Study Notes

1:1 revelation. Apocalypse (“unveiling” or “disclosure”); see Introduction: Literary Form. servants. All believers. soon take place. See v. 3; 22:6–7,10,20. his angel. A messenger. “Angel(s)” occurs over 80 times in Revelation. John. See Introduction: Author.

1:3 Blessed. The first of seven beatitudes in the book (see 14:13; 16:15; 19:9; 20:6; 22:7,14). “Blessed” means much more than “happy.” It describes the favorable circumstances granted by God to a person (see notes on Ps 1:1; Mt 5:3). prophecy. Includes not only foretelling the future but also proclaiming any word from God—whether command, instruction, history or prediction (see 1Co 14:3 and note). time is near. See note on Jas 5:9.

1:4 seven churches. Located an average of 50 miles from each other, forming a very rough oval, connected by roads moving clockwise north from Ephesus and coming around full circle from Laodicea (east of Ephesus; see map). Apparently the entire book of Revelation (including the seven letters) was sent to each church (v. 11). See note on 2:1—3:22. Asia. A Roman province lying in modern western Turkey. Grace and peace. See note on Ro 1:7. who is . . . was . . . is to come. A paraphrase of the divine name from Ex 3:14–15. Cf. Heb 13:8. seven spirits. See NIV text note; see also Zec 4:2 and note and cf. 4:10.

1:5–6 has freed us . . . has made us . . . kingdom and priests. Emphasizes these blessings as present possessions already enjoyed by the believer (see also 5:9–10).

1:6 a kingdom and priests. This OT designation of Israel (see notes on Ex 19:6; Zec 3) is applied in the NT to the church (1Pe 2:5,9).

1:7 coming with the clouds. See Mt 24:30 and note. pierced. See Ps 22:16; Isa 53:5; Zec 12:10; Jn 19:34,37. So shall it be! Amen. A double affirmation.

1:8 the Alpha and the Omega. The first and last letters of the Greek alphabet. God is the beginning and the end (see 21:6). He sovereignly rules over all human history. In 22:13 Jesus applies the same title to himself; see also “the First and the Last” (v. 17; 2:8; 22:13). Almighty. Nine of the 10 occurrences of this Greek term in the NT are in Revelation (here; 4:8; 11:17; 15:3; 16:7,14; 19:6,15; 21:22). The other one is in 2Co 6:18.

1:9 suffering . . . kingdom . . . patient endurance. Three pivotal themes in Revelation: (1) suffering (2:9–10,22; 7:14), (2) kingdom (11:15; 12:10; 16:10; 17:12,17–18), (3) patient endurance (2:2–3,19; 3:10; 13:10; 14:12). Patmos. A small (four by eight miles), rocky island in the Aegean Sea some 50 miles southwest of Ephesus, off the coast of modern Turkey (see map; see also photos here and here). It may have served as a Roman penal settlement. Eusebius, the “father of church history” (ad 265–340), reports that John was released from Patmos under the emperor Nerva (96–98).

1:10 the Lord’s Day. A technical term for the first day of the week—so named because Jesus rose from the dead on that day. It was also the day on which the Christians met (Ac 20:7) and took up collections (1Co 16:2). in the Spirit. A state in which John was receptive to a divine vision, like Peter’s in Ac 10:10 (see note there; cf. note on 4:2).

1:11 scroll. Pieces of papyrus or parchment sewn together and rolled on a spindle (see note on Ex 17:14). The book form was not invented until the second century ad. seven churches. See note on v. 4.

1:12 seven. See Introduction: Distinctive Feature. golden lampstands. The seven churches (v. 20).

1:13 son of man. See notes on Da 7:13; Mk 8:31. robe . . . to his feet. The high priest wore a full-length robe (Ex 28:4; 29:5). Reference to Christ as high priest is supported by the reference to the golden sash around his chest (cf. Ex 28:4; 29:9).

1:14 white like wool. Cf. Da 7:9; Isa 1:18. The white hair suggests wisdom and dignity (Lev 19:32; Pr 16:31). eyes . . . like blazing fire. Penetrating insight (4:6).

1:16 sharp, double-edged sword. Like a long Thracian sword (also in 2:12,16; 6:8; 19:15,21). The sword in 6:4; 13:10,14 was a small sword or dagger. The sword symbolizes Christ’s word of divine judgment (Isa 49:2; Heb 4:12; cf. Eph 6:17–18 and note).

1:17 fell at his feet. A sign of great respect and awe (4:10; 5:8; 7:11; 19:10; 22:8). I am. See note on Jn 6:35. the First and the Last. Essentially the same as “the Alpha and the Omega” (v. 8; cf. Isa 44:6; 48:12).

1:18 Living One. Based on OT references to the “living God” (e.g., Jos 3:10; Ps 42:2; 84:2). In contrast to the dead gods of paganism, Christ possesses life in his essential nature (cf. Jn 1:4 and note). keys of death and Hades. Absolute control over their domain (see Mt 16:18 and note).

1:19 Many see a threefold division in this verse and take it as a clue to the entire structure of the book. “What you have seen” would be the inaugural vision of ch. 1; “what is now” would be the letters to the seven churches (chs. 2–3); “what will take place later” would be everything from ch. 4 on. An alternative interpretation sees the initial clause as the essential unit (it parallels v. 11), followed by two explanatory clauses. The sense would be: “Write, therefore, what you are about to see, i.e., both what is now and what will take place later.” Some who hold the latter view make no attempt to outline the book on this basis, maintaining that there is a mixture of “now” and “later” throughout.

1:20 The first of several places where the symbols are interpreted (see also 17:15,18). angels. Either (1) heavenly messengers or (2) earthly messengers/ministers (see NIV text note).

2:1—3:22 A few take the seven letters as a preview of church history in its downward course toward Laodicean lukewarmness. Most interpret them as characteristic of various kinds of Christian congregations that have existed from John’s day until the present time. In either case, they were historical churches in Asia Minor (see maps here, here, and here). A general pattern in the letters is: a characteristic of Christ, a commendation, a complaint, a correction and a conclusion.

2:1 angel. See note on 1:20. Ephesus. See Introduction to Ephesians: The City of Ephesus. holds the seven stars. See 1:16,20. seven golden lampstands. See 1:12,20.

2:2 tested. The necessity of testing for correct doctrine and dependable advice was widely recognized in the early church (1Co 14:29; 1Th 5:21; 1Jn 4:1).

2:4 the love you had at first. For Christ and/or for one another.

2:5 remove your lampstand. Immediate judgment.

2:6 Nicolaitans. A heretical sect within the church that had worked out a compromise with the pagan society. Its adherents apparently taught that spiritual liberty gave them sufficient leeway to practice idolatry and immorality. Tradition identifies them with “Nicolas from Antioch, a convert to Judaism” (Ac 6:5), who was one of the first seven deacons in the Jerusalem church—though the evidence is merely circumstantial. A similar group at Pergamum held the teaching of Balaam (vv. 14–15), and some at Thyatira were followers of Jezebel (v. 20). From their heretical tendencies it would appear that all three groups were Nicolaitans or at least part of the same sect.

2:7 To the one who is victorious. The challenge to be victorious in the battle against evil (12:11) occurs in each letter (here; vv. 11,17,26; 3:5,12,21). There may be an intentional wordplay between the Greek word in v. 6 for “Nicolaitans” (Nikolaitōn, meaning “victory people”) and the word here for “victorious” (nikōnti). Those who faithfully hold to the teaching of Jesus are the truly victorious people. paradise. Originally a Persian word for a park or garden (see note on Lk 23:43). In Revelation it symbolizes the eschatological state in which God and believers are restored to the perfect fellowship that existed before sin entered the world.

2:8 Smyrna. A proud and beautiful Asian city (modern Izmir) closely aligned with Rome and eager to meet its demands for emperor worship. This plus a large and actively hostile Jewish population made it extremely difficult to live there as a Christian. Polycarp, the most famous of the early martyrs, was bishop of Smyrna. the First and the Last. See note on 1:17. died . . . came to life. See 1:18 and note.

2:9 who say they are Jews. See Ro 2:28–29. synagogue of Satan. A bold metaphor directed against unbelieving and hostile Jews in Smyrna and Philadelphia who were persecuting Christians. Cf. Jesus’ scathing rebuke in Jn 8:44; see also 2Co 11:14–15. The Jewish synagogue was a gathering place for worship, study and communal activities. This language is not to be generalized to Jews beyond the specific individuals to whom they were originally addressed. Satan. See notes on Mt 16:23; 1Jn 3:8.

2:10 devil. Greek diabolos, meaning “accuser” or “adversary.” persecution. See the warnings by Jesus (Jn 15:20) and Paul (2Ti 3:12). ten days. Probably indicates a limited period of suffering. life as your victor’s crown. The crown that is eternal life. “Crown” does not refer to a royal crown (12:3; 13:1; 19:12) but to the garland or wreath awarded to the winner in athletic contests (3:11; 4:4,10; 6:2; 9:7; 12:1; 14:14).

2:11 The one who is victorious. See note on v. 7. second death. The lake of fire (20:14; see 20:6; 21:8).

2:12 Pergamum. Modern Bergama; the ancient capital of Asia, built on a cone-shaped hill rising 1,000 feet above the surrounding valley. Its name in Greek means “citadel.” See map. The ancient temple of Dionysus, the Greek god of wine, was there. It also had a large altar to Zeus (see photo), as well as a temple of Athena. One can still see there the remains of a temple of Asklepios, the god of healing. double-edged sword. See note on 1:16.

2:13 where Satan has his throne. Satan “ruled” from Pergamum in that it was the official center of emperor worship in Asia. See photos here and here; see also Purpose. Antipas. First martyr of Asia. According to tradition he was slowly roasted to death in a bronze kettle during the reign of Domitian (81–96). faithful witness. The Lord’s title in 1:5.

2:14 teaching of Balaam. Balaam advised the Midianite women how to lead the Israelites astray (Nu 25:1–2; 31:16; cf. Jude 11 and notes on Nu 22:5,8). He is a fitting prototype of corrupt teachers who deceive believers into compromise with worldliness. food sacrificed to idols . . . immorality. See Ac 15:20,29.

2:15 Nicolaitans. See note on v. 6.

2:16 sword of my mouth. The long sword (see note on 1:16).

2:17 victorious. See note on v. 7. hidden manna. The heavenly food available to the believer who overcomes (cf. Ps 78:24), in contrast to the unclean food of the Balaamites. white stone. Certain kinds of stones were used as tokens for various purposes. In the context of a Messianic banquet the white stone may have been for the purpose of admission. new name. The name of the victor (3:12; Isa 62:2; 65:15).

2:18 Thyatira. Modern Akhisar. Founded by Seleucus I (311–280 bc) as a military outpost, it was noted for its many trade guilds. Lydia, “a dealer in purple cloth,” was from Thyatira (see note on Ac 16:14). eyes . . . like blazing fire. See note on 1:14; cf. Da 10:6. burnished bronze. A refined alloy of copper or bronze with metallic zinc (1:15).

2:20 Jezebel. See 1Ki 16:31; 2Ki 9:22,30–37. The name is used here as an epithet for a prominent woman in the congregation who undermined loyalty to God by promoting tolerance toward pagan practices. sexual immorality . . . food sacrificed to idols. See v. 14.

2:22 bed of suffering. Disease was often considered as appropriate punishment for sins (cf. 1Co 11:29–30).

2:23 her children. Jezebel is the spiritual mother of all who pursue antinomian (libertine) doctrines. he who searches hearts and minds. Cf. Ps 7:9; Pr 24:12; Jer 11:20; 17:10. “Minds” probably refers here to the will and the affections; “hearts” may designate the center of rational life. according to your deeds. Judgment based on works is taught by Jesus (Mt 16:27) and Paul (Ro 2:6), as well as John (Rev 18:6; 20:12–13; 22:12).

2:24 Satan’s so-called deep secrets. Later Gnosticism (see Introduction to 1 John: Gnosticism) taught that in order to defeat Satan one had to enter his stronghold, i.e., experience evil deeply.

2:26 victorious. See note on v. 7.

2:27 rule. Or “shepherd” (a common metaphor for “rule”). iron scepter. Symbolic of the strength of his rule (12:5; 19:15).

2:28 morning star. Cf. 22:16 and note; Da 12:3.

3:1 Sardis. Modern Sart. Capital of the ancient kingdom of Lydia, it was a city of great wealth and fame (see photo). The acropolis was a natural citadel on the northern spur of Mount Tmolus. It rose 1,500 feet above the lower valley. seven spirits of God. See 1:4 and note. seven stars. See 1:20 and note.

3:3 come like a thief. Not a reference to the second coming of Christ, because here his coming depends on the church’s refusal to repent. Elsewhere in the NT the clause refers to the second advent (16:15; Mt 24:42–44; 1Th 5:2; 2Pe 3:10). Despite its stunning mountain fortress, Sardis had twice been successfully attacked by stealth because watchmen grew too lax, thinking they were invincible.

3:4 dressed in white. Description of the redeemed (3:18; 6:11; 7:9,13–14; cf. 4:4; 19:14).

3:5 victorious. See note on 2:7. book of life. A divine ledger is first mentioned in Ex 32:32–33 (see note on Ps 69:28; cf. Da 12:1). It was a register of all citizens in the kingdom community. To have one’s name erased from this book would indicate loss of citizenship (13:8; 17:8; 20:12,15; 21:27; Php 4:3).

3:7 Philadelphia. Modern Alashehir; a city of commercial importance conveniently located as the gateway to the high central plateau of the Roman province of Asia. The name means “brotherly love” and commemorates the loyalty and devotion of Attalus II (220–130 bc), the city’s cofounder, to his brother Eumenes II. holy and true. See 6:10. For God as the Holy One, see Isa 40:25; Hab 3:2–3; Mk 1:24; see also notes on Ex 3:5; Lev 11:44. key of David. Christ is the Davidic Messiah with authority to control entrance to the kingdom (Isa 22:22; Mt 16:19).

3:8 open door. Either the door of opportunity or the door to the kingdom. The context favors the latter.

3:9 synagogue of Satan. See 2:9 and note. claim to be Jews. See Ro 2:28–29. These Jews who are persecuting Christians thereby show they are not true Jews. fall down at your feet. An act of complete submission (cf. Isa 45:14; 60:14).

3:10 keep you from. The Greek for this phrase can mean either “keep you from undergoing” or “protect you through.” In its one other NT use, also in a writing of John, it means the latter (Jn 17:15). hour of trial. Normally referring to the period of testing that precedes the consummation of the kingdom (see 13:5–10; Mt 24:4–28; cf. Da 12:1; Mk 13:19; 2Th 2:1–12; see also essay). inhabitants of the earth. See 6:10 and note.

3:11 I am coming soon. Since his resurrection, Christ’s return could happen at any time (cf. 1:1; 22:7,12,20; see note on Jas 5:9). The Christian’s response should be constant readiness. crown. See 2:10 and note.

3:12 victorious. See note on 2:7. temple. See note on 7:15. name of my God. See 14:1; 22:4. new Jerusalem. See 21:2,10. write on them my new name. Names revealed character. Christ’s new name symbolizes all that he is by virtue of his redemptive work for humankind. This awaits the second advent.

3:14 Laodicea. Near modern Denizli. The wealthiest city in Phrygia during Roman times, it was widely known for its banking establishments, medical school and textile industry. Its major weakness was lack of an adequate water supply. Each of these characteristics is reflected in the letter. the Amen. Isa 65:16 speaks of “the God of the Amen,” i.e., “the one true God.” As a personal designation it describes one who is totally trustworthy and faithful. faithful and true witness. See 1:5; 19:11. ruler. The Greek word can mean first in point of time (“beginning”) or first in rank (“ruler”).

3:16 lukewarm—neither hot nor cold. “Hot” may refer to the hot, medicinal waters of nearby Hierapolis; “cold” to the cool mountain streams of nearby Colossae. Aqueducts brought water from these locations to Laodicea, and it was known for being tepid by the time it arrived. The church in Laodicea was similarly “lukewarm,” supplying neither healing for the spiritually sick nor refreshment for the spiritually weary. spit. Or “vomit.”

3:18 Refers to three items in which Laodicea took great pride: financial wealth, an extensive textile industry and a famous eye salve.

3:19 whom I love I . . . discipline. See Job 5:17; Ps 94:12; Pr 3:11–12; 1Co 11:32; Heb 12:5–11 and relevant notes.

3:20 I stand at the door and knock. Usually taken as a picture of Christ knocking on the door of the individual unbeliever’s heart. In context, however, the self-deluded members of the congregation are being addressed. eat with that person. An act of deep fellowship.

3:21 victorious. See note on 2:7. sit with me on my throne. See 20:4,6; Mt 19:28; 2Ti 2:12.

4:1—5:14 These two chapters constitute an introduction to chs. 6–20. In the throne room of heaven, the Lamb assumes the responsibility of initiating the great final conflict with the forces of evil, the end of which will see the Lamb triumphant and the devil consigned to the lake of fire.

4:1 Come up here. Similarly, Moses was called up on Mount Sinai to receive divine direction (Ex 19:20,24). Cf. also the heavenly ascent of the two witnesses (11:12). Some interpreters see this verse as a type of the rapture of the church (see article), but visions of heaven are common in apocalyptic literature, usually just to instruct the human authors about what they are to write or teach. what must take place after this. See 1:1,19; Da 2:28–29,45.

4:2 in the Spirit. In a state of heightened spiritual awareness by the power of the Spirit (see note on 1:10; see also 17:3; 21:10). throne in heaven. The depiction of God ruling from his throne in heaven is a regular feature of the OT (e.g., Ps 47:8; Isa 6:1).

4:3 jasper . . . ruby . . . emerald. Since God dwells in “unapproachable light” and is one “whom no one has seen or can see” (1Ti 6:16), he is described in terms of the reflected brilliance of precious stones—an emerald rainbow around the throne (cf. Eze 1:26–28). These same stones are among those prescribed for the breastpiece of the high priest (Ex 28:17–20), who foreshadowed the great high priest, Jesus Christ (Heb 4:14).

4:4 twenty-four elders. Representative of either the whole company of believers in heaven or an exalted angelic order worshiping and serving God there (vv. 9–11; 5:5–14; 7:11–17; 11:16–18; 14:3; 19:4). The number 24 is often understood to reflect the 12 Israelite tribes of the OT and the 12 apostles of the NT (cf. 21:12–14).

4:5 flashes of lightning . . . thunder . . . blazing. Symbolic of the awesome majesty and power of God (cf. the manifestation of God at Sinai, Ex 19:16–19; cf. also the conventional OT depiction of God’s coming in mighty power to deliver his people, Ps 18:12–15; 77:18). In Revelation, thunder and lightning always mark an important event connected with the heavenly temple (8:5; 11:19; 16:18). seven spirits. See note on 1:4; “seven” symbolizes fullness, completeness or perfection.

4:6 sea of glass. See 15:2. The source of the imagery may be Eze 1:22 (cf. Ex 24:10), but it is also possible that it is the basin in the heavenly temple (cf. 11:19; 14:15,17; 15:5–6,8; 16:1,17), whose counterpart in the earthly temple was referred to as the Sea (1Ki 7:23–25; 2Ki 16:17; 2Ch 4:2, 4,10,15; Jer 27:19). Other features of the temple in heaven are: the lamps (v. 5), the altar (6:9), the altar of incense (8:3) and the ark of the covenant (11:19). four living creatures. An exalted order of angelic beings whose task is to guard the heavenly throne and lead in worship and adoration of God. covered with eyes. Nothing escapes their attention.

4:7 Ezekiel in a vision also saw four living creatures, each of which had four faces—human in front, lion on the right, ox on the left and eagle behind (Eze 1:6,10). In John’s vision the creatures were in the form of a lion, an ox and a flying eagle, and one had a face like that of a man. Even the strongest members of God’s creation worship him.

4:8 six wings. This feature of the living creatures and the praise they speak seem to be modeled after the seraphim of Isa 6:2–3; thus the living creatures combine features of the cherubim of Eze 1 and 10 (see note on v. 7) and the seraphim of Isa 6. Holy, holy, holy. See note on Isa 6:3. Rev 4:8 is the first of five praise hymns in chs. 4–5: 4:8; 4:11; 5:9–10; 5:12; 5:13. The first two are directed to God the Father, the next two to God the Son, and the final one to both. was . . . is . . . is to come. An expansion of the divine name in Ex 3:14–15 (see note on Rev 1:4). God’s power and holiness extend from eternity past to eternity future (cf. Isa 41:4).

4:10 lay their crowns. Acknowledgment that God alone is worthy of ultimate praise and worship.

4:11 you created all things. See Ge 1.

5:1 scroll. See note on 1:11; cf. the little scroll of 10:2,8–10. writing on both sides. Like the stone tablets of the OT covenant law (see Ex 32:15 and note; Eze 2:9–10) and many imperial edicts in John’s day. sealed with seven seals. Indicating absolute inviolability (cf. Isa 29:11; Da 12:4).

5:2 mighty angel. Powerful enough to address his challenge to the whole creation (cf. 10:1; 18:21 and the angel with great authority and splendor in 18:2).

5:3 heaven . . . earth . . . under the earth. A conventional phrase used to express the universality of the proclamation—no creature was worthy. It is not intended to teach a threefold division of the universe (cf. Ex 20:4; Php 2:10).

5:5 Lion of the tribe of Judah. A Messianic title taken from Ge 49:8–10, where Judah is named a “lion’s cub” and promised the right to rule “until he to whom it belongs shall come” (see also Eze 21:27). Root of David. See Isa 11:1,10, which looks forward to the ideal king in the line of David. The title is interpreted Messianically in Ro 15:12.

5:6 Lamb. Pictured as the sacrifice for sin (“slain”; cf. Isa 53:7; Jn 1:29) and as the mighty conqueror (17:14). Revelation uses a special word for “lamb” (29 times in Revelation and only once elsewhere in the NT—Jn 21:15). The idea of the lamb as a victorious military leader seems to come from the apocalyptic tradition (1 Enoch 90:9; Testament of Joseph 19:8; see also the warrior ram of Da 8). as if it had been slain. Bearing the marks of its slaughter—he has come to power through his death. seven horns. The horn is an ancient Jewish symbol for power or strength (cf. Dt 33:17). The fourth beast of Da 7:7,20 had ten horns (cf. Da 8:3,5). Seven horns would symbolize full strength. seven spirits. See note on 4:5.

5:8 harp. An ancient stringed instrument (not the large modern harp) used especially to accompany songs (Ps 33:2). bowls full of incense. The bowl was a flat, shallow cup. Incense was a normal feature of Hebrew ritual (see Dt 33:10; cf. Ps 141:2; Rev 8:3–4). prayers of God’s people. In later Jewish thought angels often present to God the prayers of God’s people (Tobit 12:15; 3 Baruch 11). God’s people. See notes on Ro 1:7; Eph 1:1; Col 1:4.

5:9 new song. Cf. 14:3; Ps 96:1; 144:9; Isa 42:10. In the OT a new song celebrated a new act of divine deliverance or blessing (see Ps 33:3 and note). That is also its sense here; notice the theme of the song. with your blood you purchased . . . persons. The sacrificial death of Christ is central to NT teaching (Mk 10:45; 1Co 6:20).

5:10 have made them. See note on 1:6. kingdom and priests. See note on 1:6. reign on the earth. See 2:26–27; 20:4,6; 22:5; Da 7:13–14, 17–18,27.

5:11 thousands upon thousands. A rhetorical phrase for an indefinitely large number (see Da 7:10; cf. Heb 12:22).

5:12 power . . . praise! See David’s farewell prayer in 1Ch 29:10–19. The attributes increase from three in 4:11 to four in 5:13 to seven in 5:12; 7:12.

5:13 heaven . . . earth . . . under the earth. See note on v. 3.

6:1 Lamb. See v. 16; see also 5:6 and note. seven seals. The first of three sevenfold numbered series of judgments (cf. the seven trumpets in chs. 8–9 and the seven bowls in ch. 16). four living creatures. See 4:6–7 and notes.

6:2 white horse. The imagery of the “four horsemen of the Apocalypse” comes from Zec 1:8–17; 6:1–8 (see note on Zec 6:2–3). Each color in Rev 6 corresponds to the character of the rider’s activity: White symbolizes conquest. Major interpretations of the rider on the white horse are: (1) Christ (cf. 19:11), (2) the antichrist and (3) the spirit of conquest. The last of these establishes a more natural sequence with the other three riders (which symbolize bloodshed, famine and death). bow. A battle weapon.

6:4 another horse . . . a fiery red one. Symbolizing bloodshed and war (cf. Zec 1:8; 6:2). people kill each other. If the white horse is conquest from without, the red horse may be internal revolution. sword. See note on 1:16.

6:5 black horse. Symbolizing famine (cf. Zec 6:2,6). The sequence is thus conquest, bloodshed, famine. pair of scales. A balance beam with scales hung from either end. Weights were originally stones. See photo.

6:6 wheat . . . barley. Two pounds (1 kg) of wheat would be enough for only one person. Six pounds (3 kg) of the less nutritious barley would be barely enough for a small family. Famine had inflated prices to at least ten times their normal level. oil and the wine. Sets limits on the destruction by the rider of the black horse. The roots of the olive tree and grapevine go deeper and would not be immediately affected by a limited drought. If Revelation was written in the mid-90s, readers may well have remembered a famine in 92 that had precisely these results.

6:8 pale horse. Describes the ashen appearance of the dead; it symbolizes death. Hades. Generally equivalent to Hebrew Sheol (see 1:18; 20:13–14; see also note on Mt 16:18). sword . . . wild beasts. See Eze 5:16–17 and note.

6:9 under the altar. In OT ritual the blood of the slaughtered animal was poured out at the base of the altar (Ex 29:12; Lev 4:7).

6:10 inhabitants of the earth. A regular designation in Revelation for humankind in its hostility to God (3:10; 8:13; 11:10; 13:8,12; 17:2,8). avenge our blood. See Dt 32:35 and note.

6:11 white robe. Symbol of blessedness and purity (3:5,18; 4:4; 7:9,13; 19:14). until the full number . . . were killed. Jewish thought held that God rules the world according to a predetermined time schedule (see 2 Esdras 4:35–37) and that the end awaits the death of a certain number of the righteous (1 Enoch 47:4). brothers and sisters. See note on Ro 1:13.

6:12 earthquake. A regular feature of divine visitation (Ex 19:18; Isa 2:19; Hag 2:6). sackcloth. See note on 11:3. moon turned blood red. See Joel 2:31, quoted by Peter in his Pentecost sermon (Ac 2:20).

6:13 stars . . . fell. One of the signs immediately preceding the coming of the Son of Man (Mk 13:25–26). figs. Green figs appearing in the winter and easily blown from the tree, which at that season has no leaves.

6:14 heavens receded like a scroll. See Isa 34:4 and note. every mountain and island was removed. Perhaps suggested by Jer 4:24 or Na 1:5; see 16:20; 20:11.

6:15 generals. A general was a Roman officer who commanded a cohort, i.e., about 1,000 men. hid in caves. See Jer 4:29.

6:16 wrath of the Lamb. Only here is wrath attributed to the Lamb, but it is related to God’s wrath (see “their wrath” in v. 17). God’s wrath is a subject that recurs throughout the NT as both present (see Ro 1:18 and note) and future (19:15). It is prophesied in the OT (Zep 1:14–18; Na 1:6; Mal 3:2).

7:1–17 Ch. 7 separates the final seal (8:1) from the preceding six (the same feature is found in the trumpet sequence; see 10:1—11:13). Ch. 7 contains two visions: (1) the sealing of the 144,000 (vv. 1–8) and (2) the innumerable multitude (vv. 9–17).

7:1 four winds. Destructive agents of God (see Jer 49:36).

7:2 seal of the living God. Ancient documents were folded and tied, and a lump of clay was pressed over the knot. The sender would then stamp the hardening clay with his signet ring or roll it with a cylinder seal, which authenticated and protected the contents. The sealing in ch. 7 results in the name of the Lord being stamped on the forehead of his followers (see 9:4; 14:1; cf. 22:4). Its primary purpose is to protect the people of God in the coming judgments. For the background see Eze 9:4, where the mark was the Hebrew letter Taw, made like an X or + (see also note on Eze 9:4).

7:4 144,000. Some find here a reference to members of actual Jewish tribes, the faithful Jewish remnant of the “great tribulation” (v. 14). Others take the passage as symbolic of all the faithful believers who live during the period of tribulation.

7:5 Judah. Perhaps listed before Reuben, his older brother, because the Messiah belonged to the tribe of Judah (but see note on Ge 37:21).

7:6 Manasseh. One of the two Joseph tribes (Ephraim and Manasseh), yet mentioned separately, probably to make up 12 tribes since Dan is omitted. This omission is due perhaps to Dan’s early connection with idolatry (Jdg 18:30), or to a tradition that the antichrist was to come from that tribe. See note on 1Ch 2:1–2.

7:9 After this I looked. John has only heard the number 12,000 called out for each Israelite tribe. He now looks to see them but instead observes a multi-ethnic gathering too big to count. This may suggest that both pictures, different as they are, refer to the same reality—the complete assembly of the redeemed from all time. Cf. how John hears about a lion but then sees a lamb in 5:5–6—with both images symbolizing Jesus. great multitude. Identified in v. 14 as those who have come out of the “great tribulation.” every nation, tribe, people and language. All four are mentioned together also in 5:9; 11:9; 13:7; 14:6. Cf. 10:11; 17:15, in which one of the four is changed. palm branches. Used for festive occasions (see Lev 23:40; Jn 12:13 and note).

7:10 Salvation belongs to our God. See Ge 49:18 (“deliverance”); Jnh 2:9.

7:11 elders. See note on 4:4. four living creatures. See note on 4:6.

7:12 Praise . . . strength. The sevenfold list of attributes expresses complete or perfect praise (see note on 5:12).

7:13 white robes. See note on 6:11.

7:14 the great tribulation. The period of final hostility prior to Christ’s return to the earth (cf. Mt 24:21 and note). Some hold that the beginning of this hostility was already being experienced by the church of John’s day (cf. 1Jn 2:18 and note; cf. also article).

7:15 temple. All 16 references to the temple in Revelation use the word that designates the temple proper rather than the larger precincts. It is the place where God’s presence dwells. Thus no longer may only one tribe (Levites) go into God’s presence, but all believers serve God there, for they have been made priests in God’s service (1:6; 5:10; 20:6). shelter them with his presence. The imagery would evoke memories of the tabernacle in the wilderness (Lev 26:11–13).

7:17 shepherd. Ancient kings often referred to themselves as the shepherds of their people (see Ps 23:1 and note).

8:1 silence in heaven. A dramatic pause before the next series of plagues.

8:2 seven trumpets. In OT times the trumpet served to announce important events and give signals in time of war. The seven trumpets of Rev 8–9; 11:15–19 announce a series of plagues more severe than the seals but not as completely devastating as the bowls (ch. 16).

8:3 censer. A firepan used to hold live charcoal for the burning of incense (cf. Ex 27:3; 1Ki 7:50). with the prayers. Most translations consider the incense to be mingled “with” prayers. The Greek for this phrase also allows a translation that takes the incense to represent the prayers.

8:4 Although the angel is involved in presenting to God the prayers of God’s people, he does not make them acceptable. The Jewish apocalyptic concept of angels as mediators finds no place in the NT. Angels did function as mediators in the old covenant era (see Ac 7:38 and note), but there is no record of such a mediatorial function on the part of angels in the new covenant era.

8:5 thunder . . . earthquake. See note on 4:5.

8:7 hail and fire mixed with blood. Cf. the imagery of the seventh plague on Egypt (Ex 9:13–25; cf. Eze 38:22). A third of the earth was burned up. This fraction indicates that the punishment announced by the trumpets is not yet complete and final (the same fraction appears in each of the next three plagues: vv. 8–9,10–11,12). A smaller fraction (a fourth) of devastation accompanied the opening of the fourth seal (6:8).

8:8 sea turned into blood. Reminiscent of the first plague on Egypt (Ex 7:20–21).

8:10 great star . . . fell. See notes on 6:13; 9:1.

8:11 Wormwood. A plant with a strong, bitter taste (see NIV text note). It is used here as a metaphor for calamity and sorrow (Pr 5:3–4; Jer 9:15; La 3:19); its bitterness suggests death. waters turned bitter. The reverse of the miracle at Marah, where bitter waters were made sweet (Ex 15:25).

8:12 a third of the sun was struck. In the ninth plague on Egypt, thick darkness covered the land for three days (Ex 10:21–23). References to the Egyptian plagues suggest that in Revelation we have the final exodus of God’s people from the bondage of a world controlled by hostile powers.

8:13 Woe! Woe! Woe . . . ! These three woes correspond to the three final trumpet plagues (see 9:12; 11:14 [10:1—11:13 is an interlude]; the seven bowl judgments of chs. 15–16 apparently constitute the third woe). The woes fall on the unbelieving world (the phrase “the inhabitants of the earth” refers to the wicked; see note on 6:10), not on the righteous (9:4; but see note there).

9:1 star that had fallen. The star in 8:10 was part of a cosmic disturbance; here the star is a divine agent, probably an angel (cf. 20:1). Abyss. Conceived of as the subterranean abode of demonic hordes and Satan (20:1–3; Lk 8:31). This Greek word means “very deep” or “bottomless” and is used in the Septuagint (the pre-Christian Greek translation of the OT) to translate the Hebrew word for the primeval deep (Ge 1:2; 7:11; Pr 8:28). Seven of the nine NT occurrences of the Greek word Abyss are in Revelation.

9:3 These are likely symbolic descriptions. It is unwise to attempt to identify these images with modern weapons of warfare that would have been unknown in the first century. locusts. For background, see the plague of locusts in Ex 10:1–20; see also photo. Joel 1:2—2:11 interprets the locust plague as a foreshadowing of the devastations that accompany the day of the Lord. Locusts traveled in enormous swarms and could strip a land of all vegetation. In 1866, 200,000 people died in a famine in Algiers following a locust plague.

9:4 people who did not have the seal of God. The woe does not affect the “servants of . . . God” (7:3; see 7:14; 12:17 and note; 13:7; 20:4). Cf. the Israelites, who were protected from the Egyptian plagues (Ex 8:22; 9:4,26; 10:23; 11:7).

9:5 five months. A limited period of time suggested by the life cycle of the locust or the dry season (spring through late summer, about five months), in which the danger of a locust invasion is always present.

9:6 seek death but will not find it. Contrast Hos 10:8 (quoted in Lk 23:30). Cornelius Gallus, a Roman poet living in the first century bc, wrote: “Worse than any wound is the wish to die and yet not be able to do so.”

9:7 human faces. The locusts appear to have the cunning of intelligent beings. They do not simply use brute force.

9:8 lions’ teeth. Indicating the locusts were a force of destruction.

9:9 breastplates. The breastplate was a coat of mail that protected the front.

9:10 five months. See note on v. 5.

9:11 Abaddon. A personification of destruction (cf. Pr 15:11).

9:12 first woe. See note on 8:13.

9:13 horns of the golden altar. See 8:3–5. The horns were projections at the four corners of the altar (Ex 27:2). Those fleeing judgment could seek mercy by taking hold of the horns (1Ki 1:50–51; 2:28; see note on Am 3:14).

9:14 four angels. Apparently in charge of the demonic horsemen (vv. 15–19). Euphrates. See note on Ge 15:18.

9:15 hour . . . day . . . month . . . year. Apocalyptic thought views God as acting according to an exact timetable. to kill. Because these are explicitly demonic creatures (locusts from the Abyss), the warfare may be spiritual rather than physical.

9:16 twice ten thousand times ten thousand. The reference is most likely general, intending an incalculable host rather than a specific number (cf. Ps 68:17; Da 7:10; Rev 5:11 and note).

9:17 breastplates . . . horses . . . lions. Compare the description of the locusts in vv. 7–9. See note on v. 9. out of their mouths came fire. Cf. the two witnesses in 11:5.

9:19 tails were like snakes, having heads. Emphasizes the demonic origin of the horses (cf. 12:9).

9:20 still did not repent. Suggests that the purpose of the extreme suffering of some was to call people to repentance (cf. v. 21; 2:21; 16:9,11; cf. also Am 4:6–11 and note). demons. Spiritual beings in league with Satan and exerting an evil influence on human affairs (cf. 12:7–9; Dt 4:28; Ps 115:5–7; Lk 4:33 and note; 1Co 10:20; Eph 6:10–18).

9:21 Nor did they repent. See 16:9,11. Even physical pain will not change the rebellious heart. magic arts. Involved the mixing of various ingredients (the Greek for this phrase is pharmakon, from which comes the English “pharmacy”) for magical purposes. Believers at Ephesus publicly burned their books of magic, valued at 50,000 drachmas (Ac 19:19).

10:1—11:13 The second interlude (see note on 7:1–17).

10:1 mighty angel. Perhaps the angel of 5:2. robed in a cloud. See 1:7; Mt 17:5; 24:30 and notes. rainbow. Cf. Eze 1:26–28. The rainbow became a sign of God’s pledge never to destroy the earth again by a flood (see Ge 9:8–17 and note on 9:13). legs were like fiery pillars. Since the exodus supplies background for this central part of Revelation (see note on 8:12), this feature may recall the pillars of fire and cloud that guided (Ex 13:21–22) and protected (Ex 14:19,24) the Israelites during their wilderness journey.

10:2 little scroll. Not the same as the scroll of destiny in ch. 5, since that scroll was intended to reveal its contents and this scroll was to be eaten. Furthermore, the term “little scroll” sets off this particular scroll from all others. right foot on the sea . . . left foot on the land. Indicates his tremendous size and symbolizes that his coming has to do with the destiny of all creation (cf. v. 6).

10:3 seven thunders. In 8:5; 11:19; 16:18 thunder is connected with divine punishment. Here, too, it anticipates the judgment to fall on those who refuse God’s love and grace.

10:4 Seal up. In Da 8:26; 12:4,9 the prophecies are sealed until the last times, when they will be opened. What the seven thunders said will not be revealed until their proper time. Cf. the angel’s instructions in 22:10 not to seal the prophecies of Revelation.

10:5 raised his right hand. A part of oath taking (Ge 14:22–23; Dt 32:40).

10:6 him who lives for ever and ever. Of special encouragement in a context of impending martyrdom (cf. 1:18; 4:9–10; 15:7). no more delay. The martyrs in 6:9–11 were told to rest for a while, but now the end has come (cf. Da 12:1; Mk 13:19).

10:7 mystery of God. In apocalyptic thought mysteries were secrets preserved in heaven and revealed to the one who receives them. Here the mystery is that God has won the victory over the forces of evil and will reign for ever and ever (cf. 11:15).

10:9 Take it and eat it. Grasp and digest fully the contents of the scroll (cf. Ps 119:103). turn your stomach sour. The message of the little scroll (11:1–13) will involve suffering—the bad news. in your mouth . . . sweet as honey. God’s eternal purposes will experience no further delay—the good news.

10:11 prophesy again. The prophecies following the sounding of the seventh trumpet in 11:15. peoples . . . kings. See note on 7:9.

11:1 reed. A bamboo-like cane that often reached a height of 20 feet and grew in abundance in the waters along the banks of the Jordan. Straight and light, the reed was a convenient measuring rod (Eze 40:3; Zec 2:1–2). temple. See note on 7:15, though here the sanctuary on earth is what is measured. Some hold that the symbolic reference is to the believing church, others that it refers to believing Israel. Some representatives of the latter view believe that “temple” should be understood more literally as a future rebuilt temple. altar. The context of worship suggests that this is the altar of burnt offering, where sacrifices were offered.

11:2 outer court. The court of the Gentiles, approximately 26 acres. trample on the holy city. Cf. Ps 79:1; Isa 63:18; Lk 21:24. 42 months. Three and a half years. Some find the background for this period in the time of Jewish suffering under the Syrian tyrant, Antiochus Epiphanes (168–165 bc). Others point out that, whereas the temple was desolated for three years under Antiochus, the figure used in Revelation is three and a half years, which no doubt looks back to the dividing of the 70th “seven” (Da 9:27) into two equal parts. The same time period is also designated as 1,260 days (v. 3; 12:6) and as “a time, times and half a time” (12:14; cf. Da 7:25; 12:7). This period of time evidently became a conventional symbol for a limited period of unrestrained wickedness.

11:3 two witnesses. Modeled after Moses and Elijah (see notes on vv. 5–6). They may symbolize testifying believers in the final period before Christ returns, or they may be two actual individuals who will be martyred for the proclamation of the truth. 1,260 days. See note on v. 2. These are months of 30 days each (42 months x 30 days = 1,260 days). sackcloth. See 6:12; a coarse, dark cloth woven from the hair of goats or camels. It was worn as a sign of mourning and penitence (Joel 1:13; Jnh 3:5–6; Mt 11:21; see note on Ge 37:34).

11:4 The imagery emphasizes that the power for effective testimony is supplied by the Spirit of God (see notes on Zec 4).

11:5 fire comes . . . and devours. Cf. Elijah’s encounters with the messengers of Ahaziah (2Ki 1:10,12).

11:6 power to shut up the heavens. Cf. the drought in the days of Elijah (1Ki 17:1; see also Lk 4:25; Jas 5:17). waters into blood. God used Moses to bring the same plague on the Egyptians (Ex 7:17–21; see article).

11:7 the beast. First mention of the major opponent of God’s people in the final days (see chs. 13; 17). That he comes up from the Abyss (see note on 9:1) indicates his demonic character. kill them. They will suffer the same fate as their Lord (v. 8).

11:8 Their bodies will lie in the public square. In the Near East the denial of burial was a flagrant violation of decency. great city. Probably Jerusalem, though some say Rome, Babylon or some other city. It may be symbolic of the world opposed to God (16:19; 17:18; 18:10,16,18–19,21). Sodom (see similarly Isa 1:10) refers to its low level of morality (cf. Ge 19:4–11), and Egypt emphasizes oppression and slavery.

11:9 three and a half days. A short time when compared with the three and a half years of their ministry. refuse them burial. See note on v. 8.

11:10 those who live on the earth. See note on 6:10.

11:11 breath of life from God entered them. A dramatic validation of the true faith (cf. Eze 37:5,10).

11:12 went up to heaven in a cloud. Cf. 1Th 4:17. enemies looked on. Cf. 1:7.

11:13 earthquake. See notes on 6:12; Eze 38:19. gave glory to the God of heaven. Probably not an act of repentance but the terrified realization that Christ, not the antichrist, is the true Lord of all. Some, though, see this as the conversion of Israel (Ro 11:26).

11:14 second woe. Cf. 9:12.

11:15 seventh angel sounded. The series of trumpet blasts is now continued (9:13) and completed. kingdom of our Lord. Cf. 20:4–6; Ex 15:18; Ps 10:16; Zec 14:9; 1Co 15:20–28. of our Lord and of his Messiah. Cf. Ps 2:2 and note.

11:16 twenty-four elders. See note on 4:4.

11:17 One who is and who was. In 1:4,8; 4:8 he is also the one “who is to come.” This is now omitted because his reign is here pictured as having begun.

11:18 nations were angry. See Ps 48:4. your wrath. See note on 6:16. God’s wrath triumphs in 14:10–11; 16:15–21; 20:8–9. judging the dead. Anticipated in 6:10, carried out in 20:11–15. your servants the prophets. See Da 9:6, 10; Am 3:7; Zec 1:6.

11:19 God’s temple in heaven. The sanctuary in heaven (3:12; 7:15; 15:5–8) as distinguished from the sanctuary on earth (11:1). ark of his covenant. The OT ark, a chest of acacia wood (Dt 10:1–2), symbolized the throne or presence of God among his people. It was probably destroyed when Nebuzaradan destroyed the temple in Jerusalem (2Ki 25:8–10). There is no record of the presence of the ark after this time. In the NT the ark symbolizes God’s faithfulness in keeping covenant with his people. lightning . . . hailstorm. See note on 4:5.

12:1 sign. An extraordinary spectacle or event that points beyond itself (cf. Lk 21:11, 25; Ac 2:19). a woman clothed with the sun. Perhaps a symbolic reference to the believing Messianic community (v. 5), though some believe “woman” refers specifically to Israel (see note on v. 7; for the imagery, cf. Ge 37:9–10). twelve stars. Cf. the 12 tribes of Israel.

12:2 cried out in pain. Cf. the similar language describing the rebirth of Jerusalem in Isa 66:7 (Mic 4:10).

12:3 red dragon. Identified in v. 9 (cf. 20:2). Dragons abound in the mythology of ancient peoples (Leviathan in Canaanite lore and Set-Typhon, the red crocodile, in Egypt). In the OT they are normally used metaphorically to depict the enemies of God and of Israel (Ps 74:14; Isa 27:1; Eze 29:3). seven heads. See 13:1; 17:9–11 and notes. ten horns. Symbolizing great power (see 13:1; 17:12 and note).

12:5 a son, a male child. The Messiah. iron scepter. See note on 2:27. snatched up to God. The ascension of Christ.

12:6 wilderness. Not a wasteland but a place of spiritual refuge (cf. Hos 2:14). 1,260 days. The time of spiritual protection corresponds to the time of persecution (see note on 11:2; cf. 13:5).

12:7 Michael. An archangel who defeats Satan in heavenly warfare. In Da 12:1 he is the protector of Israel who will deliver them from tribulation in the last days (cf. vv. 13–17).

12:9 dragon was hurled . . . to the earth. This could be (1) the original casting of Satan out of heaven, (2) Satan’s final exclusion—an explanation of his intense hostility against God’s people in the last days (vv. 12–17), or (3) a flashback to the Messiah’s first coming and Jesus’ defeat of Satan and his demons in Jesus’ public ministry (Lk 10:18). devil, or Satan. See notes on 2:9–10. leads . . . astray. Cf. 2Co 11:3; see also Lk 22:31; Jn 13:2.

12:10 accuser. See Job 1:9–11 and notes on 1:6; Mt 16:23; 1Jn 3:8; see also Zec 3:1. Satan (v. 9) in Hebrew means “accuser” or “adversary.” accuses. Cf. 1Jn 2:1–2.

12:11 blood of the Lamb. See note on 5:9; see also 1:5; 7:14.

12:12 his time is short. The period of final, intense hostility of Satan toward the people of God.

12:13–16 Cf. the similarity to the exodus.

12:14 wilderness. See note on v. 6. a time, times and half a time. One year plus two years plus half a year (see note on 11:2).

12:16 earth helped . . . by opening its mouth. Cf. Nu 16:30–33, where the earth opened and swallowed Korah’s men.

12:17 rest of her offspring. Believers in general, as contrasted with Christ, the male child of vv. 5,13.

13:1 beast coming out of the sea. First mentioned in 11:7. According to some, the beast symbolizes the Roman Empire, the deification of secular authority. According to others, he is the final, personal antichrist. Bringing together these two ideas, still others understand that the beast symbolizes anti-Christian political power that came to expression in the Roman Empire of John’s day, that continues in various ways down through the present era and that will become manifest in the political power of the final antichrist (see note on 14:8). The background seems to be Daniel’s vision of the four great beasts (Da 7:2–7). For the interpreting angel’s explanation of the beast, see 17:8–12 and notes on 17:8,10,12. sea. See 17:15. ten horns. See 17:12 and note. blasphemous name. Many Roman emperors took for themselves titles of deity. Domitian, e.g., was addressed as Dominus et Deus noster (“Our Lord and God”).

13:2 leopard . . . bear . . . lion. John’s beast combined characteristics of Daniel’s four beasts (Da 7:4–6). dragon. See note on 12:3.

13:3 fatal wound . . . healed. Emphasizes the tremendous recuperative power of the beast. whole world was filled with wonder. See 17:8 for a similar reaction.

13:5–6 Cf. Da 11:36–39 and note on 11:36.

13:5 was given. Four times in the Greek text of vv. 5–7 the passive “was given” occurs, either emphasizing the subordinate role of the beast (vv. 2,4) or indicating that even the beast operates under the (temporary) authority granted to it by God (the verbs in vv. 2,4 are active, while the verbs here are passive). forty-two months. See note on 11:2.

13:7 wage war. See 12:17; see also Da 7:7.

13:8 book of life. See note on 3:5; cf. 20:12,15. Lamb who was slain. See note on 5:6; cf. Isa 53:7; Jn 1:29,36. slain from the creation of the world. The death of Christ was a redemptive event decreed from eternity. See, however, NIV text note, which affirms that believers’ names were written in the book of life from eternity (cf. 17:8).

13:11 a second beast, coming out of the earth. According to some he symbolizes religious power in the service of secular authorities. According to others he is the personal false prophet who promotes the worship of the first beast (16:13; 19:20; 20:10). two horns like a lamb. He attempts to appear gentle and harmless. spoke like a dragon. See Jesus’ warning in Mt 7:15 about ravenous wolves that come in sheep’s clothing.

13:12 exercised all the authority of the first beast. The trinity of evil is now complete. The beast from the earth is under the authority of the beast from the sea. The latter is subject to the dragon. Satan, secular power and religious compromise (or Satan, the antichrist and the false prophet) join against the cause of God: Father, Son and Holy Spirit.

13:13 great signs. See the warning in Dt 13:1–3; see also Mt 24:24; 2Th 2:9; cf. Rev 19:20. fire . . . from heaven. See 1Ki 18:24–39.

13:14 set up an image. Cf. Da 3:1–11; 2Th 2:4.

13:15 the image could speak. Belief in statues that could speak is widely attested in ancient literature. Ventriloquism and other forms of deception were common.

13:16 mark. Whatever its origin—possibly the branding of slaves or enemy soldiers, the sealing and stamping of official documents or the sign of the cross on the forehead of a new Christian—the mark of the beast apparently symbolized allegiance to the demands of emperor worship. In the final days of the antichrist it will be the ultimate test of loyalty (cf. v. 17; 14:9,11; 15:2; 16:2; 19:20; 20:4). It imitates the sealing of the servants of God in ch. 7.

13:17 buy or sell. Economic boycott against all faithful believers. number of its name. In ancient times the letters of the alphabet served for numbers. Riddles using numerical equivalents for names were popular.

13:18 666. Because letters doubled as numerals in both Greek and Hebrew, every word corresponded to a number that was the sum of the value of that word’s individual letters. The oldest known interpretation of 666 was “Neron Caesar.” But the word had to be spelled in Hebrew, not Greek, and with a variant ending (the n at the end of Neron). Many other names have been suggested over the centuries, but perhaps the best explanation lies along different lines altogether—taking 666 as a symbol for a trinity of evil and imperfection, parodying the perfect Trinity—each digit falls just short of the perfect number 7.

14:1 Lamb. See note on 5:6. Mount Zion. In the OT it was first the fortress of the pre-Israelite city of Jerusalem (2Sa 5:7), captured by David and established as his capital. Later it became a virtual synonym for all of Jerusalem. In Revelation, as in Heb 12:22–24, it is usually the heavenly Jerusalem, the eternal dwelling place of God and his people (cf. Gal 4:26). It comes down to the new earth in 21:2–3. 144,000. See note on 7:4. name. Contrast 13:16–18.

14:2 harps. See note on 5:8.

14:3 new song. See note on 5:9. The theme is deliverance.

14:4 not defile themselves with women. Probably a symbolic description of believers who kept themselves from defiling relationships with the pagan world system (cf. note on Ex 34:15). follow the Lamb. As his disciples (Mt 19:21; Mk 8:34; Jn 10:4–5,27–30). firstfruits. See Lev 23:9–14. The word is used figuratively in the NT for the first converts in an area (Ro 16:5) and the first to rise from the dead (1Co 15:20). In Revelation believers are considered as a choice offering to God and the Lamb.

14:5 No lie. Contrast Ro 1:25; 2Th 2:9–12 and note on 2:11; cf. Isa 53:9. blameless. In 17:14 the Lamb’s followers are described as “called, chosen and faithful.”

14:6 eternal gospel. The content of this “good news” is perhaps found in v. 7.

14:7 him who made the heavens. See Ex 20:11; Ps 146:6.

14:8 Babylon the Great. Ancient Babylon in Mesopotamia was the political, commercial and religious center of a world empire. It was noted for its luxury and moral decadence. The title “Babylon the Great” is taken from Da 4:30. According to some it is used in Revelation (e.g., here and in 16:19; 17:5; 18:2,10,21) for Rome as the center of opposition to God and his people. According to others it represents the whole political, economic and religious system of the world in general under the rule of the antichrist (see note on 13:1). A few have understood it as literal Babylon—rebuilt and restored. Babylon’s fall is proclaimed in Isa 13:17, 19–20; 21:9; Jer 50:39; 51:8. maddening wine of her adulteries. Here Babylon (Rome?) is pictured as a prostitute whose illicit relations are achieved by intoxication (see note on Ex 34:15).

14:10 cup of his wrath. In the OT God’s wrath is commonly pictured as a cup of wine to be drunk (Ps 75:8; Isa 51:17; Jer 25:15). It is not the outworking of impersonal laws of retribution but the response of a righteous God to those who refuse his love and grace. burning sulfur. Sodom and Gomorrah were destroyed by a rain of burning sulfur (Ge 19:24). Ps 11:6 speaks of a similar fate for the wicked. The figure occurs elsewhere in the OT and the Apocrypha. It is used several times in the final chapters of Revelation (19:20; 20:10; 21:8).

14:11 There will be no rest day or night. Revelation offers no support for the doctrine of the annihilation of the wicked (also compare 19:20 with 20:10). On the other hand, as in all John’s visions, there is profound symbolism here, since no object can literally burn forever without being consumed. What is absolutely clear, however, is that they have no rest—the rest that only the righteous can look forward to (v. 13; see article).

14:13 Blessed. The second beatitude (see note on 1:3).

14:14 seated on the cloud. Cf. Mt 17:5; 24:30 and notes. son of man. See 1:13 and notes on Da 7:13; Mk 8:31. crown of gold. A victory wreath of gold. See note on 2:10 for the comparison between the victory crown and the royal crown. sickle. The Israelite sickle used for cutting grain was normally a flint or iron blade attached to a curved shaft of wood or bone (see photo).

14:15 harvest of the earth. Symbolizes in a general way the coming judgment (v. 19; Mt 13:30,40–42). Some interpreters think it refers to the ingathering of the righteous at the return of Christ (as a contrast to vv. 17–20).

14:18 another angel, who had charge of the fire. The angel of 8:3–5. Fire is commonly associated with judgment (see La 1:13 and note; Mt 18:8; Lk 9:54; 2Th 1:7). sharp sickle. The context suggests (in contrast to the sickle of v. 14) the smaller grape-knife with which the farmer cut the clusters of grapes from the vine.

14:19 winepress. A rock-hewn trough about eight feet square with a channel leading to a lower and smaller trough. Grapes were thrown into the upper vat and trampled with bare feet. The juice was collected in the lower vat (see note on Hag 2:16). At times mechanical pressure was added. The treading of grapes was a common OT figure for the execution of divine wrath (see Isa 63:3; La 1:15; Joel 3:13 and note). See photo; see also here.

14:20 outside the city. Bloodshed would defile the city (see Joel 3:12–14; Zec 14:1–4; cf. Heb 13:12). 1,600 stadia. See NIV text note; the approximate length of the Holy Land from north to south.

15:1–8 Introduces the last of the three sevenfold series of judgments—the bowls of wrath (see note on 8:2).

15:1 God’s wrath. See note on 6:16.

15:2 sea of glass. See note on 4:6. victorious over the beast. Cf. the victory of God’s people over the devil in 12:11. number of its name. See notes on 13:16–18. harps. See note on 5:8.

15:3–4 See Jer 10:7 and note.

15:3 song of . . . Moses. See Ex 15; Dt 32. Ex 15:1–18 was sung on Sabbath evenings in the synagogue to celebrate Israel’s great deliverance from Egypt. and of the Lamb. The risen Lord triumphed over his enemies (including death and Hades, 1:18) in securing spiritual deliverance for his followers (cf. Ps 22). Great and marvelous are your deeds. See Ex 15:11; Ps 92:5; 111:2. Almighty. See note on 1:8. King of the nations. See Jer 10:10; cf. 1Ti 1:17.

15:4 Universal recognition of God is taught in both the OT (Ps 86:9; Isa 45:22–23; Mal 1:11) and the NT (Php 2:9–11).

15:5 tabernacle of the covenant law. The dwelling place of God during the wilderness wandering of the Israelites (Ex 40:34–35). It was so named because the ancient tent contained the two tablets of the covenant law brought down from Mount Sinai (Ex 32:15; 38:21; Dt 10:5).

15:6 seven plagues. The last series of plagues (v. 1). golden sashes. Symbolic of governmental and priestly authority (cf. Ex 28:4; 29:8; Isa 22:21).

15:7 wrath of God. Cf. 2Th 1:7–9.

15:8 filled with smoke. Cf. Ex 40:34; 1Ki 8:10–11; Eze 44:4. Smoke symbolizes the power and glory of God. no one could enter the temple. Both tabernacle and temple provide illustrations: with reference to Moses, Ex 40:35; with reference to the priests, 2Ch 5:14.

16:2 land. Compare the first four bowls (vv. 2–9) with the first four trumpets (8:7–12). ugly, festering sores. Cf. the boils and abscesses of the sixth Egyptian plague (Ex 9:9–11; see also Job 2:7–8,13). mark of the beast. See 13:16 and note.

16:3 sea . . . turned into blood. Cf. Ex 7:17.

16:4 rivers and springs of water. Cf. 8:10–11; see also Ps 78:44.

16:5 you who are and who were. See note on 11:17; cf. Ex 3:14.

16:6 given them blood to drink. Punishment is tailored to fit the crime (see Isa 49:26; cf. Pr 26:27; Ob 15; Gal 6:7 and notes).

16:7 altar. Personified as able to praise God.

16:8 fire. Often connected with judgment in Scripture (see note on 14:18; see also Dt 28:22; 1Co 3:13; 2Pe 3:7).

16:9 refused to repent. In 11:13 the nations were dazzled into homage by the great earthquake. Here they mock and blaspheme God’s name (13:6). But once again, even these horrific judgments are designed to give people one more chance to repent.

16:10 throne of the beast. Cf. 13:2; Satan’s throne in 2:13. The Greek word for “throne” occurs 47 times in Revelation. The other 44 references are to the throne of God or the Lamb. darkness. Cf. Ex 10:21–23. gnawed their tongues. Cf. the scene in 6:15–17.

16:11 God of heaven. Used in Da 2:44 of the sovereign God, who destroys the kingdoms of the world and establishes his own universal and eternal reign.

16:12 Euphrates. See note on Ge 15:18. kings from the East. Evidently Parthian rulers (17:15—18:24), to be distinguished from the “kings of the whole world” (v. 14) who wage the final war against Christ and the armies of heaven (19:11–21).

16:13 frogs. Cf. Ex 8:2,6. Lev 11:10 classifies the frog as an unclean animal. The imagery suggests the deceptive propaganda that will, in the last days, lead people to accept and support the cause of evil. dragon . . . beast . . . false prophet. The evil trinity, introduced in chs. 12–13.

16:14 signs. Cf. 13:13. kings of the whole world. See 6:15. great day of God. See 19:11–21 for the climax of this battle.

16:15 Blessed. The third beatitude (see note on 1:3).

16:16 Armageddon. Probably stands for Hebrew Har Megiddo, “the mountain of Megiddo” (see note on Jdg 5:19). Many see no specific geographic reference in the designation and take it to be a symbol of the final overthrow of evil by God. Others understand it to be the physical location of the final battle, the Jezreel valley which extends to the north and east of Megiddo. See photo.

16:17 temple. See 15:5–6. It is done! The last of the seven bowls of divine wrath has now been poured out, which is the last of the 21 plagues that form the backbone of the book.

16:19 great city. See 11:8; 17:18 and notes.

16:21 plague of hail. Cf. Ex 9:18–26.

17:1—22:5 The destruction of Babylon (17:1—18:2) and the coming of the new creation and the new Jerusalem in which Eden is restored (21:1—22:5)—together with visionary depictions of decisive redemptive events that culminate in the latter state (19:1—20:15).

17:1—18:24 The destruction of “Babylon”—the great, evil empire that has persecuted God’s people. See note on 14:8.

17:1 seven angels. Cf. 15:1; 16:1. great prostitute. See v. 18 for the angel’s own identification of this symbol. In v. 5 the prostitute is named “Babylon the Great.” sits by many waters. See v. 15; Ps 137:1; Jer 51:13.

17:2 wine of her adulteries. See note on 14:8; cf. 18:3; Isa 23:17; Jer 51:7.

17:3 in the Spirit. See 1:10; 4:2; 21:10 and notes. scarlet beast. The beast that rose out of the sea in ch. 13. The color scarlet is similar to that of the red dragon in 12:3 (cf. v. 4). blasphemous names. See note on 13:1. seven heads and ten horns. Again similar to the dragon and the beasts (12:3; 13:1,11), showing the empire’s alignment with the diabolical.

17:4 The prostitute appears like a queen, with great wealth, despite all her corruptions.

17:5 BABYLON THE GREAT. See note on 14:8.

17:6 God’s holy people . . . those who bore testimony. See 6:9. God’s holy people. See note on 5:8.

17:7 mystery. See note on 10:7.

17:8 once was, now is not, and yet will come. An obvious imitation of the description of the Lamb (1:18; 2:8). Cf. the description of God in 1:4,8; 4:8. Here the phrase seems to mean that the beast appeared once, is not presently evident, but will in the future again make his presence known. Evil is persistent. Abyss. See note on 9:1. go to its destruction. Although evil is real and persistent, there is no uncertainty about its ultimate fate. book of life. See note on 3:5.

17:9 seven hills. It is perhaps significant that Rome began as a network of seven hill settlements on the east bank of the Tiber River (see map). Its designation as the city on seven hills is commonplace among Roman writers (e.g., Virgil, Martial, Cicero).

17:10 seven kings. That seven heads symbolize both seven hills and seven kings illustrates the fluidity of apocalyptic symbolism—unless the hills are figurative for royal (or political) power. Five . . . one . . . the other. Taken (1) as seven actual Roman emperors, (2) as seven secular empires or (3) symbolically as the power of the restored Roman Empire. Attempts to identify them with specific emperors of the first century have not led to any clear solutions to the puzzle of their identity. Perhaps the point is simply that the end is near but not quite yet.

17:11 now is not. Cf. 13:3. eighth king. The antichrist, who plays the role of a king (“belongs to the seven”) but is in reality part of the cosmic struggle between God and Satan.

17:12 ten kings. Since they are said to have not yet received royal power, they seem to belong to the future. They are likely symbolic and represent the totality of political powers that will align themselves with the beast. one hour. A short time.

17:14 Lamb will triumph. See 5:6 and note. Lord of lords and King of kings. Emphasizes the supreme sovereignty of the Lamb (cf. 5:6 and note; 19:16; Dt 10:17; Ps 136:2–3; Da 2:47; 1Ti 6:15).

17:18 great city. Cf. 16:19; 17:1; see notes on 11:8; 14:8.

18:1 great authority. See note on 5:2. earth was illuminated by his splendor. Cf. Ex 34:29–35; Ps 104:2; Eze 43:1–5; 1Ti 6:16.

18:2 Fallen is Babylon. Cf. Isa 21:9; Jer 51:8; see notes on 11:8; 14:8.

18:3 wine of her adulteries. See note on 14:8.

18:4 Come out of her. A common prophetic warning calling for the separation from sin (cf. Isa 52:11; Jer 51:45; 2Co 6:14—7:1).

18:6 double. In full, sufficiently (see note on Isa 40:2). her own cup. See 17:4.

18:7 I am not a widow. A claim that the men of Babylon have not died on battlefields.

18:9–20 Three groups lament: (1) kings (v. 9), (2) merchants (v. 11) and (3) seamen (v. 17). The passage is modeled after Ezekiel’s lament over Tyre (Eze 27). Of the 29 commodities in vv. 12–13 there are 15 also listed in Eze 27:12–22.

18:9 kings . . . weep and mourn over her. Probably because of their own great financial loss (see v. 11).

18:10 one hour. Repeated in vv. 17,19; cf. note on 17:12.

18:12 purple. An expensive dye since it must be extracted a drop at a time from the murex shellfish. citron wood. An expensive dark wood from north Africa—used for inlay work in costly furniture. marble. Used to decorate public buildings and the homes of the very rich.

18:13 myrrh and frankincense. Brought by the Magi as gifts for the infant Jesus (Mt 2:11). human beings sold as slaves. Or, more formally, “the bodies and souls of human beings.” The litany of luxuries in vv. 11–13 has turned to the basic necessities of life and finally to the horrors of slavery.

18:17 sea captain. The pilot of the ship rather than the owner. Both are mentioned in Ac 27:11.

18:19 throw dust on their heads. An act of sorrow and dismay (Eze 27:30). In one hour. See vv. 10,17.

18:20 God has judged her with the judgment she imposed on you. The scales of justice will be balanced (see note on Pr 26:27).

18:21 large millstone. Similar to the large millstone of Mk 9:42, which was a donkey millstone (one large enough to require a donkey to turn it).

18:24 blood of prophets. See 6:10; 17:6; 19:2; cf. Eze 24:7. prophets . . . God’s holy people. Probably not two distinct groups: The first may be a special class within the second (cf. the order in 16:6). God’s holy people. See note on Col 1:4.

19:1 great multitude. See note on 7:9. Hallelujah! Occurs four times in vv. 1–6 but nowhere else in the NT. It is derived from two Hebrew words meaning “Praise the LORD” (see NIV text note on Ps 135:1).

19:2 great prostitute. See 17:1,5,18; see also 14:8 and note. avenged on her the blood of his servants. See the prayer in 6:10; cf. 16:6; 18:20.

19:3 Hallelujah! Although this word of praise to the Lord occurs four times (vv. 1,3,4,6; see note on v. 1), the NIV sectional heading above ch. 19 (“Threefold Hallelujah”) is still correct because this one in v. 3 actually goes with the one in v. 1 (note “again” here) and is uttered by the same group (identified and introduced as a “great multitude”). The other two instances are introduced in vv. 4,6. Cf. the “Threefold Woe” in 18:10,16,19.

19:4 twenty-four elders and the four living creatures. See notes on 4:4,6.

19:7 wedding of the Lamb. The imagery of a wedding to express the intimate relationship between God and his people (“his bride”) has its roots in the prophetic literature of the OT (e.g., Isa 54:5–7; Hos 2:19). Cf. the NT usage (Mt 22:2–14; see 2Co 11:2 and note; Eph 5:25–27,32).

19:9 Blessed. The fourth beatitude (see note on 1:3). wedding supper. See Mt 8:11; Lk 14:15; 22:16 and notes.

19:10 fell at his feet. See note on 1:17; cf. Ac 10:25. Spirit of prophecy. The Spirit inspires prophets to bear “testimony to Jesus” (cf. 22:6).

19:11 white horse. Probably not the white horse of 6:2 (see note there). The context here indicates that the rider is Christ returning as Warrior-Messiah-King.

19:12 name written. A secret name whose meaning is veiled from all created beings.

19:13 robe dipped in blood. Either the blood of the enemy shed in conflict (cf. 14:14–20; Isa 63:1–3) or the blood of Christ shed to atone for sin (cf. 1:5; 5:9; 7:14; 12:11).

19:14 armies of heaven. Angelic beings (cf. Dt 33:2; Ps 68:17); probably also believers (cf. 17:14).

19:15 sharp sword. His word of judgment (see note on 1:16). iron scepter. See note on 2:27; cf. also Ps 2:9; Isa 11:4. treads the winepress of the . . . wrath of God. Cf. Isa 63:3 and note. winepress. See note on 14:19.

19:16 KING OF KINGS. See note on 17:14.

19:17 great supper of God. A grim contrast to the “wedding supper of the Lamb” (v. 9; cf. Eze 39:17–20).

19:19 See 16:16 and note; 17:12–14.

19:20 beast . . . false prophet. See notes on 13:1,11. fiery lake of burning sulfur. See 20:10,14–15; 21:8. Punishment by fire is prominent in both biblical (see, e.g., note on La 1:13) and non-biblical (Jewish) writings (e.g., 1 Enoch 54:1). Although the designation gehenna is not used here, this is what John refers to (see note on Mt 5:22). Originally the site of a shrine where human sacrifices were offered (2Ki 16:3; 23:10; Jer 7:31), it came to be equated with the “hell” of final judgment in apocalyptic literature.

19:21 birds gorged themselves. The “great supper of God” of vv. 17–18.

20:1—22:21 These last three chapters reflect many of the subjects and themes of the first three chapters of Genesis (see Introduction to Genesis: Literary Features).

20:1 Abyss. See note on 9:1.

20:2 dragon. See note on 12:3. ancient serpent. See 12:15; Ge 3:1–5. thousand years. See article below.

20:3 free for a short time. See vv. 7–10.

20:4 souls of those who had been beheaded. Probably represents all of God’s people who have been martyred in the tribulation. See 6:9–11. its mark. See note on 13:16. came to life. The “first resurrection” (v. 5), which may include all God’s people who had previously died (see NIV text note).

20:5 rest of the dead. Either the wicked or everyone except the martyrs (v. 4).

20:6 Blessed. The fifth beatitude (see note on 1:3). second death. Defined in v. 14 as the “lake of fire” (cf. 21:8).

20:7 thousand years. See article.

20:8 Gog and Magog. Symbolize the nations of the world as they band together for a final assault on God. The OT background is Eze 38–39.

20:10 tormented day and night. See note on 14:11; cf. 14:10.

20:12 book of life. See note on 3:5. judged according to what they had done. The principle of judgment on the basis of works is taught in Ps 62:12; Jer 17:10; Ro 2:6; 1Pe 1:17 and elsewhere.

20:13 death and Hades. See 6:8 and note.

20:14–15 lake of fire. See note on 19:20.

21:1 no longer any sea. In ancient Near Eastern thought, the sea was a place of chaos and evil (see note on Ps 32:6). Here its absence represents divine victory and human safety.

21:2—22:5 The “Holy City” combines elements of Jerusalem, the temple and the Garden of Eden (see Introduction to Genesis: Literary Features).

21:2 new Jerusalem. See “the Jerusalem that is above” (Gal 4:26; see also note there). bride. See note on 19:7.

21:3 God’s dwelling place. See Lev 26:11–12; Eze 37:27; 2Co 6:16; Eph 2:21–22. among . . . with . . . with. The most eloquent culmination of the Immanuel (“God with us”) theme (see 2Co 13:14 and note). his people . . . their God. The deepest expression of the intimate fellowship that God had promised to those in covenant relationship with him (see Zec 8:8 and note).

21:4 wipe every tear. See 7:17; Isa 25:8. no more death. The “last enemy” will have been destroyed (1Co 15:26).

21:6 the Alpha and the Omega. See note on 1:8. water of life. Cf. Ps 36:9; Jn 4:10,14 and notes.

21:7 victorious. Cf. the emphasis on victory in the seven letters (2:7,11,17,26; 3:5,12,21).

21:8 cowardly . . . liars. See note on Ro 1:29–31. “Cowardly” heads the list because it stands opposed to the faithfulness of those “who are victorious” (v. 7). magic arts. Cf. Ac 19:19. The magical tradition in ancient times called for the mixing of various herbs to ward off evil. fiery lake of burning sulfur. See note on 19:20.

21:9 seven last plagues. See 15:1.

21:10 in the Spirit. See 1:10; 4:2; 17:3 and notes.

21:12 twelve gates. See Eze 48:30–35. The number 12 probably emphasizes the continuity of the NT church and the OT people of God. See v. 14, where the 12 foundations bear the names of the 12 apostles; see also 4:4 and note.

21:15 measure the city. Cf. Eze 40–41. In Rev 11 the measuring was to ensure protection; here it serves to show the size and symmetry of the eternal dwelling place of the faithful.

21:16 length . . . wide . . . high. Thus a perfect cube, as was the Most Holy Place of the tabernacle and the temple.

21:17 144 cubits. See NIV text note.

21:19–20 See NIV text note on v. 20. The background for the precious stones may be Isa 54:11–12 (gems for the walls of Jerusalem) and Ex 28:17–20 (jewels for the high priest’s breastpiece). The new Jerusalem is the ultimate realization of what the OT temple and priesthood only pointed toward.

21:27 Lamb’s book of life. See note on 3:5.

22:1 river of the water of life. The description of the river here seems to combine elements taken from the description of Eden (Ge 2:8–14) and the river flowing from the new temple seen by Ezekiel (Eze 47:1–12), as well as certain new elements.

22:2 tree of life. See v. 14; Ge 2:9; 3:22; Eze 47:12.

22:4 They will see his face. In ancient times criminals were banished from the presence of the king (Est 7:8; cf. 2Sa 14:24). One blessing of eternity will be to see the Lord face to face (cf. 1Co 13:12; 1Jn 3:2). his name. See note on 3:12.

22:5 they will reign. See 5:10; 20:6; Da 7:18,27.

22:6 his servants. See v. 3. things that must soon take place. See 1:1,19.

22:7 I am coming soon! See vv. 12,20; 2:16; 3:11. Blessed. The sixth beatitude (see note on 1:3).

22:8 fell down to worship. See note on 1:17.

22:9 Don’t do that! The episode (here and in 19:10) is no doubt included to remind the reader/listener that the worship of any created being—no matter how noble—is a form of idolatry, a vice sternly warned against (v. 15; 21:8; see notes on Ge 20:9; Ex 34:15).

22:10 Do not seal up the words. Contrast Da 12:4.

22:11 “The time is near” (v. 10), so it is too late to change. The unrepentant must now face the consequences of their actions (v. 12).

22:12 I am coming soon! See vv. 7,20; 2:16; 3:11. according to what they have done. See notes on 2:23; 20:12.

22:13 the Alpha and the Omega. See note on 1:8.

22:14 Blessed. The last of the seven beatitudes (see note on 1:3). wash their robes. “In the blood of the Lamb” (7:14).

22:15 dogs . . . falsehood. See note on Ro 1:29–31. dogs. A term applied to all types of ceremonially impure persons. In Dt 23:18 it designates a male prostitute.

22:16 my angel. Cf. 1:1. the Root and the Offspring of David. See note on 5:5; cf. Isa 11:1, 10; Ro 1:3. bright Morning Star. See Nu 24:17 and note.

22:18–19 Cf. the commands in Dt 4:2; 12:32. The warning here relates specifically to the book of Revelation.

22:20 I am coming soon. See vv. 7,12; 2:16; 3:11. Come, Lord Jesus. See note on 1Co 16:22.

22:21 grace. See note on Ro 1:7. with. See note on 2Co 13:14. Amen. See notes on Dt 27:15; Ro 1:25.