Notes

Notes to “Terminology”

1. There are no such references in Columbus’s journals or letters. David Wilton did a good job exposing the untruth of this assertion in Word Myths: Debunking Linguistic Urban Legends (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009).

2. Sherman Alexie, reading, Schwartz Books, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, Mar. 1993.

3. Ives Goddard in News From Indian Country (mid-Apr. 1997).

4. The Forest County Potawatomi (Wisconsin) and the Citizen Band Potawatomi (Kansas) prefer Potawatomi to other spellings. Billy Daniels, Forest County Potawatomi elder, affirmed this spelling when I interviewed him. The Ho-Chunk Nation of Wisconsin prefers Ho-Chunk to the commonly used term Winnebago. The Assiniboine of Fort Belknap prefer Assiniboine to its numerous alternate spellings. The Menominee of Wisconsin prefer Menominee to the published alternatives. The Grand Traverse Band (Michigan) and Oklahoma Band of Ottawa (Oklahoma) both prefer Ottawa to the other versions of their name.

Notes to “History”

1. James Adovasio and Jake Page, The First Americans: In Pursuit of Archaeology’s Greatest Mystery (New York: Random House, 2003); N. Guidon and G. Delibrias, “Carbon-14 Dates Point to Man in the Americas 32,000 Years Ago,” Nature 321 (1986): 769–71; Robson Bonnichsen and Karen L. Turnmire, Clovis: Origins and Adaptations (Corvallis: Oregon State University Press, 1991); Mary C. Stiner, “Modern Human Origins—Faunal Perspectives,” Annual Review of Anthropology (1993): 55–77; David Hurst Thomas, Exploring Ancient Native America: An Archaeological Guide (New York: Macmillan, 1994); David S. Whitley and Ronald I. Dorn, “New Perspectives on the Clovis vs. Pre-Clovis Controversy,” American Antiquity 58.4 (1993): 626–47; John Noble Wilford, “Support for Early Date of Arrival in America,” New York Times, Feb. 1, 1994; Charles C. Mann, 1491: New Revelations of the Americas before Columbus (New York: Random House, 2005).

Other sites under current excavation and investigation that challenge the Clovis First Theory include Channel Islands (California), Leech Lake (Walker, Minnesota), Big Eddy (Missouri), Page-Ladson (Jefferson County, Florida), Mud Lake and Schaefer-Hebior Mammoth (Kenosha County, Wisconsin), Paisley Caves (Oregon), Cactus Hill (Virginia), Tlapacoya (Lake Chalco Pedra Furada, Serra da Capivara National Park, Brazil), Lagoa Santa (Minas Gerais, Brazil), Cueva Fell and Pali Aike Crater (Patagonia), and Taima Taima (Venezuela).

2. George Catlin, Letters and Notes on the Manners, Customs, and Conditions of North American Indians, 2 vols. (New York: Dover Publications, 1973), 1:238–40; Frances Densmore, Chippewa Customs (St. Paul: Minnesota Historical Society Press, 1979), 135; George W. Featherstonhaugh, A Canoe Voyage up the Minnay Sotor with an Account of the Lead and Copper Deposits in Wisconsin; of the Gold Region in the Cherokee Country; and Sketches of Popular Manners (St. Paul: Minnesota Historical Society Press, 1970), 1:362–63; Basil Johnston, Ojibway Ceremonies (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1990), 75–76; Edmund Jefferson Danziger, Jr., The Chippewas of Lake Superior (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1979), 24–25; Henry Lewis, The Valley of the Mississippi Illustrated, trans. Hermina Poatgieter (St. Paul: Minnesota Historical Society Press, 1967), 173–75; and Samuel W. Pond, The Dakota or Sioux in Minnesota: As They Were in 1834 (St. Paul: Minnesota Historical Society Press, 1986), 130–31; Henry H. Sibley, “Memoir of Jean Nicollet,” Collections of the Minnesota Historical Society 1 (1902):224; James H. Howard, The Plains-Ojibwa or Bungi, Reprints in Anthropology 7 (Vermillion: University of South Dakota Press, 1977), 104; Mary Eastman, Dahcotah; or Life and Legends of the Sioux around Fort Snelling (Minneapolis, MN: Ross and Haines, 1962), xx.

3. Frederic Baraga, Chippewa Indians in 1847 (New York: Studia Slovenica, 1976), 45.

4. Interviews, Earl Otchingwanigan (Nyholm), 1992; Mary Roberts, 1988, 1989; Archie Mosay, 1993; Dora Ammann, 1994; Thomas J. Stillday, 1995; Anna Gibbs, 1998. See also Erwin F. Mittleholtz and Rose Graves, Historical Review of the Red Lake Indian Reservation: Centennial Souvenir Commemorating a Century of Progress, 1858–1958 (Bemidji, MN: Council of the Red Lake Band of Chippewa Indians and the Beltrami County Historical Society, 1957), 136; Martha Coleman Bray, The Journals of Joseph N. Nicollet: A Scientist on the Mississippi Headwaters with Notes on Indian Life, 1836–37, trans. André Fertey (St. Paul: Minnesota Historical Society Press, 1970), 165, 199–211; Walter Williams, The Spirit and the Flesh: Sexual Diversity in American Indian Culture (Boston: Beacon Press, 1992), 67–68, 110, 167–68; Alexander Henry and David Thompson, New Light on the Early History of the Greater Northwest, ed. Elliott Coues (New York: Harper, 1897), 1:163–65; Louise Phelps Kellogg, Early Narratives of the Northwest, 1634–1699 (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1917), 244n; Vernon W. Kinietz, Chippewa Village (Bloomfield, MI: Cranbrook Press, 1947), 155; Peter Grant, “The Saulteux Indians about 1804,” in Les Bourgeois de la Compagnie du Nord-Ouest, ed. L. R. Masson (Quebec City: Imprimerie, 1890), 2:357; Catlin, Letters and Notes, 2:214–15; Reuben Gold Thwaites, ed., The Jesuit Relations and Allied Documents, 73 vols. (New York: Pageant Book Company, 1959), 59:129, 310; Edwin James, ed., A Narrative of the Captivity and Adventures of John Tanner during Thirty Years Residence among the Indians in the Interior of North America (London: Carvill, 1830; reprint, Minneapolis, MN: Ross and Haines, 1956), 105–6; Densmore, Chippewa Customs, 87–89; John Parker, ed., The Journals of Jonathan Carver and Related Documents (St. Paul: Minnesota Historical Society Press, 1976), 108–10; William W. Warren, History of the Ojibway People (St. Paul: Minnesota Historical Society Press, 1984), 264; Pond, The Dakota or Sioux in Minnesota, 93–96, 124. An excellent secondary account is discussed in Rebecca Kugel, To Be the Main Leaders of Our People: A History of Minnesota Ojibwe Politics (East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 1998), 71–73, 92n.

5. Interview, Mary Roberts, 1988.

6. I prefer the term “educational opportunity gap” over “achievement gap” but want to avoid confusion here.

7. Christopher Columbus, The Four Voyages: Being His Own Log-Book, Letters and Dispatches with Connecting Narratives (New York: Penguin, 1985).

8. Bartolomé de Las Casas, Brief Account of the Devastation of the Indies (1542).

9. Bartolomé de Las Casas, History of the Indies (1552), as cited in Alvin Josephy, Jr., 500 Nations (New York: Knopf, 1994), 114.

10. The State of Wisconsin passed ACT 31, which mandates all certified K–12 educators take a class on Indian history or culture, but the requirement is easily satisfied with a weekend workshop. Some public officials have also issued apologies, but here too the efforts have been small, scattershot, and largely unsupported by either the government or the general population.

11. The Minnesota state seal has a very similar image: a white farmer plowing the land as a symbol of progress, with an Indian riding into the sunset. The caption, in French, reads: “L’ Étoile du Nord (The Star of the North).”

12. The Powhatan were a confederacy of thirty Algonquian tribes in Virginia in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. The term Powhatan has been used to refer to the largest tribe in the confederacy, the people of all tribes from the confederacy, the principal village in the confederacy, and its primary chief. Confederacy nations include the Powhatans, Arrohatecks, Appamattucks, Pamunkey, Mattaponis, Chiskiacks, Kecoughtans, Youghtanunds, Rappahannocks, Moraughtacunds, Weyanoaks, Paspaheghs, Quiyoughcohannocks, and Nansemonds.

13. Anton Treuer, Ojibwe in Minnesota (St. Paul: Minnesota Historical Society Press, 2010), 35; Jill St. Germain, Indian Treaty-Making Policy in the United States and Canada, 1867–1877 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2001). The decision to end treaty making with Indian tribes in 1871 was only possible when Indian nations could be treated as subjects of American policy rather than as independent nations.

14. Webster’s Online Dictionary, 2011.

15. Article 2, Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, United Nations, Dec. 9, 1948. Text available at http://www.hrweb.org/legal/genocide.html.

16. Lord Jeffrey Amherst, Commander of British North America Forces, to Colonel Henry Bouquet, July 16, 1763. The letter was authenticated by Francis Parkman, and discussion of it is available at http://www.straightdope.com/columns/read/1088/did-whites-ever-give-native-americans-blankets-infected-with-smallpox.

17. Alexandra Pierce, “Shattered Hearts,” report compiled for Minnesota Indian Women’s Resource Center (Aug. 2009), 11.

Notes to “Religion, Culture & Identity”

1. Interview, Billy Daniels, Potawatomi elder (1996).

2. Interview, Thomas Stillday (2006).

3. “State Urges Denial of New Trial Bid in Sweat Lodge Case,” Bemidji Pioneer, July 26, 2011, 12.

4. For a copy of the Code of Indian Offenses, see http://tribal-law.blogspot.com/2008/02/code-of-indian-offenses.html.

Note to “Powwow”

1. There are a few scattered references to “powwow” as old as the late nineteenth century, but they are actually references to ceremonial Big Drum dances rather than to powwows as they are performed and understood today. Modern powwow culture first emerged around World War II, and its current contest configurations developed in the 1970s.

Note to “Tribal Languages”

1. Mii o’ow gidinwewininaan. Mii ow memadweyaashkaagin zaaga’iganiin miinawaa sa go gaye minweweyaandagaasing miinawaa sa go gaye minwewebagaasing ani-dagwaaging. Mii o’ow enitaagoziwaad bineshiinyag nagamotaadiwaad megwayaak miinawaa go ma’iinganag waawoonowaad, naawewidamowaad. Mii ow gidinwewininaan wendinigeyang bimaadiziwin, gikenindizoyang anishinaabewiyang, gidinwewininaan gechitwaawendaagwak gaa-ina’oonigooyang gimanidoominaan.

Notes to “Politics”

1. The Oneida case was dismissed by the Second Circuit Court of Appeals in May 2011 but is being appealed to the U.S. Supreme Court: Caitlin Traynor, “Oneida Indian Nation Appeals Land Claim Dismissal,” The Oneida Daily Dispatch, May 24, 2011.

2. Ada Deer as cited in Treuer, Ojibwe in Minnesota, 48.

3. The total number of terminated tribal governments is 109, including California Rancherias and Oregon tribal communities covered in blanket termination policies and individual termination acts from 1953 to 1964. There are additional native groups like the Lumbee that seek official federal recognition but lack a treaty-based government-to-government history with the United States since most are located on the East Coast, where they had relations with the British but lost most of their land before the U.S. government came into existence.

4. Public Law 280, Act of Aug. 15, 1953, ch. 505, 67 Stat. 588. For background on and legal challenges to Public Law 280, see Kevin K. Washburn, “The Legacy of Bryan v. Itasca County: How a $147 County Tax Notice Helped Bring Tribes $200 Billion in Indian Gaming Revenue,” Minnesota Law Review (forthcoming), available at http://ssrn.com/abstract=1008585.

5. Bryan v. Itasca County (426 U.S. 373, 1976). In State of Minnesota v. Stone and State of Minnesota v. Jackson, the Minnesota Supreme Court ruled that the state could not regulate most traffic laws on reservations for Indian defendants.

6. Kathy Graves and Elizabeth Ebbott, Indians in Minnesota (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2006), 284–85; Minnesota Statewide Racial Profiling Report: Beltrami County Sheriff’s Department, report to Minnesota State Legislature by the Institute on Race and Poverty, Sept. 23, 2003; Chris Williams, “In Minnesota, Claims of Racial Profiling Indians,” News From Indian Country (2002).

7. Information on AIM activism is taken from Paul Smith and Robert Warrior, Like a Hurricane: The American Indian Movement from Alcatraz to Wounded Knee (New York: W. W. Norton, 1996).

8. Information on these AIM activities is taken primarily from “Concerned Indian Americans,” charter statement; interview, Clyde Bellecourt, 1994; Russell Means, Where White Men Fear to Tread (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1995).

9. All of the statistics on adoption and foster care of native children, including the Minnesota-specific figures, are taken from expert testimony on the bill Public Law 95–608 (Indian Child Welfare Act), 9–10, 336–37. Information on impacts of the act and caseload numbers is taken from Graves and Ebbott, Indians in Minnesota, 227, 238.

10. Graves and Ebbott, Indians in Minnesota, 91.

11. James Dao, “In California, Indian Tribes with Casino Money Cast Off Members,” New York Times, Dec. 12, 2011. Michigan and other states have seen many tribal members removed from the rolls in recent years as well. Disenrollment usually has less to do with blood quantum than it does with political infighting or per capita payments.

12. Information on tribal enrollment at White Earth and the Jenks and Hrdlicka tests is taken from Records of the United States, Records of the U.S. Attorney, U.S. Department of Justice, “Land Allotment Fraud Cases at White Earth, Deposition Testimony,” National Archives, Chicago Regional Branch, 11; Ales Hrdlicka, “Anthropology of the Chippewa,” Holes Anniversary Volume: Anthropological Essays (Washington, DC: 1916), 198–227; Albert Jenks to William Folwell, May 21, 1926, William Watts Folwell Papers, Minnesota Historical Society, St. Paul; “Professor Jenks Returns to the University,” University of Minnesota Alumni Weekly 15.21 (Feb. 21, 1916), 12; Ranson J. Powell to Albert Jenks, Nov. 16, 1914, Powell Papers, Minnesota Historical Society, St. Paul; “Popular Picture of Indian Upset by Investigation, Eagle Beak Nose Belongs Not to Red Man, but to Fiction,” Minneapolis Journal, Apr. 9, 1916, 3; Minneapolis Journal, May 1 and 5, 1918, 12; Minneapolis Tribune, Nov. 1 and 13, 1920. For reliable secondary sources, see the fantastic article on the eugenics testing and compilation of blood quantum records at White Earth by David L. Beaulieu, “Curly Hair and Big Feet: Physical Anthropology and the Implementation of Land Allotment on the White Earth Chippewa Reservation,” American Indian Quarterly (Fall 1984): 281–314. See also William W. Folwell, A History of Minnesota (St. Paul: Minnesota Historical Society Press, 1956), 4:291–93.

13. White Earth is trying to change the criteria for enrollment, but absent approval from the Bureau of Indian Affairs and the Minnesota Chippewa Tribe, it has been unsuccessful to date.

14. “Of Blood and Citizenship,” Indian Country Today, July 27, 2011, 27.

15. It is a mutually beneficial proposition. More people would be eligible for help from the tribes, yes, but expanding tribal membership would also help the tribes have larger pools of voters, tribal political leaders, advocates, and educators. Waning membership means waning political power. Italy and Japan, for example, have declined in military and diplomatic position in part because of lower birth rates relative to those of other countries.

16. Diane Wilson’s Beloved Child (St. Paul, MN: Borealis Books, 2011) provides some great anecdotal examples of this dynamic.

17. Chris Williams, “Suit Calls School’s ‘Wigger Day’ Racist,” St. Paul Pioneer Press, Aug. 5, 2011, B1.

18. Interview, Sean Fahrlander, Sept. 2009. Fahrlander placed the emphasis on land, to clarify that he was serving his people and his place, not the U.S. flag. He also added, “Things were so bad on the reservation that what we were going to was no worse than what we were coming from.”

Notes to “Economics”

1. Graves and Ebbott, Indians in Minnesota, 95. This data is for the enrolled tribal population. The number of self-identified Indians living on a reservation is much smaller.

2. Seminole v. Butterworth, 657 F.2d 310, U.S. Court of Appeals, Fifth Circuit.

Notes to “Education”

1. Woodlands: The Story of the Mille Lacs Ojibwe, oral history video documentary (Onamia, MN: Mille Lacs Band of Ojibwe, 1994); interviews, Melvin Eagle, 2008; James Clark, 2002; Luella Seelye, 2009; David Wallace Adams, Education for Extinction: American Indians and the Boarding School Experience, 1875–1928 (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1995); Tim Giago, Children Left Behind: The Dark Legacy of Indian Mission Boarding Schools (Santa Fe, NM: Clear Light Publishing, 2006); Brenda Child, Boarding School Seasons: American Indian Families, 1900–1940 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1998); James Olson and Raymond Wilson, Native Americans in the Twentieth Century (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1986); Frederick Hoxie, The Campaign to Assimilate the Indians (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2001); Graves and Ebbott, Indians in Minnesota, 16–17, 192–93; Colin Calloway, First Peoples: A Documentary Survey of American Indian History (Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2004), 335–96; Janet Chute, The Legacy of Shingwaukonse: A Century of Native Leadership (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1998).

2. Captain Richard Henry Pratt, as cited on Wikipedia.

3. Commissioner of Indian Affairs William A. Jones, speech to Congress, 1899.

4. The Canadian government issued a formal apology for residential boarding school abuses and a procedure for reparations to those who were abused. The testimonies and reports from that process give us a clear indication of the patterns and molestation rates in Canada. Information from the U.S. side of the border is more scattered but available in the Merriam Report, other government reports, and numerous articles. See especially Lewis Merriam, The Problem of Indian Administration: Report of a Survey Made at the Request of Honorable Hubert Work, Secretary of the Interior, and Submitted to Him, February 28, 1928 (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1928), better known as the Merriam Report; and http://archives.cbc.ca/society/education/topics/692.

5. All statistics about the health conditions and death rates at the residential schools are taken from the Merriam Report.

6. Michael Krauss, “Status of Native American Language Endangerment,” in ed. Gina Cantoni, Stabilizing Indigenous Languages (Flagstaff: Northern Arizona University, 1996), 17.

Notes to “Perspectives”

1. Some studies have proven that it is for many Indians. Minnesota Statewide Racial Profiling Report; Williams, “In Minnesota, Claims of Racial Profiling Indians.”

2. For Indians living on trust property owned by the tribe, there is an additional obstacle to obtaining loans for housing because the property cannot be mortgaged to a bank, another issue that whites have the privilege of never having to worry about.

Notes to Conclusion

1. Chuck Haga, “A Long Year at Red Lake: From Condemnation to Compassion During a Crisis,” Minneapolis Star Tribune, Mar. 14, 2006, available at http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-143311115.html.

2. Interview, Thomas Stillday, 2006; Haga, “A Long Year at Red Lake.”

3. Minnesota Statewide Racial Profiling Report; Williams, “In Minnesota, Claims of Racial Profiling Indians.”

4. “Thank you. I’ll see you again.”