1. Erik Daarstad, Through the Lens of History: The Life Journey of a Cinematographer (Hope, ID: Plaudit, 2015), 50–51. My knowledge of Daarstad’s life and work also stems from telephone conversations we had on December 21, 2011, and May 5, 2014.
2. Erik Daarstad, Through the Lens of History, 46–107.
3. Erik Daarstad letter to Kent Mackenzie, February 1964, in Kent Mackenzie, “A Description And Examination of the Production of The Exiles: A Film of the Actual Lives of a Group of Young American Indians” (master’s thesis, University of Southern California, 1964), 58–59, 64–65. This thesis and other primary documents related to Mackenzie’s projects have been organized into The Mackenzie Files, a collection of documents included on the Milestone DVD rerelease of The Exiles, directed by Kent Mackenzie (1961; Harrington Park, NJ: Milestone Film and Video, 2009), DVD.
4. “A City—200 Miles Long? The Story of Los Angeles,” US News and World Report, September 16, 1955, 47.
5. Laura Pulido, Black, Brown, Yellow, and Left: Radical Activism in Los Angeles (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2006), 34–58; James P. Allen and Eugene Turner, The Ethnic Quilt: Population Diversity in Southern California (Northridge: California State University, Northridge, 1997), 10–42.
6. Richard Dyer MacCann, Hollywood in Transition (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1962), 10–19, 116.
7. Stephen Mamber, Cinema Verite in America: Studies in Uncontrolled Documentary (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1974); P.J. O’Connell, Robert Drew and the Development of Cinema Verite in America (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1992); Anna Grimshaw and Amanda Ravetz, Observational Cinema: Anthropology, Film, and the Exploration of Social Life (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2009), 3–50; Dave Saunders, Direct Cinema: Observational Documentary and the Politics of the Sixties (London: Wallflower, 2007); Keith Beattie, D.A. Pennebaker (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2011); Jonathan B. Vogels, The Direct Cinema of David and Albert Maysles (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 2005). Scott MacDonald’s innovative account of Cambridge-area filmmaking looks at “ethnographic” and “personal” documentary in and around Harvard, MIT, museums, archives, the high-tech sector, and public media institutions such as WGBH. Scott MacDonald, American Ethnographic Film and Personal Documentary: The Cambridge Turn (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2013).
8. Deirdre Boyle, Subject to Change: Guerrilla Television Revisited (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997); Chon A. Noriega, Shot in America: Television, the State, and the Rise of Chicano Cinema (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2000); Devorah Heitner, Black Power TV (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2013), 83–122; Phyllis R. Klotman and Janet K. Cutler, Struggles for Representation: African American Documentary Film and Video (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1999); Bill Nichols, “Newsreel: Film and Revolution,” (master’s thesis, University of California, Los Angeles, 1972); Michael Renov, The Subject of Documentary (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2004), 3–20; Cynthia Young, Soul Power: Culture, Radicalism, and the Making of a U.S. Third World Left (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2006).
9. J.D. Connor, The Studios after the Studios: Neoclassical Hollywood, 1970–2010 (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2015); Jeff Menne, Francis Ford Coppola (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2014); Jerome Christensen, America’s Corporate Art: The Studio Authorship of Hollywood Motion Pictures (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2012); Thomas Elsaesser et al., eds., The Last Great American Picture Show: New Hollywood Cinema in the 1970s (Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2004); J. Hoberman, The Dream Life: Movies, Media, and the Mythology of the Sixties (New York: New Press, 2003); Lynn Spigel, TV By Design: Modern Art and the Rise of Network Television (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2008).
10. David James, The Most Typical Avant-Garde: History and Geography of Minor Cinemas in Los Angeles (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005), 13.
11. Ibid., 10.
12. For context see James T. Patterson, Grand Expectations: The United States, 1945–1974 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996), 458–709; Sidney M. Milkis, “Lyndon Johnson, the Great Society, and the ‘Twilight’ of the Modern Presidency,” in The Great Society and the High Tide of Liberalism, ed. Sidney M. Milkis and Jerome M. Mileur (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 2005), 1–47.
13. The team went on to identify eight divisions for public history, including “research organizations,” “media,” and “historical preservation.” “Editor’s Preface,” Public Historian 1, no. 1 (Fall 1978): 4–7. For more on the early years of the professionalization of “public history” see “Special Issue: Public History: State of the Art, 1980,” Public Historian 2, no. 1 (Fall 1979); David Glassberg, “Public History and the Study of Memory,” Public Historian 18, no. 2 (Spring 1996): 7–23.
14. Susan Porter Benson, Steve Brier, Robert Entenmann, Warren Goldstein, and Roy Rosenzweig, “Editors’ Introduction,” Radical History Review: Presenting the Past: History and the Public, no. 25 (October 1981): 3–8. This issue became the basis for Susan Porter Benson, Steve Brier, and Roy Rosenzweig’s edited volume Presenting the Past: Essays on History and the Public (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1986). For more on shifts in history as an academic discipline in the post–World War II era, see Peter Novick, That Noble Dream: The “Objectivity Question” and the American Historical Profession (Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1998), 415–572.
15. Philip Rosen, Change Mummified: Cinema, Historicity, Theory (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2001), 240.
16. Jonathan Kahana, Intelligence Work: The Politics of American Documentary (New York: Columbia University Press, 2008), 143–266.
17. Los Angeles Documentary builds on two approaches to twentieth-century Los Angeles historiography: first, investigations that analyze how business elites, urban boosters, and politicians configured the city to concentrate power into the hands of a white and wealthy few; and second, studies of the city that primarily focus on the forms of expressive culture used by women, minorities, and working-class Angelenos to fight for civil rights and maintain communal ties in the face of oppression. For the former, see for example Mike Davis, City of Quartz: Excavating the Future in Los Angeles (New York: Vintage, 1990). For the latter, see Dolores Hayden, The Power of Place: Urban Landscapes as Public History (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1997). For a bridge between these two approaches see Norman Klein, The History of Forgetting: Los Angeles and the Erasure of Memory (London: Verso, 2008).
1. David Wolper quoted in H. Viggo Andersen, “Golden Years of Hollywood Engross Young TV Producer,” Hartford Courant, November 26, 1961, 3G. A shorter version of this chapter appeared in Josh Glick, “Wolper’s New Frontier: Studio Documentary in the Kennedy Era,” Moving Image 13, no. 2 (Fall 2013): 22–55.
2. “Mr. Documentary,” Time, December 7, 1962, 65.
3. “All Those Hats,” Time, December 7, 1962, 16.
4. Frank Joseph Adinolfi Jr.’s master’s thesis on Wolper remains the most comprehensive account of the producer and his studio. It is primarily focused on film form and style rather than the cultural context in which the studio operated. Frank Joseph Adinolfi Jr., “An Analytical Study of David L. Wolper’s Approach to Television Documentaries” (master’s thesis, University of Southern California, 1974). See also A. William Bluem, Documentary in American Television: Form, Function, Method (New York: Hastings House, 1965), 176–79, 181, 183, 190–91.
5. Representations of both real and purely fantastic space-age technology had been a mainstay of American popular culture since the late 1940s. Filmmakers allegorized Soviet invasion (Invaders from Mars [1953]), nuclear holocaust (When Worlds Collide [1951]), and the showdown between American freedom fighters and fascist or communist villains (Captain Video and His Video Rangers [1949–55]) through low-budget and effects-savvy entertainment. Sputnik added a new urgency to American-Soviet competition. See Victoria O’Donnell, “Science Fiction Films and Cold War Anxiety,” in Transforming the Screen 1950–1959, ed. Charles Harpole (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 2003), 169–96; M. Keith Booker, Monsters, Mushroom Clouds, and the Cold War: American Science Fiction and the Roots of Postmodernism, 1946–1964 (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 2001); Megan Prelinger, Another Science Fiction: Advertising the Space Race 1957–1962 (New York: Blast, 2010).
6. “H’wood in Sputnik Spurt: Register Satellite Titles in New Space Pic Cycle,” Variety, October 9, 1957, 2, 60.
7. For more on this topic see Lynn Spigel, Make Room for TV: Television and the Family Ideal in Postwar America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992), 26–72. Around 9 percent of households owned a television in 1950, and close to 90 percent owned one by the end of the decade, according to Cobbett S. Steinberg, TV Facts (New York: Facts on File, 1980), 142. See also Gene Wyckoff, The Image Candidates: American Politics in the Age of Television (New York: Macmillan, 1968), 13. Programming “in the public interest, convenience, and necessity” stems from the Radio Act of 1927, and was given a more aggressive treatment by the FCC in Public Service Responsibility of Broadcast Licensees (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1946): “Public Interest” programming cohered around “sustaining programs” (shows that did not receive commercial funding or money from advertisers), local live programming, programs devoted to public discussion, and the “elimination of commercial advertising excesses” (12).
8. “Stations Hot for Science Films,” Variety, November 20, 1957, 30; George Rosen, “TV Beep: ‘Come In, Eggheads!,’” Variety, December 25, 1957, 1; “Sputnik or Not, Yank Space-Research Films Top USIA Popularity List,” Variety, January 13, 1960, 1. For context see William Boddy, Fifties Television: The Industry and Its Critics (Urbana: University of Illinois, 1990), 187–213.
9. “Film Bartering Is Now Big Business,” Broadcasting, March 11, 1957, 27–28. Flamingo’s catalog included everything from the British travel documentary Let’s Visit the Orkney Islands (1950) to the Grand Ole Opry (1955–56) to Adventures of Superman (1952–58).
10. David L. Wolper and David Fisher, Producer: A Memoir (New York: Scribner, 2003), 15–24; David Wolper interviewed by Morrie Gelman for the Archive of American Television, Los Angeles, May 12, 1998, parts 1 and 2, accessed September 11, 2014, http://www.emmytvlegends.org/interviews/people/david-wolper.
11. In Wolper’s memoir he mentions that the encounter occurred in 1957. In the Archive of American Television interview cited in the previous note, he claims that the interaction took place in 1958. Periodicals as well as other official catalogs and tributes suggest that the meeting happened in early 1958.
12. “Wolper Award Specials: Race for Space,” p. 7, box 237, folder 003, David L. Wolper Center, Cinematic Arts Library, University of Southern California (hereafter DWC, CAL, USC); David L. Wolper and David Fisher, Producer: A Memoir, 29–33.
13. Mel Stuart, interview by Joshua Glick, August 6, 2010, Los Angeles.
14. Frederick H. Guidry, “Race for Space Spotlighted,” Christian Science Monitor, April 23, 1960, 6; Larry Wolters, “WGN-TV to Show Missile Film Three Networks Turned Down,” Chicago Daily Tribune, April 24, 1960, S14; Terry Vernon, “Race for Space WILL Be Seen,” Tele, April 24, 1960, 1; “Controversial TV Show Set for KTVU Airing,” San Mateo Times, April 16, 1960, 1; “Wolper’s Web Gabs on ‘Race for Space,’” Variety, March 2, 1960, 50; Jack Gould, “Fourth TV ‘Network’ Assembled to Show a Film Others Barred,” New York Times, March 21, 1960, 1.
15. Marie Torre, “Networks’ Policy Bans Top-Notch Documentary,” New York Herald Tribune, February 23, 1960, 40.
16. “Space ‘Specials’ Will Be Offered Soon on Ch. 3,” Hartford Courant, March 19, 1961, 13G; “Two Films at Library This Week,” Baltimore Sun, March 4, 1962, A13; “Area Libraries to Show Film on Space Race,” Los Angeles Times, December 27, 1962, H4. The Race for Space had a limited theatrical run that allowed it to qualify for the Oscars. Because the documentary was such a high-profile project, critics often discussed it as the first Oscar-nominated television documentary. See for instance “Academy Nominees Listed by Complete Categories: Academy List,” Los Angeles Times, February 23, 1960, 2; Donald Kirkley, “Look and Listen with Donald Kirkley,” Baltimore Sun, April 27, 1960, 12. However, in 1956, Disney’s Man in Space (1955) became the first television documentary to be nominated for an Oscar. See advertisement, New Journal and Guide, October 6, 1956, 4; Leonard Maltin, “Introduction for Man in Space,” in Tomorrowland: Disney in Space and Beyond (Burbank, CA: Walt Disney Home Entertainment, dist. Buena Vista Home Entertainment, 2004), DVD.
17. W.H. Pickering to David Wolper, June 21, 1960, in Auriel Sanderson, ed., The Man with the Dream: A Pictorial Tribute to the Life and 50-Year Career of David L. Wolper (Hong Kong: Warner Bros. Worldwide Publishing, 1999), 30; John F. Kennedy quoted in Michael Patrick Casey, “Pair of Space Specials Earn Wolper JFK Praise,” Santa Monica Evening Outlook, December 8–15, 1962, 8A, folder 26, box 167, DWC, CAL, USC. See also Robert Anderson, “‘Fourth Network’ Airs Space Show,” Chicago Daily Tribune, April 23, 1960, C10; Cecil Smith, “‘Race for Space’ Forms 4th Web,” Los Angeles Times, April 25, 1960, A12; “Rep. Holtzman Raps Nets in Space Show Nix,” Variety, March 2, 1960, 53.
18. Susan Christopherson and Michael Storper, “The City as Studio, the World as Back Lot: The Impact of Vertical Disintegration on the Location of the Motion Picture Industry,” Environment and Planning D: Society and Space 4, no. 3 (1986): 305–32. See also Thomas Schatz, The Genius of the System: Hollywood Filmmaking in the Studio Era (New York: Metropolitan, 1988), 411–92; Mark Alvey, “The Independents: Rethinking the Television Studio System,” in The Revolution Wasn’t Televised: Sixties Television and Social Conflict, ed. Lynn Spigel and Michael Curtin (New York: Routledge, 1997), 139–58.
19. Susan Christopherson and Michael Storper, “Flexible Specialization and Regional Industrial Agglomerations: The Case of the U.S. Motion Picture Industry,” Annals of the Association of American Geographers 77, no. 1 (1987): 104–17; Michael Storper, “The Transition to Flexible Specialisation in the U.S. Film Industry: External Economies, the Division of Labour, and the Crossing of Industrial Divides,” Cambridge Journal of Economics 13, no. 2 (1989): 277–90.
20. Map from Morris J. Gelman, “The Hollywood Story,” Television, September 1963, 34–35.
21. After a brief stay at 9119 Sunset Boulevard, Wolper Productions’ first long-term location in Los Angeles was 8720 Sunset Boulevard, starting in August 1960. This latter studio was technically located on the part of the Strip known as Sunset Plaza. “Wolper Prod. in Major Expansion, with Flock of Telementaries on Tap,” Variety, August 23, 1961, 23; “Wolper Expands,” Variety, November 15, 1961, 25; “You’ve Got to Be a Documentary Lover,” Broadcasting, November 27, 1961, 76–78. Articles can be found in Wolper Productions et al., General Files—Publicity (clippings: to 1967), folder 008, box 165, DWC, CAL, USC. Also see Auriel Sanderson, ed., Salute to David L. Wolper on his Fortieth Anniversary in the Entertainment Industry (Washington, DC: AFI and Warner Bros., 1989), 9–56, Special Collections, DWC, CAL, USC.
22. David L. Wolper, “But Don’t Get Me Wrong—I Love New York!,” in A Tribute to David L. Wolper, ed. Raymond Rohauer (New York: Huntington Hartford Gallery of Modern Art, 1966), 20. See also “Wolper-Sterling’s ‘H’wood & Movies 400G Telementary,” Variety, July 27, 1960, 1; “Wolper Orbiting into TV Network Programs; Sets Entertainment Segs,” Variety, May 10, 1961, 30; “Wolper & Turell’s Hot Telementary Tandem,” Variety, June 7, 1961, 34.
23. “Alan Landsburg: Pick a Genre, He’s Produced a Hit in It,” Broadcasting, December 24, 1979, 65.
24. Arthur L. Grey Jr. “Los Angeles Urban Prototype,” Land Economics 35, no. 3 (1959): 232–42.
25. Editors, “Intro to the World of Los Angeles,” Holiday, October, 1957, 49. See also Bill Murphy, Los Angeles: Wonder City of the West (San Francisco: Fearon, 1959), 34; Bill Murphy, Dolphin Guide to Los Angeles and Southern California (Garden City, NY: Dolphin, 1962); Los Angeles: Industrial Focal Point of the West (1959), accessed September 10, 2014, http://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/009386743; Citizens National Bank, “The New World,” Time, July 15, 1957, 22.
26. 1960 Democratic National Convention official program, 1–108, box 27B, Theodore H. White Personal Papers The Making of the President: 1960, Subject Files: Democratic National Convention, John F. Kennedy Presidential Library (JFKPL), Boston.
27. John F. Kennedy, written with aide Theodore C. Sorensen, acceptance speech, Democratic National Convention, Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum, July 15, 1960, accessed September 12, 2012, http://www.jfklibrary.org/Asset-Viewer/AS08q5oYz0SFUZg9uOi4iw.aspx. Also see Arthur Schlesinger Jr., “The New Mood in Politics,” in The Politics of Hope and The Bitter Heritage: American Liberalism in the 1960s, ed. Sean Wilentz (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2008), 105–20.
28. Leslie H. Martinson’s 1963 cinematic adaptation of the book PT 109 depicted Kennedy as a confident and conscientious commander during World War II, performing a lifesaving rescue of his crew. For more on Kennedy’s relationship to film and television, see Gene Wyckoff, The Image Candidates (New York: Macmillan, 1968), 19–59; Joseph P. Berry Jr., John F. Kennedy and the Media: The First Television President (Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 1987); Mary Ann Watson, The Expanding Vista: American Television in the Kennedy Years (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1994), 3–35; J. Hoberman, The Dream Life: Movies, Media, and the Mythology of the Sixties (New York: New Press, 2003), 6–8, 17–44; David M. Lubin, Shooting Kennedy: JFK and the Culture of Images (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003); James N. Giglio, The Presidency of John F. Kennedy (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2006), 271–95.
29. John F. Kennedy, “A Force That Has Changed the Political Scene,” TV Guide, November 14, 1959, 5–7. See also John F. Kennedy, “Address at the 39th Annual Convention of the National Association of Broadcasters,” reference box 034, Papers of President Kennedy, President’s Office Files, JFKPL; John F. Kennedy, speech to the National Association of Broadcasters, May 8, 1961, accessed February 14, 2017, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_2j-PchAVLw. Kennedy saw culture and politics more generally as working together to strengthen a democracy. For example, see John F. Kennedy, “The Arts in America,” in Creative America, ed. Jerry Mason (New York: Ridge, 1962), 4–8.
30. Newton N. Minow, “Television and the Public Interest,” address to the National Association of Broadcasters, May 9, 1961, reprinted as an appendix in Newton N. Minow and Craig L. LaMay, Abandoned in the Wasteland: Children, Television, and the First Amendment (New York: Hill and Wang, 1995), 188.
31. Anna McCarthy, The Citizen Machine: Governing by Television in 1950s America (New York: New Press, 2010), 1–38, 243–52.
32. Michael Curtin, Redeeming the Wasteland: Television Documentary and Cold War Politics (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1995), 1–34, 180–96.
33. Cecil Smith, “The Two Hats of Producer Wolper,” Los Angeles Times, November 11, 1963, D16.
34. Coverage of the program included Courier News Service, “Documentary Film Set on R. Johnson,” Pittsburgh Courier, May 20, 1961, A18; Calla Scrivner, “Rafer Johnson’s Life-Film Slated,” New Journal and Guide, June 3, 1961, 18; “Rafer Johnson on TV,” New York Amsterdam News, September 2, 1961, 17; Richard F. Shepard, “Story of a Champion,” New York Times, September 14, 1961, 63. Johnson went on to serve as an official delegate on Robert Kennedy’s presidential ticket in 1968. He was at his side when Kennedy was assassinated outside the Ambassador Hotel in Los Angeles and wrestled the gun away from Sirhan Sirhan. Johnson also had a productive career in Hollywood, appearing in The Sins of Rachel Cade (1961), The Fiercest Heart (1961), None but the Brave (1965), and Tarzan and the Great River (1967). For more on his movies see Rafer Johnson and Philip Goldberg, The Best That I Can Be: An Autobiography (New York: Doubleday, 1998), 162–68.
35. “‘Escape to Freedom’ Wolper Entry for USIA,” Variety, February 13, 1963, 27. See also “You’ve Got to Be a Documentary Lover,” Broadcasting, November 27, 1961, 76–78; “USIA Buys Show,” Broadcasting, December 25, 1961, 49; Wolper Productions et al., General Files—Publicity (Misc.), 165–019, DWC, CAL, USC; Malvin Wald, “Shootout at the Beverly Hills Corral,” Journal of Popular Film and Television 19, no. 3 (1991): 138–40; Kenneth W. Heger, “Race Relations in the United States and American Cultural and Informational Programs in Ghana, 1957–66,” Prologue 31, no. 4 (1999): 256–65; Philip K. Scheuer, “Disney Will Revive ‘Emil and Detective,’” Los Angeles Times, June 24, 1963, D11. At first filmmakers at Wolper Productions shot with 16mm German Arriflex and American Auricon cameras. They soon switched to French Éclair NPR cameras for greater flexibility with shooting sync-sound.
36. Don Page, “Willie Davis Gets His Late Innings,” Los Angeles Times, September 30, 1961, B5.
37. Bill, “Biography of a Rookie,” Variety, May 10, 1961, 39. See also “‘Biography of a Rookie’ to Be Seen,” Van Nuys News, September 24, 1961, 34-A. James Wong Howe was an esteemed participant on Biography of a Rookie, but he was uncomfortable with the fast-paced and streamlined format of commercial television. His assistant, Vilis Lapenieks, adapted well to the environment.
38. A.S. “Doc” Young, “Willie Davis: Television Star,” Los Angeles Sentinel, September 28, 1961, B11.
39. “Wolper Maps Series of 30-Min. Filmbiogs,” Variety, October 18, 1961, 29; “‘Biography’ Segs for So. America,” Variety, February 14, 1962, 27; “Of-Wolper ‘Biog’ Hot Syndie Item,” Variety, April 25, 1962, 24; John C. Waugh, “Wolper Builds on Fact Hunger,” Christian Science Monitor, May 9, 1962, 6; “Biography Plans Its Second Year,” Broadcasting, June 4, 1962, 66; Francis Coughlin, “‘Biography’ Unique: Emphasis Is on Man!,” Chicago Daily Tribune, January 29, 1963, A4; Val Adams, “Peabody Awards to 18 Announced,” New York Times, April 25, 1963, 67; Cecil Smith, “Minow Successor Sits for ‘Portrait,’” Los Angeles Times, June 5, 1963, D18.
40. Advertisement, Variety, April 18, 1962, 41.
41. The show was discussed in “Rommel Film,” Los Angeles Times, March 2, 1962, C14; “D-Day Will Be Relived in TV Film Documentary,” Hartford Courant, May 20, 1962, 11H; Robert E. Stansfield, “State GOP Convention among Week’s Reports,” Hartford Courant, June 3, 1962, 2G.
42. “Zanuck Calls All D-Day Film ‘Fake,’” Variety, January 31, 1962, 1. See also Andrew Marton interviewed by Lawrence H. Suid, July 21, 1975, quoted in Lawrence H. Suid, Guts and Glory: The Making of the American Military Image in Film (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 2002), 169.
43. “Refute Zanuck on D-Day Film,” Variety, February 7, 1962, 4.
44. Tube, “Tele Review,” Variety, June 20, 1962, 39; “The Year’s Ten Best,” Time, January 4, 1963, 6. For more on the film and its reception see Bosley Crowther, “Premiere of ‘The Longest Day,’” New York Times, October 5, 1962, 28; Philip K. Scheuer, “‘The Longest Day’ Is Also the Biggest,” Los Angeles Times, October 12, 1962, D13; Donald Kirkley, “Look and Listen with Donald Kirkley,” Baltimore Sun, June 4, 1962, 6; “D-Day Available,” Broadcasting, March 11, 1963, 58.
45. Morris J. Gelman, “A Tale of Two Once-Out Companies Spending This Season Very Much In,” Television, September 1963, 80; George Laine, “Tiny Wolper Firm Pushing Big Networks,” Santa Monica Evening Outlook, December 8–15, 1962, 3A-9A, folder 26, box 167, DWC, CAL, USC.
46. Cecil Smith, “Educational Television for L.A. on the Way,” Los Angeles Times, February 17, 1963, L3. See also Ernest Kreiling, “ETV for Los Angeles?,” Los Angeles Magazine, November 1961, 56.
47. “Will 1962 Be Documentary Year?,” Broadcasting, December 25, 1961, 19–22. The fact that the networks continued to keep a tight hold over news coverage of foreign policy encouraged Wolper in the direction of cultural history.
48. Robert Drew quoted in P.J. O’Connell, Robert Drew and the Development of Cinema Verite in America (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1992), 95–97, 100–109. The organization, like Wolper Productions, was primarily comprised of white men. The few women who worked there mainly recorded sound. For more on Drew Associates see Robert Drew, Richard Leacock, and D.A. Pennebaker interviewed by Gideon Bachmann, “The Frontiers of Realist Cinema: the Work of Ricky Leacock” Film Culture, nos. 22/23 (Summer 1961): 14–18; Robert Drew, “See It Then: Notes on Television Journalism,” Nieman Reports 9, no. 2 (April 1955): 2, 34–37. For more on how “direct cinema” was discussed at the time, see Maxine Haleff, “The Maysles Brothers and ‘Direct Cinema,’” Film Comment 2, no. 2 (1964): 19–23; James Blue, “Thoughts on Cinéma Vérité and a Discussion with the Maysles Brothers,” Film Comment 2, no. 4 (1965): 22–30; Richard Leacock, interview by James Blue, “One Man’s Truth,” Film Comment 3, no. 2 (1965): 15–22.
49. Drew Associates’ film practice at times created moments of ideological instability and provoked network controversy with programs such as Yanki No! (1960), which gave voice to Cuban citizens expressing admiration for Fidel Castro and dislike of the United States. Val Adams, “Daly Quits ABC in Policy Battle,” New York Times, November 17, 1960, 75; Percy Shain, “Night Watch: Anti-Americanism Eyed in Flashy Documentary,” Boston Globe, December 8, 1960, 46; “Cuban Lashes TV Movie as Pro-Russian,” Chicago Tribune, December 12, 1960, 27; Herm, “Yanki, No!,” Variety, December 14, 1960, 27.
50. “The New Life in Old Film,” Broadcasting, December 9, 1963, 27–30; “Wolper Productions Buys Paramount News,” Broadcasting, February 11, 1963, 28; “Wolper Par News Buy for $500,000,” Variety, February 6, 1963, 28.
51. Philip Rosen, Change Mummified: Cinema, Historicity, Theory (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2001), 225–40.
52. For further analysis of journalists’ coverage of Kennedy’s assassination and the aftermath, see Barbie Zelizer, Covering the Body: The Kennedy Assassination, the Media, and the Shaping of Collective Memory (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992); Christopher Lasch, “The Life of Kennedy’s Death: How the Mythology of Kennedy’s Assassination Sustains the Mythology of His Career,” Harper’s Magazine, October 1983, 32–36, 38–40; Aniko Bodroghkozy, “Black Weekend: A Reception History of Network Television News and the Assassination of John F. Kennedy,” Television and New Media 14, no. 6 (2012): 565–78.
53. P.J. O’Connell, Robert Drew and the Development of Cinema Verite in America, 62–73, 168–95, 199–201.
54. Norman Mailer, “Superman Comes to the Supermarket,” Esquire, November 1960, 120.
55. Theodore H. White, The Making of the President: 1960 (New York: Harper Collins, 1961). For more on White and the Cold War consensus, see Joyce Hoffmann, Theodore H. White and Journalism as Illusion (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1995).
56. Theodore H. White, The Making of the President: 1960, 293. Read more at “‘Making of President’ Rights Go to Wolper: Two Documentaries Set,” Variety, February 14, 1962, 42; “Susskind Gives Up Rights to ‘Making of President,’” Los Angeles Times, February 19, 1962, C13; “‘Making of President’ as 2 Full-Hr. Specials on Mel Stuart Agenda,” Variety, March 20, 1963, 30; “Wolper’s 470G for a 2-Parter,” Variety, May 22, 1963, 39; Cecil Smith, “‘President, 1960’ Film Shaping Up,” Los Angeles Times, August 19, 1963, C14.
57. Daniel J. Boorstin, The Image: A Guide to Pseudo-Events in America (New York: Vintage, 1961), 41–44.
58. Theodore H. White, “Finding Visual Truth in History,” New York Times, December 29, 1963, 61; William T. Cartwright, interview by Joshua Glick, August 5, 2010, Los Angeles.
59. Theodore H. White, “One Wished for a Cry, a Sob . . . Any Human Sound,” Life, November 29, 1963, 32E; Theodore H. White (written in consultation with Jacqueline Kennedy), “For President Kennedy: An Epilogue,” Life, December 6, 1963, 158–59.
60. Cecil Smith, “Kennedy Political Saga Will Unfold,” Los Angeles Times, December 23, 1963, B10.
61. John Tebbel, “The Making of a President: Politics and Mass Communication in America,” in TV As Art: Some Essays in Criticism, ed. Patrick D. Hazard (Champaign, IL: National Council of Teachers of English, 1966), 16–17. See also David L. Wolper and David Fisher, Producer: A Memoir, 72–77; Jack Gould, “TV: The Campaign of ’60: ABC Shows an Absorbing Adaptation of White’s ‘Making of the President,’” New York Times, December 30, 1963, 41.
62. “Assassination Film Premieres Oct. 6,” Philadelphia Tribune, September 22, 1964, 6.
63. Marlyn E. Aycock, “Film on Assassination of Kennedy Is Dramatic,” Chicago Tribune, October 8, 1964, D11.
64. “Kennedy Assassination Documentary: Strictly Dignified Promo Strategy,” Variety, October 7, 1964, 18.
65. Myrow quoted in “‘Four Days’ Big on Research,” Boston Globe, October 4, 1964, A61.
66. Advertisement, Washington Post, October 9, 1964, B11.
67. Mae Tinee, “Film Depicts Final Hours of Kennedy,” Chicago Tribune, October 15, 1964, D8; Alex Freeman, “Kim Novak Upsets English Village,” Hartford Courant, October 14, 1964, 24.
68. Carey McWilliams, “The Making of the Legend,” Book Week, May 3, 1964, 15.
1. Kent Mackenzie, “A Description and Examination of the Production of The Exiles: A Film of the Actual Lives of a Group of Young American Indians” (master’s thesis, University of Southern California, 1964), 9. This thesis and other primary documents related to Mackenzie’s projects have been organized into The Mackenzie Files, a collection of documents included on the Milestone DVD rerelease of The Exiles, directed by Kent Mackenzie (1961; Harrington Park, NJ: Milestone Film and Video, 2009), DVD.
2. Film Quarterly 15, no. 3 (Spring 1962): cover.
3. Brian Henderson, introduction to Film Quarterly: Forty Years—A Selection, ed. Brian Henderson, Ann Martin, and Lee Amazonas (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999), 1–8; Eric Smoodin, introduction to Hollywood Quarterly: Film Culture in Postwar America, 1945–1957, ed. Eric Smoodin and Ann Martin (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002), xi–xxiii.
4. Thom Andersen, “This Property Is Condemned,” Film Comment 44, no. 4 (2008): 39. Thom Andersen directed and wrote Los Angeles Plays Itself, and it was edited by Yoo Seung-Hyun (2003; Submarine Entertainment, Cinema Guild, 2014), DVD. Cindy Rowell of Milestone saw Andersen’s film and contacted company founders Dennis Doros and Amy Heller about distributing The Exiles. The artist Pamela Peters drew heavily on the film for her own documentary project Legacy of Exiled NDNZ (2014), which shrewdly explores the impact of urban relocation on the contemporary lives of American Indians in Los Angeles.
5. Kent Mackenzie quoted in “Personal Creation in Hollywood: Can It Be Done?,” Film Quarterly 15, no. 3 (1962): 33.
6. According to Variety, Pressey had “the film factory gates thrown open to him” during a six-month stay. “Dartmouth Pushes Thalberg Course to Prime Students for Film Careers,” Variety, August 17, 1938, 4.
7. Thomas Fensch, Films on the Campus (New York: A.S. Barnes and Company, 1970); Dana Polan, Scenes of Instruction: The Beginnings of the US Study of Film (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2007), 175–235.
8. Heather Oriana Petrocelli, “Portland’s ‘Refugee from Occupied Hollywood’: Andries Deinum, His Center for the Moving Image, and Film Education in the United States” (master’s thesis, Portland State University, 2012), 18–41; Hans Schoots, Living Dangerously: A Biography of Joris Ivens (Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2000), 159, 167, 172, 179, 182.
9. Andries Deinum, review of Larry Ceplair and Steven Englund, The Inquisition in Hollywood: Politics in the Film Community: 1930–1960, Film Quarterly 34, no. 2 (1980–81): 60.
10. Andries Deinum, Speaking for Myself: A Humanist Approach to Adult Education for a Technical Age (Brookline, MA: Center for the Study of Liberal Education for Adults, 1966), 20. This text was previously published as “The Teaching and Use of Film as Film,” and originally as “Memorandum to the Development and Evaluation Committee,” G.E.D., November 20, 1962.
11. Kent Mackenzie, “A Description and Examination of the Production of The Exiles,” 10–14.
12. Andries Deinum quoted in Martin Hall, “Decline of a University,” American Socialist 3, no. 1 (1956): 22.
13. Jim Karayn, “Cinema Instructor ‘Uncooperative’ with House Committee,” Daily Trojan, September 22, 1955, 1; “Mild Red Hearings,” Variety, July 6, 1955, 2.
14. Martin Hall, “Decline of a University,” 22.
15. Filmmaker George Stoney tried to arrange for Deinum to teach at City College of New York, but came up against overwhelming administrative resistance. Lester Beck helped arrange for Mackenzie to teach in the more politically tolerant Pacific Northwest. Erik Daarstad, Through the Lens of History: The Life Journey of a Cinematographer (Hope, ID: Plaudit, 2015), 52–53; Andries Deinum, Speaking for Myself, 1–7, 19–21, 62–75, 86–94; Heather Oriana Petrocelli, “Portland’s ‘Refugee from Occupied Hollywood,’” 18–41.
16. Students at USC at this time frequently shot on 16mm Bell and Howell or Mitchell cameras. A Light for John (1957) was a noteworthy film made by Mackenzie’s peers that also shows Deinum’s influence. Warren Brown and Erik Daarstad’s documentary focused on a mentally disabled US Air Force veteran living three blocks north of USC with his elderly mother. The film follows John as he sells newspapers near the corner of University Avenue and Jefferson Boulevard, and the parallel experiences of his mother, who sews, shops, and takes care of the family finances.
17. Eric Avila, Popular Culture in the Age of White Flight: Fear and Fantasy in Suburban Los Angeles (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004), 77. See also Jim Dawson, Los Angeles’s Bunker Hill: Pulp Fiction’s Mean Streets and Film Noir’s Ground Zero! (Charleston, SC: History Press, 2012); Edward Dimendberg, Film Noir and the Spaces of Modernity (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2004), 151–65; Mike Davis, Dead Cities, and Other Tales (New York: New Press, 2002), 127–41.
18. See for example Robert E. Alexander and Drayton S. Bryant, Rebuilding a City: A Study of Redevelopment Problems in Los Angeles (Los Angeles: Haynes Foundation, 1951), 44–45.
19. Wilkinson used the film to rally religious congregations, minority groups, organized labor, and government officials around public housing. And Ten Thousand More production files, USC School of Cinematic Arts, Hugh M. Hefner Moving Image Archive. See also Robert Sherrill, First Amendment Felon: The Story of Frank Wilkinson, His 132,000-Page FBI File, and His Epic Fight for Civil Rights and Liberties (New York: Nation, 2005), 69–76; “Housing Authority Will Address YMCA Forum,” Los Angeles Sentinel, December 7, 1950, A3; Don Wheeldin and Jack Young, “Minorities Attacked as Council Reaches Housing Plan Showdown,” Daily People’s World, December 27, 1951, 3.
20. Don Parson, Making a Better World: Public Housing, the Red Scare and the Direction of Modern Los Angeles (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2005), 137–62.
21. “‘Campus Produced’ Awards,” Variety, March 13, 1957, 12; Frances Stevenson, “Two SC Films Win Top National Awards,” Daily Trojan, March 5, 1957, 1; Marilee Milroy, “Two SC Movies Win ‘Look’ Award,” Daily Trojan, March 8, 1957, 1, 6; Edwin Schallert, “Producers Guild Honors Student Film Creators,” Los Angeles Times, March 5, 1957, 21; letter from Robert O. Hall to Margaret Herrick, January 2, 1957, 1, Bunker Hill–1956 production files, USC School of Cinematic Arts, Hugh M. Hefner Moving Image Archive; “Bunker Hill–1956 Press Advertisement,” part of the digital press kit for the documentary in the Mackenzie Files.
22. “Parthenon Pictures—Hollywood,” Business Screen Magazine: Production Review 18, no. 1 (1957): 32–33; Business Screen Magazine: Production Review 19, no. 1 (1958): 153–54. See also Rick Prelinger, The Field Guide to Sponsored Films (San Francisco: National Film Preservation Foundation, 2006), vi–xi; Leo C. Beebe, “Industry,” in Sixty Years of 16mm Film (Des Plaines, IL: Film Council of America, 1954), 88–98; Devin Orgeron, Marsha Orgeron, and Dan Streible, “A History of Learning with the Lights Off,” in Learning with the Lights Off: Educational Film in the United States, ed. Devin Orgeron, Marsha Orgeron, and Dan Streible (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012), 15–66.
23. Dorothy Van de Mark, “The Raid on the Reservations,” Harper’s Magazine, March 1956, 48–53.
24. Sherburne F. Cook, The Population of the California Indians, 1769–1970 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1976), 56–57.
25. Ned Blackhawk, “I Can Carry on from Here: The Relocation of American Indians to Los Angeles,” Wicazo Sa Review 11, no. 2 (1995): 18.
26. By 1970 there were close to twenty-five thousand American Indians living in Los Angeles. Thomas Clarkin, Federal Indian Policy in the Kennedy and Johnson Administrations, 1961–1969 (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2001), 44–80; Nicolas G. Rosenthal, Reimagining Indian Country: Native American Migration and Identity in Twentieth-Century Los Angeles (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2012), 49–101; Joan Weibel-Orlando, Indian Country, L.A.: Maintaining Ethnic Community in Complex Society (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1999), 12–15; Sherburne F. Cook, The Population of the California Indians, 1769–1970 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1976), 56–57.
27. Kent Mackenzie, “The Exiles Funding Proposal,” October 15, 1956, 6, Mackenzie Files.
28. Ibid., 1–11; Kent Mackenzie, “A Description and Examination of the Production of The Exiles,” 1–33, 137–40.
29. For more on the equipment see The Exiles press book, 1–17; and Kent Mackenzie, “A Description and Examination of the Production of The Exiles,” 57–109, both in the Mackenzie Files.
30. Paul Rotha, Documentary Film: The Use of the Film Medium to Interpret Creatively and in Social Terms the Life of the People as It Exists in Reality (New York: Hastings House, 1968), 150–86.
31. Kent Mackenzie, “A Description and Examination of the Production of The Exiles,” 35.
32. Ibid., 15–19, 128–29, 34–81; The Exiles press kit, 9–11, Mackenzie Files; John Morrill, phone interviews by Joshua Glick, January 12, 2012, and May 7, 2014; Erik Daarstad, phone interview by Joshua Glick, May 5, 2014; Burt Prelutsky, “The Film Club Boom,” Los Angeles Magazine, September 1961, 40–41.
33. Early accounts of The Exiles as well as later scholarly articles list the tribal affiliations of each of the main characters. In these, Tommy is sometimes listed as “Mexican” and sometimes as “Mexican and Indian.”
34. Kevin Lynch, The Image of the City (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1960), 1–13, 32–43.
35. David James, The Most Typical Avant-Garde: History and Geography of Minor Cinemas in Los Angeles (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005), 294–96; Norman Klein, The History of Forgetting: Los Angeles and the Erasure of Memory (London: Verso, 1997), 248; Catherine Russell, “The Restoration of The Exiles, the Untimeliness of Archival Cinema,” Screening the Past, 2012, accessed May 1, 2016, http://www.screeningthepast.com/2012/08/the-restoration-of-the-exiles-the-untimeliness-of-archival-cinema/. For more on urban planning and displacement in the 1950s and 1960s see Don Parson, Making a Better World, 137–62.
36. Richard Slotkin, Gunfighter Nation: The Myth of the Frontier in Twentieth-Century America (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1998), 472–73, 441–533. This period also saw some more sympathetic films that spoke to civil rights and antiwar debates. However, this latter subset, as Slotkin notes, were “outweighed in number, popularity, and scale by movies that emphasized Indian savagery and the inevitability of wars of extermination” (472). See also Jacquelyn Kilpatrick, Celluloid Indians: Native Americans and Film (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1999), 1–70; Edward Buscombe, “Injuns!” Native Americans in the Movies (Cornwall, England: Reaktion, 2006), 23–99.
37. John F. Kennedy, introduction to William Brandon, The American Heritage Book of Indians, ed. Alvin M. Josephy Jr. (New York: American Heritage, 1961), 7–8.
38. William Brandon in ibid., 413.
39. Kent Mackenzie, “A Description and Examination of the Production of The Exiles,” 105–6.
40. Don Parson, Making a Better World, 163–86; “TV’s Major Role in Dodgers Ballot,” Variety, June 11, 1958, 38.
41. Mosk, “The Exiles,” Variety, August 30, 1961, 6; “Venice, Vidi, Vice for Newcomers,” Variety, August 30, 1961, 7. See also “15th Art Festival Opens in Edinburgh,” Baltimore Sun, August 21, 1961, 13; Penelope Gilliatt, “Resnais on the Lido,” Observer, September 3, 1961, 22; Robert F. Hawkins, “Postscripts from the Venice Film Festival,” New York Times, September 10, 1961, X9; Gene Moskowitz, “Avant Garde Indies Defend US Honor in Venice Rundown of Int’l Pic Talents,” Variety, September 13, 1961, 22.
42. Kent Mackenzie and Erik Daarstad, press kit, 3–17, Mackenzie Files.
43. The William J. Speed quote appears in ibid., 3; Benjamin Jackson, “The Exiles,” Film Quarterly 15, no. 3 (1962): 60–62.
44. Kent Mackenzie, “A Description and Examination of the Production of The Exiles,” 156–61.
45. Malvin Wald, “Profile of a Filmmaker,” Journal of the University Film Producers Association 16, no. 2 (1964): 21–22, 26; Bob Thomas, “Newcomer Makes Haunting Picture,” Daily Review, July 30, 1962, 20. See also Thomas McDonald, “A Cinema Saga of the ‘Vanishing American,’” New York Times, March 12, 1961, X7; Erwin Bach, “U. of C. Midwest Film Festival Begins,” Chicago Tribune, April 25, 1963, N12; Matt Weinstock, “Scene Is Always Changing for America’s Lost Indians,” Washington Post, June 24, 1962, G3. A 16mm copy of The Exiles did begin to circulate in a limited capacity to film societies and classrooms toward mid-decade, although there is little mention of this in news periodicals, magazines, or the industry trade press.
46. Jonas Mekas, “Cinema of the New Generation,” Film Culture 21 (1960): 8.
47. Kent Mackenzie quoted in Lois Dickert, “How to Finance a Movie,” Los Angeles Magazine, June 1962, 60.
48. Ross Lipman, “Kent Mackenzie’s The Exiles: Reinventing the Real of Cinema,” in Alternative Projections: Experimental Film in Los Angeles, 1945–1980, ed. David James and Adam Hyman (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2015), 163–74.
49. Advertisement, Variety, April 18, 1962, 41.
50. Donald Kirkley, “Look and Listen,” Baltimore Sun, February 12, 1965, 22; Percy Shain, “The Way Out Men Really ‘Way Out,’” Boston Globe, February 15, 1965, 21; Rick Du Brow, “Documentary Captures Excitement of Research,” Oxnard Press-Courier, February 15, 1965, 16.
51. Jack Gould, “‘Teen-Age Revolution’ Shown on ABC,” New York Times, October 31, 1965, 78; Les, “Teenage Revolution,” Variety, November 3, 1965, 33.
52. USIA mission statement quoted in Paul P. Kennedy, “Eisenhower Gives Information Plan to Reassure World on U.S. Aims,” New York Times, October 29, 1953, 1.
53. Edward R. Murrow quoted in “Murrow Hits House Cut in USIA Funds,” Washington Post, June 20, 1963, A8. See also Richard Dyer MacCann, The People’s Films: A Political History of U.S. Government Motion Pictures (New York: Hastings House, 1973), 173–200; Wilson P. Dizard Jr., Inventing Public Diplomacy: The Story of the U.S. Information Agency (London: Lynne Rienner, 2004), 63–101; Caryl Rivers, “America’s New Picture Abroad,” Baltimore Sun, March 8, 1964, D3.
54. Jean White, “Luster Rubbed Off on USIA,” Washington Post, March 15, 1964, E1.
55. “Progress Committee Report for 1962,” Journal of the Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers 72 (May 1963): 373. Some films produced for commercial purposes were then used by the USIA abroad. For coverage of USIA films in the press, see for example Bosley Crowther, “Films for Democracy,” New York Times, October 27, 1963, 113; Richard F. Shepard, “Beaming an Image of America to the World,” New York Times, January 1, 1961, X9; “Murrow Will Seek to Bolster USIA ‘On Basis of Truth,’” New York Times, January 30, 1961, 1; Francis M. Rackemann Jr., “Getting America’s Story Across,” Baltimore Sun, August 13, 1961, FE1; Dante B. Fascell, Chairman of the Subcommittee, Winning the Cold War: The U.S. Ideological Offensive: Hearings before the Subcommittee on International Organizations and Movements of the Committee on Foreign Affairs House of Representatives, Eighty-Eighth Congress, First Session, part 1 (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1963/64), 16–23; Arthur Schlesinger Jr., “Washington: Fantasy and Reality,” Show, April 1964, 41.
56. Richard Dyer MacCann, The People’s Films, 152–72; George Stevens Jr. quoted in Caryl Rivers, “America’s New Picture Abroad,” Baltimore Sun, March 8, 1964, D3.
57. George Stevens Jr. quoted in Murry Schumach, “USIA to Assist Young Directors,” New York Times, July 13, 1962, 13.
58. Gary Goldsmith, interview by Joshua Glick, June 3, 2014, Los Angeles, and email correspondence, June 21, 2016; Terry Sanders, phone interview by Joshua Glick, January 6, 2017.
59. “Govt. Inagurates [sic] Film Talent Hunt,” Los Angeles Sentinel, July 23, 1964, B5; Lyndon B. Johnson, address at the centennial commencement of Swarthmore College, June 8, 1964, accessed December 6, 2014, http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=26300; “Five Filmmakers Win Government Agency Contract,” Boston Globe, September 22, 1964, 15; Nicholas J. Cull, “Auteurs of Ideology: USIA Documentary Film Propaganda in the Kennedy Era as Seen in Bruce Herschensohn’s The Five Cities of June (1963) and James Blue’s The March (1964),” Film History 10, no. 3 (1998): 295–310; Nicholas J. Cull, The Cold War and the United States Information Agency: American Propaganda and Public Diplomacy, 1945–1989 (Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 2008), 189–254.
60. Gordon Hitchens, “An Interview with George Stevens Jr.,” Film Comment 1, no. 3 (1962): 5. The 35mm Arriflex camera was commonly used among USIA filmmakers in the early 1960s. As the decade progressed, the 16mm French Éclair NPR became more favored.
61. Jennifer Horne, “Experiments in Propaganda: Reintroducing James Blue’s Colombia Trilogy,” Moving Image 9, no. 1 (2009): 196.
62. “Visual Arts Lecture Series to Include 4 USIA Films,” New York Times, February 23, 1965, 40; Jillynn Molina, daughter of Arnold Molina, phone interview by Joshua Glick, June 28, 2016.
63. The Exiles got commercial distribution in 1966. “The Exiles to Be Released,” New York Times, January 12, 1966, 28; Kevin Thomas, “Exiles Portrays Indian Life in L.A.,” Los Angeles Times, June 15, 1967, E12. Mackenzie worked on a number of media projects with varying success before his early death in 1980. His Ford Foundation–backed film about a flamenco guitarist never got off the ground, nor was his 430-page literary manuscript about his time with a wandering California youth ever published or adapted into a film. Mackenzie worked alongside some of his old Wolper Productions colleagues on Saul Bass’s Why Man Creates (1968). He also made a feature-length, theatrically released observational documentary for Columbia titled Saturday Morning (1971) about a group retreat of California teenagers, who over the course of six days talk about their families, friendships, and outlook on the world.
1. I use “uprising” to imply that the unrest in Watts constituted a form of social protest against abusive commercial and political power. This line of interpretation follows how journalists, intellectuals, and scholars use “Uprising” or “Rebellion” to write about the unrest in contrast to the mainstream media’s preponderant use of the word “riot” to imply an irrational and violent disturbance. For an in-depth account of the causes, events, and impact surrounding the uprising see Gerald Horne, Fire This Time: The Watts Uprising and the 1960s (New York: Da Capo, 1995), 45–167.
2. The Central City Committee had created numerous versions of the Centropolis Plan during the early 1960s. The plan aimed to create a constellation of administrative buildings, tourist sites, high-end apartments, and cultural attractions in the downtown area. Walter J. Braunschweiger, Chair of the Central City Committee, Centropolis (Los Angeles: Los Angeles Central City Committee, 1964). Earlier drafts were created in 1960, 1962, and 1963. Mike Davis, Dead Cities, and Other Tales (New York: New Press, 2002), 147–54. The Watts Uprising derailed such plans. The uprising resulted in ten million dollars in property damage, more than one thousand injuries, and thirty-four deaths (twenty-eight of whom were black individuals). The uprising covered an area of forty-six square miles, with much of the conflict concentrated in the Watts-Willowbrook neighborhood. Gerald Horne, Fire This Time, 3–6.
3. Lyndon B. Johnson, My Hope for America (New York: Random House, 1964), 51. Johnson first mentioned the Great Society in a May 7, 1964, speech at Ohio University, followed by a more in-depth elaboration in a May 22, 1964, commencement address at the University of Michigan.
4. John A. McCone, Chair, Violence in the City—An End or a Beginning? A Report by the Governor’s Commission on the Los Angeles Riots (Los Angeles: Commission on the Los Angeles Riots, 1965).
5. Daniel Patrick Moynihan, The Negro Family: The Case for National Action (repr.; Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1981).
6. Stuart Schulberg, “Of All People,” Hollywood Quarterly 4, no. 2 (Winter 1949): 206–8; Stuart Schulberg, “Making Marshall Plan Movies,” Film News (September 1951): 10, 19; Tom Mascaro, Into the Fray: How NBC’s Washington Documentary Unit Reinvented the News (Washington, DC: Potomac, 2012), xvii, 19–61.
7. Daniel Widener, Black Arts West: Culture and Struggle in Postwar Los Angeles (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2010), 90–114.
8. Budd Schulberg, “One Year Later: Still the Angry Voices (and Tears) of Watts,” New York Times, August 14, 1966, 105; Hal Humphrey, “Budd Finds Talent Jackpot in Watts,” Los Angeles Times, August 16, 1966, C14; Stuart Schulberg, “Watts Happening in TV?,” Variety, January 4, 1967, 83, 104.
9. George Gent, “NBC to Broadcast Writings of Watts Negroes,” New York Times, June 28, 1966, 91.
10. Percy Shain, “Watts Documentary Hits Hard,” Boston Globe, August 17, 1966, 14.
11. Poppy Cannon White, “The Poet Voices of Watts,” New York Amsterdam News, August 27, 1966, 15.
12. Val Adams, “Watts Writers Move Ahead,” New York Times, October 9, 1966, X21; Walter Burrell, “It Happened in Hollywood,” Chicago Daily Defender, March 4, 1968, 10.
13. James Thomas Jackson, “Harry Dolan—A Soul on Fire,” Los Angeles Times, September 27, 1981, M41.
14. “Losers Weepers,” Variety, February 22, 1967, 42; “Experiment in Television Premieres over NBC,” Los Angeles Times, February 19, 1967, N39D; Rick Du Brow, “‘Losers Weepers’ Author Was Janitor a Year Ago,” New Journal and Guide, March 4, 1967, A4.
15. Stuart Schulberg, “Watts Happening in TV?,” 83, 104.
16. Hal Humphrey, “Watts Program Set for March,” Los Angeles Times, February 1, 1968, C10.
17. Stuart Schulberg, “Watts ’68: So Young, So Angry,” New York Times, March 17, 1968, D23.
18. Ibid.
19. Budd Schulberg, introduction to From the Ashes (New York: New American Library, 1967), 14.
20. Joe Saltzman, email messages to Joshua Glick, June 19, 2011, March 5, 2014, and May 29, 2016; Joe Saltzman, interview by Joshua Glick, May 28, 2014, Los Angeles. See also “Valleyites Land ‘Trojan’ Posts,” Pasadena Independent, May 13, 1959, 12; Joe Saltzman, “Guest Columnist,” TV Week, Pasadena Independent Star-News, July 14, 1968, 6, Joe Saltzman Papers, private collection of Joe Saltzman, Palos Verdes Estates, California (hereafter JSP); Joe Saltzman, “An Introduction to Black on Black,” presented by IJPC and Visions & Voices, USC Annenberg School for Communication and Journalism, October 27, 2008, 3–4.
21. Otto Kerner, Chair, and David Ginsburg, Executive Director, Report of the National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders (New York: Bantam, 1968), 1–29.
22. Ibid., 383–85.
23. Nicholas Johnson, “‘White’ Media Must Meet Challenge of Negro Antipathy and Disbelief,” Variety, January 3, 1968, 1, 50. See also Joseph A. Loftus, “News Media Found Lacking in Understanding of the Negro,” New York Times, March 3, 1968, 71; Whitney Young, “To Be Equal,” Chicago Defender, May 4, 1968, 11.
24. Allison Perlman, Public Interests: Media Advocacy and Struggles over U.S. Television (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2016), 46–51. See also “FCC to Deny Licenses in Cases of Bias,” Los Angeles Times, July 6, 1968, A12; Leonard Zeidenberg, “The Struggle over Broadcast Access,” Broadcasting, September 20, 1971, 32–43; Leonard Zeidenberg, “The Struggle over Broadcast Access II,” Broadcasting, September 27, 1971, 24–29.
25. “Black on Black Now Rescheduled,” Los Angeles Sentinel, June 20, 1968, C11; Joe Saltzman, “Guest Columnist,” 6; Helm, “Black on Black,” Variety, July 24, 1968, 38; Joe Saltzman, “Shooting Notes and Schedule,” n.d., JSP; Dan Gingold, phone interview by Joshua Glick, September 30, 2014.
26. Joe Saltzman, interview by Joshua Glick, May 28, 2014, Los Angeles. My account draws on information about the importance of sound in Joe Saltzman, email message to Joshua Glick, June 19, 2011; Joe Saltzman, “An Introduction to Black on Black,” 5.
27. Sherman Brodey, “In Local Television the Eye Begins to Open on the Ghetto,” Television, August 1968, 40; Helm, “Black on Black,” 38; “‘Black on Black’ Special,” Los Angeles Sentinel, June 9, 1968, B8. See also Robert A. Malone, “Local TV: Public Service with a Capital P,” Broadcasting, June 22, 1970, 50, 58.
28. “KNXT to Donate ‘Black on Black’ to L.A. Library,” Los Angeles Sentinel, March 6, 1969, F4; compiled letters, including those sent from students, 1968–73, JSP; Joe Saltzman, “An Introduction to Black on Black,” 6; Joe Saltzman, email messages to Joshua Glick, March 5, 2014, and October 2, 2016.
29. CBS memorandum written by Joe Saltzman to Dan Gingold, August 5, 1968, 1–5, JSP.
30. Jonas Mekas, “On Radical Newsreel,” in Movie Journal: The Rise of the New American Cinema, 1959–1971 (New York: Macmillan, 1972), 305.
31. Michael Renov, The Subject of Documentary (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2004), 6.
32. Marilyn Buck and Karen Ross, “Newsreel,” Film Quarterly 22, no. 2 (Winter 1968–69): 44.
33. Robert Kramer, “Newsreel,” Film Quarterly 22, no. 2 (Winter 1968–69): 47–48.
34. For instance Paul Shinoff interviewed by Paul Eberle, “Our Cameras Are Weapons . . . Our Films Are Tools,” Los Angeles Free Press, November 22, 1968, 14–15, 20, 27, courtesy of Steve Finger, Los Angeles Free Press Archive, Los Angeles.
35. Gene Youngblood, “Guerrilla Newsreels,” Los Angeles Free Press, March 22, 1968, 31.
36. Laura Pulido, Black, Brown, Yellow, and Left: Radical Activism in Los Angeles (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2006), 101.
37. Advertisement, Los Angeles Free Press, May 23, 1969, 9; Bill Nichols, “Newsreel: Film and Revolution” (master’s thesis, University of California, Los Angeles, 1972), 239–57; advertisement, Los Angeles Free Press, May 30, 1969, 11; Dennis Hicks, phone interview by Joshua Glick, May 20, 2016.
38. David James, The Most Typical Avant-Garde: History and Geography of Minor Cinemas in Los Angeles (Los Angeles: University of California Press, 2005), 126–33; Dennis Hicks, phone interview by Joshua Glick, May 20, 2016.
39. Cecil Smith, “L.A. Wasteland Gets Shot in Arm,” Los Angeles Times, September 30, 1964, 14. See also Dick Turpin, “Educational TV to Start Here in Fall,” Los Angeles Times, December 26, 1963, A1; Cecil Smith, “The ABCs of ETV,” Los Angeles Times, August 30, 1964, B1. KCET does not have its own independent television archive. To view KCET documentaries and news programs from the 1960s and 1970s, contact the UCLA Film & Television Archive.
40. Sammy Edward Ganimian, “A Descriptive Study of the Development of KCET-TV” (master’s thesis, University of California, Los Angeles, 1966), 42–82, 108–14.
41. James L. Baughman, Television’s Guardians: The FCC and the Politics of Programming: 1958–1967 (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1985), 153–65. For an excellent overview of the origins of public television, see Patricia Aufderheide, “The What and How of Public Broadcasting,” in The Daily Planet: A Critic on the Capitalist Culture Beat (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2000), 85–98; Patricia Aufderheide, “Public Television and the Public Sphere,” Critical Studies in Mass Communication 8, no. 2 (1991): 168–83.
42. Lyndon B. Johnson, “President Johnson’s Remarks on Signing the Public Broadcasting Act, 1967,” November 7, 1967, accessed May 3, 2015, https://current.org/2007/11/president-johnsons-remarks-on-signing-the-public-broadcasting-act-1967/.
43. Laurie Ouellette, Viewers Like You? How Public TV Failed the People (New York: Columbia University Press, 2002), 23–139.
44. Carnegie Commission on Educational Television, Public Television: A Program for Action: The Report and Recommendations of the Carnegie Commission on Educational Television (New York: Harper and Row, 1967), 92.
45. Hal Humphrey, “KCET: They Want to Get Involved,” Los Angeles Times, July 17, 1967, C24; Walt Dutton, “More Specials for Channel 28,” Los Angeles Times, September 29, 1967, D18; Hal Humphrey, “Spirits, Finances Higher at KCET,” Los Angeles Times, January 16, 1968, D12; Cecil Smith, “Los Angeles Coming of Age in Public Affairs TV,” Los Angeles Times, July 14, 1969, D1; Gerald Astor, Minorities and the Media (New York: Ford Foundation, 1974), 24–28; “Canción de la Raza: Song of the People,” KCET Program Guide 5, no. 10 (October 1968): 2–3.
46. Jesús Salvador Treviño, Eyewitness: A Filmmaker’s Memoir of the Chicano Movement (Houston: Arte Público, 2001), 1–67; Jesús Salvador Treviño, phone interview by Joshua Glick, April 24, 2015; Laura Pulido, Black, Brown, Yellow, and Left, 113–22.
47. “Urie Donation and Instruction,” Back Stage, April 4, 1969, 6; Jack Jones, “Negro Cameraman Starts Ball Rolling, Los Angeles Times, January 27, 1969, B1.
48. Greg McAndrews, ed., KCET Program Guide 6, no. 9 (September 1969): 1–10; Ed Moreno quoted in Wayne Warga, “KCET Series Will Attack Cliché Image of U.S. Latin[o]s,” Los Angeles Times, August 26, 1969, D1, D18. See also Dan Knapp, “Allied Artists Studio Purchased by KCET,” Los Angeles Times, July 27, 1970, D14.
49. Dan Knapp, “KCET’s Show for Chicano Viewers,” Los Angeles Times, April 3, 1970, F18; Jesús Salvador Treviño, Eyewitness, 123–34.
50. Jesús Salvador Treviño, phone interview by Joshua Glick, April 24, 2015.
51. Edward Moreno, “TV Program Ahora Facing Termination,” Los Angeles Times, April 11, 1970, A4.
52. Chon Noriega, Shot in America: Television, the State, and the Rise of Chicano Cinema (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2000), 100–164.
53. Diana Loercher, “The Tube: ‘Salazar,’ ‘Company,’ and New Lloyd Bridges Series,” Christian Science Monitor, October 30, 1970, 4.
54. Jesús Salvador Treviño quoted in Jack Jones, “Disputed Mural May Reappear,” Los Angeles Times, May 23, 1971, B1.
55. Rubén Salazar, “Who Is a Chicano? And What Is It the Chicanos Want?,” Los Angeles Times, February 6, 1970, B7.
56. Cecil Smith, “‘Yo Soy’ Captures the Chicano Soul,” Los Angeles Times, August 17, 1972, F20.
57. Jesús Salvador Treviño quoted in Gregg Kilday, “The Chicano: His Past and Present,” Los Angeles Times, August 10, 1972, 115. See also Carol Kleiman, “On the Air: WTTW Has Men of Special Talents,” Chicago Tribune, August 8, 1972, 23; John Carmody, “Politicizing the Chicanos,” Washington Post, August 12, 1972, E7.
58. “U. of Ill. Coed to Tour USSR,” Chicago Defender, June 19, 1965, 31; “New TV Series Will Focus on Black Pioneers of West,” Philadelphia Tribune, August 26, 1969, 13; “Black Cowboys Is [sic] Subject on WTTW,” Chicago Daily Defender, October 17, 1970, 43. In 1985 Booker changed her name to Thandeka, a name given to her by Bishop Desmond Tutu in 1984. The name means “lovable” or “beloved” in Xhosa and Zulu. It is also part of an expression that means “one who is loved by God.”
59. Sue Booker, interview by Joshua Glick, March 17, 2015, Boston.
60. Adair was tragically murdered before the film was finished. Cecil Smith, “Voice from Grave on Human Affairs Show,” Los Angeles Times, September 26, 1970, A2.
61. Sue Booker, interview by Joshua Glick, March 17, 2015, Boston; Jesús Salvador Treviño, Eyewitness, 181–90.
62. “KCET Series Begins,” Los Angeles Sentinel, March 2, 1972, B2A; “Black Prison Experience Depicted on ‘Doin It,’” Los Angeles Sentinel, July 27, 1972, B2A.
63. Sue Booker quoted in Agnes Sankey McClain, “Essence Woman: Sue Booker,” Essence, November 1973, 11.
64. Maury Green, “Storefront: News Simply Walks In,” Los Angeles Times, November 24, 1972, D41.
65. “Tries New Concept,” New York Amsterdam News, January 27, 1973, C4.
66. For coverage of the series see “‘Storefront’ News Room Center Opens,” Los Angeles Sentinel, October 26, 1972, B7; “‘Yo People’ on Doin’ It,” Los Angeles Sentinel, November 23, 1972, B4A; “Breakfast Choir on KCET Storefront,” Los Angeles Sentinel, January 11, 1973, B4A; “Black Movie Controversy,” Los Angeles Sentinel, January 25, 1973, B4A.
67. Kevin Thomas, “Life Comes First, Films Second to Agnes Varda,” Los Angeles Times, September 7, 1969, Q63; Lynne Littman, interview by Joshua Glick, February 13, 2013, New York.
68. Lynne Littman, interview by Joshua Glick, February 13, 2013, New York.
69. The Woman’s Building later moved to a downtown location, 1727 North Spring Street, when the Chouinard building was sold in 1975.
70. Nancy Newhall, “UCLA,” in Fiat Lux: The University of California, ed. Ansel Adams and Nancy Newhall (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1967), 30.
71. Robert Nakamura interviewed by Adam Hyman and Pauline Stakelon, May 23, 2010, and August 22, 2010, in Alternative Projections: Experimental Film in Los Angeles, 1945–1980, pp. 1–29, accessed January 10, 2014, http://alternativeprojections.com/oral-histories/robert-nakamura/.
72. Robert Nakamura, interview by Joshua Glick, May 31, 2014, Los Angeles.
73. Robert Nakamura, interview in Alternative Projections, 30–36.
74. John Upshaw, “Exhibit Depicts ‘Camps’: ASA Display Held,” L.A. Collegian, November 6, 1970, 3, “Press Clippings,” Visual Communications Archive, Little Tokyo, Los Angeles (hereafter VCA).
75. Colin Young, “An American Film Institute: A Proposal,” Film Quarterly 14, no. 4 (1961): 37–50; John Dempsey, “Wanted: Young Talent For Low-Budget Movies,” Baltimore Sun, May 5, 1968, F3; “American Film Institute as Culture: Stevens Cites First Year Expansion,” Variety, July 30, 1969, 39; George Stevens Jr., Michael Webb, and Ernest Callenbach, “About the American Film Institute,” Film Quarterly 25, no. 2 (1971–72): 36–44; George Stevens Jr., introduction to Conversations with the Great Moviemakers of Hollywood’s Golden Age (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2006), ix–xx; “Seedbed for Ghetto Film,” Variety, October 9, 1968, 5, 24.
76. Robert Nakamura, interview by Joshua Glick, May 31, 2014, Los Angeles. Nakamura’s friend and colleague Kaz Higa came up with the name “Visual Communications.” Higa, Ron Hirano, and Nakamura’s brother Norman were affiliate members during the beginning of the collective. Karen L. Ishizuka, Serve the People: Making Asian America in the Long 1960s (London: Verso, 2016), 159–61.
77. “Visual Communications,” Rafu Shimpo, December 20, 1972, 36, “Press Clippings,” VCA.
78. Stephen Gong, “A History in Progress: Asian American Media Arts Centers, 1970–1990,” in Moving the Image: Independent Asian Pacific American Media Arts, ed. Russell Leong (Los Angeles: University of California and Visual Communications, 1991), 3.
79. Jesús Salvador Treviño, phone interview by Joshua Glick, April 24, 2015.
80. Kevin Thomas, “Student Films at Royce Hall,” Los Angeles Times, June 3, 1971, G16.
81. David Ushio, “For the Future: Visual Communications,” Pacific Citizen, August 6, 1971, 2, “Press Clippings,” VCA; “Manzanar Due on TV News,” Rafu Shimpo, June 5, 1971, n.p., “Press Clippings,” VCA. See also letter from Ed Moreno to Bob Nakamura, February 6, 1973, 1, “Issei and Proposal,” VCA; Robert Nakamura, interview in Alternative Projections, 54.
82. Eddie Wong, Skype interview by Joshua Glick, June 27, 2014.
83. Asian American People and Places: Ethnic Understanding Series, a Resource Guide (Los Angeles: Visual Communications/Asian American Studies Central, 1971), 1–2, Special Collections, VCA.
84. Letters are held in “Ethnic Heritage: Correspondence and Guidelines,” VCA.
85. For more on the educational media and archival initiatives at VC, see “Archival Project Preserves Our History,” Rafu Shimpo, December 20, 1972, n.p.; “EUS Series,” Rafu Shimpo, December 1972, 8–9, “Press Clippings,” VCA; “Ethnic Heritage Original Proposal,” VCA.
86. Clyde Taylor, “The L.A. Rebellion: New Spirit in American Film,” Black Film Review 2, no. 2 (Spring 1986): 11.
87. Allyson Nadia Field, Jan-Christopher Horak, and Jacqueline Najuma Stewart, “Emancipating the Image: The L.A. Rebellion of Black Filmmakers,” in L.A. Rebellion: Creating a New Black Cinema (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2015), 4.
88. Ibid., 19–29.
89. Charles Burnett, interview by Monona Wali, “Life Drawings: Charles Burnett’s Realism,” in Charles Burnett: Interviews, ed. Robert E. Kapsis (Jackson: University of Mississippi Press, 2011), 12–13.
90. Charles Burnett, interview by James Ponsoldt, “This Bitter Earth,” in Charles Burnett: Interviews, 153–58.
91. Ibid., 157.
92. Allyson Nadia Field, “Rebellious Unlearning: UCLA Project One Films (1967–1978),” in L.A. Rebellion, 86.
93. Charles Burnett quoted in Susan Gerhard, “Charles Burnett Celebrates a Milestone,” in Charles Burnett: Interviews, 177.
1. Ossie Davis quoted in Wayne Warga, “The Issues: Ossie Davis vs. Nat Turner,” Los Angeles Times, May 12, 1968, D1.
2. Metromedia’s headquarters was located at 8544 Sunset Boulevard. Read more about the acquisition at Peter Bart, “TV Film Producer to Broaden Field,” New York Times, August 31, 1964, 21; Peter Bart, “Metromedia Buys Wolper Concern,” New York Times, October 23, 1964, 35; Jack Pitman, “Metromedia’s Dave Wolper Buyout Underlines Indies’ Fiscal Status,” Variety, October 28, 1964, 26, 42; “Wolper Is Given Metromedia Post,” New York Times, March 1, 1965, 53; Harold Stern, “Wolper Raps Networks, Outlines Plans,” Hartford Courant, April 11, 1965, 121.
3. Sammy Edward Ganimian, “A Descriptive Study of the Development of KCET-TV” (master’s thesis, University of California, Los Angeles, 1966), 48; Herm Schoenfeld, “Kluge’s Aspirations for a ‘Thinking Man’s Network,’” Variety, October 25, 1961, 25. Under the Metromedia tent existed six television stations and five AM-FM radio properties, including the Los Angeles stations KTTV, Metro TV Sales, Metro Radio Sales, the outdoor advertising firm Foster & Kleiser, the Ice Capades, and the merchandising company SuperSpace. John W. Kluge, The Metromedia Story (New York: Newcomen Society in North America, 1974).
4. Lyndon B. Johnson, with photographs by Ken Heyman, This America (New York: Random House, 1966), 7–8.
5. “‘March of Time’ as Wolper Syndie Entry,” Variety, February 17, 1965, 35.
6. G.K. Hodenfield, “Revolution in Three R’s Sets Teacher Problems,” Los Angeles Times, September 6, 1965, 15.
7. William Friedkin, The Friedkin Connection: A Memoir (New York: HarperCollins, 2013), 76–77; “Chi’s Bill Friedkin Joins David Wolper,” Variety, August 12, 1964, 30; David L. Wolper and David Fisher, Producer: A Memoir (New York: Scribner, 2003), 66–67.
8. Raymond Rohauer, film curator and program director, A Tribute to David L. Wolper (New York: Huntington Hartford Gallery of Modern Art, 1966), 3. See also advertisement, Producers Guild of America Award, Variety, June 21, 1967, 34; “Mayor Lindsay at the Wolper Film Fest,” Back Stage, November 11, 1966, 4.
9. The Cousteau programs were known for their innovative technology. The crew used 35mm and 16mm Arriflex cameras, 16mm Éclairs, three Perfectone synchronized sound recorders, waterproof and pressurized housings for underwater recording, and an array of flood lamps for filming near the surface. Walt Dutton, “Study of Cousteau Engrossing,” Los Angeles Times, April 30, 1966, B3; Clay Gowran, “New Cousteau Role on a Rival Network,” Chicago Tribune, March 3, 1967, 22; Les Brown, “ABC-TV $3.5-Million for Cousteau Voyage Makes Russian Heads Swim,” Variety, February 22, 1967, 32, 44; Louise Sweeney, “‘Undersea World of Jacques Cousteau’ Tonight on ABC-TV,” Christian Science Monitor, January 8, 1968, 6; Brad Matsen, Jacques Cousteau: The Sea King (New York: Pantheon, 2009), 169–92.
10. Jack Gould, “ABC Gives an Evening to 4 Specials in a Row,” New York Times, March 7, 1968, 86.
11. “A Primer of Assassination Theories,” Esquire, December 1966, 205–10, 334–35; Edward Jay Epstein, Inquest: The Warren Commission and the Establishment of Truth (New York: Viking, 1966); Richard H. Popkin, The Second Oswald (New York: Avon, 1966). See also the contemporaneous Mark Lane, Rush to Judgment: A Critique of the Warren Commission’s Inquiry into the Murders of President John F. Kennedy, Officer J.D. Tippit and Lee Harvey Oswald (San Francisco: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1966); Mark Lane and Emile de Antonio, “‘Rush to Judgment,’ ‘John F. Kennedy’: Two Controversial Films,” Film Comment 2, no. 3 (1967): 2–18.
12. “Wolper Recovers (at a Price) Indie Status: Plans Two Theatricals Yearly,” Variety, January 15, 1969, 17; “Wolper Productions Inc. Is No More,” Broadcasting, October 28, 1968, 66; David L. Wolper and David Fisher, Producer: A Memoir, 161–62; John F. Lawrence, “Transamerica Merger with Metromedia Set,” Los Angeles Times, October 11, 1968, E14; “Wolper’s Departure Causes Name Change,” Los Angeles Times, October 23, 1968, G22; advertisement, Variety, January 15, 1969, 33.
13. By 1971 the Wolper Organization would be the umbrella organization under which the studio’s fiction and nonfiction divisions would operate. The company would locate its headquarters at 8489 West Third Street. For more on studio mergers during the 1960s and 1970s, see Paul Monaco, The Sixties (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003), 30–39; David Cook, Lost Illusions: American Cinema in the Shadow of Watergate and Vietnam (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002), 1–23.
14. Wolper bought the screen rights to Robin Moore’s 1965 novel The Green Berets; however, he opted out of the adaptation because of pressure from the Pentagon, who considered the project a security risk. “Defense May Help; ‘Green Berets’ On,” Variety, September 15, 1965, 22; “Pentagon Fears Fictional Angling; Hence, No Vietnam War Features,” Variety, May 10, 1967, 7; “Accuse Defense Dept.,” Variety, November 1, 1967, 22.
15. Vincent Canby, “Screen: World War II from Hollywood,” New York Times, May 23, 1968, 56.
16. Charles Champlin, “‘Devil’s Brigade’ at Chinese,” Los Angeles Times, May 22, 1968, C15; George McKinnon, “Brigade—Blood, Brawls,” Boston Globe, June 17, 1968, 16.
17. Gary Arnold, “Opening: ‘The Bridge at Remagen,’” Washington Post, July 4, 1969, C6; Clifford Terry, “Bridge at Remagen,” Chicago Tribune, June 30, 1969, A9. See also “E. Germans: ‘Remagen’ a CIA Front,” Variety, August 14, 1968, 14; Ray Loynd, “Czech Crisis: A Piece of Action for Film Troupe,” Los Angeles Times, September 1, 1968, C1; Hank Werba, “Despite Reds’ Czechoslovak Invasion, Wolper Finally Winds His ‘Remagen,’” Variety, November 27, 1968, 28; advertisement, “The Bridge at Remagen: The Incredible Log of the Motion Picture That Became an International Incident,” Variety, May 7, 1969, 132–33.
18. Paul C. Johnson, ed., Los Angeles: Portrait of an Extraordinary City (Menlo Park, CA: Lane Magazine and Book Company, 1968), 5.
19. Sam Yorty, speech, University of California, Los Angeles, November 21, 1968, online archives of the UCLA Communications Studies Department, accessed January 19, 2017, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hz5uAblGC6U. The film premiered at the Samuel Goldwyn Studio before playing on local television stations. “Council Ok’s $50,000 for Film on L.A.,” Los Angeles Times, April 26, 1967, A3; “Los Angeles’ Promotional Pic,” Variety, January 29, 1969, 6; TV schedule listing, Oxnard Press Courier, August 16, 1970, 102; Sam Yorty, The Yorty Years: The Story of Sam Yorty’s Leadership as Mayor of Los Angeles since 1961 (Los Angeles: Friends of Mayor Sam Yorty, 1969).
20. Alphonzo Bell Jr. and aide quoted in Ali Sar, “Bow of Yorty Film Brings Record Downpour, Outcry,” Van Nuys Valley News, February 9, 1969, 13.
21. Rowland Evans and Robert Novak, “LBJ Film Blackout,” Washington Post, September 8, 1968, B7.
22. Norman Mailer, The Armies of the Night: History as a Novel/The Novel as History (New York: Signet, 1968), 103–4, 109–10, 135.
23. Percy Shain, “The Journey of RFK—Summary of the ’60s,” Boston Globe, February 18, 1970, 74. See also “Journey of Robert F. Kennedy,” Variety, February 18, 1970, 45; Lawrence Laurent, “Tribute to Kennedy,” Washington Post, February 18, 1970, B5.
24. Wolper’s fiction features during this period met a mixed fate. Critics considered If It’s Tuesday, This Must Be Belgium (1969) a fresh, offbeat comedy. Other films, such as his screen adaptation of John Updike’s Couples, never got off the ground due to budgetary difficulties. For a lineup of prospective films, see “If It’s ’70, It Must Be Wolper,” advertisement, Variety, December 10, 1969, 80.
25. “Wolper Projects UA Slave Revolt Pic,” Variety, October 18, 1967, 2; “‘Nat Turner’ for 20th,” Variety, January 17, 1968, 3.
26. Christopher Sieving, Soul Searching: Black-Themed Cinema from the March on Washington to the Rise of Blaxploitation (Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press, 2011), 88.
27. William Styron, The Confessions of Nat Turner (New York: Random House, 1966), ix.
28. For articles praising the book, see for example Alden Whitman, “William Styron Examines the Negro Upheaval,” New York Times, August 5, 1967, 13; John Phillips, “Styron Unlocked,” Vogue, December 1967, 216–17, 267–71, 278; Eliot Fremont-Smith, “Books of the Times,” New York Times, October 4, 1967, 45; Edmund Fuller, “Power and Eloquence in New Styron Novel,” Wall Street Journal, October 4, 1967, 16; Richard Hurt, “Slavery’s Quiet Resistance,” Boston Globe, October 8, 1967, A43; Alfred Kazin, “Instinct for Tragedy: A Message in Black and White,” Chicago Tribune, October 8, 1967, Q1; Walter J. Hicks, “The Futile Insurrection,” Baltimore Sun, October 15, 1967, D5.
29. Arthur Schlesinger Jr., “The Confessions of Nat Turner,” Vogue, October 1, 1967, 143.
30. Raymond A. Sokolov, “Into the Mind of Nat Turner,” Newsweek, October 16, 1967, 66.
31. James Baldwin quoted in Gene D. Phillips, “Davis Unfair to ‘Nat Turner’?,” New York Times, May 19, 1968, D5.
32. Advertisement, “We Are Proud to Congratulate William Styron,” Variety, May 15, 1968, 25. See also “No Pulitzer Play Prize; ‘Plaza’ Was a Contender; Novel Award to ‘Turner,’” Variety, May 8, 1968, 251.
33. Dick Brooks, national publicity director, “20th-Fox to Release Screen Adaptation of ‘The Confessions of Nat Turner,’” March 31, 1969, Nat Turner Clippings Folder, Billy Rose Theatre Division, New York Public Library.
34. Gertrude Wilson, “Styron’s Folly,” New York Amsterdam News, December 30, 1967, 13. The article is a response to and revision of her earlier piece, “Confessions of a Believer,” New York Amsterdam News, October 21, 1967, 17.
35. Lerone Bennett Jr., “Nat’s Last White Man,” and Ernest Kaiser, “The Failure of William Styron,” in William Styron’s Nat Turner: Ten Black Writers Respond, ed. John Henrik Clarke (Boston: Beacon, 1968), 5, 65.
36. A.S. “Doc” Young, “The Truth Gap,” Los Angeles Sentinel, October 26, 1967, D1–D2. See also Eric Foner, ed., Nat Turner (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1971); Herbert Aptheker, Nat Turner’s Slave Rebellion (New York: Grove, 1966), 39–56.
37. James Baldwin quoted in Joyce Haber, “A Frank Discussion of ‘Nat Turner,’” Los Angeles Times, May 29, 1968, C7. See also Norman Jewison, This Terrible Business Has Been Good to Me: An Autobiography (Toronto: Key Porter, 2004), 153–55.
38. David Wolper quoted in “Negro Group Sees ‘Nat Turner’ NSG for Race; Wolper, Jewison: Bum Rap,” Variety, April 3, 1968, 2.
39. Norman Jewison quoted in Joyce Haber, “A Frank Discussion of ‘Nat Turner,’” C7.
40. Norman Jewison quoted in Bill Lane, “Philadelphian’s Novel to Be Filmed in This City,” Philadelphia Tribune, April 20, 1968, 16.
41. “Protest Mounts against Best-Selling Novel ‘Confessions of Nat Turner,’” Philadelphia Tribune, March 2, 1968, 17; “Furor over Pulitizer [sic] Prize Winner as Movie Continues,” New York Amsterdam News, May 11, 1968, 1.
42. Vantile Whitfield quoted in “Nat Turner Movie Hit: ‘Mammoth Movement’ Begins,” Los Angeles Sentinel, March 21, 1968, D3.
43. Ossie Davis quoted in Wayne Warga, “The Issues: Ossie Davis vs. Nat Turner,” D1. Davis frequently spoke out about the Turner project and was covered in the local press; for instance see Ossie Davis quoted in Dick Kleiner, “Filming of ‘Nat Turner’ Draws Negro Opposition,” Bakersfield Californian, July 4, 1968, 15; Ossie Davis quoted in “Negro Entertainers Air Views on Racial Problems,” Bakersfield Californian, August 3, 1968, 5.
44. David Wolper quoted in Steven V. Roberts, “Over the ‘Nat Turner’ Screenplay Subsides,” New York Times, March 31, 1969, 28.
45. “Peterson to Pen Nat Turner Movie,” Chicago Daily Defender, June 11, 1968, 11.
46. Louise Meriwether, “BADA Settles ‘Nat Turner’ Film Dispute,” Los Angeles Sentinel, February 13, 1969, F2.
47. Maggie Savoy, “NOW—A Good Neighbor Policy for Beverly Hills,” Los Angeles Times, May 30, 1968, E1, E9.
48. The fundraising advisory board consisted of Wolper, Jewison, and Turman, as well as Oscar-winning film and television producer Harold Mirisch, California democratic political leader Paul Ziffren, and entertainment lawyer J. William Hayes. Sponsors included Alan Bergman, Marvin Mirisch, Robert Mirisch, Greg Morris, Janet Leigh, Kirk Douglas, Henry Mancini, Steve McQueen, Gregory Peck, Andy Williams, Robert Wise, Jeff Hayden, Faye Dunaway, Barbra Streisand, Natalie Wood, Mark Miller, and Gordon Parks. After smaller-scale efforts to provide health care services in the community, the collective endeavors of NOW eventually led to the establishment of the South Central Community Child Care Center. Maggie Savoy, “NOW Gets Rich Start,” Los Angeles Times, April 16, 1969, H8; Maggie Savoy, “Watts Neighbors: No Time Like NOW for Child Care,” Los Angeles Times, April 15, 1969, G1; Joyce Haber, “NOW Benefit Is Star-Studded Event,” Los Angeles Times, April 30, 1969, H16; “Neighbors of Watts Inc. Opens Child Care Center,” Los Angeles Sentinel, March 11, 1971, A10; “Working Mothers in Watts Get New Child Care Center for Pennies Per Hour,” Los Angeles Sentinel, April 8, 1971, A1, A10; Betty Liddick, “$60,000 Gift Buys a Lot of Child Care,” Los Angeles Times, January 6, 1972, F1; “Watts Auction Party Aids Child-Care Center,” New York Times, February 21, 1972, 33.
49. “Fox De-fuses Its ‘Turner’ Pic,” Variety, February 12, 1969, 5; “Meet Racial Objections Re ‘Turner’; Lumet Up as (Unconfirmed) Director,” Variety, May 7, 1969, 32.
50. Sidney Lumet quoted in “Lumet Ponders Slave Revolt Hazards,” Variety, September 3, 1969, 6. See also David L. Wolper and David Fisher, Producer: A Memoir, 213–15.
51. “Possible Delay of ‘Nat Turner’ Start,” Variety, January 14, 1970, 3; “Nat Turner Film Delayed,” Baltimore Afro-American, January 24, 1970, 10; Bill Lane, “Racial Shockers Cause Viewer Ire,” Los Angeles Sentinel, April 30, 1970, Section B Supplement, 1.
52. Nat Turner would not surface on the screen until 2003, when the filmmaker Charles Burnett created Nat Turner: A Troublesome Property. Through reenactments and interviews, the documentary explored Turner as a historical figure as well as the controversy concerning the various literary and prospective film treatments of his life. Kenneth S. Greenberg, “Epilogue: Nat Turner in Hollywood,” in Nat Turner: A Slave Rebellion in History and Memory, ed. Kenneth S. Greenberg (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003), 243–49.
53. Christopher Sieving, Soul Searching, 110–18.
1. Joan Didion, “In Hollywood” (1973), in The White Album (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1979), 160.
2. “Mothers Praise ‘Wattstax,’” Chicago Defender, January 27, 1973, 19.
3. Rob Bowman, Soulsville, U.S.A.: The Story of Stax Records (New York: Schirmer, 1997), 268–71, 290–316; Rob Bowman, commentary, Wattstax: Thirtieth Anniversary Special Edition, directed by Mel Stuart, 1973 (Burbank, CA: Warner Home Video, 2004), DVD; Robert Gordon, Respect Yourself: Stax Records and the Soul Explosion (New York: Bloomsbury, 2013), 289–307.
4. Scott Saul, “‘What You See Is What You Get’: Wattstax, Richard Pryor, and the Secret History of the Black Aesthetic,” Post45, August 12, 2014, accessed January 15, 2015, http://post45.research.yale.edu/2014/08/what-you-see-is-what-you-get-wattstax-richard-pryor-and-the-secret-history-of-the-black-aesthetic/.
5. Daniel Widener, “Setting the Seen: Hollywood, South Los Angeles, and the Politics of Film,” in Post-Ghetto: Reimagining South Los Angeles, ed. Josh Sides (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2012), 180–88; Mike Phillips, “‘Rated R Because It’s Real’: Discourses of Authenticity in Wattstax,” in Documenting the Black Experience: Essays on African American History, Culture and Identity in Nonfiction Films, ed. Novotny Lawrence (Jefferson: McFarland, 2014), 132–52.
6. Bruce M. Tyler, “The Rise and Decline of the Watts Summer Festival, 1965–1986,” American Studies 31, no. 2 (Fall 1990): 61–64. See also Ray Rogers and Jack McCurdy, “10,000 Turn out for Watts Festival,” Los Angeles Times, August 14, 1966, C1; Betty Pleasant, “Watts Summer Festival Surpasses Expectations,” Los Angeles Sentinel, August 18, 1966, A1.
7. “Gunfire in Watts Festival,” Los Angeles Sentinel, August 8, 1968, A1; Jack Jones, “Watts Violence Takes Toll of 3 Dead, 41 Hurt,” Los Angeles Times, August 13, 1968, 1.
8. “Panthers Assail Watts Festival, Call Committee Officials Lackeys,” Los Angeles Sentinel, August 14, 1969, A1.
9. Jim Stewart originally named the company Satellite Records. He and his sister Estelle Axton changed the name to Stax in 1960. Rob Bowman, Soulsville, U.S.A., 70–216.
10. Kwaku Person-Lynn, “Insider Perspectives on the American Afrikan Popular Music Industry and Black Radio,” in California Soul: Music of African Americans in the West, ed. Jacqueline C. DjeDje and Eddie S. Meadows (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998), 180–81; Al Bell, interview by Stephen Koch, “Al Bell Takes Us There,” Arkansas Review: A Journal of Delta Studies 32, no. 1 (April 2001): 49–59; “Says Black Record Firms Must Be Part of Community,” Jet, September 16, 1971, 30.
11. Brian Ward, Just My Soul Responding: Rhythm and Blues, Black Consciousness and Race Relations (London: UCL, 1998), 184.
12. Ibid., 430–50; James D. Kingsley, “Stax’s Education Plan for Poor,” Billboard, May 24, 1969, 1, 78; “‘Give a Damn’ Extravaganza Held for Needy,” New Journal and Guide, December 27, 1969, 14; “Carla Thomas, Art Linkletter Back Houston Drug Program,” Atlanta Daily World, December 29, 1970, 2; “Isaac Hayes Sets Up Foundation to Aid Poor and Elderly Black,” Philadelphia Tribune, March 30, 1971, 17; “Issac [sic] Hayes Sets Up All-Purpose Foundation,” Chicago Defender, April 26, 1971, 14; Nat Freedland, “Record Cos. into Public Aid Stance,” Billboard, March 11, 1972, 31; “Stax Donates to 1st Offender,” Tri-State Defender, March 25, 1972, 1; “Black Moses in College Benefit Show,” New Journal and Guide, May 6, 1972, 14; “Hayes Sponsors Housing Project for Poor,” Philadelphia Tribune, September 16, 1972, 24; “Record Company Formed to Spread Spoken Word,” New Journal and Guide, May 30, 1970, 14; “Singer, Composer John KaSandra Wages Fight to Be His Own Man,” Philadelphia Tribune, December 22, 1970, 23.
13. Richard Nixon quoted in Ward Just, “Nixon on Black Capitalism,” Boston Globe, April 26, 1968, 36.
14. Laura Warren Hill and Julia Rabig, eds., The Business of Black Power: Community Development, Capitalism, and Corporate Responsibility in Postwar America (Rochester, NY: University of Rochester, 2012), 25–40; Dean J. Kotlowski, Nixon’s Civil Rights: Politics, Principle, and Policy (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2001), 126–51; Robert E. Weems Jr. and Lewis A. Randolph, “The National Response to Richard M. Nixon’s Black Capitalism Initiative: The Success of Domestic Détente,” Journal of Black Studies 32, no. 1 (September 2001): 66–83.
15. Gerald Posner, Motown: Music, Money, Sex, and Power (New York: Random House, 2002), 42–66, 82–84; David Morse, Motown and the Arrival of Black Music (New York: Macmillan, 1971), 28–54; Robert Hilburn, “Motown Records Spinning Off into Films, TV,” Los Angeles Times, April 18, 1971, R1; “Motown Becomes a Monster in the Entertainment World,” Chicago Defender, January 8, 1972, 19.
16. Michael Aron, “Emperor Gordy,” Los Angeles Magazine, December, 1972, 39–41, 82–86.
17. Gertrude Gibson, “It’s Booker T: The Heat Is On,” Los Angeles Sentinel, February 13, 1969, F3; Phyl Garland, “Booker T. and the MG’s,” Ebony, April 1969, 97; “Stax Releases Film Soundtrack Single,” New York Amsterdam News, March 22, 1969, 20; Earl Calloway, “New Disk Release,” Chicago Defender, June 5, 1969, 17; Richard Green, “Controversial Film Aids Booker T Hit,” New Musical Express, June 7, 1969, 5; Jell Hell, “Soul Sounds,” New Pittsburgh Courier, January 18, 1969, 24.
18. Amy Abugo Ongiri, Spectacular Blackness: The Cultural Politics of the Black Power Movement and the Search for a Black Aesthetic (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2010), 154–58.
19. Melvin Van Peebles, The Making of Sweet Sweetback’s Baadasssss Song (Edinburgh: Payback, 1971), 92–93.
20. Shaw was also the president of the international marketing consulting group Communiplex Inc. He had spearheaded the advertising of Afro-Sheen and Newport Cigarettes to black consumers and had worked with SCLC’s Operation Breadbasket in Chicago. Bruce Weber, “Stax Moves in Int’l, Artist, Film Areas,” Billboard, June 29, 1968, 1, 10; “Peebles Film to Premiere,” New York Amsterdam News, April 24, 1971, 19; “Chicago Moviemaker’s Film Set for Oriental,” Chicago Defender, April 27, 1971, 12; “Stax Records Music of Van Peebles Film,” Los Angeles Sentinel, April 29, 1971, B3A; Mike Gross, “Black Tracks Cue New Sales Mart,” Billboard, July 24, 1971, 1, 10; Wattstax [Feature Film] Publicity, 131–010, David L. Wolper Center, Cinematic Arts Library, University of Southern California (hereafter DWC, CAL, USC).
21. “The Black Movie Boom,” Newsweek, September 6, 1971, 66; Fred Beauford, ed., “The Expanding World of the Black Film,” in Black Creation: The Expanding World of the Black Film 4, no. 2 (Winter 1973): 25–43. See also B.J. Mason, “Black Cinema Expo ’72,” Ebony, May 1972, 151–60.
22. Junius Griffin quoted in “Junius Griffin Stays,” Variety, August 30, 1972, 5; “NAACP Blasts ‘Super-Nigger’ Trend,” Variety, August 16, 1972, 2; Ed Guerrero, Framing Blackness: the African American Image in Film (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1993), 69–111.
23. Al Bell quoted in Mike Gross, “Black Tracks Cue New Sales Mart,” 1, 10.
24. Lance Williams, “Wattstax: Giving Something Back to Community,” Los Angeles Times, August 20, 1972, X1; “Wattstax Benefit Show Aided Community Group,” New Journal and Guide, November 25, 1972, 14.
25. “Motown Entertainment Complex,” Los Angeles Sentinel, May 20, 1971, G124.
26. Al Bell, commentary, Wattstax DVD.
27. Coordinating the production involved communicating across languages, organizing dozens of camera crews, and making a film about an Olympic Games that would be marked by the horrific murder of Israeli athletes. The film evoked a spirit of unity in the face of tragedy, a “united nations” of filmmakers as well as a world united through the shared experience of viewing the documentary. Filmmakers included Miloš Forman, Kon Ichikawa, Claude Lelouch, Yuri Ozerov, Arthur Penn, Michael Pfleghar, John Schlesinger, and Mai Zetterling. “Wolper Resuscitates Dead Olympics Pic for Munich 1972,” Variety, October 20, 1971, 25; John Goshko, “Film Project of Olympic Proportions,” Washington Post, September 1, 1972, B1, B3.
28. Keith Beattie, “It’s Not Only Rock and Roll: ‘Rockumentary,’ Direct Cinema, and Performative Display,” Australasian Journal of American Studies 24, no. 2 (December 2005): 21–41. Woodstock producer Bob Maurice stated that his crew went to the festival “to share the joy of that weekend. . . . As a result, the film is quite human and relaxed and simple, but also raw and unpolished.” Bob Maurice quoted in Ann Barry, “Woodstock Is Not Over—Film Due Early Next Year,” Baltimore Sun, December 17, 1969, B4; Michael Wadleigh, Woodstock: 3 Days of Peace and Music, a Film by Michael Wadleigh (Philadelphia: Concert Hall Publications, 1969), 48, Zab W242 +970W, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut.
29. See the widely circulated advertisement, New Journal and Guide, August 21, 1971, B18.
30. Michael Davenport, “Marathon Soul Festival the First for Ghana,” Los Angeles Times, April 4, 1971, C16; James Cassell, “Movie Shot at African Festival Links Black Music to Its Roots,” Philadelphia Tribune, July 27, 1971, 16; Rob Bowman, liner notes, Soul to Soul (Burbank, CA: Reelin’ in the Years Productions, Rhino Home Video, 2004), DVD; Willie Hamilton, “‘Soul to Soul’ Not Background Material,” New York Amsterdam News, August 28, 1971, B9.
31. Mel Stuart, interview by Joshua Glick, August 6, 2010, Los Angeles.
32. “‘Wattstax’ to Columbia,” Variety, August 23, 1972, 4; “Wolperized Black-Angled Ballyhoo For ‘Wattstax’; Columbia’s Angles,” Variety, February 7, 1973, 5; Bernard F. Dick, Columbia Pictures: Portrait of a Studio (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1992), 13–32.
33. “Wattstax ’72 Film Shot by 90% Black Crews; 250G Budget for Docu,” Variety, September 27, 1972, 1, 61; commentary by Mel Stuart, Al Bell, Larry Shaw, Rob Bowman, Wattstax DVD; “$73,363 Charities’ Wattstax Donation,” Billboard, September 2, 1972, 66. Most publicity, accounts of production, and reviews of the film noted that local Los Angeles residents provided the testimony. A few actors were interviewed for these conversations, including Ted Lange and Raymond Allen. Mel Stuart, interview by Joshua Glick, August 6, 2010, Los Angeles; Rob Bowman and Al Bell, email correspondence with Joshua Glick, March 7–16, 2015.
34. Contract dated August 14, 1972, “Production of Picture,” Sections 2.3–4, p. 4, Special Collections Folder, DWC, CAL, USC.
35. Mel Stuart, interview by Joshua Glick, August 6, 2010, Los Angeles.
36. “Lift Every Voice and Sing” became part of a daily ritual in many schools where there was a black majority of students. Bill Lane, “Evolvement of Black National Anthem,” Los Angeles Times, March 14, 1971, T30.
37. Commentaries by Isaac Hayes, Mel Stuart, Al Bell, Rob Bowman, and Larry Clark, Wattstax DVD.
38. Isaac Hayes, Albert King, Otis Redding, Mavis Staples, Johnnie Taylor, and other Stax artists honed their craft and drew inspiration from performing in church during their early careers.
39. Churches pictured in the film include the Thankful Missionary Baptist Church (8900 South San Pedro Street), the Temple Missionary Baptist Church (8734 South Broadway), the Whole Truth Temple Church of God in Christ (4311 South Avalon Boulevard), and the Church of Divine Inspiration (4777 South Broadway). Jacqueline Cogdell DjeDje, “The California Black Gospel Music Tradition: A Confluence of Musical Styles and Cultures,” in California Soul, 130–43.
40. Scott Saul, “‘What You See Is What You Get,’” 12–13.
41. Larry Shaw quoted in James P. Murray, “Black Movies and Music in Harmony,” Black Creation 5, no. 1 (Fall 1973): 11.
42. Letter from Larry Shaw to Robert Ferguson, January 5, 1973, Wattstax [Feature Film] Correspondence, 201–4852, DWC, CAL, USC. There was an initial complication with the film’s release. For seven years Hayes was legally not allowed to perform music from Shaft in productions other than those made by MGM. Thus, Stax was forced to film a soundstage rendition of “Rolling Down the Mountainside” and insert it into the film. “MGM Sues Hayes, Stax, Wolper, et al. on Music Renege,” Variety, February 7, 1973, 5. The Wattstax LP went gold and climbed to number twenty-nine on Billboard’s Top LP’s and Tapes chart. “Billboard’s Top LP’s and Tapes,” Billboard, April 14, 1973, 58.
43. “Wattstax Benefit Show Aided Community Group,” New Journal and Guide, November 25, 1972, 14.
44. Larry Grant Coleman, “‘Wattstax:’ Dynamite Film Documentary on Black Creativity,’” Pittsburgh Courier, January 27, 1973, 9.
45. Gertrude Gipson, “At Music Center: Wattstax Film Premieres,” Los Angeles Sentinel, January 25, 1973, section B supplement, 1.
46. “Chicago Mother: Wattstax Is a Family Film,” Southeast Independent Bulletin, February 2, 1973, Wattstax [Feature Film] Press Clippings, 201–002, DWC, CAL, USC. Around this time, Stax and Wolper Productions sponsored different kinds of social outreach initiatives related to the film, including a $1,000 college scholarship writing contest, where students submitted essays on “The Black Experience.” “‘Wattstax’ Prod. Set Scholarship,” Cash Box, February 3, 1973, Wattstax [Feature Film] Press Clippings, 131–009, DWC, CAL, USC.
47. Leah Davis, “Wattstax Premiere More Than Glitter,” Soul: America’s Most Soulful Newspaper, March 12, 1973, 2–3.
48. Harry Dolan, “Wattstax in Watts: A Movie of the People Comes to the People,” Wattstax [Feature Film] Publicity (General),” 201–4852, DWC, CAL, USC.
49. Advertisement, Los Angeles Sentinel, March 1, 1973, B4A. See also Richard F. Shepard, “Going Out Guide,” New York Times, February 15, 1973, 50; “PUSH Host at Premiere for Wattstax,” New York Amsterdam News, February 10, 1973, A12; “Midwest Disc Jockeys Preview ‘Wattstax,’” Chicago Defender, February 7, 1973, 13; Reverend Jesse L. Jackson, “Jesse Lauds ‘Wattstax,’” Chicago Defender, February 17, 1973, 3; “‘Wattstax’ Opening Has Had Numerous Premieres,” Atlanta Daily World, March 18, 1973, 12; “Atlanta Premiere of ‘Wattstax’ Film Boosted by Stars,” Atlanta Daily World, March 4, 1973, 6; Nancy Giddens, “The Black Political Forum Host [sic] Gala Premiere Showing of Wattstax,” Philadelphia Tribune, April 10, 1973, 17; “City Social Clubs Participating in SCLC’s ‘Wattstax’ Premiere May 23,” Indianapolis Recorder, May 12, 1973, Wattstax [Feature Film] Press Clippings, 131–009, DWC, CAL, USC.
50. Letter from August Jones to Wolper Pictures LTD, February 7, 1973, Wattstax [Feature Film] Publicity, 131–009, DWC, CAL, USC.
51. Vincent Canby, “Film: ‘Wattstax,’ Record of Watts Festival Concert,” New York Times, February 16, 1973, 17.
52. Dennis Hunt, “Pryor Highlight of ‘Wattstax’ Collage,” Los Angeles Times, February 21, 1973, G10.
53. Joy Gould Boyum, “A Bit More Than Just Music at a Black Concert,” Wall Street Journal, February 26, 1973, 12.
54. Marian Brayton, “Stax Organization Diversifies Way to Booming Success,” Hollywood Reporter, January 5, 1973, Box 201–002, 4848, Wattstax: Wolper Organization Files (WOF), DWC, CAL, USC.
55. Ron Pennington, “‘Wattstax’ Added New Scope to Documentaries—Stuart,” Hollywood Reporter, March 7, 1973, 16, Wattstax [Feature Film] Press Clippings, 131–008, DWC, CAL, USC.
56. Westways, March 1973, page(s) unknown. Wattstax [Feature Film] Press Clippings, 131–009, DWC, CAL, USC
57. “Wattstax Headlines Swiss Festival,” Los Angeles Sentinel, July 12, 1973, B3A; “Africans Dig ‘Wattstax’ OAU Envoy Tells Crowd,” Philadelphia Tribune, May 8, 1973, 12.
58. Mel Stuart quoted in Curtis J. Sitomer, “Films: ‘Payday’ . . . and a Musical Wander through Watts,” Christian Science Monitor, March 1, 1973, 14.
59. Advertisement, New York Times, February 18, 1973, 174; advertisement, Wisconsin State Journal, May 2, 1973; advertisement, Los Angeles Times, March 3, 1973, A6; advertisement, UCLA Daily Bruin, February 28, 1973, 10. The pertinent Newsweek review was Arthur Cooper, “Watts Happening,” Newsweek, February 26, 1973, 88. Wattstax [Feature Films] Press Clippings, 131–008, 131–009, DWC, CAL, USC.
60. Wattstax earned a respectable amount: Variety reported that the documentary grossed $1,725,207 by the end of 1973. “Variety Chart Summary for 1973,” Variety, May 8, 1974, 68. $73,363 worth of ticket proceeds went to social service institutions. “$73,363 Charities’ Wattstax Donation,” Billboard, September 2, 1972, 66.
61. James P. Murray, “Movie Offerings from Black Moguls,” New York Amsterdam News, November 30, 1974, D12.
62. “Trina Parks, Superchick, First to Use Karate!,” Baltimore Afro-American, September 27, 1975, 11; A.H. Weiler, “Strutters,” New York Times, October 9, 1975, 54.
63. Claude Hall, “Griffin’s TV Co. Specials,” Billboard, November 18, 1972, 1, 48; “Television,” Jet, April 26, 1973, 66. Stax artists had appeared in similar formats when they visited Los Angeles in the summer of 1965 to appear on Where the Action Is, Hollywood A Go-Go, and The Lloyd Thaxton Show. They also did a live radio broadcast for KGFJ at the Shrine Circus. “Stax and Volt Artists on TV,” Billboard, August 7, 1965, 4; Robert Gordon, Respect Yourself, 110–12.
64. “Stax/Griffin Prod. Form Cohesive Unit,” Billboard, January 13, 1973, 14.
65. Rob Bowman, Soulsville, U.S.A., 317–71; Nelson George, The Death of Rhythm and Blues (New York: E.P. Dutton, 1989), 135–42.
66. David L. Wolper and David Fisher, Producer: A Memoir (New York: Scribner, 2003), 183.
1. Roots played in Australia, Belgium, Chile, Ecuador, Finland, France, Germany, Israel, Italy, Japan, Singapore, and beyond. David L. Wolper and Quincy Troupe, The Inside Story of TV’s “Roots” (New York: Warner Books, 1978), 157; Timothy Havens, Black Television Travels: African American Media around the Globe (New York: New York University Press, 2013), 29–55.
2. Alex Haley, Roots: The Saga of an American Family (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1976).
3. Lyndon B. Johnson quoted in Alvin Shuster, “President Signs Bicentennial Bill,” New York Times, July 9, 1966, 19. See also “Goals Cited for Bicentennial of Revolution,” Los Angeles Times, April 4, 1968, A7. The original commission consisted of twenty-five members. “Unit Named to Plan 200th Anniversary of U.S. Revolution,” New York Times, January 19, 1967, 35.
4. Public Law 93–179, enacted December 11, 1973, 697–704, Govtrack.us, accessed February 1, 2017, https://www.govtrack.us/congress/bills/93/hr7446/text.
5. Critics attacked Nixon for staffing the ARBC with members of his 1968 campaign who aimed to use the bicentennial as an advertisement for the Republican Party and for the president’s reelection. The ARBC also came under fire for charges that its corporate members were trying to coordinate bicentennial-themed entertainment across the country from which they would directly reap profits. Nan Robertson, “Panel Said to Veto a Single-City Fair for U.S. Birthday,” New York Times, May 26, 1970, 25; Alfred Stern, “Will There Be a Bicentennial?” Variety, January 5, 1972, 122; Robert L. Turner, “Bicentennial World’s Fair Rejected,” Washington Post, May 17, 1972, A22; Alfred Stern, “Big Nothing So Far for 1976 Hurrah,” Variety, January 3, 1973, 149; Eugene Meyer, “Bicentennial Director Quits; Management Was Criticized,” Washington Post, August 2, 1972, A8; Donald Bremner, “Picking Up the Bicentennial Pieces,” Los Angeles Times, July 1, 1973, G4; “’76 Bicentennial Plans Cut Back as Mood Shifts,” New York Times, July 4, 1973, 1; “Parks Idea Killed,” Los Angeles Times, May 16, 1973, A5; Peter Carroll, It Seemed Like Nothing Happened: America in the 1970s (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1990), 185–316; Bruce Schulman, The Seventies: The Great Shift in American Culture, Society, and Politics (New York: Free Press, 2001), 121–92; James T. Patterson, Grand Expectations: The United States, 1945–1974 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996), 771–90.
6. The Bicentennial of the United States of America: A Final Report to the People, Volume 1 (Washington, DC: US Government, 1977), 2–9, David Wolper Bicentennial Collection, David L. Wolper Center, Cinematic Arts Library, University of Southern California (hereafter DWC, CAL, USC).
7. Robert Lawlor, The Bicentennial Book (New York: Dell, 1975).
8. Kay Cooperman, “L.A. to Open Celebration,” Los Angeles Times, July 14, 1975, B3.
9. Tom Bradley quoted in J. Gregory Payne and Scott C. Ratzan, Tom Bradley: The Impossible Dream (Santa Monica, CA: Roundtable, 1986), 135.
10. Raphael J. Sonenshein, Politics in Black and White: Race and Power in Los Angeles (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1993), 55–66, 139–90.
11. Daniel Widener, Black Arts West: Culture and Struggle in Postwar Los Angeles (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2010), 221–25, 234–49.
12. Scott Kurashige, The Shifting Grounds of Race: Black and Japanese Americans in the Making of Multiethnic Los Angeles (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2008), 280.
13. “Bicentennial Salute Has Foreign Flavor,” Los Angeles Times, May 24, 1976, D1.
14. Grant Lee, “Bicentennial Bus Tour of Historic L.A.,” Los Angeles Times, November 24, 1975, D1; Tia Gindick, “Bicentennial Fever—Everybody Else Has It,” Los Angeles Times, March 4, 1976, E1; “Diverse ‘Festival of Faith’ to Mark Bicentennial,” Los Angeles Times, September 18, 1976, 29. For a list of major Los Angeles events, see John W. Warner, administrator, Comprehensive Calendar of Bicentennial Events West of the Mississippi (Washington, DC: American Revolution Bicentennial Administration, 1976), 2/20–2/51.
15. Steve Harvey, “Times That Try L.A.’s Soul,” Los Angeles Times, February 2, 1976, C5.
16. “Open House at Cal State Offers Science Displays,” Los Angeles Times, January 8, 1976, SG4.
17. Jehane Burns, ed., The World of Franklin and Jefferson (Los Angeles: George Rice and Sons, 1976); Josine Ianco-Starrels, “Franklin, Jefferson Opens Tuesday,” Los Angeles Times, November 7, 1976, L73.
18. Between 1972 and 1982, apparel jobs increased by 13 percent. Around this same period, the service sectors geared toward retail, business, and social utilities grew by 63.5 percent. Roger Keil, Los Angeles: Globalization, Urbanization and Social Struggles (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1998), 95–112. See also Edward Soja, Postmodern Geographies: The Reassertion of Space in Critical Social Theory (London: Verso, 1989), 191–208.
19. Robert Herzbrun, “The Bonaventure: The Most Astonishing New Hotel of All,” Los Angeles Magazine, July 1976, 74. See also J. Gregory Payne and Scott C. Ratzan, Tom Bradley, 137–51.
20. Laurie Gottlieb, “In the Spirit of ’76,” Los Angeles Times, March 21, 1976, R20; Kathy Burke and Deborah Cipolla, “100,000 Line Route to See ‘World’s Longest Parade,’” Los Angeles Times, July 5, 1976, 1, 3, 14; Cilla Brown, “2 Disney Parks to Present Shows for Bicentennial,” Los Angeles Times, February 19, 1975, E1, E8; Mary Murphy, “Filmex to Celebrate Bicentennial,” Los Angeles Times, January 5, 1976, E10; Jody Jacobs, “Glorious Night for Filmex Opening,” Los Angeles Times, March 23, 1976, E2.
21. Joyce Haber, “Telly Draws Ace,” Los Angeles Times, February 27, 1975, F8.
22. David Wolper, “An Overwhelming Experience,” in The Bicentennial of the United States of America, vol. 1, p. 3, DWC, CAL, USC.
23. Tammy S. Gordon, The Spirit of 1976: Commerce, Community, and the Politics of Commemoration (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 2013), 47.
24. Ibid., 47–67.
25. Charles Hillinger, “Bicentennial Spirit—U.S. Steaming at Full Throttle,” Los Angeles Times, June 26, 1975, B1, B31; George Moneyhun, “All Aboard the Freedom Train!,” Christian Science Monitor, March 31, 1975, 3; Edward Yalowitz, “All Aboard, America”—The American Freedom Train: 1975–1976: Commemorative Program (Chicago: American Freedom Train Foundation, 1975), 27–30.
26. Daniel Boorstin quoted in “America at the Movies,” ed. John W. Warner, administrator, American Revolution Bicentennial Administration, folder 8140, ARBA box 340, DWC, CAL, USC.
27. George Stevens Jr. quoted in Marlene Cimons, “Washington on View: Hollywood’s Gift to Bicentennial,” Los Angeles Times, June 30, 1976, G17.
28. Tom Shales, “A Silver Screening,” Washington Post, June 28, 1976, B1; Grant Lee, “That’s ‘Movies’ for Bicentennial,” Los Angeles Times, August 2, 1976, E1.
29. “Bicentennial Film Production Agreement and Budget between the American Film Institute and the American Revolution Bicentennial Administration,” February 6, 1975 (revised February 21, 1975), p. 2, folder 8140, ARBA box 340, DWC, CAL, USC.
30. The Glorious Fourth included on-location reporting from hospitals, firehouses, and parks around the country, a special edition of Meet the Press, and a Texaco-sponsored variety show titled “Bob Hope’s Bicentennial Star-Spangled Spectacular.” In Celebration of US covered local parades, fireworks, craft festivals, and a roundtable with Henry Aaron, Daniel Boorstin, and Margaret Mead reflecting on American history. The Great American Birthday Party consisted of President Ford’s speech at Philadelphia’s Independence Hall, live reporting from the Washington Monument in Washington, DC, and the Gateway Arch in St. Louis, and sweeping views of ships entering New York Harbor. Leonard Traube, “The American Bicentennial,” Variety, January 9, 1974, 104; “Networks Detail Efforts for the Bicentennial,” Broadcasting, March 3, 1975, 34–35; “Bicentennial Eyes and Ears,” Broadcasting, July 12, 1976, 19–20. For more on network programming, including ABC’s bicentennial edition of Schoolhouse Rock! (1975–76) and CBS’s Bicentennial Minutes (1974–76), see John W. Warner, administrator, Comprehensive Calendar of Bicentennial Events, John W. Warner, administrator (Washington, DC: American Revolution Bicentennial Administration, 1976), 1/7–1/10.
31. Henri Langlois quoted in The Man with the Dream: A Pictorial Tribute to the Life and 50-Year Career of David L. Wolper, ed. Auriel Sanderson (Hong Kong: Warner Bros. Worldwide, 1999), 2. See also “Langlois Schedules Wolper Film Retro,” Variety, October 2, 1974, 2.
32. Marshall Berges, “Home Q&A: David Wolper,” Los Angeles Times, April 28, 1974, M42.
33. Tom Bradley, proclamation, City of Los Angeles, plaque, DWC, CAL, USC; “Walk of Fame Star for Wolper,” Los Angeles Times, March 15, 1976, E17.
34. William Paley quoted in Gerald Fraser, “Museum of Broadcasting Opens with Paley Gift,” New York Times, November 10, 1976, 80. See also “50 Years of History on Instant Replay,” Los Angeles Times, November 10, 1976, E9.
35. “Library of Congress Names Division Head,” Hartford Courant, May 29, 1978, 4.
36. Thomas W. Hoffer and Richard Alan Nelson, “Evolution of Docudrama on American Television Networks: A Content Analysis, 1966–1978,” Southern Speech Communication Journal 45 (1980): 150–52. See also Thomas W. Hoffer and Richard Alan Nelson, “Docudrama on American Television,” Journal of the University Film Association 30, no. 2 (1978): 21–27; William A. Bluem, Documentary in American Television: Form, Function, Method (New York: Hastings House, 1965), 17–92, 180–204. For an international case studies approach to docudramas, see Alan Rosenthal, ed., Why Docudrama? Fact-Fiction on Film and TV (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1999); Robert B. Musburger, “Setting the Stage for the Television Docudrama,” Journal of Popular Film and Television 13, no. 2 (1985): 92–101; Derek Paget, No Other Way to Tell It: Docudrama on Film and Television (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2011), 171–230.
37. While the term “documentary drama” had been used sporadically since the 1930s to describe humanistic forms of documentary in radio, film, and television, the term “docudrama” began to appear with increasing frequency around the late 1960s and early 1970s. Examples include Cecil Smith, “Hope Gets Away with TV Murder,” Los Angeles Times, February 25, 1970, C15; Percy Shain, “John and Sam Adams, Samuel Quincy Star in Massacre,” Boston Globe, May 14, 1971, 52; Cecil Smith, “Burgess Meredith as Franklin in Congress ’76 Docu-drama,” Los Angeles Times, June 20, 1971, R31B; George McKinnon, “‘No Go’ Docu-drama of IRA,” Boston Globe, August 2, 1973, 54.
38. Frank Swertlow quoted in Academy of Television Arts and Sciences Docu-drama Symposium, 1979, ed. Lee Margulies, Emmy Magazine, Summer 1979, D11, DWC, CAL, USC.
39. David Lowenthal, “The Bicentennial Landscape: A Mirror Held Up to the Past,” Geographical Review 67, no. 3 (1977): 257.
40. “History of America Topic of New Series,” Los Angeles Times, July 17, 1973, C14.
41. Robert Guenette quoted in Mimi Mead, “The Undebunkable George Washington,” Christian Science Monitor, November 23, 1973, 22.
42. John J. O’Connor, “TV: ABC Pursues the Real George Washington,” New York Times, November 27, 1973, 82; Mimi Mead, “Patriotism, Even for Cynics,” Baltimore Sun, December 30, 1973, TV16; Howard Thompson, “TV Review: ‘Lincoln: Trial by Fire’ on ABC Tomorrow,” New York Times, January 19, 1974, 63; John J. O’Connor, “TV: ‘Yanks Are Coming,’” New York Times, April 22, 1974, 70.
43. Lawrence Laurent, “‘Last Days’ Concludes ‘Sandburg’s Lincoln,’” Washington Post, April 11, 1976, 4.
44. Van Wyck Brooks, “Carl Sandburg’s Lincoln,” Forum 75, no. 4 (1926): 632; James Hurt, “Sandburg’s Lincoln within History,” Journal of the Abraham Lincoln Association 20, no. 1 (1999): 55–65.
45. Merrill D. Peterson, Lincoln in American Memory (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), 271–310.
46. Hal Holbrook quoted in Jerry Buck, “Now Holbrook Is Abe Lincoln,” Hartford Courant, September 8, 1974, 1F.
47. Cecil Smith, “Man Behind the Face of Lincoln,” Los Angeles Times, August 5, 1974, E14.
48. Henry Mitchell, “And a Gathering to Dwell on History,” Washington Post, September 6, 1974, B1; Earl Calloway, “Hal Holbrook Is Great as Abe Lincoln,” Chicago Defender, February 12, 1975, 22; Percy Shain, “Holbrook Excels as Lincoln the Prairie Lawyer,” Boston Globe, April 7, 1975, 35; John Carmody, “Sandburg’s ‘Lincoln’: Fine Fare,” Washington Post, April 7, 1975, B1; John Carmody, “Hail to Hal Holbrook’s ‘Unwilling Warrior’: TV’s Bicentennial Best,” Washington Post, September 3, 1975, C11; “Hal Holbrook Stars as Abe Lincoln,” Chicago Defender, December 9, 1975, 20; John Carmody, “A Moving Portrait of the Lincolns,” Washington Post, September 6, 1974, B1; “Lincoln Portrayal Poignant,” Boston Globe, September 6, 1974, 55.
49. Wolper Productions also created other films and programs in the early to mid-1970s that focused on minority subjects. The film and short-lived spinoff series Get Christie Love! (1974) starred black actress Teresa Graves as an LAPD detective whose hip irreverence and martial arts mastery enable her to take on criminals. The comedy series Chico and the Man (1974–78) featured a curmudgeonly WASP, Ed (Jack Albertson), who spends his days in his car repair garage in East Los Angeles battling his quick-witted Chicano employee Chico (Freddie Prinze). In Welcome Back, Kotter (1975–79), Gabe Kotter returns to his old Bensonhurst, Brooklyn, high school to teach the low-performing class known as the “Sweathogs.” The classroom is an arena for daily jousting between its African American, Jewish, Italian, and Puerto Rican students.
50. Shirley Rose Higgins, “Mexico: Good Stand-in for U.S. West,” Chicago Tribune, April 13, 1975, C6.
51. I Will Fight No More Forever won awards at the Chicago International Film Festival and the Columbus Film Festival, and was honored with a certificate of merit from the Southern California Motion Picture Council. John Carmody, “Native American Tragedy,” Washington Post, April 14, 1975, B7; “Struggle of Nez Perce Recalled,” Hartford Courant, April 14, 1975, 20; “Ratings Surprises,” Washington Post, April 25, 1975, B8; Bill Carter, “In the First Week of 1976, TV Begins in Earnest to Milk the Bicentennial,” Baltimore Sun, January 7, 1976, B4; “Public Occurrences,” Washington Post, November 4, 1976, VA15; Lee Margulies, “Top Shows as Teaching Tools,” Los Angeles Times, January 4, 1977, F9; “Roaring Brook to Have Film, Folk Music,” Hartford Courant, April 25, 1977, 33A; “Ethnic Event to Feature Indian Films,” Hartford Courant, December 26, 1977, 37D.
52. Terrence O’Flaherty, “Using Television’s Power for Human Kindness,” Baltimore Sun, May 25, 1975, TW34.
53. “Watts Parade Slated Saturday,” Los Angeles Sentinel, December 9, 1976, A1; advertisement, Los Angeles Times, April 24, 1975, SG4.
54. Linda Williams, Playing the Race Card: Melodramas of Black and White from Uncle Tom to O.J. Simpson (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2001), 220–51. See also Leslie A. Fiedler, The Inadvertent Epic: From Uncle Tom’s Cabin to Roots (Ontario: Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, 1979), 71–85.
55. Ossie Davis and Ruby Dee, With Ossie and Ruby: In This Life Together (New York: William Morrow and Company, 1998), 338–40, 366–68; David L. Wolper and Quincy Troupe, The Inside Story of TV’s “Roots,” 34–48; “Haley on TV Tells How He Traced Family to Africa,” New York Amsterdam News, April 22, 1972, C5.
56. Alex Haley, “Dedication,” in Roots: The Saga of an American Family (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1976), v.
57. “ABC to Develop ‘Roots,’ ‘U.S.A.’ as TV Novels,” Los Angeles Times, January 24, 1975, G26.
58. Les Brown, “ABC-TV Plans to Stress Serializations of Novels,” New York Times, December 14, 1974, 59; “TV Networks See Future for Mini-Series,” Hartford Courant, January 19, 1975, 11F; Cecil Smith, “The ‘TV Novel’ Comes of Age,” Los Angeles Times, April 22, 1975, H17.
59. See for example Kay Gardella, “Adaptation of Roots Is Another Epic Idea for ABC,” Chicago Tribune, October 2, 1976, SD6.
60. Harry F. Waters and Vern E. Smith, “One Man’s Family,” Newsweek, June 21, 1976, 73.
61. Advertisement, Variety, January 26, 1977, 48–49.
62. “The Effects of ‘Roots’ Will Be with TV for a Long Time,” Broadcasting, February 7, 1977, 52, 56.
63. Vernon Jarrett, “An Epic TV Tale of Our Heritage,” Chicago Tribune, January 30, 1977, A6; Broadcasting, July 18, 1977, cover; Sander Vanocur, “Roots: A New Reality,” Washington Post, January 19, 1977, B1, B8; Donald K. Richmond, “TV’s ‘Roots’: A Real Eye-Opener,” New Journal and Guide, February 5, 1977, 15.
64. Tom Bradley, proclamation, City of Los Angeles, plaque, DWC, CAL, USC.
65. Brandon Stoddard quoted in Stephen Zito, “Out of Africa,” American Film, October 1976, 13.
66. “‘Roots’ Takes Hold in America,” Newsweek, February 7, 1977, 26.
67. Alex Haley quoted in William Marmon, “Why ‘Roots’ Hit Home,” Time, February 14, 1977, 72.
68. William Marmon, “Why ‘Roots’ Hit Home,” 69–75.
69. Horace Newcomb, “Lincoln Episode, Although Enjoyable, Marred by Outdated Technique,” Baltimore Sun, January 21, 1974, B3; Horace Newcomb, “A Questionable Use of Time and Money—‘The Yanks Are Coming,’” Baltimore Sun, April 23, 1974, B5. See also Cecil Smith, “Opening Salvo of U.S. Heritage Series,” Los Angeles Times, November 27, 1973, C14.
70. Martin Duberman, “How Honest Was Abe? How Noble Was Walt?,” New York Times, January 11, 1976, D1.
71. John J. O’Connor, “Historical Dramas—Fact or Fancy?,” New York Times, May 25, 1975, 127; Michael J. Arlen, “The Air,” New Yorker, May 19, 1975, 82–89.
72. John E. Cooney, “Kunta Kinte Reduced to Soap Opera,” Wall Street Journal, January 24, 1977, 16. For more background on the process of adapting the book to the miniseries as well as historical inaccuracies in the project, see Leslie Fishbein, “Roots: Docudrama and the Interpretation of History,” in Why Docudrama?, 271–95.
73. Bill Carter, “‘Roots’ Is Better TV Than Most, but Not What It Should Be,” Baltimore Sun, January 24, 1977, B1; Dorothy Gilliam, “The Series: History Off Balance,” Washington Post, January 28, 1977, B1; Carlos E. Russell, “Say Roots Bypassed Some Key Elements of Black History,” New York Amsterdam News, February 12, 1977, D9; Jessica Davis, “Too Many Modifications Mar ‘Roots’ Production,” New Pittsburgh Courier, February 19, 1977, 11; William A. Henry III, “Docu-dramas—Is TV Tampering with History?,” Boston Globe, February 20, 1977, E1; Robert L. Allen, ed., “Forum: A Symposium on Roots,” Black Scholar 8, no. 7 (1977): 36–42. Essays in that last (“Forum”) include “Roots: Melodrama of the Black Experience” by sociologist Robert Staples; “Roots: A Modern Minstrel Show” by poet and critic Clyde Taylor; “Roots: Urban Renewal of the American Dream” by poet and critic Chinweizu; “Roots: An Electronic Orgy in White Guilt” by columnist Chuck Stone; and “Roots: Rebirth of the Slave Mentality” by Black Scholar publisher Robert Chrisman.
74. Matthew Frye Jacobson, Roots Too: White Ethnic Revival in Post–Civil Rights America (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2006), 11–71.
75. John J. Stewart, “Journey to Your Past,” in Jeane Eddy Westin, Finding Your Roots: How Every American Can Trace His Ancestors—At Home and Abroad (Los Angeles: J.P. Tarcher, 1977), 5. See also F. Wilbur Helmbold, Tracing Your Ancestry: A Step-by-Step Guide to Researching Your Family History (Birmingham, AL: Oxmoor House, 1976).
1. Robert Nakamura interviewed by Adam Hyman and Pauline Stakelon, May 23, 2010, and August 22, 2010, in Alternative Projections: Experimental Film in Los Angeles, 1945–1980, pp. A66, accessed February 10, 2015, http://alternativeprojections.com/oral-histories/robert-nakamura/.
2. The Peoples Bicentennial Commission (PBC) was based in Washington, DC, and Boston. Started in 1971, the PBC’s aim was to connect the political and economic oppression of the late 1700s to the injustices of the present moment perpetrated by “corporate tyranny” and a complicit government. Ted Howard, The P.B.C.: A History (Washington, DC: Peoples Bicentennial Commission, 1976).
3. J. Hoberman, “One Big Real Place: BBS from Head to Hearts,” Criterion Collection Website, November 28, 2010, https://www.criterion.com/current/posts/1671-one-big-real-place-bbs-from-head-to-hearts. For more on the origins and development of BBS see the collection of essays that accompanies the Criterion Collection release America Lost and Found: The BBS Story (New York: Criterion Collection, 2010), DVD.
4. Bert Schneider and Peter Davis quoted in Gene Robertson, “Outstanding Documentary,” Sun Reporter, March 1, 1975, 40. For articles about Davis’s CBS documentaries see Jack Gould, “Hunger Is Not for Quibbling,” New York Times, June 23, 1968, D19; Rick Brow, “Sensitivity Sessions: Experiment with Racial Groups New Dimension,” New Journal and Guide, January 10, 1970, 14; Jack Gould, “TV: CBS: Explores Pentagon Propaganda Costs,” New York Times, February 24, 1971, 83; William C. Woods, “The Selling of the Pentagon,” Washington Post, February 26, 1971, B1; William C. Woods, “The Awarding of ‘The Selling,’” Washington Post, April 21, 1971, B14. For more on the production history and reception of Hearts and Minds see the collection of short essays included on the Criterion Collection release Hearts and Minds, directed by Peter Davis (1974; New York: Criterion Collection, 2002), DVD; David Grosser, “‘We Aren’t on the Wrong Side, We Are the Wrong Side’: Peter Davis Targets (American) Hearts and Minds,” in From Hanoi to Hollywood: The Vietnam War in American Film, ed. Linda Dittmar and Gene Michaud (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1990), 269–82.
5. Rex Reed quoted in Bob Thomas, “Hearts and Minds: Vietnam Documentary,” Washington Post, October 23, 1974, C7.
6. Gregg Kilday, “The Skirmishing over ‘Hearts,’” Los Angeles Times, November 15, 1974, G1, G18–19.
7. Stephanie Harrington, “First an Undeclared War Now an Unseen Film,” New York Times, November 17, 1974, 153; Kevin Thomas, “‘Hearts, Minds’ Opens to Qualify for Oscars,” Los Angeles Times, December 20, 1974, H22–23; Gary Arnold, “‘Hearts and Minds’: A Scrapbook of Sorrow,” Washington Post, January 31, 1975, B1.
8. Vincent Canby, “‘Hearts and Minds,’ a Study of Power,” New York Times, March 24, 1975, 38. Also see Martin Knelman, “Hearts and Minds,” Globe and Mail, April 12, 1975, 17.
9. William J. McGill, Chairman, A Public Trust: The Report of the Carnegie Commission on the Future of Public Broadcasting (New York: Bantam, 1979), 9–20. For an account of Treviño’s career during this time see Jesús Salvador Treviño, Eyewitness: A Filmmaker’s Memoir of the Chicano Movement (Houston: Arte Público, 2001), 259–337.
10. John J. O’Connor, “Should Public Television Be Playing It Safe?,” New York Times, March 23, 1980, D35. See also John Carmody, “PBS New Season: Money Worries and Compromise but Hanging in There,” Washington Post, September 29, 1974, H1; Dick Adler, “Public Airwaves: The Public Has Plenty to Say,” Los Angeles Times, February 17, 1976, E1; John J. O’Connor, “New Play Series Long on Talent, Short on Funds,” New York Times, October 17, 1976, 99; Patricia Aufderheide, “Public Television and the Public Sphere,” Critical Studies in Mass Communication 8, no. 2 (1991): 168–83; James Ledbetter, Made Possible by . . . : The Death of Public Broadcasting in the United States (London: Verso, 1997), 89–114, 160–93; David M. Stone, Nixon and the Politics of Public Television (London: Garland, 1985), 317–41.
11. Treviño was scheduled to complete television projects on the themes of “Chicano love” and “growing up Chicano” for McGraw-Hill, but the films were never completed. The company took issue with Treviño’s leftist politics. Additionally, El Teatro Campesino was unwilling to support Treviño in his creative and editorial choices.
12. Jesús Salvador Treviño interviewed by Jim Miller, “Chicano Cinema,” Cineaste 8, no. 3 (1978): 38–41. See also Jesús Salvador Treviño interviewed by Stephanie Sapienza, May 29, 2010, in Alternative Projections: Experimental Film in Los Angeles, 1945–1980, 30–36, accessed January 15, 2016, https://alternativeprojections.com/assets/Uploads/Jesus-Trevino-Oral-History-Transcript.pdf.
13. Jesús Salvador Treviño quoted in Ying Ying Wu, “A Chicano View at the Border,” Los Angeles Times, June 3, 1979, L29.
14. Jason Johansen, “Landmark Chicano Film Premiere,” Los Angeles Times, May 29, 1979, F7; Cart, “Raíces de Sangre,” Variety, June 20, 1979, 19. See also “Valley Variety,” Los Angeles Times, July 10, 1975, SF3; “Mexican Heritage Films Scheduled,” Los Angeles Times, April 15, 1976, WS10; “Chicano Film Festival to Open Tonight at 7 at the E.L.A. Library,” Los Angeles Times, October 5, 1976, F10; “Calendar,” Washington Post, May 6, 1977, D11.
15. “KNBC’s Bicentennial Series, ‘The Rebels,’” Los Angeles Sentinel, April 22, 1976, B.
16. Sue Booker, “Unique Collection: Black History in a Back-Lot Store,” Los Angeles Times, December 4, 1973, C1; Sue Booker, “The Old and the Young: One on One in the Classroom,” Los Angeles Times, March 11, 1976, E1; Sue Booker, “George Washington Carver: Nature Spoke to Him,” Los Angeles Sentinel, February 14, 1974, A1.
17. Lynne Littman quoted in Mary Murphy and Cheryl Bentsen, “Coming to Grips with the Issue of Power,” Los Angeles Times, August 16, 1973, E1, E8–20.
18. Mary Murphy, “AFI Women: A Camera Is Not Enough,” Los Angeles Times, October 27, 1974, O1, O92; Grant Lee, “Where Are the Women Directors?,” Los Angeles Times, June 20, 1980, G1; Susan Smith, “The AFI’s Workshops for Women: An Assessment,” Los Angeles Times, September 13, 1979, F27; Louise Sweeney, “Lights! Camera! Affirmative Action!,” Christian Science Monitor, August 14, 1979, B12, B16.
19. “KCET to Air Programs by, for, about Women,” Los Angeles Times, October 17, 1975, H26.
20. Linda Gross, “‘Till Death Do Us Part’ in Women’s Film Series,” Los Angeles Times, May 7, 1977, B11. See also “Outstanding Programs: KCET, KOCE Win CPB Honors,” Los Angeles Times, February 13, 1976, F30; Cecil Smith, “Public Look at Women’s Lives,” Los Angeles Times, July 25, 1977, F12; Joan Levine, “Women’s Film Series at the Royal, Los Angeles Times, April 15, 1977, G23.
21. Andrew Deener, Venice: A Contested Bohemia in Los Angeles (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2012), 40–43, 145–53. See also Horst Schmidt-Brümmer, Venice California: An Urban Fantasy (New York: Grossman, 1973), 7–30.
22. Susan Squire, “A Walking Tour of the New Venice,” Los Angeles Magazine, October 1974, 64. See also Ginger Harmon, “Don’t Look Now, but Venice Is Coming Back!” Los Angeles Magazine, October 1974, 58–63.
23. Dial Torgerson, “Venice: Everything Is Changing, Especially the People,” Los Angeles Times, November 18, 1973, C1. See also Milton Takei, “Evictions of Elderly,” Free Venice Beachhead, March 1973, 4, “Venice Community,” box 108, Barbara Myerhoff Papers, University of Southern California; Skip Ferderber, “Outsized Rents Put Elderly to Flight,” Los Angeles Times, March 23, 1975, WS1; Patricia Adler, A History of the Venice Area: A Part of the Venice Community Plan Study (Los Angeles: Department of City Planning, 1969).
24. Barbara Myerhoff, Number Our Days: A Triumph of Continuity and Culture among Jewish Old People in an Urban Ghetto (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1978), 1–40; Amy Hill Shevitz, “Jewish Space and Place in Venice,” in California Jews, ed. Ava. F. Kahn and Marc Dollinger (Lebanon, NH: University Press of New England, 2003), 65–76.
25. Marc Kaminsky, “Introduction,” in Barbara Myerhoff, Remembered Lives: The Work of Ritual, Storytelling, and Growing Older (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1992), 20. See also Eleanor Hoover, “Old Jews of Venice: Culture Is Survival-Oriented,” Los Angeles Times, September 26, 1976, C1, C3.
26. Cecil Smith, “28 Tonight: A New Approach to the News,” Los Angeles Times, August 1, 1976, M2.
27. Lee Margulies, “Venice Jews in TV Documentary,” Los Angeles Times, October 4, 1976, E13. See also John J. O’Connor, “TV: Moving Study of the Elderly,” New York Times, May 10, 1977, 46.
28. Gary Arnold, “Foreign Romance and Summer Repertory: Film Notes,” Washington Post, June 1, 1977, D10.
29. Barbara Myerhoff, Remembered Lives, 277–304.
30. Lynne Littman quoted in Cecil Smith, “Lynne Littman: Flight from PBS,” Los Angeles Times, May 9, 1980, G1.
31. Ibid. After Number Our Days, Littman did make the documentaries Once a Daughter (1979), about the intimate conflicts between four different pairs of mothers and daughters, and In Her Own Time (1985), about Myerhoff’s fieldwork and battle with cancer. Littman then directed the antiwar realist fiction film Testament (1983), which focused on a mother coping with her dying family and local community after a nuclear bomb explosion. Beverly Beyette, “A Mother-Daughter Day of Dialogue,” Los Angeles Times, May 15, 1979, F1; Sheila Benson, “‘Testament’ Testifies on Behalf of Humanity,” Los Angeles Times, November 3, 1983, I1; Howard Rosenberg, “Television Feels Its Way toward Issue Movies,” Los Angeles Times, November 10, 1983, K1; Sheila Benson, “Time Offers Look into Hasidic Life: Myerhoff,” Los Angeles Times, December 7, 1985, E1.
32. Frank Chin ed., Aiiieeeee!: An Anthology of Asian-American Writers (Washington, DC: Howard University Press, 1974).
33. Kats Kunitsugo, “On Margin: Communicating Visually,” Pacific Citizen, February 28, 1975, 4, “Press Clippings,” Visual Communications Archive, Little Tokyo, Los Angeles (hereafter VCA); “West L.A. Library Lists July Events,” Los Angeles Times, June 27, 1976, WS4; “Akira Kurosawa Films to Be Shown at East L.A. College,” Los Angeles Times, December 3, 1976, G34; Linda Gross, “Students’ Best in ‘UCLA in Focus,’” Los Angeles Times, June 3, 1977, G17.
34. Advertisement, “Press Clippings,” VCA.
35. Linda Gross, “Asian-American Points of View,” Los Angeles Times, May 14, 1976, F17.
36. Franklin Odo, “Preface,” in ROOTS: An Asian American Reader (Los Angeles: Visual Communications/UCLA Asian American Studies Center, 1971), vii.
37. Franklin Odo, ed., In Movement: A Pictorial History of Asian America (Los Angeles: Triangle Lithograph, 1977), 6–7, 146–47.
38. “Groups in Little Tokyo Demand Evictions Delay,” Los Angeles Times, August 5, 1976, E6; Ray Hebert, “Halt in Evictions at Hotel in Little Tokyo Sought,” Los Angeles Times, January 18, 1977, D1; Lynn Simross, “Redevelopment in Little Tokyo Stirs Conflict among Citizens,” Los Angeles Times, February 27, 1977, J1, J7; Nancy Yoshihara, “Otani: High Rise, Low Profile,” Los Angeles Times, February 27, 1977, F1, F3; Ray Hebert, “Three Evicted; Razing Begins in Little Tokyo,” Los Angeles Times, July 7, 1977, C3; “Little Tokyo Apartments Underway,” Los Angeles Times, June 10, 1979, H10.
39. Jan-Christopher Horak, “Tough Enough: Blaxploitation and the L.A. Rebellion,” in L.A. Rebellion: Creating a New Black Cinema, ed. Allyson Nadia Field, Jan-Christopher Horak, and Jacqueline Najuma Stewart (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2015), 120–21, 124.
40. For more details on particular L.A. Rebellion films and filmmakers, see UCLA Film & Television Archive’s extensive online resource https://www.cinema.ucla.edu/la-rebellion/story-la-rebellion. Looking for meaningful professional opportunities, L.A. Rebellion filmmakers worked on a variety of jobs during and after their time at UCLA. Larry Clark taught a film workshop at the Performing Arts Society of Los Angeles. Jamaa Fanaka and Thomas Penick labored in the fringe sectors of Hollywood. The AFI-educated director Oscar Williams and Burnett’s frequent collaborator Roderick Young worked together on one of New World Pictures’ first major films on black militancy, The Final Comedown (1972). Young also continued to work as a photographer. For more on the work of L.A. Rebellion filmmakers in various sectors of the media industries, see “Performing Arts Society Reorganized,” Los Angeles Sentinel, September 13, 1973, B2A; “Festival of Performing Arts Starts,” Los Angeles Sentinel, February 26, 1970, A5; “Photography Exhibit Due,” Los Angeles Sentinel, May 14, 1970, A5; Roberta Ostroff, “Up against the Wall,” Los Angeles Times, January 31, 1971, U22; St. Clair Bourne, “‘Final Comedown’ Sends an Unclear Message,” New York Amsterdam News, June 17, 1972, C8; John Rhodes, “‘Final Comedown’ Is Rejection of Ghetto,” Philadelphia Tribune, June 17, 1972, 23; George Gent, “Black Films Are In, So Are Profits,” New York Times, July 18, 1972, 22.
41. Victor Vazquez, “Press Book,” 2007 Milestone Restoration and Re-release of Killer of Sheep, accessed September 4, 2013, http://www.killerofsheep.com/images/KOSfinalPK.pdf; Charles Burnett commentary, Killer of Sheep, directed by Charles Burnett (2014; New York: Milestone Film and Video, 1977), DVD.
42. Paula Massood, “An Aesthetic Appropriate to Conditions: Killer of Sheep, (Neo)Realism, and the Documentary Impulse,” Wide Angle 21, no. 4 (1999): 28.
43. Charles Burnett, interview by Joshua Glick, May 6, 2016, Los Angeles.
44. Charles Burnett interviewed by Aida A. Hozic, “The House I Live In,” Callaloo 17, no. 2 (Spring 1994): 475.
45. Terry Teachout, Pops: A Life of Louis Armstrong (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2009), 112–17; John Burnett, “West End Blues,” NPR, April 6, 2000, accessed June 23, 2013, http://www.npr.org/2000/08/06/1080400/west-end-blues.
46. Charles Burnett, “Inner City Blues,” in Questions of Third Cinema, ed. Jim Pines and Paul Willemen (London: BFI, 1989), 226.
47. Edward Soja, Postmodern Geographies: The Reassertion of Space in Critical Social Theory (London: Verso, 1989), 197–215.
48. Josh Sides, L.A. City Limits: African American Los Angeles from the Great Depression to the Present (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003), 172–97.
1. Ronald Reagan, first inaugural address, January 20, 1981, American Presidency Project, accessed March 5, 2017, http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=43130.
2. Marshall Ingwerson, “Call It ‘Info-tainment’ or ‘Docu-schlock,’ This Is Popular TV,” Christian Science Monitor, December 14, 1983, 1.
3. Charles Champlin, “Under Olympic Spirit Beats a Heart of Gold,” Los Angeles Times, August 2, 1984, F1.
4. Kenneth Reich, “Wolper Will Produce Olympic Ceremonies,” Los Angeles Times, August 19, 1983, D1; Kenneth Reich, “Goose Bumps Promised for Olympic Ceremonies,” Los Angeles Times, May 2, 1984, C1; Tony Kornheiser, “Grand Opening,” Washington Post, July 29, 1984, F1; Dan Sullivan, “Hollywood Just Showing Off a Bit,” Los Angeles Times, July 29, 1984, H3; Peter May, “Olympics Open with Splendor of Hollywood,” Hartford Courant, July 29, 1984, A1. Wolper definitely aimed for extravagance; see for instance David Wolper quoted in “Coming Soon: A Colossal Curtain Raiser, Fabulous Finale,” United: The Magazine of the Friendly Skies, December 1983, 59.
5. Kenneth Reich, “Bradley Entrusts Olympics Hopes to Private Panel,” Los Angeles Times, June 4, 1978, A1.
6. Ken Reich, “Private Enterprise Captures the Gold,” Los Angeles Times, December 30, 1984, D1; Wayne Wilson, “Sports Infrastructure, Legacy and Paradox of the 1984 Olympic Games,” in The 1984 Los Angeles Olympic Games: Assessing the 30-Year Legacy, ed. Matthew P. Llewellyn et al. (London: Routledge, 2015), 144–48; Barry A. Sanders, The Los Angeles 1984 Olympic Games (Charleston, SC: Arcadia, 2013), 7–39.
7. David Harvey, A Brief History of Neoliberalism (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005), 5–86; Bruce Schulman, The Seventies: The Great Shift in American Culture, Society, and Politics (New York: Free Press, 2001), 193–252; Peter Carroll, It Seemed Like Nothing Happened: America in the 1970s (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1990), 317–50.
8. Stephen Prince, A New Pot of Gold: Hollywood under the Electronic Rainbow, 1980–1989 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000), 1–141; Susan Jeffords, Hard Bodies: Hollywood Masculinity in the Reagan Era (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1994), 1–23; Michael Rogin, Ronald Reagan, The Movie and Other Episodes of Political Demonology (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987), 1–43.
9. Kevin Glynn, Tabloid Culture: Trash Taste, Popular Power, and the Transformation of American Television (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2000), 1–45.