resistance to redistributing excess local funds to the national scheme, 27 November 1899, GMCRO, M21/1/1.

23Publicity Sub Committee Minute Book, 25 September 1907, Barnardo papers, University of Liverpool Special Collections (ULSC), D/239/B3/6/1.

24Annual Report 1900–1901, JRL, WSM papers, WSM/2/1/1.

25Draft Minute Book, 1885–96, JRL, WSM papers, WSM/1/2/1.

26Publicity Sub Committee Minute Book, 10 October 1906, Barnardo papers, ULSC, D/239/B3/6/1. The year after Barnardo died, Barnardo’s issued 350,000 for its ‘Founder’s Day’ appeal. Ibid., 4 April 1906.

27Gillian Wagner, Barnardo (London: Weidenfeld and Nicholson, 1979), 76–7; 82.

28Susan Ash, Funding Philanthropy: Dr Barnardo, Metaphor, Narrative and Spectacle (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 2016).

29The Times, 25 December 1893, 6.

30The Church Advocate, 1 July 1887.

31Publicity Sub Committee Minute Book, 21 February 1896; 8 January 1906; 9 January 1907; Barnardo papers, ULSC, D/239/B3/6/1.

32For the growth of consumer markets, see Judith Flanders, Consuming Passions: Leisure and Pleasure in Victorian Britain (London: Harper Press, 2006).

33On Colman and Reckitt as models of mid-century advertising and market dynamism, see Roy Church, ‘Advertising Consumer Goods in Nineteenth-Century Britain: Reinterpretations’, Economic History Review 53, no. 4 (2000): 621–45.

34The Officer, February 1893, 57–8.

35The Officer, March 1893, 85–6.

36Stephen Eskilson, Graphic Design: A New History (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2012), 29–30.

37Minute Books, November 1895, JRL, WSM papers, WSM/1/1/1.

38David Kynaston, The Financial Times – A Centenary History (New York: Viking, 1988).

39Much of this advice was repeated and updated periodically. See, for instance, The Officer, May, June, July and November issues in 1904.

40The Officer, February 1905, 63–6.

41The Officer, August 1905, 303.

42The Officer, December 1893, 354.

43The Officer, April 1904, 125.

44See, for example, advice from the man who raised $400,000 for a statue of Ulysses Grant in the United States. The Officer, June 1895, 188; April 1903, 187; April 1904, 125. Thomas Richards notes the idea of America as the centre of advertising in the late Victorian period (but argues that Britain had particular modes of innovation). Thomas Richards, The Commodity Culture of Victorian England: Advertising and Spectacle, 1851–1914 (Redwood, CA: Stanford University Press, 1990).

45The Officer, July 1905, 255.

46The Officer, March 1899, 110; April 1899, 151.

47The Officer, June 1904, 223.

48See features in The Officer in April, May and June 1904.

49The Officer, November 1904, 407.

50The Officer, May 1904, 175.

51The Officer, April 1904, 125. On value of personal appeal, see The Officer, December 1893, 357.

52The Officer, June 1893, 174.

53The Officer, May 1904, 175.

54The Officer, May 1904, 175–9.

55Walker, Pulling the Devil’s Kingdom Down, 196–8.

56The Officer, April 1904, 125.

57The Officer, March 1893, 86.

58Delving and Diving, 1, January 1880, 64–5.

59The National Waifs Magazine, February 1902, 36–7. See also the Charity Organisation Society’s investigation into Barnardo’s ‘snowball’ or chain letter appeals, Barnardo files, COS Enquiry Dept, London Metropolitan Archives, (LMA), A/FWA/C/D/1-/8.

60Annual Report, 1900, JRL, WSM papers, WSM/2/1/1.

61Porcupine, 8 December 1906.

62Publicity Sub Committee Minute Book, 10 October 1906 and 12 December 1906, Barnardo papers, ULSC, D/239/B3/6/1.

63Publicity Sub Committee Minute Book, 10 April 1907, Barnardo papers, ULSC, D/239/B3/6/1; they were placed free of charge.

64League of Welldoers, Liverpool Record Office (LRO), M364 LWD/6/4, 1912.

65News cuttings, 1878, Haydock Colliery Relief Funds (HCRF), Legh of Lyme papers, GMCRO, E17/113/11.

66Ibid.

67See Report included as supplement to Liverpool Temporary Home for Lost and Starving Dogs, Annual Report, 1899. LRO, 179 ANI/9/10/1–20.

68Portrait of ‘Railway Collecting Dog, Tim’, 1900, National Railway Museum, Object number 1976–9335. See also, portrait of ‘Carlo, Railway Collecting Dog for the ASRS Orphan Fund’, 1912, Object number 1988–8158; Taxidermy specimen in display case, ‘Railway Collecting Dog Laddie’, 1948, Object Number 1990–7629.

69Minutes of the Soup Kitchen Committee of the Jewish Poor of Manchester, 9 March 1905; 2 January 1906; 25 October 1906; 25 November 1906, GMCRO, M151/1/1.

70Aberdeen Daily Journal, 8 April 1911, 6; The Courier and Argus, 11 November 1907, 7; Nottingham Evening Post, 27 October 1910, 2.

71All the World, Special issue, January 1900, 2.

72The Officer, December 1893, 372. A surviving collection receipt suggests small sums from ‘streets’. Receipt, 1 December 1905, Darkest England Fund, Salvation Army International Heritage Centre (SAIHC), DEF 2.

73The Officer, December 1893, 357.

74T. J. Barnardo, Saved from a Crime: Incidents in the Life of a Waif and Stray (London: Shaw & Co., n.d.), Barnardo papers, ULSC, D239/A3/6/14.

75See, for instance, T. J. Barnardo, The King’s Business Requireth Haste (London: Shaw & Co, c. 1894), Barnardo papers, ULSC, D239/A3/6/1.

76The Officer, September 1893, 277.

77The Officer, December 1893, 373.

78All the World, 1891. See also The Nest Children’s Home, SAIHC, GB 2133 TN.

79Prochaska, Women and Philanthropy, 76, 82; Mary Clare Martin, ‘Children Raise Money for Children: The “priceless” child, citizenship and hospital fund-raising in Britain and North America, 1850–1950’, unpublished paper given at Voluntary Action History Society conference, Liverpool, July 2016.

80Delving and Diving, 6, July 1885, 101–103 (Letter purporting to be from an adult former waif addressed as a letter to kids).

81Annual Report, 1899, 12–13, WSM papers, JRL, WSM/2/1/1.

82The Times, 18 December 1897, 8.

83Annual Reports, passim, WSM papers, JRL, WSM/21/1–2. See also Delving and Diving, 1, July 1880, 169. One school’s sale of work raised over eleven pounds.

84Delving and Diving, 1, August 1880, 186.

85See, for example, the ‘Star cards’ collections in the Junior Corps. The Officer, 1905, 255.

86Under-eighteens paid a shilling per year; eighteen to twenty-five-year-olds paid half a crown.

87Membership Application Form, 1902, Barnardo papers, ULSC, D239/E1/1/9.

88Young Helpers’ League Magazine, 1892, 27–8.

89Delving and Diving, 1, June 1880, 150.

90Young Helpers’ League Magazine, 1899, 53; Delving and Diving, 2, November 1882, 32.

91Young Helpers’ League Magazine, 1892, 28; 1893, 72.

92Young Helpers’ League Magazine, 1910, 13; 1912, 16.

93Delving and Diving, 1, May 1882, 120; June 1883, 136.

94Diane Winston, Red-Hot and Righteous: The Urban Religion of the Salvation Army (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2009), 63.

95Edinburgh Evening News, 6 October 1886, 4.

96Waterloo Directory of English Newspapers and Periodicals. There were minor controversies over The War Cry’s sale on Sundays and its distribution in workhouses due to supposedly ‘immoral’ content. Worcestershire Chronicle, 6 September 1890, 6; Edinburgh Evening News, 21 August 1885, 4.

97The Officer, December 1893, 373. The Army also advocated that bazaars should have a stall selling SA literature.

98Night and Day: A Monthly Record of Christian Missions and Practical Philanthropy, 15 January 1877. The magazine was retitled National Waifs Magazine in 1899 and ran until the 1930s.

99Syrie Louise Barnardo and James Marchant, eds, Memoirs of the Late Dr Barnardo (London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1907), 234.

100Ibid., 228.

101Another national example is the Waifs and Strays Society magazine Brothers and Sisters, aimed at members of its ‘Children’s Union’. On Barnardo’s production of children’s and juvenile magazines, see Ash, Funding Philanthropy, 118–47.

102Laurel Brake, Print in Transition, 1850–1910: Studies in Media and Book History (Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2001).

103A. R. Neuman, Dr Barnardo as I Knew Him (London: Constable, 1914), 63.

104Delving and Diving, 1, 1880, 13–15; 28–9; 39–40; 60–3.

105By Christmas 1883 circulation was at 60,000. See Delving and Diving, 4, 1883, 12. This was a significant rise even from April the previous year when circulation figures were 30,000. Delving and Diving, 3, 1882, 110.

106This magazine was called Waifs and Strays.

107Delving and Diving, 3, 1882, 64.

108A delver [Alfred Alsop], Tens Years in the Slums (Manchester: John Heywood, 1879).

109Delving and Diving, 3, 1882, 63.

110Appeal and promotional booklets, Barnardo papers, ULSC, D239/A3/6/1–18; D239/A3/17/1–8.

111Ibid.

112Snapshots booklet, c. 1914–15, and Betsy Bobbet appeal booklet, c. 1890s, both Women’s Social Work Dept. files, SAIHC, uncatalogued.

113Seth Koven, Slumming: Sexual and Social Politics in Victorian London (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2004); Ash, Funding Philanthropy; Lydia Murdoch, Imagined Orphans: Poor Families, Child Welfare, and Contested Citizenship in London (London: Rutgers University Press, 2005).

114James G. Hutton, ‘The Definition, Dimensions, and Domain of Public Relations’, Public Relations Review 25, no. 2 (1999): 199–214.

115Barnardo and Marchant, Memoirs, 149.

116The Rock, 25 October 1877 in Barnardo files, COS Enquiry Dept, LMA, A/FWA/C/D/10/4.

117Casson and Casson, The Entrepreneur in History, 4–5.

118Simon Morgan, ‘Celebrity: Academic “Pseudo-event” or a Useful Concept for Historians?’, Cultural and Social History 8, no. 1 (2011): 98.

119Ilan Kapoor, Celebrity Humanitarianism: The Ideology of Global Charity (Abingdon: Routledge, 2013).

120News Cuttings books, 1905–14, WSM papers, JRL, WSM/14/2.

121YHL ephemera, 1896–1901, Barnardo papers, ULSC, D239/E1/1/9.

122Frank Prochaska, Royal Bounty: The Making of a Welfare Monarchy (New Haven: Yalue University Press, 1996).

123Penny Illustrated Paper, 27 November 1886, 340.

124Penny Illustrated Paper, 30 June 1894, 410.

125Illustrated London News, 13 November 1920, 782.

126Programme for service of song, Young Helpers’ League Ephemera, 1896–1901, Barnardo papers, ULSC, D239/E1/1/9.

127Walker, Pulling the Devil’s Kingdom Down, 195.

128The Star, 11 April 1891, 1, reprinted a piece from Truth on Booth’s daughter falling ill and being attended by five carers in a chic part of Cannes; while doubting its veracity, the Star suggested that ‘the way out’ of ‘darkest England’ had been found as far as General Booth’s own family was concerned.

129Daily Mail, 18 July 1904, 5; Daily Mail, 27 June 1907, 10. He also received the freedom of the City of London. Illustrated London News, 4 November 1905, 658.

130Martin Daunton, ‘“Gentlemanly Capitalism” and British Industry 1820–1914’, Past and Present 122 (1989): 156–8.

2 Consuming Charity

1Jonathan Benthall, ‘Charity’, in A Companion to Moral Anthropology, ed. Didier Fassin (Chichester: John Wiley, 2012), 361.

2Geoff Mulgan, ‘The Process of Social Innovation’, Innovations 1, no. 2 (2006): 145–62.

3See Josephine Maltby and Janette Rutterford, ‘Investing in Charities in the Nineteenth Century’, Accounting History 21, nos. 2–3 (2016): 263–80.

4Jo Littler, Radical Consumption: Shopping for Change in Contemporary Culture (London: McGraw-Hill, 2008), 27.

5Frank Prochaska, ‘Charity Bazaars in Nineteenth-Century England’, Journal of British Studies 16, no. 2 (1977): 62–84.

6Peter J. Gurney, ‘“The Sublime of the Bazaar”: A Moment in the Making of Consumer Culture in Mid-nineteenth-Century England’, Journal of Social History 40, no. 2 (2006): 385–405.

7Young Helpers’ League Magazine, 1893, 25.

8Delving and Diving, 3, January 1882, 62.

9The Officer repeatedly issued regulations for sales in the 1890s and 1900s. The Officer, May 1894, 146.

10Gary R. Dyer, ‘The “Vanity Fair” of Nineteenth-Century England: Commerce, Women and the East in the Ladies’ Bazaar’, Nineteenth-Century Literature 46, no. 2 (1991): 196–222; Prochaska, ‘Charity Bazaars’, 81–3.

11Sarah Flew, Philanthropy and the Funding of the Church of England 1856–1914 (London: Pickering & Chatto, 2015), 118–19.

12The Officer, February 1905, 68.

13Prochaska, ‘Charity Bazaars’, 76.

14The United Methodist, 7 April 1910, 307; Stalybridge Methodist Bazaar booklet, March 1913, Tameside Local Studies and Archives, DD116/1/12; J. Tweedale and Co. to Ryecroft Church committee, 1 September 1913, Record of Ryecroft Congregational Chapel, Tameside Local Studies and Archives, NC1/4.

15East Cheshire Union Decoration Subcommittee, 14 October 1904 and 15 October 1904, Tameside Local Studies and Archives, NU1/12.

16Chorlton Congregational Church Bazaar Handbook, 1906, GMCRO, M186/8/4/13; St Martin’s Castleton Bazaar Handbook, 1897, GMCRO, L67/1/8/9.

17East Cheshire Union Bazaar Committee, 3 November 1904, Tameside Local Studies and Archives, NU1/12.

18Harrow Floral Fete leaflet, 1900; and booklet for YHL Bazaar, Guildhall, 1901, both YHL ephemera, Barnardo papers, ULSC, D239/E1/1/9.

19Robert Louis Stevenson, The Charity Bazaar: An Allegorical Dialogue (London: Privately Printed, 1868), 1.

20Walker, Pulling the Devil’s Kingdom, 49.

21Ibid., 49ff.

22The Officer, March 1905, 99.

23YHL ephemera, c. 1910s, Barnardo papers, ULSC, D239/E1/1/9.

24The Officer, March 1899, 110.

25The Graphic, 11 October 1890, 8; The Graphic, 3 January 1891, 1; Illustrated London News, 2 July 1904, 14–15; Illustrated London News, 30 December 1905, 975; Illustrated London News, 29 June 1907, 1015.

26Asa Briggs, Victorian Things (London: Batsford, 1988), 166; Simon Morgan, ‘Material Culture and the Politics of Personality in Early Victorian England’, Journal of Victorian Culture 17, no. 2 (June 2012): 127–46; Christmas Trade Journal, 1912, 32, Trade Dept Files, SAIHC.

27Launceston Examiner, 24 February 1893, 7; The Tasmanian, 18 February 1893, 2; Daily Telegraph (Launceston), 11 January 1893, 3.

28Manchester Guardian, 19 July 1907, 4.

29Daily Mail, 4 February 1907, 3.

30The links of these private businesses with Booth can easily be seen as a kind of early (especially in a British context) form of corporate social responsibility, which, as scholars have shown, tends to factor strategic business advantage into charitable activity, in part because shareholders often demand it. David H. Saliia, Archie B. Carroll and Ann K. Buchholtz, ‘Philanthropy as Strategy: When Corporate Philanthropy “Begins at Home”’, Business Society 42, no. 2 (2003): 169–201; Chris Staples, ‘What Does Corporate Social Responsibility Mean for Charitable Fundraising in the UK?’, International Journal of Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Marketing 9, no. 2 (2004): 154–8.

31Trade Department Accounts, 1890, SAIHC, FIN.

32Trade Journal, November 1907, 12, Trade Dept Files, SAIHC.

33Trade Journal, November 1907, 13, Trade Dept Files, SAIHC.

34Winston, Red-Hot and Righteous, 100; see also Diane Winston, ‘Living in the Material Worlds. Salvation Army Lassies and Urban Commercial Culture, 1880–1918’, in Faith in the Market: Religion and the Rise of Urban Commercial Culture, ed. Diane Winston and John Michael Giggie (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2002), 13–36.

35More forward thinking was in evidence in its disavowal of cigarette advertising which claimed dubious medical benefits. Trade Journal, July 1907, 22, Trade Dept Files, SAIHC.

36Yesterday’s Shopping The Army & Navy Stores Catalogue 1907 (Newton Abbot: David & Charles, 1969); Harrod’s Stores, Victorian Shopping: Harrod’s Catalogue 1895 (London: David & Charles, 1895); Trade Journal, Autumn 1907, 16, Trade Dept Files, SAIHC.

37Richard Coopey, Sean O’Connell and Dilwyn Porter, ‘Mail Order in the United Kingdom, c. 1880–1960: How Mail Order Competed with Other Forms of Retailing’, International Review of Retail, Distribution and Consumer Research 9, no. 3 (1999): 264; Sean O’Connell, Credit and Community: Working-Class Debt in the UK since 1880 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009), 94.

38Briggs, Victorian Things, 40.

39For example, the Jewish Sanitary Association (Manchester) made a small profit from selling bars of carbolic soap to visiting beneficiaries. Minutes of the Visiting Association, 1884, Jewish Sanitary Association papers, GMCRO, MF2687. Meanwhile the ‘scientific’ Manchester League of Help charged for (stamped) second-hand clothes acquired from its depot ‘to prevent pauperisation’. Minute book, May 1910, League of Help papers, GMCRO, M294/10/1/3.

40The Officer, December 1893, 358.

41T. J. Barnardo, A Year’s Work in ‘Dr. Barnardo’s Homes’ (London: J.F. Shaw & Co, 1884), 142–3, Barnardo papers, ULSC, D239/A3/17/2.

42T. J. Barnardo, Something Attempted, Something Done! (London: J.F. Shaw & Co., 1889), 161; emphases in the original.

43Draft COS report on National Working Boys’ Home [undated], NWBH files, COS Enquiry Dept, LMA, A/FWA/C/D/025/004. The Peckham-based Working Boys Depot was another. Working Boys Depot files, COS Enquiry Dept, LMA, A/FWA/C/D/102/1.

44Loch to C. Chapman, 1881, COS Enquiry Dept, LMA, A/FWA/C/D/025/002.

45Seth Koven, The Match Girl and the Heiress (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2015).

46Women’s Herald, 12 November 1892; Women’s Signal, 7 June 1894, 403; Woman’s Penny Paper, 11 January 1894, 31; The Friend, 3 June 1892, 8; see also Mariana Valverde, The Age of Light, Soap and Water: Moral Reform in English Canada, 1885–1925 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2008), passim, for discussion of the discourse involved in the branding of the matches.

47Voluntary Action History Society, ‘The origins of flag days’: http://www.vahs.org.uk/vahs/papers/vahs3.pdf (accessed online 2 November 2016); Littler, Radical Consumption.

48Annual Report, 1911, Manchester and Salford’s Invalid Children’s Aid Association papers, GMCRO, M802/4/1.

49For examples of postcards, see Barrow Colliery Disaster Commemorative Postcard, 1907, National Coal Mining Museum, YKSMM.1992.1409; Disaster at Bullcroft Colliery postcard, 1912, Wakefield Museum 1996.1695; Hampstead Mine Fire Commemorative Postcards, 1908, Birmingham Museum, 1995V632.324; 1995V632.322; 1995V632.328 (this includes an unusual one with a photographed image of ‘the miners’ last message’, a chalked note on ‘trusting in Christ’) and Postcard view of scene at Stanley Pit Disaster, Stanley, County Durham, 1909, Northumberland Museum, NRO 085564/2 and NRO 08564/4.

50Souvenir Paper Handkerchief commemorating Suffragette March, 1908, Museum of London, 003570; Serviette commemorating West Stanley Pit Disaster, 1909, National Coal Mining Museum, Wakefield, YKSMM:1995.477; Paper Napkin commemorating John Welsby and Rescued Miners in Barnsley, 1900, Birmingham Archives, MS1841/7; Paper Napkin commemorating death of Edward VII, 1910, Victoria and Albert Museum, E.953–1988. For more on their origins, see Maurice Rickards and Michael Twyman, The Encyclopedia of Ephemera: A Guide to the Fragmentary Documents of Everyday Life for the Collector, Curator, and Historian (Hove: Psychology Press, 2000), 221.

51Commemorative Ceramics Collection, Lancaster City Museum, LANMS.1974.149.6 and LANMS.1974.31.3.a.

52Commemorative Ceramics Collection, Lancaster City Museum, LANMS.1974.60.6.

53Inkwell, 1889, Museum of Science and Industry, 2002.19.290 & CC/OC/35/3/B/1; Tray, 1893, Great Western Warehouse and National Coal Mining Museum, YKSMM: 2003.25.

54See, for example, in Northumberland Museum: Memorial glass for the Hartley Colliery disaster, 1862, ASHMM 1988.101/1; Memorial glass to the Whitehaven Pit Disaster, 1910, ASHMM 2001.21/1; Memorial glass to the West Stanley Disaster, 1909, ASHMM 2003.47/1; Memorial glass to the Barrington Colliery accident, 1894, ASHMM 2005.83/1; Memorial glass to the Seaham Colliery Explosion, 1880, ASHMM 2006.272/1. See also Memorial glass dish for the Newbiggin Fishing Disaster 1904, ASHMM 2004.73/10.

55‘Disaster glass’, 1883, Tyne and Wear Museum, TWCMS.2008.1142 and ‘Victoria Hall Disaster Book’, 1883, Tyne and Wear Museum, TWCMS. 2008.1141.

56Musical score [undated], National Coal Mining Museum, YKSMM.1999.83.1.

57Daily Mail [supplement], 31 October 1899, 4.

58Handkerchief, The Absent-Minded Beggar, c. 1901, National Army Museum, NAM.1999-10-138-1.

59F. K. Prochaska, ‘Philanthropy’, in F. M. L. Thompson, The Cambridge Social History of Britain, 1750–1950 vol. iii (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 383.

60Minutes, 3 December 1890, Jewish Sanitary Association or Jewish Ladies Visiting Association, GMCRO, MF2687.

61News cuttings books, 1905–12, WSM papers, JRL, WSM/14/1–2.

62The Quiver, 137, January 1905, 137–42. See also Laura Foster, ‘Christmas in the Workhouse: Staging Philanthropy in the Nineteenth-Century Periodical’, Journal of Victorian Culture 22, no. 4 (2017): 553–78.

63Liverpool Mercury, 27 December 1895, 6.

64The Social Beacon, December 1895, 6–7.

65See, for example, comment pieces in the Derby Mercury, 22 December 1880, 1 and The Times, 27 December 1881, 7.

66The Times, 10 December 1888, 9.

67Elizabeth Sloan Chesser, ‘The Evils of Christmas Shopping’, The Quiver 46, no. 2 (December 1910): 161–2; Wilfrid Randall, ‘A Christmas Assembly’, The Academy, 28 December 1912, 820. This was a recurring anxiety in seasonal editorials at the Times newspaper. See, for instance, The Times, 26 December 1911; 25 December 1908; 25 December 1912, 9.

68The Times, 24 December 1913, 7.

69Bow Bells, 12, no. 156, 26 December 1890, 620; Lottie Brown, ‘Christmas Day’, The London Journal, 26, no. 680, 26 December 1896, 16; The London Journal, 18, no. 468, 17 December 1892, 11.

70See The Times, 10 December 1888, 9; 27 December 1881, 7; 9 January 1885, 9; 26 December 1911, 7; 25 December 1908; 24 December 1913, 7; and 24 December 1910, 9. F. J. M., The Speaker, 22 December 1906, 348–9. See also Belgravia, 77, January 1892, 47–56, for similar comments.

71News cuttings book, 1905–10, WSM papers, JRL, WSM 14/1.

72See multiple toy and in-kind Christmas appeals by Manchester organizations: Manchester Guardian, 11 December 1905, 12; 17 December 1907, 5.

73See Henry C. Burdett in The Times, 18 December 1897, 8.

74G. K. Chesterton, ‘The Soul of Christmas’, The Speaker, 13 December 1902, 272.

75The Officer, September 1893, 277. James Obelkevich, Religion and Rural Society, South Lindsey, 1825–75 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1976), 158–60.

76The Officer, December 1893, 356–7.

77Delving and Diving, 3, January 1882, 62; 3, November 1881, 31.

78All the World, May 1908, 229. See All the World, March 1907, for tabulated annual increments from 1888.

79The Officer, September 1893, 275–8; September 1895, 272–5.

80Young Helpers League Magazine, 1892, 37–8; 1899, 181.

81All the World, March 1897, 101.

82Daily Mail, 4 November 1903, 3; Grantham Journal, 7 November 1903, 7.

83Portsmouth Evening News, 29 September 1903, 2.

84The Times, 17 November 1903, 10.

85Grantham Journal, 7 November 1903, 7; Daily Telegraph, 7 October 1903, 12.

86Yorkshire Evening Post, 2 November 1903, 2.

87Prochaska, Royal Bounty.

88See, for example, Evening Telegraph, 12 January 1898, 3, and Morning Post, 6 March 1900, 3.

89Correspondence, Governor of Texas, Joseph Sayers, to Henry Irving, 20 November 1900, Henry Irving Papers, V & A Theatre Museum, THM/37/1/40.

90John Rylands Library, University of Manchester, Annie Horniman Papers, AEH 3/2–15.

91See, for instance, Croydon Dramatic Club, patronized by local politicians and civic dignitaries, gave unspecified ‘dramatic performances’ in the parish rooms in aid of Croydon’s Institution for Trained Nurses. John Rylands Library, University of Manchester, Annie Horniman Papers, AEH 3/2–15.

92Truth, 9 July 1891, 58.

93The Graphic, 25 June 1870, 44.

94Truth, 16 July 1891, 112.

95Wandering Minstrels Archive, British Library (BL), K.6.e.2.

96Wandering Minstrels Archive, Album III, BL, 188201899, K.6.e.3, Item 56.

97Wandering Minstrels Archive, Album I, BL, K.6.e.1.

98London cyclists also proposed annual races in aid of the Metropolitan Hospitals Fund. Cycling: An Illustrated Weekly, 5 November 1892, 246.

99Minute book 2, 15 February 1897, WSM papers, JRL, WSM 1/1/2. Sums ranging from £50 to £60 accrued to the Mission as a result over the next few years. Other charities including hospitals also benefited. Manchester Guardian, 15 Auguat 1898, 10; 27 August 1900, 9.

100Manchester and Salford Harriers Cyclists’ Procession (1901), BFI Mitchel and Kenyon collection: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=J8FLeQpeVT8. Similar parades took place elsewhere contemporaneously: Burnley Express, 19 June 1895, 3; Isle of Man Times, 11 June 1898, 8; Gloucester Citizen, 26 September 1902, 3; Hull Daily Mail, 19 March 1909, 3.

101Annual Reports, passim, WSM papers, JRL, WSM/2/1/1.

102Chris Waters, British Socialists and the Politics of Popular Culture, 1884–1914 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1990), 86–9.

103Minute book 2, 12 October 1903, WSM papers, JRL, WSM 1/1/2.

104Children from beneficiary charitable institutions were also often invited to take part in the cycling parades. Minute book, June 1901, WSM papers, JRL, WSM 1/1/2; Manchester Guardian, 9 July 1901, 7.

105Aberdeen Journal, 22 February 1886, 3; Northampton Mercury, 14 July 1888, 6.

106The Philanthropist, January 1910, 7.

107Evening Telegraph, 19 June 1903, 4.

108Manchester Courier, 8 August 1905, 5.

109Yorkshire Evening Post, 11 September 1903, 4.

110Donald E. Hall, ed., Muscular Christianity: Embodying the Victorian Age (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994); J. J. McAloon, Muscular Christianity and the Colonial and Post-colonial Worlds (London: Routledge, 2008).

111See Christopher Y. Olivola and Eldar Shafir, ‘The Martyrdom Effect: When Pain and Effort Increase Prosocial Contributions’, Journal of Behavioral Decision Making 26, no. 1 (2013): 91–105.

112Hull Daily Mail, 14 November 1908, 5.

113Ming Lim and Mona Moufahim, ‘The Spectacularization of Suffering: An Analysis of the Use of Celebrities in “Comic Relief” UK’s Charity Fundraising Campaigns’, Journal of Marketing Management 31, nos. 5–6 (2015): 525–45.

114The Graphic, 4 September 1875, 3. Although it was suggested, the hapless Thomas William Burgess, second to complete the feat in 1911 after multiple failed attempts over the previous decade, did not attract the same level of financial appreciation. Daily Mail, 8 September 1911, 4.

115Daily Telegraph, 9 August 1904, 9.

116Evening Telegraph, 24 August 1904, 2; Edinburgh Evening News, 27 August 1904, 4.

117Shusaku Kanazawa, ‘“To Vote or Not to Vote”: Charity Voting and the Other Side of Subscriber Democracy in Victorian England’, English Historical Review 131, no. 549 (2016): 353–83.

118J. Ward, National Working Boys’ Home, to C.S. Loch, 2 June 1880, National Working Boys’ Home files, COS Enquiry Dept, LMA, A/FWA/C/D/025/002.

119Walker, Pulling the Devil’s Kingdom, 59.

120Founder’s Day Programmes, 1898 and 1904, Scrapbook, Barnardo papers, ULSC, D239/E1/1/10.

121See, for instance, The Philanthropist, January 1910, front matter/classifieds.

122The Officer, January 1905, 18–20.

123Ibid.

124The Officer, December 1893, 357.

125Hyde PSA bazaar booklet, 1909, Tameside Local Studies and Archives, NPSA1/7/2.

126St Catherine’s, Barton-upon-Irwell bazaar booklet, 1894, GMCRO, L37/1/35/1.

127First Manchester Rifle Volunteers Grand Military bazaar booklet, 1884, Tameside Local Studies and Archives, MR1/3/1/26.

128Grand floral bazaar booklet, 1910, GMCRO, L60/1/7/4.

129Hyde PSA bazaar booklet, 1909, Tameside Local Studies and Archives, NPSA1/7/2.

130‘Editorial’, Charity Organisation Review 14, no. 82 (October 1903): 185.

3 Building and Protecting Charity Brands

1Karl Moore and Susan Reid, ‘The Birth of Brand: 4,000 Years of Branding’, Business History 50, no. 4 (2008): 419–32; Carlo Marco Belfanti, ‘Branding before the Brand: Marks, Imitations and Counterfeits in Pre-Modern Europe’, Business History [online] (2017): 1–20.

2Teresa da Silva Lopes and Mark Casson, ‘Entrepreneurship and the Development of Global Brands’, Business History Review 81, no. 4 (2007): 651–80.

3Philippa Hankinson, ‘Brand Orientation in the Charity Sector: A Framework for Discussion and Research’, International Journal of Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Marketing 6, no. 3 (2001): 231–42.

4Moore and Reid, ‘Birth of the Brand’, 420.

5Examples of each of these from the COS files include the ‘Distressed Gentlefolk’s Aid Association’, the ‘Mariner’s Friend Society’, the ‘Children’s Country Holiday Fund’, the ‘Christian Men’s Union’, the ‘Rural Labourers’ League’, the ‘Providence Row Night Refuge’, the ‘Domestic Servants Benevolent Institute’, the ‘RoyalCaledonian Asylum’, the ‘Good Templar and Temperance Orphanages’ and the ‘Hostel of St. Luke’. COS Enquiry Dept, LMA, A/FWA/C/D.

6Baker Ahmed Alserham and Zeid Ahmed Alserham, ‘Naming Business: Names as Drivers of Brand Value’, Competitiveness Review: An International Business Journal 22, no. 4 (2012): 329–42.

7Letter from National League of the Blind to COS, 8 April 1907, National League of the Blind files, COS Enquiry Dept, LMA, A/FWA/C/D/285/1.

8Appeal leaflet, 14 October 1882, Fegan’s Boys’ Home files, COS Enquiry Dept, LMA, A/FWA/C/D/68/1. St. Giles Chapel Mission and North East London Mission were others who did the same. Appeal circular, 1893, North East London Gospel Mission files, COS Enquiry Dept, LMA, A/FWA/C/D/027/001; Appeal leaflet, c. 1900, St. Giles Chapel Mission files, COS Enquiry Dept, LMA, A/FWA/C/D/019/005.

9Letter, 23 July 1889, Children’s Country Holiday Fund files, COS Enquiry Dept, LMA, A/FWA/C/D/140/1.

10Letter, 23 April 1872, London Society for Employment of Necessitous Gentlewomen files, COS Enquiry Dept, LMA, A/FWA/C/D/39/1.

11Fifty-eight annual report, 1906, Mariners’ Friend Society files, COS Enquiry Dept, LMA, A/FWA/C/D/14/1; Appeal leaflet, c. 1890s, St. Andrew’s Waterside Mission files, COS Enquiry Dept, LMA, A/FWA/C/D/105/1.

12Letter, 2 June 1892, Church Lads’ Brigade files, COS Enquiry Dept, LMA, A/FWA/C/D/230/1.

13See League of Welldoer publications, LRO, M364LWD/7/1.

14Letter, 1 November 1873, Drury Lane Mission files, COS Enquiry Dept, LMA, A/FWA/C/D/30/1.

15See cards from William P. Blevin, and others in League of Welldoers printed materials, LRO, M364LWD/12/6.

16Appeal leaflet, c. 1904, Guild of Brave Poor Things files, COS Enquiry Dept, LMA, A/FWA/C/D/279/1.

17Eleventh annual report, 1903, League of Welldoers files, COS Enquiry Dept, LMA, A/FWA/C/D/283/1.

18Chiranjeev Kohli, Lance Leuthesser and Rajneesh Suri, ‘Got Slogan? Guidelines for Creating Effective Slogans’, Business Horizons 50, no. 5 (2007): 415–22.

19Ibid.

20Appeal circular, 1911, Home of the Holy Rood files, COS Enquiry Dept, LMA, A/FWA/C/D/236/1.

21Donation slip, undated, North East London Gospel Mission files, COS Enquiry Dept, LMA, A/FWA/C/D/027/001.

22Appeal leaflet, c. 1870s, Female Mission to the Fallen, files, COS Enquiry Dept, LMA, A/FWA/C/D/69/1.

23Appeal leaflet, undated, Christian Mission to the Fallen and Outcast Women files, COS Enquiry Dept, LMA, A/FWA/C/D/9/1; Annual report, 1874, Drury Lane Mission files, COS Enquiry Dept, LMA, A/FWA/C/D/30/1.

24Annual report, 1895, St. Andrew’s Waterside Mission files, COS Enquiry Dept, LMA, A/FWA/C/D/105/1.

25Juliana Horatia Ewing, The Story of a Short Life (London: SPCK, 1885).

26‘Bitter cry’ pamphlet, 1913, Tower Hamlet Mission files, COS Enquiry Dept, LMA, A/FWA/C/D/57/1

27See Ash, Funding Philanthropy, 13–82, on the power of the ‘open door’ metaphor in Barnardo’s brand.

28John Belchem, Irish, Catholic and Scouse: A History of the Liverpool-Irish, 1800–1939 (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 2007), 70–94.

29Mark Griffiths, ‘Building and Rebuilding Charity Brands: The Role of Creative Agencies’, International Journal of Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Marketing 10 (2005): 121–32.

30Roy Church and Christine Clark, ‘Product Development of Branded, Packaged Household Goods in Britain, 1870–1914: Colman’s, Reckitt’s, and Lever Brothers’, Enterprise and Society 2, no. 3 (2001): 503–42; Stefan Schwarzkopf, ‘Turning Trademarks into Brands: How Advertising Agencies Practiced and Conceptualized Branding, 1890–1930’, in Trademarks, Brands and Competitiveness, ed. Teresa da Silva Lopes and Paul Duguid (Abingdon: Routledge, 2010), 165–93.

31T. J. Barnardo, A Brief Account of the Institutions known as ‘Dr. Barnardo’s Homes’ (London, 1879).

32Annual report of Home for Destitute Children, 1874, LRO, 286 OWE/10/7.

33North End Domestic Mission Annual Reports, LRO, 266/NOR/2/1.

34Minute book, 15 November 1912, Santa Fina records, GMCRO, M802/1/15; Annual reports, Santa Fina records, GMCRO, M802/1/16. The name seems to have been dropped in Annual Reports by 1915, although for a couple of years Annual Reports and fundraising material retained the ‘sub’ name ‘Santa Fina Branch’ to avoid losing established donors.

35Jennifer L. Aaker, ‘Dimensions of Brand Personality’, Journal of Marketing Research 34, no. 3 (1997): 347–56.

36Edward F. McQuarrie and Barbara J. Phillips, Visual Branding: A Rhetorical and Historical Analysis (Cheltenham: Edward Elgar, 2016), 9.

37Schwarzkopf, ‘Turning Trademarks into Brands’; Church and Clark, ‘Product Development of Branded, Packaged Household Goods’, 503–42.

38Present-day studies on charity brand personality indicate that benevolence remains a key element of brand personality across all charities. Adrian Sergeant, John B. Ford and Jane Hudson, ‘Charity Brand Personality: The Relationship with Giving Behaviour’, Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly 37, no. 3 (2008): 474.

39‘To Church People’ appeal circular, c. 1890s, St. Andrew’s Waterside Mission files, COS Enquiry Dept, LMA, A/FWA/C/D/121/1.

40The Harvest, October 1892, 19. Different dioceses gave their rescue societies different names: Westminster Archdiocese operated a ‘Catholic Children’s Rescue Society’, Salford diocese a ‘Catholic Protection and Rescue Society’ and Birmingham a ‘Rescue Society for the Protection of Homeless and Friendless Catholic Children’.

41The Harvest, October 1892, 24.

42The Harvest, January 1893, 78.

43Mary Heimann, Catholic Devotion in Victorian England (Oxford: Clarendon, 1995), 156–61.

44‘Mission’ as a nomenclature was of course not exclusive to nonconformist organizations and a number of Anglican and Catholic organizations also used the term; they might signal a confessional identity by prefixing with a saint, for example.

45For example, prompted by complaints of proselytizing of Catholic children in Protestant homes levelled by the Catholic bishop of Salford, a raft of letters and editorials in Manchester publications sustained a long debate in 1887. News cuttings book, 1882–1911, Manchester and Salford Boys and Girls Refuges papers, GMCRO, M189/8/5/2.

46This fraying was partly a result of doctrinal changes and divergences. Richard J. Helmstadter, ‘The Nonconformist Conscience’, in Religion in Victorian Britain Vol IV: Interpretations, ed. Gerald Parsons (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1988), 83–8. On the development of nonconformist missions and enthusiasm for empire, see Susan Thorne, Congregational Missions and the Making of an Imperial Culture in Nineteenth-Century England (Redwood, CA: Stanford University Press, 1999).

47Appeal leaflets, c. 1880s, St. Giles Christian Mission files, COS Enquiry Dept, LMA, A/FWA/C/D/019/007.

48COS report, 5 January 1892, Watercress & Flower Girls’ Mission files, COS Enquiry Dept, LMA, A/FWA/C/D/85/1.

49Neil Pemberton and Michael Worboys, Mad Dogs and Englishmen: Rabies in Britain, 1830–2000 (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007); and Philip Howell, At Home and Astray: The Domestic Dog in Victorian Britain (Charlottesville and London: University of Virginia Press, 2015), 73–101.

50Annual reports, 1884–1904, Liverpool RSPCA files, LRO, M364 CHC/126.

51Information from City Police Chief Officer, 4–5 January 1871, Great Arthur Street Mission files, COS Enquiry Dept, LMA, A/FWA/C/D/26/1. Tarling brothers to COS, October 1894, Great Arthur Street Mission files, COS Enquiry Dept, LMA, A/FWA/C/D/26/17.

52Wagner, Barnardo, 62.

53Although see Lori Loeb, ‘George Fulford and Patent Medicine Men: Quack Mercenaries or Smilesian Entrepreneurs’, Canadian Bulletin of Medical History 16 (1999): 126–7, on the point that other alternative medicines were marketed on the basis of not being from the established and, by implication, ineffective medical profession.

54In response, Barnardo did later do enough to legitimately use the title. See Gillian Wagner, ‘Thomas John Barnardo’ entry, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004), online edn: http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/30600 (accessed 5 September 2017).

55See Chapter 4 for more on the various Gordon homes.

56Julie-Marie Strange, ‘Tramp: Sentiment and the Homeless Man in the Late-Victorian and Edwardian City’, Journal of Victorian Culture 16, no. 2 (2011): 242–58.

57Lopes and Casson, ‘Entrepreneurship’, 291.

58Minute book, 27 October 1908, WSM papers, JRL, WSM 1/1/3; Manchester Guardian, 25 November 1908.

59Wagner, Barnardo, 134–5; see also John Plunkett, ‘Celebrity and Community: The Poetics of the Carte de Visite’, Journal of Victorian Culture 8, no. 1 (2003): 55–79.

60The Mirror, 27 October 1890, 4, London Cottage Mission files, COS Enquiry Dept, LMA, A/FWA/C/D/066/010. See also Truth, 6 November 1890, 929–35, for full charges against Austin.

61The Child’s Guardian, April 1889, 65; Society for the Protection of Women and Children files, COS Enquiry Dept, LMA, A/FWA/C/D/37/3.

62Appeal leaflet reprinted from Sunday Words, 22 November 1885, London Cottage Mission files, COS Enquiry Dept, LMA, A/FWA/C/D/066/007.

63In 1876, May promoted the sale of his carte-de-visite as a fundraising initiative. Appeal circular, 1876, Great Arthur Street Mission files, COS Enquiry Dept, LMA, A/FWA/C/D/026/2. ‘Notes and reminiscences of a twenty-one years’ mission’ by Reuben May, 1881, Great Arthur Street Mission files, COS Enquiry Dept, LMA, A/FWA/C/D/026/1.

64‘Mrs Birt’s good work among the slum children of Liverpool’, Liverpool Citizen, 14 January 1888, 10, LRO, 050 CIT.

65Liverpool Infant asylum, also known as ‘Salisbury House School’, LRO 362 SAL/4/1–4.

66See League of Welldoer printed materials, LRO, M364LWD/7/1.

67Two of the most popular bogus collection tricks were posing as a religious fundraiser, and posing as collecting money for miners. Ad Clerum (warning to check if clerical collectors genuine), 1899, Salford Diocesan Archives, Bilsborrow Acta, Vol. 1899–1900, 103. Sheffield Independent, 8 June 1886, 6; Morning Post, 9 August 1888, 6. Sheffield Evening Telegraph, 25 August 1902, 3. Many of these frauds were prosecuted under vagrancy laws.

68Manchester Guardian, 9 May 1907, 5; Daily Despatch, 9 May 1907.

69Glasgow Herald, 30 September 1898, 9.

70The Standard, 23 January 1884, 3.

71John Mercer, ‘A Mark of Distinction: Branding and Trademark Law in the UK from the 1860s’, Business History 52, no. 1 (2010): 18.

72Intellectual Property Office trademarks database (IPO), UK0000036066 (11/03/1884); IPO, UK0000036069 (11/03/1884); IPO, UK0000038350 (01/07/1884): https://trademarks.ipo.gov.uk/ipo-tmtext (accessed 12 January 2017).

73IPO, UK00000158534 (01/09/1891); IPO, UK00000158696 (09/09/1891); IPO, UK0000158697 (09/09/1891): https://trademarks.ipo.gov.uk/ipo-tmtext (accessed 12 January 2017).

74IPO, UK00001397391: https://trademarks.ipo.gov.uk/ipo-tmtext (accessed 12 January 2017).

75See letters of inquiry to COS, 1880–81, National Working Boys’ Home files, COS Enquiry Dept, LMA, A/FWA/C/D/025/002.

76David M. Higgins, ‘“Forgotten Heroes and Forgotten Issues”: Business and Trademark History during the Nineteenth Century’, Business History Review 86 (2012): 267.

77Morning Post, 17 April 1892, 5.

78See Morning Post, 7 July 1884, 3.

79Morning Post, 5 January 1886, 3.

80Birmingham boasted a ‘Home for Destitute and Working Boys’, which enjoyed mayoral and local elite support. By 1885 it was known as the Home for Working Boys. Unlike the commercial outfits, Birmingham boys were assisted in finding employment or training to a trade. The boys received a penny per shilling earned and had further cash incentives towards good behaviour and self-improvement. The boys’ earning in total amounted to an estimated third of the running costs for the Home although its fortunes fluctuated over the next twenty years. Birmingham Daily Post, 12 July 1883, 5; 30 November 1886, 4. The word ‘destitute’ was dropped in 1885 on account of the stigma attached to it and associated bullying of boys in factories and so on. Birmingham Daily Post, 25 November 1892, 3. See Birmingham Daily Post, 2 December 1892, 3, for an article on whether or not to continue.

81Sheffield and Rotherham Independent, 8 December 1885, 5. Cheshire Observer, 23 April 1892, 7; Liverpool Mercury, 6 August 1891, 5; Sunderland and Daily Echo, 21 April 1893, 2; Gloucester Citizen, 7 June 1895, 3; Edinburgh Evening News, 11 June 1895, 2.

82‘Caution to the subscribers of the Indigent Blind Visiting Society’, London Society for the Employment of Necessitous Gentlewomen files, COS Enquiry Dept, LMA, A/FWA/C/D/39/1.

83Illustrated Police News, 23 August 1879, 4.

84The Christian World, 7 November 1879, London Society for the Employment of Necessitous Gentlewomen files, COS Enquiry Dept, LMA, A/FWA/C/D/39/1.

85Memories of scandal did stick. Some twenty years after being exposed for poor financial management and exploitation, the damaged reputation of the ‘Kilburn Sisterhood’ (criticized in the Times and Truth in the mid-1890s) was raising queries in the mind of potential donors over the worthiness of the ‘Sisterhood of St Peters, Kilburn’. Letter to COS, 1896, St Peter’s Home & Sisterhood files, COS Enquiry Dept, LMA, A/FWA/C/D/34/1.

4 Policing Fraud: Regulation and Accountability in the Charity Market

1Leslie Hannah, ‘Pioneering Modern Corporate Governance: A View from London in 1900’, Enterprise and Society 8, no. 3 (2007): 642–86.

2James Taylor, Boardroom Scandal: The Criminalization of Company Fraud in Nineteenth-Century Britain (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013).

3Hugh Cooke and R. G. Harwood, The Charitable Trusts Acts, 1853, 1855, 1860, the Charity Commissioners Jurisdiction Act, 1862; the Roman Catholic Charities Acts; Together with a Collection of Statutes Relating to or Affecting Charities, Including the Mortmain Acts (London, 1867); Mae Baker and Michael Collins, ‘The Governance of Charitable Trusts in the Nineteenth Century: The West Riding of Yorkshire’, Social History 27, no. 2 (May 2002): 165; A. H. Oosterhoff, ‘The Law of Mortmain: An Historical and Comparative Review’, University of Toronto Law Journal 27, no. 3 (Summer, 1977): 257–334. These rules applied best to hospitals and schools: see, in particular, Keir Waddington, Charity and the London Hospitals, 1850–1898 (Woodbridge: Boydell, 2000); and Anne Borsay, Medicine and Charity in Georgian Bath: A Social History of the General Infirmary, c.1739–1830 (Aldershot: Ashgate, 1999).

4Every county archive in Britain will contain examples of exchanges and bureaucracy relating to endowments. See, for instance, in the West Yorkshire Archives the papers of the Nettleton charity set up in the parish of Almondbury, Nettleton’s Charity Almondbury 1613–1977, WYA, WYK/KC643/2/2.

5Nettleton’s Charity Almondbury 1613–1977, WAY, WYK/KC643/3/6.

6The Charities Act of 1960 also repealed various mortmain and charitable Trusts Acts of 1853, 1856 and 1860.

7The concept of virtuous marketplace is borrowed from Victoria E. Thompson, The Virtuous Marketplace: Women and Men, Money and Politics in Paris, 1830–1870 (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2000). It also refers to the constitutive role of virtue in the language of relief work. See Deborah Mindry, ‘Nongovernmental Organizations, “Grassroots”, and the Politics of Virtue’, Signs 26, no. 4 (2001): 1187–211.

8The notable exceptions were specific war charities which were regulated and registered as a result of two acts in 1916 and 1940 respectively. The 1940 act was repealed by the 1992 Charities act. In contrast, organizations such as Friendly Societies were formally subjected to auditing and transparency rules by the 1872 Friendly Societies Act.

9Harrison, ‘Philanthropy and the Victorians’, 364.

10Harrison, Peaceable Kingdom, 217–59.

11See, for example, The Times, 5 July 1872, 11; Manchester Guardian, 25 November 1908, 10. See also, Rachel Vorspan, ‘Vagrancy and the New Poor Law in Late-Victorian and Edwardian England’, English Historical Review 92, no. 362 (1977): 59–81.

12Anna Clark, Scandal: The Sexual Politics of the British Constitution (Oxford: Princeton University Press, 2004), 2–15.

13Mary Poovey, ed., The Financial System in Nineteenth-Century Britain (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003), 3–5.

14Owen, English Philanthropy, 218.

15The Times, 10 December 1888, 13.

16The Times, 17 November 1888, 15. The allure of well-known figures on committees as a successful marketing tool was replicated in the financial world with the appointment of public figures on Boards of Directors. Taylor, Boardroom Scandal, 177.

17The Times, 7 December 1888, 13.

18Charles Loch Mowat, The Charity Organisation Society, 1869–1913: Its Ideas and Work (London: Methuen, 1961); Helen Dendy Bosanquet, Social Work in London, 1869–1912: A History of the Charity Organisation Society (London: J. Murray, 1914); Robert Humphreys, Sin, Organised Charity and the Poor Law in Victorian England (London: Palgrave, 1995).

19A. M. McBriar, An Edwardian Mixed Doubles: The Bosanquets Versus the Webbs A Study in British Social Policy 1890–1929 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1987); C. S. Loch, Charity and Social Life (London: Macmillan, 1910); Owen, English Philanthropy, 239–46; Keith Laybourn, The Guild of Help and the Changing Face of Edwardian Philanthropy: The Guild of Help, Voluntary Work and the State, 1904–1919 (New York: Edwin Mellen Press, 1994).

20Owen, English Philanthropy, 229.

21Low’s and Fry’s guides went through several editions and name changes. Sampson Low, Low’s One Shilling Guide to the Charities of London: Corrected to April 1863 (London: S. Low, 1863); Herbert Fry, The Shilling Guide to the London Charities for 1864–65 (London: unknown publisher, 1864); Thomas Hawksley, The Charities of London and Some Errors of the Administration (London: John Churchill, 1869).

22Annual Charities Register and Digest (London: Longman, 1890), i.

23Samples of Cautionary Cards available in COS archives: for example, Cautionary Card, 1897, Cautionary Card, 1907, COS papers, LMA, A/FWA/C/A/03/035 and A/FWA/C/A/03/043/01.

24Charles Stewart Loch, initially a COS volunteer, became secretary in 1875, serving until 1914. According to his Times obituary, ‘He made the COS. He was the COS’. The Times, 25 January 1923, 13.

25COS correspondence: letter from Miss S. M. Arnott, undated, Hostel of St Luke files, COS Enquiry Dept, LMA, A/FWA/C/D/225/1; Harry Smith to COS, 28 June 1897, Mission to Fallen Women, files, COS Enquiry Dept, LMA, A/FWA/C/D/009/2; W. Tweed to COS, 13 December 1901, Gordon Boys Orphanage files, COS Enquiry Dept, LMA, A/FWA/C/D/178/1.

26See, for example, undated news cutting, Great Arthur Street Mission files, COS Enquiry Dept, LMA, COS, A/FWA/C/D/26/008; News cutting, March 1882, National Union for the Suppression of Intemperance files, COS Enquiry Dept, LMA, A/FWA/C/D/86/001.

27See, for example, a sequence of responses to a COS Times advert against Reuben May, 1880–81, Great Arthur Street Mission files, COS Enquiry Dept, LMA, A/FWA/C/D/26/6–9.

28For a superb example of this, see the archives of the third Duke of Sutherland held in Staffordshire County Record Office, Series D 593/V/10 – used extensively in Chapter 6 below.

29On the Barnardo arbitration controversy, see Wagner, Barnardo, 86–172; Koven, Slumming, 88–139. There were other ways of dealing with the risk of libel: one roman a clef, in vague terms, ‘exposed’ a fraudulent charity mission; see H. W. Pullen, The World of Cant (London: Walter Scott, 1892), 329–36; see also on this general topic, Sean Latham, The Art of Scandal: Modernism, Libel Law and the Roman a Clef (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009).

30For the similarly dichotomous role of the press in the financial markets, see James Taylor, ‘Watchdogs or Apologists? Financial Journalism and Company Fraud in Early Victorian Britain’, Historical Research 85, no. 230 (2012): 632–50.

31Henry Du Pré Labouchere (1831–1912) was Liberal parliamentary representative for Northamptonshire for twenty-five years from 1880 and an energetic journalist whose exposés often pre-empted those of W. T. Stead, the editor of the Pall Mall Gazette. Labouchere is best remembered for proposing the clause on homosexuality to the Criminal Law Amendment Act 1885 under which Oscar Wilde was tried. Gary Weber, ‘Henry Labouchere, Truth and the New Journalism of Late Victorian Britain’, Victorian Periodicals Review 26, no. 1 (1993): 37; Claire Hirshfield ‘Labouchere, Truth and the Uses of Antisemitism’, Victorian Periodicals Review 26, no. 3 (1993): 134–42. See also A. L. Thorold, The Life of Henry Labouchere (London: Putnam, 1913).

32Truth, 5 July 1877–23 August 1877.

33Truth, 26 July 1877, 123–4; 2 August 1877, 156–7; Padroni, more usually associated with America, were middlemen who rented out the labour of their fellow Italian immigrants. See Joseph P. Cosco, Imagining Italians: The Clash of Romance and Race in American Perceptions, 1880–1910 (New York: State University of New York Press, 2003), 15.

34Truth, 9 August 1877, 188–9.

35Truth, 19 July 1877, 90–2; 23 August 1877, 251–3. The COS had extensive files on all of these institutions: Barnardo files, COS Enquiry Dept, LMA, A/FWA/C/D/10/1; Great Arthur Street Mission files, COS Enquiry Dept, LMA, A/FWA/C/D/26/1; London Society for Employment of Necessitous Gentlewomen files, COS Enquiry Dept, LMA, A/FWA/C/D/39/1; Middlesex Soup Kitchen files, COS Enquiry Dept, LMA, A/FWA/C/D/28/1. For a report on the COS investigation of Reuben May, see also Christian Commonwealth, 22 April 1886.

36Truth, 23 August 1877, 251–3.

37For Labouchere versus the Zierenbergs, proprietors of the St James Home for Inebriates, see The Standard, 14 December 1893, 2; for the unsuccessful libel case taken by the begging letter writer G. Brooks, see Liverpool Mercury, 18 December 1896, 7; for a rare case that went against Labouchere, see Reynolds’s Newspaper, 2 December 1894, 3. However, the plaintiff, a Reverend Macmillan, was granted only a farthing in compensation and told he should never have taken the case.

38Wontner and Co. solicitors to C. S. Loch, 2 November 1892, St James Home for Female Inebriates files, COS Enquiry Dept, LMA, A/FWA/C/D/70/6.

39Loch to Times editor, 16 February 1887, Great Arthur Street Mission files, COS Enquiry Dept, LMA, A/FWA/C/D/26/015.

40This was initially carried in the columns of the main paper as a ‘twelve month’s black list’ from 1903; from 1906 it was a supplement to the paper; from 1907 it was available to buy separately. Truth, 22 January 1903; 6 February 1907; 12 February 1908. The association between Truth and scandal reportedly cost Labouchere a post in the 1892–95 Liberal government when Queen Victoria refused to sanction the editor and proprietor of Truth holding office under the crown. Herbert Sidebotham, rev. H. C. G. Matthew, ‘Henry Du Pré Labouchere’ entry, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004), online edn: http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/30600 (accessed 5 September 2017).

41See, for example, Dundee Courier & Argus, 4 January 1894, 3; Penny Illustrated Paper, 26 January 1895, 6; North-Eastern Daily Gazette, 27 August 1896, 4.

42Arthur Newman to C. S. Loch, 9 March 1897, Christian Mission to the Fallen and Outcast Women files, COS Enquiry Dept, LMA, A/FWA/C/D/92.

43COS to J. P. Watson, 11 December 1914, Tower Hamlets Mission files, COS Enquiry Dept, LMA, A/FWA/C/D/57/1.

44It should be noted that some charitable schemes in this period openly advertised ‘for profit’ returns, notably Octavia Hill’s guaranteed returns for ‘investments’ on model lodging programmes. The transparency of this model, and the distribution of dividends among shareholders, placed such schemes in an entirely different category to private individuals siphoning ‘profit’ for personal use. See Susannah Morris, ‘Market Solutions for Social Problems: Working-Class Housing in Nineteenth-Century London’, Economic History Review 54, no. 3 (2001): 525–45; A. S. Wohl, ‘Octavia Hill and the Homes of the London Poor’, Journal of British Studies 10, no. 2 (1971): 105–31.

45Truth, 13 December 1877, 713–14.

46Peter Shapely, Charity and Power in Victorian Manchester (Manchester: Chetham Society, 2000).

47See Taylor, Boardroom Scandal, 39–42, on regulation by reputation in joint-stock companies.

48Max Weber, The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism (London: Routledge, 1930); Derek Matthews, A History of Auditing: The Changing Audit Process in Britain from the Nineteenth Century to the Present Day (London: Routledge, 2006), 4.

49St Agatha’s Mission files, COS Enquiry Dept, LMA, A/FWA/C/D/31/1; League of Welldoers files, COS Enquiry Dept, LMA, A/FWA/C/D/283/1.

50Loch to Mr Cruckenthorpe, 12 December 1900, St Giles Christian Mission files, COS Enquiry Dept, LMA, A/FWA/C/D/19/005.

51Note by J. W. B. Hunt, 9 November 1911, Great Arthur Street Mission files, COS Enquiry Dept, LMA, A/FWA/C/D/026/022; COS to the C. Mayell, Scotland Yard, 10 October 1927, Great Arthur Street Mission files, COS Enquiry Dept, LMA, A/FWA/C/D/026/022.

52So much so that, as with Lee and Lloyd Jones, those who denounced others were also liable to investigation.

53Correspondence between Lee Jones and Lloyd Jones, League of Welldoers papers, LRO, M364LWD/28/5/1.

54See Jones’s list in correspondence with Asst. Head Constable and Head Constable of Liverpool Police and editors of Liverpool press, 8 February 1905, League of Welldoers papers, LRO, M364 LWD/28/5/4. The ‘questionable’ charities were: Pastor Black’s Children’s Homes and Mission; Mr Baxter’s Old Forecastle Mission; Mr Housley’s United Christian Mission; Rev. Hugh L. Jones’s Gospel News Children’s Mission; Mrs. Morris’s White Rock Home for Children; Mrs. H. S. Pike’s Shoeblack’s Home. Later investigations extended to include Mrs. Price’s Bethesda Mission and Training Home for Friendless Girls. League of Welldoers papers, LRO, M364 LWD/28/1/58.

55For the sake of consistency with the archival references, this book will use the name League of Welldoers throughout.

56For extent of charity’s debts, see assorted correspondence and documents in League of Welldoers papers, LRO, M364LWD 15/40–41; 15/50–59; 15/61 and 15/107.

57Lee Jones’s anxiety about confused identities was not misplaced; the metropolitan-based Charity Organisation Society investigated whether Lee Jones was, in fact, Lloyd Jones. See League of Welldoers files, COS Enquiry Dept, LMA, A/FWA/C/D/283/1.

58Lee Jones’s notes, League of Welldoers papers, LRO, M364 LWD/28/5/1. No record of ordination could be traced and in census returns for 1901 and 1911, Lloyd Jones’s occupation appeared as a publisher and ‘missioner’. Census of England and Wales, return for Hugh Jones, 8 Grey Rock Street, West Derby, 1901; Hugh Jones, 2 Elgin Street, Birkenhead, 1911.

59Porcupine, 3 February 1905.

60Press cuttings from Birkenhead News and Liverpool Courier, 20 April 1907, League of Welldoers papers, LRO, M364 LWD 28/5/1–2.

61Press cutting, Birkenhead News, 1907, League of Welldoers papers, LRO, M364 LWD 28/5/1–2.

62Unspecified press cutting, League of Welldoers papers, LRO, M364 LWD/28/5/1, and Yorkshire Evening Post, 17 January 1902, 3.

63Lee Jones’s notes, League of Welldoers papers, LRO, M364 LWD/28/5/1.

64See letter from James McKinley to J. Griffin, editor of Birkenhead News, forwarded in correspondence to Lee Jones, 31 May 1908, League of Welldoers papers, LRO, M364 LWD/28/5/8.

65Census of England and Wales, return for William Ellis Jones, 2 Elgin Street, Birkenhead, 1911; Gospel News Mission Appeal, 28 November 1910, League of Welldoers papers, LRO, M364 LWD/28/5/7.

66Correspondence between Jones and Asst. Head Constable Liverpool Police, 16 August 1907, League of Welldoers papers, LRO, M364.LWD/28/5/4. Some proceedings were brought against suspect children’s charities for neglect. See, especially, details of prosecution against White Rock Home for child neglect, League of Welldoers papers, LRO, M364 LWD/28/3/10–11.

67See, for instance, collected press cuttings relating to Bethesda and White Rock Children’s Homes, League of Welldoers papers, LRO, M364 LWD/28/1/21 and 27; M364 LWD/28/2/24. For the complex appeal of waifs to the public, see, especially, Anna Davin, ‘Waif Stories in Late-Nineteenth-Century England’, History Workshop Journal 52, no. 1 (2001): 67–98; Lionel Rose, The Erosion of Childhood: Child Oppression in Britain, 1860–1918 (London: Routledge, 1991), 80–90.

68Balance sheet and commentary reprinted in the Welldoer, March 1908, League of Welldoers papers, LRO, M364 LWD/28/5/1.

69Jones was aware of national ‘cautionary list’ schemes; copies of the Truth Cautionary List scheme, discussed below, and correspondence with the editor of Truth are collated in his archive, League of Welldoers papers, LRO, M364 LWD/28/5/6, and he corresponded with the editor of this list regarding several of his ‘questionable’ charities: League of Welldoers papers, LRO, M364 LWD/28/1/12 and LWD 28/1/2; M364 LWD/28/2/15; M364 LWD/28/3/15–18.

70Jones’s petitioning echoed the Newspaper Society’s monthly circular that warned editors of fraudulent advertisers. See Jonathan Silberstein-Loeb, ‘Puff Pieces and Circulation Scams: Middlemen and the Making of the Newspaper Advertising Market, 1881–1901’, Business Archives 103 (2011): 77–92.

71See, for instance, Lee Jones’s correspondence with editor of Courier, 20 December 1907, regarding Pastor Black’s Children’s Homes; and J. Griffin, editor of Birkenhead News, 31 May 1908, regarding Reverend Jones League of Welldoers papers, LRO, M364 LWD/28/5/8.

72Liverpool Courier, 26 December 1909. Jones was adept at transforming the mundane into something extraordinary: a routine letter from the Royal palace congratulating the correspondent on good works was trumpeted as a personal endorsement of the Mission from the king and queen. See cuttings from Birkenhead News, 1911, League of Welldoers papers, LRO, M364 LWD/28/5/1.

73Correspondence between Lloyd Jones and Lee Jones, 9 October 1907, League of Welldoers papers, LRO, M364 LWD/28/5/17–18 and 23.

74Correspondence between Lee Jones and key local figures 1893–1910, League of Welldoers papers, LRO, M364LWD/11–22. Rathbone thought that the elite had a responsibility to lead efforts to relieve the poor. See William Rathbone, Social Duties: Considered with Reference to the Organization of Effort in Works of Benevolence and Public Utility (London: Macmillan & Co, 1867).

75Cutting from The Guardian, 15 March 1905, League of Welldoers files, COS Enquiry Dept, LMA, A/FWA/C/D/283/1. Margaret Simey in her history of charitable effort in Liverpool was less forgiving, arguing that Jones had all the ‘skill of an advertising agent’, was combative in denouncing others but had no regard – in his first decade at least – for accounting of income and expenditure. See Margaret Simey, Charity Rediscovered: A Study of Philanthropic Effort in Nineteenth-Century Liverpool (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 1992), 119–23.

76League of Welldoers papers, LRO, M364 LWD 15/145 and 20/29–35; for instance, M364 LWD 15/38; 15/78–79; 15/81–85 and 15/5–6.

77Correspondence with John Rowland, 21 February 1905, League of Welldoers papers, LRO, M364 LWD/28/5/12.

78For practices associated with ‘naming and shaming’, see Andy Croll, ‘Street Disorder, Surveillance and Shame: Regulating Behaviour in the Public Spaces of the Late Victorian British Town’, Social History 24, no. 3 (1999): 250–68.

79Truth, 25 March 1880, 398–9.

80Loch to George Prior, 6 August 1885, Great Arthur Street Mission files, COS Enquiry Dept, LMA, A/FWA/C/D/26/012.

81That newspapers performed a contradictory role in promoting and exposing frauds is underscored here; the editor of John Bull was the fraudulent Horatio Bottomley. See Alan Hyman, The Rise and Fall of Horatio Bottomley: The Biography of a Swindler (London: Cassell, 1972).

82‘A Reverend Rascal’, John Bull, 4 July 1914, 8, League of Welldoers papers, LRO, M364LWD/28/5/21.

83The Times, 2 July 1880; Truth, 24 May 1900, 1258. Labouchere had long been a strong ally of Chamberlain. On the Charity Commission’s inadequacies, see Owen, English Philanthropy, 215–46.

84H. L. Hansard, ‘Prevention of Frauds on Charitable Funds Bill’, 3rd series, 216 (London, 1873), 1848–51; Bosanquet, Social Work in London, 119–21.

85Michael French and Jim Phillips, Cheated Not Poisoned? Food Regulation in the United Kingdom 1875–1938 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2000); Oliver MacDonagh, Early Victorian Government 1860–1870 (London: Weidenfeld and Nicholson, 1977).

86The Times, 10 December 1888, 9.

87Truth, 19 July 1877, 90–2.

88Truth, 25 March 1880, 398–9; 20 November 1890, 1012–14; 20 April 1905, 1001–3.

89Truth, 25 March 1880, 398–9; 14 August 1890, 576–7.

90For some, the legislation was ‘tardy and ineffective’; more recently James Taylor has disputed this, suggesting that more cases (approximately ten per year), of corporate crime came before the courts in the late nineteenth century than is generally imagined. Taylor, Boardroom Scandal. See also, John Briggs et al., Crime and Punishment in England: An Introductory History (London: Routledge, 1996), 187–8; and George Robb, White-Collar Crime in Modern England: Financial Fraud and Business Morality, 1845–1929 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992).

91Truth, 20 November 1890, 1012–14.

92Jerome Caminada, Twenty-Five Years of Detective Life (Manchester: J. Heywood, 1895), 236.

93‘A Reverend Rascal’, John Bull, 4 July 1914, 8, League of Welldoers papers, LRO, M364LWD/28/5/21.

94Lloyd Jones fundraising material, League of Welldoers papers, LRO, M364 LWD/28/5/9.

95Samuel Hawkes to Lee Jones, 18 May 1908, League of Welldoers papers, LRO, LWD M364, 28/1/5.

96Truth, 14 August 1890, 576–7.

97Annual Charities Register and Digest, xlvii.

98See Joanna L. Krotz, Town and Country, a Guide to Intelligent Giving: How You Can Make a Difference in the World (New York: Hearst Books, 2009); see also web-based donor guides at www.thinknpc.org (New Philanthropy Capital, which has now subsumed the sometimes controversial www.intelligentgiving.com) and www.charitynavigator.org.

99David B. Farber, ‘Restoring Trust after Fraud: Does Corporate Governance Matter?’, Accounting Review 82, no. 2 (2005): 539–65.

100Truth, 14 August 1890, 332.

101Truth, 20 April 1905, 1001.

102Michael R. Darby and Edi Karni, ‘Free Competition and the Optimal Amount of Fraud’, Journal of Law and Economics 16, no. 1 (1973): 67–88.

103 Stephen Hopgood, ‘Saying No to Wal-Mart? Money and Morality in Professional Humanitarianism’, in Humanitarianism in Question: Politics, Power and Ethics, ed. M. Barnett and Thomas G Weiss (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 2008), 98–123. See also, Farber, ‘Restoring Trust after Fraud’, 539–65; Matthews, A History of Auditing, 16–17.

104John H. Hanson, ‘Strategic Management and Fundraising: A Planning Model for Resource Development in the Nonprofit Organisation’, International Journal of Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Marketing 2, no. 4 (1997): 323.

5 Aristocratic Fundraising and the Politics of Imperial Humanitarianism

1F. M. L. Thompson, ‘Social Control in Victorian Britain’, Economic History Review 34, no. 2 (1981): 189–208; A. P. Donajgrodzki, ed., Social Control in Nineteenth Century Britain (London: Croom Helm, 1977).

2Extract from the Bulletin International, 12 July 1872, Archives du Comité International de la Croix Rouge (ACICR) A, AF/21.5; Rebecca Gill, Calculating Compassion: Humanity and Relief in War, Britain 1870–1914 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2013). Gill’s final chapters turn to British wars between 1884 and 1914.

3Harrison, ‘Philanthropy and the Victorians’; Frank Prochaska, The Voluntary Impulse: Philanthropy in Modern Britain (London: Faber and Faber, 1988).

4T. L. Haskell, ‘Capitalism and the Origins of the Humanitarian Sensibility’, Part I, American Historical Review 90, no. 2 (1985): 339–61; and T. L. Haskell, ‘Capitalism and the Origins of the Humanitarian Sensibility’, Part II, American Historical Review 90, no. 3 (1985): 547–66; Alan Lester and Fae Dussart, Colonization and the Origins of Humanitarian Governance (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014).

5Gill, Calculating Compassion, 25–47.

6Dana L. Robert, ‘The First Globalization: The Internationalization of the Protestant Missionary Movement between the World Wars’, International Bulletin of Missionary Research 26, no. 2 (2002): 50–66.

7Jenny Hartley, Charles Dickens and the House of Fallen Women (London: Methuen, 2008).

8Gill, Calculating Compassion, 98.

9Smythe, a keen traveller, became committed to nursing following the death of her husband in 1869 after just five years of marriage. See Anne Summers, Angels and Citizens: British Women as Military Nurses, 1854–1914 (London and New York: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1988).

10Gill, Calculating Compassion, 73–96.

11Sutherland’s name is now best remembered for his family’s role in the clearances in Sutherland, rural improvement in Scotland as well as railways. Eric Richards tends to argue that the Sutherlands were weary of the excesses of the highland clearances and keen to remove themselves from controversies. Eric Richards, The Leviathan of Wealth: The Sutherland Fortune in the Industrial Revolution (London: Routledge, 2013), 283–4; Susanna Wade Martins, ‘A Century of Farms and Farming on the Sutherland Estate, 1790–1890’, Review of Scottish Culture 10 (1996): 33–54; David M. M. Paton, ‘Brought to a Wilderness: The Rev. David Mackenzie of Farr and the Sutherland Clearances’, Northern Scotland 13, no. 1 (1993): 75–101; Eric Richards, ‘An Anatomy of the Sutherland Fortune: Income, Consumption, Investments and Returns, 1780–1880’, Business History 21, no. 1 (1979): 45–78.

12Richards, The Highland Clearances, 2nd edn (Edinburgh: Birlinn, 2013). ‘The Sutherlandshire reclamations’, The Daily Free Press, The Sheep Grazing of Sutherland, from the Transactions of the Highland Society, 1890, Miscellany Scrap Book, Sutherland papers, SCRO, D593/P/24/7/7. Richards argues that the expenditure on estate improvement in Scotland grossly exceeded the income. The third Duke thus inherited the largest aristocratic fortune in Britain but one that was unsustainable on traditional revenue streams. The third Duke’s subsequent investment strategy continued on the agrarian lines of his predecessors but included a greater reliance on industrial ventures. Richards, Highland Clearances, 283–97.

13George Charles Bingham was implicated in the disastrous charge of the light brigade, and was also known for his harsh terms as a landlord in Ireland.

14Report and record of the Committee, 1879, Sutherland papers, SCRO, D593/P/26/2/1/1.

15William Ewart Gladstone, Bulgarian Horrors and the Question of the East (London: J. Murray, 1876); David Harris, Britain and the Bulgarian Horrors of 1876 (Whitefish, MT: Kessinger Pub Co, 2007); Richard Shannon, Gladstone and the Bulgarian Agitation 1876 (London: Nelson, 1963); Anne Pottinger Saab, Reluctant Icon: Gladstone, Bulgaria and the Working Classes, 1856–1878 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1991).

16Heraclides and Dialla, Humanitarian Interventions, 169–96; Davide Rodogno, Against Massacre: Humanitarian Interventions in the Ottoman Empire, 1815–1914 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2012), 141–69.

17Dimitris Livanios, ‘The “Sick Man” Paradox: History, Rhetoric and the “European Character” of Turkey’, Journal of Southern Europe and the Balkans 8, no. 3 (2006): 299–311; Andrew Wheatcroft, Infidels: A History of the Conflict between Christendom and Islam (London: Penguin, 2004).

18R. B. MacPherson, Under the Red Crescent; or, Ambulance Adventures in the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–78 (1885; repr., New York: Scribner, 1897).

19Letter from Vicountess Strangford to Austen Layard, 8 September 1877 (ff. 54), vol. LXXXV (ff. 289), September–October 1877, Layard Papers, BL, add MS 39015.

20She later led hospitals in Adrianople and Sophia during the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–78. She was captured with her hospital staff in 1877. On her death aboard the Lusitania in 1887, her Times obituary noted that Strangford had never recovered from the sufferings inflicted by her captivity at the hands of the Russian. The Times, 28 March 1887, 10.

21Letter from Angela Burdett Coutts to Layard, 9 April 1878 (ff. 208), vol. LXXXVII, December 1877–January 1878, Layard Papers, BL, add MS 39017. Note, we use ‘Constantinople’ for consistency with contemporary sources.

22Letters from Vicountess Strangford, 24 October 1877 (ff. 86) and 21 November (ff. 137), vol. LXXXVI, October 1877, Layard Papers, BL, add MS 29016.

23Rodogno, Against Massacre, 145.

24Vincent Barrington Kennett changed his name to Kennett-Barrington later in life, and we have used the name under which he is best remembered. The Times, 14 July 1903, 11; Peter Morris, ed., First Aid to the Battle Front: Life and Letters of Sir Vincent Kennett-Barrington (1844–1903) (Stroud: Alan Sutton, 1992); Bertrand Taithe, ‘Sir Vincent Kennett-Barrington’ entry, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004), online edn: https://doi.org/10.1093/ref:odnb/50267 (accessed 13 September 2017).

25Letter from Viscountess Strangford, 15 January 1878 (ff. 367), vol. LXXXVII, December 1877–January 1878, Layard Papers, BL, add MS 39017.

26See, for example, The Morning Post, 24 November 1877, 5.

27Daily Telegraph, 3 September 1877, 5.

28Florence Nightingale to Paulina Irby, c. 1875–76, Nightingale papers, British Library, Ms45795, ff. 86–91.

29William Lehman Ashmead Burdett-Coutts to Layard, 3 December 1878, Layard papers, British Library, Ms39023, ff. 290.

30The Morning Post, 24 November 1877, 5.

31See, for instance, Daily News, 15 February 1877, 2; and The Morning Post, 13 April 1877, 5.

32The Morning Post, 15 March 1878, 5.

33The Graphic, 22 December 1877.

34Charities catalogue pages, Sutherland papers, SCRO, D593/V/10. Unfortunately, the accounts of this estate are less precise than for other large estates. It includes a range of contributions to Foxley Charity, Deaf and Dumb Institute, Working Men’s mission Winter appeal, a British Belleville Mission (in Paris) and so on. See Fortecue papers, Devon Record Office (Exeter), 1262M/FZ26, for a considerably more comprehensive account of a large estate’s charitable expenditures. The Fortescue supported around thirty-one individuals and charities per quarter. Though a wealthy family with large estates in Ireland and the South West, their wealth could not be compared with the Sutherlands’ estate.

35Letter from Angela Burdett-Coutts to Layard, 28 September 1877 (ff. 185), vol. LXXXV, September–October 1877, Layard Papers, BL, add MS 39015.

36Central committee minute book, 1877–79, Sutherland papers, SCRO, D593/P/26/2/4/1.

37Report and record of the Committee, 1879, 3, Sutherland papers, SCRO, D593/P/26/2/1/1.

38Minutes of the Stafford House Committee, 5 July 1878, Sutherland papers, SCRO, D593/P/26/2/4/2.

39James E. Mapleson, The Mapleson Memoirs, 1848–1888 (New York: Belford, Clarke, 1888).

40Report and record of the Committee, 1879, 183, Sutherland papers, SCRO, D593/P/26/2/1/1. This calculation is based on the methods of www.measuringworth.com. On a GDP per capita or income value, the figure would be £38,630,000.

41Report and record of the Committee, 1879, iii, Sutherland papers, SCRO, D593/P/26/2/1/1.

42Out-letter book (England no. 2), March 1878–September 1878, Sutherland papers, SCRO, D593/P/26/2/2/4.

43Report and record of the Committee, 1879, 11, Sutherland papers, SCRO, D593/P/26/2/1/1.

44Morris, First Aid, 152.

45Report and record of the Committee, 1879, 40, Sutherland papers, SCRO, D593/P/26/2/1/1; Month lists of ambulance and hospital staff of the Stafford House Committee and those under Lord Blantyre, 1877–78, Sutherland papers, SCRO, D593/P/26/2/1/2.

46Monthly lists of ambulance and Hospital Staff printed in Constantinople, format c. A2, Sutherland papers, SCRO, D593/P/26/2/1/2.

47Florence Nightingale to Paulina Irby, c. 1875–76, Nightingale papers, British Library, Ms45795, ff. 86–91.

48Stafford House Minute book, 21 December 1877, SCRO, D593/P/26/2/4/1–2.

49Report and record of the Committee, April 1879, 4, Sutherland papers, SCRO, D593/P/26/2/1/1.

50Stafford House cheque stubs, 1877–79, Sutherland papers, SCRO, D593/P/26/2/3/5.

51See Taylor, Boardroom Scandal.

52Third Duke’s non-estate business interests, Sutherland papers, SCRO, D593/P/27.

53Third Duke’s non-estate business interests, 1865–82, Sutherland papers, SCRO, D593/P/27/1–6; Railway interests in Great Britain, 1829–1914, Sutherland papers, SCRO, D593/P/33.

54Ambassador to France in 1860 and notable modernizer, Ahmed Vefyk Pasha was socially known to the Stafford House group. Nermin Menemencioğlu, ‘The Ottoman Theatre 1839–1923’, British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies 10, no. 1 (1983): 48–58. He was briefly grand vizier (chief minister) in the spring of 1878.

55See, for example, The Northern Echo, 31 August 1877 and The Times, 14 September 1877, 5.

56Just Faaland, Does Foreign Aid Reach the Intended Beneficiaries? (Bergen: Derap, 1983).

57The Times, 14 September 1877, 5.

58Evening Standard, 2 September 1877, Scrapbook, Sutherland papers, SCRO, D593/P/26/2/7.

59Vanity Fair, 5 January 1878, Scrapbook, Sutherland papers, SCRO, D593/P/26/2/7. See also Gill, Calculating Compassion, 117–23.

62Report and record of the Committee, 1879, 14, Sutherland papers, SCRO, D593/P/26/2/1/1.

63See, for example, Richard Williams to Sir E. Cromwell, 30 August 1878, Out-letter book, Sutherland papers, SCRO, D593/P/26/2/2/2.

64Kennett-Barrington to his wife, 13 March 1878, Morris, First Aid, 152.

65Sarah Roddy, Julie‐Marie Strange and Bertrand Taithe ‘Humanitarian Accountability, Bureaucracy, and Self‐Regulation: The View from the Archive’, Disasters 39, s. 2 (2015): s188–s203.

66Daily Telegraph, 3 September 1877, p. 5; for definitions of ‘accountability to beneficiaries’, see Elizabeth G. Ferris, The Politics of Protection: The Limits of Humanitarian Action (Washington: Brookings Institute, 2011), 194.

67Jacques Freymond, ‘Humanitarian Policy and Pragmatism: Some Case Studies of the Red Cross’, Government and Opposition 11, no. 4 (1976): 408–25.

68MacPherson, Under the Red Crescent, 16.

69H. Ada, ‘The First Ottoman Civil Society Organization in the Service of the Ottoman State: The Case of the Ottoman Red Crescent’ (Osmanlı Hilal-i Ahmer Cemiyeti) (MA diss., Sabincı Üniversitesi, İstanbul, 2004); Nadir Özbek, ‘Philanthropic Activity, Ottoman Patriotism, and the Hamidian Regime, 1876–1909’, International Journal of Middle East Studies 37, no. 1 (2005): 59–81.

70Report and record of the Committee, 1879, 127–8, Sutherland papers, SCRO, D593/P/26/2/1/1.

71Letters from Kennett-Barrington commissioner General to the Committee, March 1878, Sutherland papers, SCRO, D593/P/26/2/2/1.

72Judy, 29 August 1877, 201.

73The Morning Post, 24 January 1878, 5.

74Bath Chronicle, 31 January 1878, 6.

75The Morning Post, 25 April 1878, 5.

76The Morning Post, 6 March 1880, 5; and Sheffield Daily Telegraph, 12 June 1880, 2.

77Report and record of the Committee, 1879, 26, Sutherland papers, SCRO, D593/P/26/2/1/1.

78Report and record of the Committee, 1879, 40, Sutherland papers, SCRO, D593/P/26/2/1/1. Of the forty-five working for the Red Crescent, seven had died; in the British Red Cross, three out of fourteen were ill.

79The Turkish Compassionate Fund was reported as being in charge of around 40,000 people by April 1878. The Advertiser, 6 April 1878.

80Morris, First Aid, 157.

81Report and record of the Committee, 1879, 41, Sutherland papers, SCRO, D593/P/26/2/1/1.

82At the outset of the war, Forbes had been attached to the Russian army and wrote of the ‘splendid valour’, ‘bravery and humanity’ of the Russian soldier opposed to the ‘barbarism’ of the Turks. See Gill, Calculating Compassion, 80–4.

83Wakefield Express, 26 January 1878, Miscellany scrapbook, Sutherland papers, SCRO, D593/P/24/7/7. The scandal led to significant lobbying addressed to the committee to limit his association to their cause. Dorothy Anderson, Baker Pasha: Misconduct and Mischance (Norwich: Michael Russell, 1999). Valentine Baker, War in Bulgaria: A Narrative of Personal Experiences, 2 vols (1879, repr., London: British Library Historical Print, 2015).

84The Spectator, 9 January 1878; Echo, 12 January 1878.

85Punch, 26 January 1878, Miscellany Scrap Book, Sutherland papers, SCRO, D593/P/24/7/7.

86Vanity Fair, 26 January 1878, Miscellany Scrap Book, Sutherland papers, SCRO, D593/P/24/7/7.

87Vanity Fair, n.d. (c. January 1878), Miscellany Scrap Book, Sutherland papers, SCRO, D593/P/24/7/7.

88‘The Eastern question’ (c. 1878), Miscellany Scrap Book, Sutherland papers, SCRO, D593/P/24/7/7.

89Thomas Laqueur, ‘Bodies, Details and the Humanitarian Narrative’, in The New Cultural History, ed. Lynn Hunt (Berkeley, Cal.: University of California Press, 1989), 176–204; Bertrand Taithe, ‘Horror, Abjection and Compassion: From Dunant to Compassion Fatigue’, New Formations 62 (2007): 123–36.

90Nazan Çiçek, ‘The Turkish Response to Bulgarian Horrors: A Study in English Turcophobia’, Middle Eastern Studies 42, no. 1 (2006): 87–102.

91Letters from Kennett-Barrington Commissioner General to the Committee, March 1878, Sutherland papers, SCRO, D593/P/26/2/2/1.

92Jean Pictet, ‘The Fundamental Principles of the Red Cross’, International Review of the Red Cross 19, no. 210 (1979): 130–49; Jacques Meurant, ‘Inter Arma Caritas: Evolution and Nature of International Humanitarian Law’, Journal of Peace Research 24, no. 3 (1987): 237–49.

93John F. Hutchinson, Champions of Charity: War and the Rise of the Red Cross (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996); Rebecca Gill, ‘Los orígenes de la Sociedad de la Cruz Roja Británica y las Políticas y Prácticas del Socorro en Guerra (1870–1906)’, Asclepio 66, no. 1 (2014): 29; Bertrand Taithe, Defeated Flesh: Welfare, Warfare and the Making of Modern France (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1999), 99–129.

94Caroline Moorehead, Dunant’s Dream, War, Switzerland and the History of the Red Cross (London: Harper Collins, 1998).

95Michelle Elizabeth Tusan, ‘The Business of Relief Work: A Victorian Quaker in Constantinople and Her Circle’, Victorian Studies 51, no. 4 (2009): 633–62.

96Clarence Baldwin Davis, Kenneth E. Wilburn and Ronald Edward Robinson, eds, Railway Imperialism (Santa Barbara, CA: Greenwood Press, 1991).

97Sutherland to Layard, 11 May 1878 (ff. 76), vol. XC (ff. 401) May–June 1878, Layard papers, BL, add Ms 39020.

98William Patrick Andrew, Euphrates Valley Route to India: In Connection with the Central Asian and Egyptian Questions (London: WH Allen & Company, 1882).

99Stafford House Committee to promote an Asia Minor and Euphrates railway, 1878, Sutherland papers, SCRO, D593/P26/3.

100Adam Hothschild, King Leopold’s Ghost A Story of Greed, Terror and Heroism in Central Africa (London: Macmillan, 1998); James Heartfield, The Aborigines’ Protection Society: Humanitarian Imperialism in Australia, New Zealand, Fiji, Canada, South Africa, and the Congo, 1836–1909 (New York: Columbia University Press, 2011).

101Upper Congo Exploration Committee, 1879–82, minutes of meeting with the king, 26 March 1879, Sutherland papers, SCRO, D593/P26/5.

102Legal papers of Upper Congo Exploration Committee, 1879–82, Sutherland papers, SCRO, D593/P26/5/2.

103Memorandum, Upper Congo Exploration Committee, 1879–82, Sutherland papers, SCRO, D593/P26/5.

104Cecily Devereux, ‘“The Maiden Tribute” and the Rise of the White Slave in the Nineteenth Century: The Making of an Imperial Construct’, Victorian Review 26, no. 2 (2000): 1–23.

105Minutes of the March 29 meeting, Upper Congo Exploration Committee, 1879–82, Sutherland papers, SCRO, D593/P26/5.

106The interest in Chinese railways began in 1873 at the bequest of Belgian and British railway industrialists. Letter on formation of Chinese committee, 1873, Sutherland papers, SCRO, D593/P/26/1/1.

107Stuart Sweeney, ‘Indian Railways and Famine 1875–1914: Magic Wheels and Empty Stomachs’, Essays in Economic and Business History 26 (2008): 147–59.

108Lillian M. Li, Fighting Famine in North China: State, Market, and Environmental Decline, 1690s–1990s (Redwood, CA: Stanford University Press, 2007).

109P. Richard Bohr, Famine in China and the Missionary: Timothy Richard as Relief Administrator and Advocate of National Reform, 1876–1884 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1972).

110Clara Burdett Patterson, Angela Burdett-Coutts and the Victorians (London: John Murray, 1953), 205–22. Burdett-Coutts’s main charitable priorities were mostly domestic and included church building, the protection of children, relief work in Ireland in 1880 which was combined with the development of the Irish fishing fleet (a strategy emulating that developed by the Sutherland in Scotland); Diane Orton, Made of Gold: A Biography of Angela Burdett Coutts (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1980).

111Burdett Patterson, Angela, 210.

112Morning Post, 4 June 1879, Scrapbook, South African Committee, Sutherland papers, SCRO, D593/P26/4/4.

113Morning Post, 5 June 1879, Scrapbook, South African Committee, Sutherland papers, SCRO, D593/P26/4/4.

114Morning Post, 11 June 1879, Scrapbook, South African Committee, Sutherland papers, SCRO, D593/P26/4/4.

115Report of the Stafford House South African Committee, 1880, Sutherland papers, SCRO, D593/P26/4.

116Report of the Stafford House South African Committee, 1880, 3, Sutherland papers, SCRO, D593/P26/4.

117Orton, Made of Gold, 254. Orton argues that the bulk of her charitable spending ended c. 1884.

118Letter from secretary, 22 May 1884, Sutherland papers, SCRO, D503/P26/8.

119Morris, First Aid, 163–200.

120Strangford to Gladstone, 17 August 1882 (ff. 48), Vol CCLII, Gladstone papers, BL, add. MS. 56450.

121Theodore Koditschek, Liberalism, Imperialism and the Historical Imagination: Nineteenth-Century Visions of a Greater Britain (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011), 2.

6 Franchise Fundraising: Mansion House Appeals

1Jo Littler, ‘The New Victorians? Celebrity Charity and the Demise of the Welfare State’, Celebrity Studies 6, no. 4 (2015): 471–85.

2See Social Franchising: Charity’s Next Top Model? (2012): http://www.knowledgepeers.com/networks/625/events.html?id=916 (accessed 10 October 2016).

3Lucy Gower, ‘What Is Social Franchising and How Can It Work for Charities?’ Blog, 27 June 2012: http://fundraising.co.uk/2012/06/27/what-social-franchising-and-how-can-it-work-charities/#.WDNQwRS-qng (accessed 10 October 2016); Ben Cook, ‘Social Franchising: How Do You Do It and What Are the Benefits?’ The Guardian, 6 November 2012: https://www.theguardian.com/social-enterprise-network/2012/nov/06/social-franchising-how-what-benefits (accessed 10 October 2016).

4See http://www.the-icsf.or (accessed 10 October 2016).

5International Centre for Social Franchising, Social Replication Toolkit (2015): http://toolkit.the-icsf.org/Home; Social Enterprise Coalition, The Social Franchising Manual (2011): http://www.socialenterprise.org.uk/uploads/files/2011/11/social_franchising_manual.pdf (accessed 10 October 2016).

6Ilan Alon, ed., Social Franchising (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014); Paul Tracey and Owen Jarvis, ‘Towards a Theory of Social Venture Franchising’, Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice 31, no. 5 (2007): 667–85; Thierry Volery and Valerie Hackl, ‘The Promise of Social Franchising as a Model to Achieve Social Goals’, in Handbook of Research on Social Entrepreneurship, ed. A. Fayolle and H. Matlay (Cheltenham: Edward Elgar, 2010), 155–79.

7Dan Berelowitz, ‘Social Franchising Innovation and the Power of Old Ideas’ (2012): http://www.the-icsf.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/Social-Franchising-Innovation-and-the-Power-of-Old-Ideas.pdf (accessed 10 October 2016).

8See The Social Franchising Manual.

9Roger D. Blair and Francine Lafontaine, The Economics of Franchising (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005).

10Thomas S. Dicke, Franchising in America: The Development of a Business Method, 1840–1980 (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1992), 12–47.

11Ibid.

12James Curran and John Stanworth, ‘Franchising in the Modern Economy: Towards a Theoretical Understanding’, International Small Business Journal 2, no. 1 (1983): 8–26; Blair and Lafontaine, Economics of Franchising, 5–7.

13International Centre for Social Franchising, Social Replication Toolkit (2015): http://toolkit.the-icsf.org/Home; The Social Franchising Manual (both accessed 10 October 2016).

14See Elizabeth Crawford-Spencer, ‘Deriving Meaning for Social Franchising From Commercial Franchising and Social Enterprise’, Journal of Marketing Channels 22, no. 3 (2015): 163–74; Elizabeth Crawford-Spencer and Francina Cantatore, ‘Models of Franchising for Social Enterprise’, Journal of Marketing Channels 23, nos. 1–2 (2016): 47–59.

15Julia Meuter, ‘Social Franchising’ (2008): http://www.berlin-institut.org/fileadmin/user_upload/handbuch_texte/pdf_Meuter_Social_Franchising.pdf (accessed 10 October 2016).

16See Tracey and Jarvis, ‘Towards a Theory of Social Venture Franchising’, for an account of a notable failure in social franchising.

17Dicke, Franchising in America, 2.

18Norman Murdoch, Origins of the Salvation Army (Eugene: Wipf & Stock, 1994), 128–9.

19The Officer, January 1899, 7–9.

20Andrew Alexander, Gareth Shaw and Deborah Hodson, ‘Regional Variations in the Development of Multiple Retailing in Britain’, in A Nation of Shopkeepers: Five Centuries of British Retailing, ed. John Benson and Laura Ugolini (London: I.B. Tauris, 2003), 136.

21See Alistair Mutch, ‘Public Houses as Multiple Retailing: Peter Walker & Son, 1846–1914’, Business History 48, no. 1 (2006): 1–19.

22R. E. Baylee, Paddington COS, to CS Loch, 1 January 1897, London Spectacle Mission files, COS Enquiry Dept, LMA, A/FWA/C/D/223/1.

23Cutting from Truth, 8 May 1902; A. M. Lee, Holloway and North Islington COC, to C. S. Loch, 16 May 1902, London Spectacle Mission files, COS Enquiry Dept, LMA, A/FWA/C/D/223/1.

24Edward J. Waring, Spectacle Missions: Their Object, Advantage and Management (London, 1887), London Spectacle Mission files, COS Enquiry Dept, LMA, A/FWA/C/D/223/1.

25The Star, 7 June 1888, 2.

26Gordon’s School remains at the site to this day, and still styles itself ‘The National Memorial to General Gordon’. Peter McBurnie, The Gordon Schools: A Short History (Aberdeen: Grant Print, 2002). Our thanks to Dr Max Jones for this reference.

27Daily News, 13 January 1886, 6; Essex Standard, 28 March 1891, 2.

28There were also at least two Gordon Boys’ Homes attached to the Gordon Boys Brigade, at Southampton and Portsmouth. Southampton Herald, 21 January 1899, 3.

29McBurnie, The Gordon Schools, 84–5.

30Manchester Times, 31 October 1890, 8; Manchester Courier, 26 December 1890, 51.

31See http://www.childrenshomes.org.uk/CroydonGordonWS/ (accessed 8 February 2017).

32Kensington COS to CS Loch, 9 June 1905, Gordon Boys Orphanage files, COS Enquiry Dept, LMA, A/FWA/C/D/178/1.

33Appeal leaflets, Gordon Boys Orphanage files, COS Enquiry Dept, LMA, A/FWA/C/D/178/1.

34G. A. Betty Pownall to E. C. Price, 24 April 1902, Gordon Boys Orphanage files, COS Enquiry Dept, LMA, A/FWA/C/D/178/1.

35Appeal circular, Gordon Boys Orphanage files, COS Enquiry Dept, LMA, A/FWA/C/D/178/2.

36Dover Express, 16 March 1900, 5.

37Monica Flegel, Conceptualizing Cruelty to Children in Nineteenth-Century England Literature, Representation and the NSPCC (Abingdon: Routledge, 2016), 61.

38George K. Behlmer, Child Abuse and Moral Reform in England, 1870–1908 (Redwood, CA: Stanford University Press, 1982), 96.

39Annual Report, 1876, Liverpool RSPCA files, LRO, M364 CHC/126.

40For those interested: ‘Why does the Lord Mayor like pepper? Because without his K.N., he’d be ill.’ A. A. Milne, ‘The Lord Mayor’, in idem, If I May (London: Methuen, 1921), 92-7

41Milne, ‘The Lord Mayor’, 92–7.

42Valerie Hope, My Lord Mayor 800 Years of London’s Mayoralty (London: Weidenfeld and Nicholson, 1989), 142.

43The Times, 26 March 1910, 11. A previous estimate was for £2.1 million raised between 1872 and 1893, making the seventeen years in between especially productive. The Times, 14 November 1893, 3. For the later estimate, see The Times, 8 November 1927, xii.

44David Owen, English Philanthropy, 1660–1960 (London: Oxford University Press, 1964), 512–14; Gareth Stedman Jones, Outcast London: A Study in the Relationship between Classes in Victorian Society (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1971), 298–311; Gertrude Himmelfarb, Poverty and Compassion: The Moral Imagination of the Late Victorians (New York: Knopf, 1991); Brian Harrison, Peaceable Kingdom: Stability and Change in Modern Britain (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1982).

45These figures are derived from newspaper reports of multiple fatality accidents that attracted relief funds of one form or another. Many incidents overlap in terms of how they might be categorized – for example, industrial fires – but no accident has been counted in more than one category.

46York Herald, 23 December 1872, 7; Derby Daily Telegraph, 21 September 1900, 3; The Times, 12 September 1890, 8; The Standard, 26 June 1877, 3; Manchester Courier, 18 July 1892, 5; Daily Telegraph, 3 May 1900, 9.

47Mike Davis, Late Victorian Holocausts: El Niño, Famines and the Making of the Third World (London: Verso, 2002), 110, 158.

48The Western Mail opened several funds in aid of major Welsh colliery disaster victims in the 1890s. Western Mail, 12 June 1890, 3; 19 November 1892, 7; 21 June 1893, 4. The Daily Telegraph’s famous ‘Shilling Fund’ during the South African war at the end of the century was therefore part of a growing tradition. (Indeed, the same paper had had a similar, if smaller, ‘shilling fund’ in 1895 on the rather less disastrous occasion of the cricketer W. G. Grace’s 100th first class century. See Derek Birley, Sport and the Making of Britain [Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1993], 341).

49According to amalgamated news reports, these funds account for £4,180,968 worth of aid, which is certainly an underestimate of the aid money that passed through the Mansion House during the period. Without surviving central records, however, the true figure is difficult to pin down.

50Manchester Guardian, 30 September 1908, 3.

51See, for example, Morning Post, 4 October 1880, 7; The Standard, 13 October 1893, 2; Manchester Guardian, 17 April 1908, 4.

52Minute book, 1885–1911, Clifton Hall Colliery Relief Fund papers, GMCRO, M294/6/1/2.

53These dates refer to the Hartley Colliery disaster of 1862, the Lancashire ‘Cotton Famine’ of the same year and the Oaks Colliery disaster of 1866, each of which benefited from Mansion House Funds. The ‘Captain’ shipping disaster fund of 1870 and the Franco-Prussian War fund opened at the Mansion House in 1871 widened the remit and set the tone for the next several decades of funds. See Anna Milford, ‘Charity begins at the Mansion House’, The Lady, 6 November 1984.

54For example, see Minute book, 1889, Hyde Colliery Relief Fund, Tameside Local Studies and Archives, CA/HYD/119/23.

55Cases where the mayor declined to launch an official Mansion House Fund but let it be known that he would accept any donations sent to him on behalf of local mayoral funds include the Haydock Colliery explosion at Wigan in 1878, the Clifton Hall colliery accident in 1885 and the Pennicuick colliery explosion in Scotland in 1889. Manchester Times, 15 June 1878, 3; Huddersfield Chronicle, 20 June 1885, 8; Birmingham Daily Post, 18 September 1889, 4.

56The Times, 24 February 1874, 6; Corporation minute book, 1874, LRO, MIN/SPE/1/4.

57See Sunday Times, 7 June 1874, 1, for a flavour of the different ‘franchisees’.

58Indian Famine relief fund, November–December 1877, Devon Record Office (Exeter), D3773/3/234.

59Robert E. Kraut, ‘Effects of Social Labeling on Giving to Charity’, Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 9, no. 6 (1973): 551–62.

60For example, Illustrated London News, 13 June 1874, 562.

61Blackburn committee to Clayton-le-Moors Indian Famine Fund, 26 January 1897, Lancashire Record Office, UDCL/31/3.

62See ‘Children in Need Fundraising Heroes – North West’ (2013): http://www.bbc.co.uk/blogs/childreninneed/entries/3e7f7f06-51ad-356a-ab58-cd2b4b2417dd (accessed 8 January 2017).

63Rothschild connections to the Mansion House continued: the family was represented on the committee when the mayor launched an appeal on behalf of persecuted Russian Jews in 1882. John Cooper, The Unexpected Story of Nathaniel Rothschild (London: Bloomsbury, 2015), 107–10.

64Daily Telegraph, 28 July 1874, 2.

65On the globalization of the city, see Ranald C. Michie, ‘The City of London as a Global Financial Centre, 1880–1939: Finance, Foreign Exchange and the First World War’, in Centres and Peripheries in Banking: The Historical Development of Financial Markets, ed. P. L. Cottrell (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2007), 41–80. On auditing, see Stephen P. Walker, ‘More Sherry and Sandwiches? Incrementalism and the Regulation of Late Victorian Bank Auditing’, Accounting History 3, no. 1 (1998): 33–54.

66Sheffield Independent, 7 July 1874, 6.

67The Times, 16 November 1912, 7.

68Birmingham Daily Post, 9 October 1874, 8; Scrapbook, Regent’s Canal Relief Fund, 1874, Royal and Sun Alliance files, LMA, CLC/B/192/DD/028/MS38840/003.

69Aberdeen Journal, 12 October 1877, 3.

70Bristol Mercury, 4 February 1878, 5.

71Liverpool Mercury, 16 September 1878, 7.

72Leeds Mercury, 16 November 1878, 2; Steamer ‘Princess Alice’ and Abercarne Colliery relief fund, 1878, Yarmouth Town Clerk’s files, Norfolk Record Office, Y/TC 90/2/19.

73Reynolds’s Newspaper, 12 March 1882, 2.

74Penny Illustrated Paper, 12 January 1878, 3.

75The Times, 26 October 1871, 9.

76Huddersfield Daily Chronicle, 14 January 1880, 4. This was also set up to rival the Duchess of Marlborough’s Fund, named for the then Lord Lieutenant’s wife. The Irish Crisis of 1879–80: Proceedings of the Mansion House Relief Committee (Dublin: Browne and Nolan, 1881).

77Mansion House Committee for the Defence of Property in Ireland, 1881–82, Sutherland papers, SCRO, D593/P26/7b; The Times, 5 May 1881, 10.

78L. Perry Curtis, ‘Landlord Responses to the Irish Land War, 1879–87’, Eire-Ireland: A Journal of Irish Studies 38, nos. 3–4 (2003): 134.

79Ibid.

80Northern Echo, 22 December 1881, 2; Dundee Courier & Argus, 10 February 1883, 3.

81Mansion House Committee for the Defence of Property in Ireland, 1881–82, Sutherland papers, SCRO, D593/P26/7b.

82Morning Post, 8 August 1882, 2; The Standard, 8 August 1882, 6; Pall Mall Gazette, 24 August 1882, 6; Richard L. Harris, ‘William Morris, Eiríkur Magnússon, and Iceland: A Survey of Correspondence’, Victorian Poetry 13, nos. 3–4 (Fall–Winter, 1975): 121.

83Harris, ‘William Morris, Eiríkur Magnússon, and Iceland’, 125.

84Pall Mall Gazette, 29 September 1882, 6. Although at least one scholar has noted the checkered demographic history of the country. Richard F. Tomasson, ‘A Millennium of Misery: The Demography of the Icelanders’, Population Studies 31, no. 3 (1977): 405–27.

85See, especially, The Standard, 5 October 1882, 5; Daily News, 6 October 1882, 2; Belfast News-Letter, 12 October 1882, 5. A pamphlet war also ensued; the distress was real, it would appear, and the sceptics motivated by ‘greed’ and ‘pedantry’. See Richard L. Harris, ‘William Morris, Eiríkur Magnússon, and Icelandic Famine Relief Efforts of 1882’, Saga-Book of the Viking Society 20 (1978–81): 31–41.

86Northern Echo, 30 September 1882, 3.

87York Herald, 11 November 1891, 4.

88York Herald, 3 May 1892, 5; Pall Mall Gazette, 17 November 1892, 7; York Herald, 21 December 1892, 4; Aberdeen Journal, 19 September 1892, 5.

89Sheffield & Rotherham Independent, 26 July 1892, 2; 30 August 1892, 7.

90Hope, My Lord Mayor, 160.

91The Times, 8 November 1927, xii.

92Daily Telegraph, 21 February 1913, 13.

93The Times, 5 January 1894, 6.

94It is worth pointing out that Mike Davis greatly misrepresents the second of these funds as ‘desultory’ in relation to the parallel South African War funds, suggesting it amounted to just ‘7 per cent’ of the latter. Davis cites a figure given in the Times on 17 February 1900, the day after the lord mayor opened the fund, which was, given the age of the fund, a creditable £52,000; by the end of 1900 it was well over a third of a million pounds. Davis, Late Victorian Holocausts, 164. The claim is uncritically repeated in James Vernon, Hunger: A Modern History (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2009), 289.

95The Times, 21 March 1903, 5; 17 April 1909, 4.

96Sarah Gregson, ‘Women and Children First? The Administration of Titanic Relief in Southampton, 1912–59’, English Historical Review 127, no. 524 (2012): 83–109.

Conclusion

1Peter Grant, Philanthropy and Voluntary Action in the First World War: Mobilizing Charity (London: Routledge, 2014).

2Donileen R. Loseke, ‘“The Whole Spirit of Modern Philanthropy”: The Construction of the Idea of Charity, 1912–1992’, Social Problems (1997): 425–44.

3Gill, Calculating Compassion, 213.

4Suzanne Horne, ‘Charity Shops in the UK’, International Journal of Retail & Distribution Management 26, no. 4 (1998): 155–61.

5Raphael Samuel, ‘Mrs. Thatcher’s Return to Victorian Values’, Proceedings of the British Academy 78 (1992): 9–29; Elaine Hadley, ‘The Past Is a Foreign Country: The Neo-conservative Romance with Victorian Liberalism’, The Yale Journal of Criticism 10, no. 1 (1997): 7–38.

6Helen Dendy Bosanquet, Social Work in London, 1869–1912: A History of the Charity Organisation Society (London: E.P. Dutton, 1914).

7One of its main advocate was of course a historian of Victorian Britain: Gertrude Himmelfarb, The De-moralization of Society: From Victorian Virtues to Modern Values (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1995).

8On ‘Big Society’ which had its heyday around 2010, see Pete Alcock, ‘Building the Big Society: A New Policy Environment for the Third Sector in England’, Voluntary Sector Review 1, no. 3 (2010): 379–89; Martin J. Smith, ‘From Big Government to Big Society: Changing the State–Society Balance’, Parliamentary Affairs 63, no. 4 (2010): 818–33.

9Matthew Hilton and James McKay, eds, The Ages of Voluntarism: How We Got to the Big Society (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011).

10Helen Haugh and Michael Kitson, ‘The Third Way and the Third Sector: New Labour’s Economic Policy and the Social Economy’, Cambridge Journal of Economics 31, no. 6 (2007): 973–94.

11Laurence E. Lynn, Jr. ‘Social Services and the State: The Public Appropriation of Private Charity’, Social Service Review 76, no. 1 (2002): 58–82; Steven Rathgeb Smith and Michael Lipsky, Nonprofits for Hire: The Welfare State in the Age of Contracting (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2009).

12Transparency of Lobbying, Non-party Campaigning and Trade Union Administration Act 2014; Peter Bradley, The Lobbying Bill Risks Gagging Charities and Campaign Groups, While Letting Lobbyists off the Hook: Democratic Audit Blog (30 August 2013), Blog Entry: https://www.theguardian.com/voluntary-sector-network/2014/jan/13/five-things-explain-lobbying-bill (visited 23 August 2017).

13https://www.gov.uk/government/news/charities-act-2016-new-fundraising-rules. This new legislation intended to tackle the commercial arm of the charitable market: so-called professional fundraisers to whom charities might subcontract their fundraising activities.