NOTES
All translations are my own unless otherwise noted.
Introduction
1. See, for example, Maxwell L. Anderson, “Defining Success in Art Museums,” Art Museum Network News, October 2004, www.amnnews.com/view_10_2004.jsp (accessed October 29, 2006); “Art Museums Look Inward,” Harvard University Gazette, January 17, 2002, www.philaculture.org/advo/announce.htm (accessed October 29, 2006). Even if such claims are exaggerated, they feed public perceptions of success and growth.
2. Judith H. Dobrzynski, “They're Building a Lot More Than Their Collections,” New York Times, April 21, 1999, E13.
3. On China's new museums, see Elizabeth Casale, “China's New Cultural Revolution,” Platform 4 (October 2004), www.aeaconsulting.com/site/platformv411a.html (accessed October 29, 2006).
4. James Cuno, “The Object of Art Museums,” in Whose Muse? Art Museums and the Public Trust, ed. James Cuno (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2004), 50, 52. In addition to Cuno's piece, there are essays by Philippe de Montebello, Glenn Lowry, Neil MacGregor, John Walsh, and James Wood.
5. Ibid., 73.
6. Kwame Anthony Appiah, Cosmopolitanism: Ethics in a World of Strangers (New York: W. W. Norton, 2006), and “Whose Culture Is It?” New York Review of Books 53 (February 9, 2006), www.nybooks.com/articles/18682 (accessed October 2006).
7. The conference in question, “The Institutions of Culture: The Museum,” was held at Harvard's Center for European Studies and resulted in a landmark book of critique edited by the conference organizers, Daniel J. Sherman and Irit Rogoff, Museum Culture: Histories, Discourses, Spectacles (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1994).
8. On Japan's first museum, see Alice Y. Tseng, “Styling Japan: The Case of Josiah Conder and the Museum at Ueno, Tokyo,” Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians 63 (December 2004): 472–97. On Zimbabwe, see Dawson Munjeri, “Refocusing or Reorientation? The Exhibit or the Populace: Zimbabwe on the Threshold,” in Exhibiting Cultures: The Poetics and Politics of Museum Display, ed. Ivan Karp and Steven D. Lavine (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1991), 444–56. Two recent books, Moira Simpson's Making Representations: Museums in the Post-Colonial Era (New York: Routledge, 1996) and Christine F. Kreps's Liberating Culture: Cross-Cultural Perspectives on Museums, Curation, and Heritage Preservation (New York: Routledge, 2003), argue against a Western-centric view of museums and for the liberation of indigenous cultures from Western hegemony.
9. M. A. Shakur, Museum Studies (Peshawar: Museum Association of Pakistan, 1953), v.
10. Ian Fisher, “Museum Pillage Described as Devastating but Not Total,” New York Times, April 17, 2003. On international efforts to rebuild the museum, see “International Efforts to Help Iraqi Curators Save Looted Collections,” Art Newspaper, June 2003, 6.
11. Kreps, Liberating Culture, 5.
12. Danielle Rice, “Museums: Theory, Practice, and Illusion,” in Art and Its Publics: Museum Studies at the Millennium, ed. Andrew McClellan (Oxford: Blackwell, 2003), 78.
13. On the museum as tomb, see Theodor Adorno, “Valéry Proust Museum,” in Prisms, trans. Samuel Weber and Shierry Weber (London: Spearman, 1967), 173–85; and Douglas Crimp, On the Museum's Ruins (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1993); also see Llewellyn Negrin, “On the Museum's Ruins: A Critical Reappraisal,” Theory, Culture, and Society 10 (February 1993): 97–125.
14. Philip Fisher, Making and Effacing Art: Modern American Art in a Culture of Museums (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991), 17; also see Ivan Gaskell, Vermeer's Wager: Speculations on Art History, Theory and Art Museums (London: Reaktion Books, 2000) and “Sacred to Profane and Back Again,” in McClellan, Art and Its Publics, 149–62; and David Carrier, Museum Skepticism: A History of the Display of Art in Public Galleries (Durham: Duke University Press, 2006).
15. On this point, see Nick Prior, “Having One's Tate and Eating It: Transformations of the Museum in the Hypermodern Era,” in McClellan, Art and Its Publics, 51–74.
16. Andreas Huyssen, “Escape from Amnesia: The Museum as Mass Medium,” in Twilight Memories: Marking Time in a Culture of Amnesia (New York: Routledge, 1995), 17.
17. Paul Tillich, “Critique and Justification of Utopia,” in Utopias and Utopian Thought, ed. Frank Manuel (Boston: Beacon Press, 1965), 296. The literature on utopias is vast. A good place to start (with an excellent bibliography) is Utopia: The Search for the Ideal Society in the Western World, ed. Roland Schaer, Gregory Claeys, and Lyman Tower Sargent (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000); see also Krishan Kumar, Utopianism (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1991).
18. Georges Bataille, Rethinking Architecture, trans. Paul Hegarty (New York: Routledge, 1997) 23.
19. Appiah, Cosmopolitanism.
20. Andreas Huyssen, “Memories of Utopia,” in Twilight Memories, 85–101. Huyssen is responding to Jean Baudrillard's Simulacres et simulation (Paris: Galilée, 1981).
21. On recent patterns of “Web visitation,” see Carol Vogel, “3 Out of 4 Visitors to the Met Never Make It to the Front Door,” New York Times, March 29, 2006, E18.
22. Quoted in The Foucault Reader, ed. Paul Rabinow (New York: Pantheon Books, 1984), 6.
23. Ibid., 46.
24. On Wilson's work in museums, see Maurice Berger, Fred Wilson: Objects and Installations, 1979–2000 (Baltimore: Center for Art and Visual Culture, University of Maryland, Baltimore County, 2001); and Lisa G. Corrin, ed., Mining the Museum: An Installation (New York: New Press, 1994). Tony Bennett offers thoughts on the intersection of theory and practice in “Putting Policy into Cultural Studies,” in Cultural Studies, ed. Lawrence Grossberg, Cary Nelson, and Paula Treicher (New York: Routledge, 1992), 23–37.
25. Tony Bennett, “The Political Rationality of the Museum,” Continuum 3 (1990): 44.
26. Berger, Fred Wilson, 34.
27. Huyssen, “Memories of Utopia,” 90.
28. James Clifford, The Predicament of Culture: Twentieth-Century Ethnography, Literature, and Art (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1988), 15–16; also 118–19, 145.
Chapter 1. Ideals and Mission
The epigraph is from Walter Benjamin, The Arcades Project, trans. Howard Eiland and Kevin McLaughlin (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 1999), 406.
1. “The British Museum,” 2003, www.thebritishmuseum.ac.uk/world/world.html (accessed January 1, 2006).
2. National Gallery of Art, “Mission Statement,” 2006, www.nga.gov/xio/mission.htm (accessed October 29, 2006).
3. Quoted in “Taiwan Science and Technology Institutions: National Palace Museum,” www.nsc.gov.tw/dept/belgium/e_web.htm (accessed October 29, 2006).
4. Peter Klaus Schuster, “The Treasures of World Culture in the Public Museum,” ICOM News, no. 1 (2004): 4.
5. Johann Valentin Andreae, Christianopolis, trans. E.H. Thompson (Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1999), 203, 210, 212.
6. Sir Francis Bacon, Essays, Advancement of Learning, New Atlantis (Franklin Center, PA: Franklin Library, 1982), 372, 382. For a nicely illustrated history of utopian schemes, see Roland Schaer, Gregory Claeys, and Lyman Tower Sargent, eds., Utopia: The Search for the Ideal Society in the Western World (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000).
7. Francis Bacon: A Critical Edition of the Major Works, ed. Brian Vickers (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996), 55.
8. Samuel Quicchelberg, Inscriptiones vel tituli theatri amplissimi (Munich: Adam Berg, 1565), examined in context by Eva Schulz, “Notes on the History of Collecting and of Museums in the Light of Selected Literature of the Sixteenth to Eighteenth Century,” Journal of the History of Collections 2 (1990): 205–18; Lorraine Daston and Katherine Park, Wonders and the Order of Nature, 1150–1750 (New York: Zone Books, 1998). On early modern collecting, also see the essential work of Krzysztof Pomian, Collectors and Curiosities: Paris and Venice, 1500–1800, trans. E. Wiles-Portier (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1990); Oliver Impey and Arthur MacGregor, eds., The Origins of Museums: The Cabinet of Curiosities in Sixteenth- and Seventeenth-Century Europe (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1985); and Paula Findlen, Possessing Nature: Museums, Collecting, and Scientific Culture in Early Modern Italy (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994).
9. The influence of Bacon's text on early modern institutions is well documented; see, for example, Arthur MacGregor, “‘A Magazin of All Manner of Inventions’: Museums in the Quest for ‘Solomon's House’ in Seventeenth-Century England,” Journal of the History of Collections 1 (1989): 207–12; and Debora J. Meijers, “The Kunstkamera of Tsar Peter the Great (St. Petersburg 1718–34): King Solomon's House or Repository of the Four Continents?” in The Architecture of the Museum, ed. Michaela Giebelhausen (New York: Manchester University Press, 2003), 17–31.
10. Andreae, Christianopolis, 203.
11. For a good selection of ancient references to the museum, see Edward A. Parsons, The Alexandrian Library (New York: Elsevier Press, 1952), 98–102. For more recent discussion of the mouseion and its influence, see Paula Young Lee, “The Musaeum of Alexandria and the Formation of the Muséum in Eighteenth-Century France,” Art Bulletin 79 (1997): 385–412; and Daniel Heller-Roazen, “Tradition's Destruction: On the Library of Alexandria,” October 100 (Spring 2002): 133–53.
12. See Marcia Hall, ed., Raphael's School of Athens (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1997), especially Ralph E. Lieberman, “The Architectural Background,” 64–84.
13. Bronislaw Baczko, Utopian Lights: The Evolution of the Idea of Social Progress, trans. J.L. Greenberg (New York: Paragon, 1989), 319–20.
14. [Louis-Sebastien Mercier], L'an deux mille quatre cent quarante: Rêve s'il en fût jamais, 3 vols. ([Paris], 1786), 2:25–26.
15. Mercier's account of the Louvre built on others of his day, including Diderot's brief entry on the Louvre in the Encyclopédie ([1765], 9:706–7) and Maille Dussausoy, Le citoyen désintéressé, ou diverses idées patriotiques, concernant quelques établissements utiles à la ville de Paris (1767), 140ff. On late-eighteenth-century utopianism, see Frank E. Manuel and Fritzie P. Manuel, Utopian Thought in the Western World (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 1979), 461ff.
16. Armand-Guy Kersaint, Discours sur les monuments publics (Paris: P. Didot ainé, 1792), 1, 39. Kersaint and Mercier were contemporaries and fellow Girondins in the early years of the Revolution.
17. Marquis de Condorcet, “Fragment sur l'Atlantide,” in Oeuvres de Condorcet, ed. A. Condorcet O'Connor and M.F. Arago (Paris: Didot, 1847), 6:597–600.
18. J.-L. David, Rapport…sur la fête de la Réunion républicaine du 10 août (Paris: Imprimerie Nationale, 1793), 4.
19. Quoted in Andrew McClellan, Inventing the Louvre: Art, Politics, and the Origins of the Modern Museum in Eighteenth-Century Paris (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1994), 94. On the political functions of the Louvre and early museums, also see Carol Duncan, Civilizing Rituals: Inside Public Art Museums (New York: Routledge, 1995).
20. See Dominique Poulot, Musée, nation, patrimoine, 1789–1815 (Paris: Gallimard, 1997).
21. Friedrich Schiller, On the Aesthetic Education of Man, trans. Reginald Snell (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1954), 87 (letter 18). Interpreting Schiller, James Sheehan writes: “The experience of beauty liberates us without alienating us from the physical world in which we must live. Art and life do not become one; instead, art teaches us how to live in freedom and harmony.” James Sheehan, Museums in the German Art World: From the End of the Old Regime to the Rise of Modernism (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000), 45. Sheehan provides an excellent history of German museums.
22. William Hazlitt, “Picture Galleries in England,” in The Collected Works of William Hazlitt, ed. A. R. Walker and Arnold Glover (London: J. M. Dent, 1903), 9:7. See also Colin Trodd, “Culture, Class, City: The National Gallery, London and the Spaces of Education, 1822–57,” in Art Apart: Art Institutions and Ideology across England and North America, ed. Marcia Pointon (New York: Manchester University Press, 1994), 42. The eighteenth-century art dealer Edme Gersaint recommended collecting as an ideal form of recreation for the man “accablé d'affaires.” Catalogue raisonné…de feu M. Quentin de Lorangère (Paris: Jacques Barois, 1744), 1.
23. Quoted in Christopher Whitehead, The Public Art Museum in Nineteenth Century Britain: The Development of the National Gallery (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2005), 5. Also see Brandon Taylor, Art for the Nation: Exhibitions and the London Public, 1747–2001 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1999).
24. Punch, July 8, 1843, 22.
25. Charles Kingsley, His Letters and Memories of His Life, ed. Fanny Kingsley, 2 vols. (London: Macmillan, 1890), 1:129.
26. Sir Henry Cole, Fifty Years of Public Work, 2 vols. (London: George Bell, 1884), 2:368.
27. Numerous historians and critics have made good use of Foucault's work in their analysis of museums; see, for example, Duncan, Civilizing Rituals; Eilean Hooper-Greenhill, Museums and the Shaping of Knowledge (New York: Routledge, 1992); Douglas Crimp, On the Museum's Ruins (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1993); and Thomas A. Markus, Buildings and Power: Freedom and Control in the Origin of Modern Building Types (New York: Routledge, 1993).
28. The Works of John Ruskin, ed. E.T. Cook and A. Wedderburn, 39 vols. (London: George Allen, 1907–8), 34:247; also 30:53, where Ruskin recommends museums for their ability to improve the “laboring multitude.”
29. Cole, Fifty Years of Public Work, 1:356. Thomas Greenwood agreed that “the order and evident science…in which [museum collections] are grouped and arranged” would inspire respect in the workingman for the principle of order in society at large; Thomas Greenwood, Museums and Art Galleries (London: Simkin, Marshall, 1888), 8, 26. On the value of order in Victorian museums, see Tony Bennett, The Birth of the Museum: History, Theory, Politics (New York: Routledge, 1995) and Pasts beyond Memory: Evolution, Museums, Colonialism (New York: Routledge, 2004).
30. Quoted in Trodd, “Culture, Class, City,” 38. A French commentator wrote in 1872: “Museums are by no means a simple luxury. The sight of portraits of humanity's benefactors and soldiers who have contributed to the defense and glory of the homeland will inspire respect and admiration in the masses and ignite in them sentiments of goodness and patriotism.” C. Le Coeur, Considérations sur les musées de province (Paris: Vignancourt, 1872), 17.
31. General Luigi P. di Cesnola, An Address on the Practical Value of the American Art Museum (Troy, NY: Stowell Printing House, 1887), 17.
32. Edward Bradbury, “A Visit to Ruskin's Museum,” Magazine of Art 3 (1879–80): 57. On Ruskin's museum, see Edward T. Cook, Studies in Ruskin (London: George Allen, 1891), 141–61; Catherine W. Morley, John Ruskin, Late Work, 1870–1890: The Museum and Guild of St. George: An Educational Experiment (New York: Garland, 1984); and Susan P. Casteras, “The Germ of a Museum, Arranged First for ‘Workers in Iron’: Ruskin's Museological Theories and the Curating of the Saint George's Museum,” in John Ruskin and the Victorian Eye, ed. Susan Phelps and Anthony Lacy Gully (New York: Abrams, 1993), 184–209.
33. Bradbury, “Visit to Ruskin's Museum,” 58; and William C. Ward, “Saint George's Museum, Sheffield,” Art Journal 21 (1882): 242. Mention should also be made of the Art Treasures Exhibition held in Manchester in 1857, the same year South Kensington opened. Sixteen thousand works of art, many borrowed from landed families, entertained 1,300,000 people over four months in a glass and steel structure resembling the Grand Gallery of the Louvre, demonstrating once more that even the humblest segments of society could draw pleasure and inspiration from a public art exhibition. And nowhere was inspiration more needed than Manchester, capital of the industrial North, a smoke-covered “foul drain” from which “the greatest stream of human industry flows out to fertilize the world,” according to Alexis de Tocqueville, who visited the booming mill town in 1835. Quoted in Suzanne Fagence Cooper, “Art Treasures Exhibition, Manchester 1857,” Magazine Antiques 159 (June 2001): 926–33; and Francis Haskell, The Ephemeral Museum: Old Master Paintings and the Rise of the Art Exhibition (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2000).
34. Matthew Arnold, Culture and Anarchy (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1994), 30, 32, 34 47.
35. For the history of the South Kensington Museum, see Anthony Burton, Vision and Accident: The Story of the Victoria and Albert Museum (London: Victoria and Albert Museum, 1999); Taylor, Art for the Nation, ch. 3; and Bennett, Birth of the Museum.
36. Cole, Fifty Years of Public Work, 2:346.
37. Ibid., 2:345; in a lecture at the École centrale d'architecture in Paris in 1867, he described museums as “une espèce de monument socialiste, où le niveau est le même pour tous” (2:302).
38. Greenwood, Museums and Art Galleries, 173.
39. On the spread of applied arts museums in Europe and the United States, see Michael Conforti, “The Idealist Enterprise and the Applied Arts,” in A Grand Design: The Art of the Victoria and Albert Museum (New York: Abrams, 1997), 22–47.
40. Quoted in Burton, Vision and Accident, 127ff.
41. Greenwood, Museums and Art Galleries, 249ff.
42. Quoted in Rossella Froissart, “Les collections du Musée des arts décoratifs de Paris: Modèles de savoir technique ou objets d'art,” in La jeunesse des musées: Les musées de France au XIXe siècle, ed. Chantal Georgel (Paris: Réunion des Musées Nationaux, 1994), 84.
43. See Steven Conn, Museums and American Intellectual Life, 1876–1926 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998), chs. 1–3.
44. On Wells and the museum, see Lars Gustafsson, “The Present as the Museum of the Future,” in Utopian Vision, Technological Innovation, and Poetic Imagination, ed. Klaus L. Berghahn and Reinhold Grimm (Heidelberg: Carl Winter Universitäts, 1990); and Nicole Pohl, “'Passionless Reformers': The Museum and the City in Utopia,” in Giebelhausen, Architecture of the Museum, 137–39.
45. Quoted in Sigfried Giedion, Space, Time and Architecture, 5th ed. (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1967), 251.
46. Arnold, Culture and Anarchy, 128, 106.
47. Julius Meier-Graefe, “The Mediums of Art, Past and Present,” in Art in Theory, 1900–2000: An Anthology of Changing Ideas, ed. Charles Harrison and Paul Wood (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2003), 57, 55.
48. Ibid., 56. Meier-Graefe here echoed earlier critics of art's commodification, notably Quatremère de Quincy; see Daniel J. Sherman, “Quatremère/Benjamin/Marx: Art Museums, Aura, and Commodity Fetishism,” in Museum Culture: Histories, Discourses, Spectacles, ed. Daniel J. Sherman and Irit Rogoff (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1994), 123–43.
49. Henry James, The American Scene (1904; reprint, New York: Horizon, 1967), 192. On the American market, see Flaminia Gennari Santori, The Melancholy of Masterpieces: Old Master Painting in America, 1900–1914 (Milan: 5 Continents, 2003).
50. See Anne Higonnet's At Home with Art: A History of Personal Collection Museums, 1848–1940 (Pittsburgh, PA: Periscope Publications, 2007).
51. On late-nineteenth-century museum developments in the United States, see Conn, Museums and American Intellectual Life. Matthew Arnold, among others, had remarked on the lack of culture in the United States; see his “A Word about America,” Nineteenth Century 11 (May 1882): 680–96, and also Benjamin Ives Gilman, Museum Ideals of Purpose and Method (Boston: Boston Museum of Fine Arts, 1923), 69–73.
52. Walter Smith, writing in Household Taste, quoted in John Cawelti, “America on Display: The World's Fairs of 1876, 1893, 1993,” in The Age of Industrialism in America, ed. F.C. Jaher (New York: Free Press, 1968), 319.
53. Cesnola, Address, 10.
54. Quoted by Dennis B. Downey, A Season of Renewal: The Columbian Exposition and Victorian America (Westport, CT: Praeger, 2002), 1.
55. See Conn, Museums and American Intellectual Life, ch. 6.
56. Quoted in Calvin Tomkins, Merchants and Masterpieces: The Story of the Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York: Dutton, 1970), 107.
57. Gilman, Museum Ideals, 69. On the development of nineteenth-century American art museums, see Alan Wallach, Exhibiting Contradiction: Essays on the Art Museum in the United States (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1998). For more on the “battle of the casts,” see Walter Muir Whitehill, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston: A Centennial History, 2 vols. (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 1970).
58. Gilman, Museum Ideals, 94. For the spread of art appreciation in the United States, see Rossiter Howard, “Changing Ideals of the Art Museum,” Scribner's Magazine, January 1922, 125–28.
59. [Benjamin Gilman], “The Copley Square Museum,” Bulletin of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston 7 (1909): 19.
60. Andrew Carnegie, “The Best Use of Wealth,” in Miscellaneous Writings of Andrew Carnegie, ed. Burton J. Hendrick, 2 vols. (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, Doran, 1933), 2:210.
61. John Cotton Dana, A Plan for a New Museum (Woodstock, VT: Elm Tree Press, 1920), 16, and The New Museum (Woodstock, VT: Elm Tree Press, 1917), 32. An important article by Paul DiMaggio examines Dana's insights with respect to Boston's Museum of Fine Arts, “Cultural Entrepreneurship in Nineteenth-Century Boston: The Creation of an Organizational Base for High Culture in America,” in Media, Culture, and Society: A Critical Reader, ed. Richard Collins et al. (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications, 1986), 194–211.
62. John Cotton Dana, The Gloom of the Museum (Woodstock, VT: Elm Tree Press, 1917), 6, 8.
63. Gilman, Museum Ideals, 95.
64. Dana, New Museum, 14.
65. Ibid., 20, 21–22.
66. On Dana, see John Cotton Dana, 1856–1929 (Newark: Newark Public Library, 1930); and Holger Cahill, “John Cotton Dana and the Newark Museum,” in A Museum in Action (Newark: Newark Museum, 1944). For a brief but worthy reappraisal of Dana's work, see Stephen E. Weil, Making Museums Matter (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 2002), 188–92.
67. Gilman, Museum Ideals, 6–7.
68. Ralph Adams Cram, The Ministry of Art (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1914), 83.
69. Charles L. Hutchinson, “The Democracy of Art,” American Magazine of Art 7 (August 1916): 399.
70. Mrs. Schuyler van Rensselaer, “The Art Museum and the Public,” North American Review 205 (January 1917): 81.
71. Ibid., 90.
72. Roger Fry, “An Essay in Aesthetics,” in Harrison and Wood, Art in Theory, 80.
73. Ernest Fenollosa, Epochs of Chinese and Japanese Art (New York: Stokes and Heinemann, 1912), 1:xxiv. Quoted in Carrier, Museum Skepticism, 128.
74. Cram, Ministry of Art, 96.
75. Gilman, Museum Ideals, 72.
76. Reprinted in Elizabeth Simpson, ed., The Spoils of War (New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1997), 279. Drafted in 1907, the convention entered in force in 1910.
77. Paul Clemen, ed., Protection of Art during War (Leipzig: E. A. Seemann, 1919), 1.
78. Arsène Alexandre, Les monuments français détruits par l'Allemagne (Paris: Berger-Levrault, 1918), 23, 1.
79. Ibid., 5.
80. Ibid., 31–32.
81. Focillon's phrase is from League of Nations, Committee on Intellectual Co-operation, Minutes of the Twelfth Session, 1930 (Dijon: Darantière, 1930), 99. A year earlier a committee member said the congress “served to show that, local divergences notwithstanding, the art of nations had a common source. If one wanted to prove how deeply rooted were the League's ideas, it was in the province of the popular arts that an illustration would be found.” Minutes of the Eleventh Session, 1929, 33.
82. E. Foundoukidis, describing Destrée's beliefs, in “L'oeuvre internationale de Jules Destrée dans le domaine des arts,” Mouseion 33–34 (1936): 11. Foundoukidis was Destrée's secretary at the Museums Office.
83. Ibid., 11.
84. Ibid., 9.
85. Paul Otlet, “Mundaneum 1929,” in Le Corbusier and Pierre Jeanneret, Oeuvre complète de 1910–1929, ed. Willy Boesiger and Oscar Stonorov, 4th ed. (Erlenbach: Éditions d'architecture, 1946), 190.
86. Ibid., 192.
87. DeWitt H. Parker, The Analysis of Art (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1926), 180–81.
88. In a radio broadcast in June 1941, during the worst of the bombing, Hess remarked: “I remember being told during the Spanish conflict how when Barcelona was undergoing its most agonizing moment of aerial bombardment, that outside the Concert Hall there was a queue that stretched almost to the end of the street. People felt then as people today in Britain feel now, that music with its wealth of spiritual beauty could still all the turmoil, all the hatred, all the sorrow of modern warfare.” Quoted in Marian C. McKenna, Myra Hess: A Portrait (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1976), 150–51.
89. Kenneth Clark, The Other Half: A Self-Portrait (London: John Murray, 1977), 28. He also wrote: “I believe that many Londoners who remember the first year of the war will agree that the National Gallery concerts were amongst the few rewarding intervals in their daily lives” (29).
90. Letter to the editor, Yorkshire Post, March 16, 1940; in National Gallery Archives HF 1940/5.
91. Charles Wheeler, R.A., to Times (London), January 3, 1942, quoted in Neil MacGregor, “A Pentecost in Trafalgar Square,” in Whose Muse? Art Museums and the Public Trust, ed. James Cuno (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2004), 43.
92. Kenneth Clark to Martin Davies, February 5, 1942, National Gallery Archives, NG 16/59.4. Attendance at the thirty-one exhibitions between 1942 and 1945 averaged just under twenty-two thousand people.
93. On the Guggenheim Museum, see Neil Levine, The Architecture of Frank Lloyd Wright (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996), 299–363.
94. Ibid., 315, 335.
95. Roberta F. Alford, “Popular Teaching in Art Museums,” Museum News 23 (February 1, 1946): 6.
96. Archibald MacLeish, “Museums and World Peace,” Museum News 23 (June 1, 1946): 6–7 (emphasis in original).
97. Ibid.
98. “Educational Activities,” Bulletin of the Minneapolis Institute of Arts 38 (January 1, 1949): 10.
99. See John Szarkowski, “The Family of Man,” in The Museum of Modern Art at Mid-century: At Home and Abroad, ed. John Elderfield, Studies in Modern Art 4 (New York: Museum of Modern Art, 1994), 12–37; Christopher Phillips, “The Judgment Seat of Photography,” October 22 (Fall 1982): 27–63.
100. Edward Steichen, The Family of Man, 30th Anniversary Edition (New York: Museum of Modern Art, 1997), 5. The text was by Carl Sandberg.
101. Ibid., 3.
102. Quoted in Mary Anne Staniszewski, The Power of Display: A History of the Exhibition Installations at the Museum of Modern Art (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1998), 250.
103. André Malraux, Museum without Walls, trans. S. Gilbert and F. Price (New York: Doubleday, 1967), 220, 162.
104. Guggenheim Museum, “The Guggenheim Museum Celebrates Fortieth Anniversary of the Landmark Frank Lloyd Wright Building,” September 21, 1999, www.guggenheim.org/press_releases/release_60.html (accessed May 1, 2006).
105. Serge Guilbaut, How New York Stole the Idea of Modern Art: Abstract Expressionism, Freedom, and the Cold War, trans. Arthur Goldhammer (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1983). Also see Kirk Varnedoe, “The Evolving Torpedo: Changing Ideas of the Collection of Painting and Sculpture of the Museum of Modern Art,” in The Museum of Modern Art at Mid-century: Continuity and Change, Studies in Modern Art 5 (New York: Museum of Modern Art, 1995), 12–73.
106. Walter Pach, The Art Museum in America: Its History and Purpose (New York: Pantheon, 1948), 210. On the suppression of language in abstract art, see W. J. T. Mitchell, “Ut Pictura Theoria: Abstract Painting and Language,” in Picture Theory (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994), 213–39; also Benjamin H. D. Buchloh, “From Faktura to Factography,” in October: The First Decade, 1976–1986, ed. Annette Michelson et al. (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1987), 77–113.
107. Sybil Gordon Kantor, Alfred H. Barr, Jr. and the Intellectual Origins of the Museum of Modern Art (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2002), 317–18.
108. William Rubin, “When Museums Overpower Their Own Art,” New York Times, April 12, 1987, H31.
109. Francis Henry Taylor, “The Undying Life in a Work of Art,” New York Times Book Review, November 22, 1953, 1, 43.
110. Roland Barthes, Mythologies, trans. Annette Lavers (New York: Hill and Wang, 1972), 101. Barthes's essays were written between 1954 and 1956 and were first published in 1957.
111. Ibid.
112. Pierre Bourdieu and Alain Darbel, The Love of Art: European Art Museums and Their Public, trans. C. Beattie and N. Merriman (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1991). On Bourdieu and French cultural politics leading to the creation of the Pompidou Center, see Rebecca DeRoo, The Museum Establishment and Contemporary Art: The Politics of Artistic Display in France after 1968 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006).
113. Mitchell, Picture Theory, 217, 241–79.
114. See Francis Frascina, Art, Politics and Dissent: Aspects of the Art Left in Sixties America (New York: Manchester University Press, 1999), ch. 3.
115. See Brian Wallis, ed., Hans Haacke: Unfinished Business (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1986). In response to Haacke's question, 25,566 visitors said yes and 11,563 said no.
116. Quoted in Frascina, Art, Politics and Dissent, 112.
117. Thomas P.F. Hoving, “Branch Out!” Museum News 47 (September 1968): 15–16; on the 1960s, see also Neil Harris, “A Historical Perspective on Museum Advocacy,” in Cultural Excursions: Marketing Appetites and Cultural Tastes in Modern America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990).
118. Thomas Hoving, untitled introduction to issue, Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin 27 (January 1969): 243.
119. Ibid.
120. Thomas Hoving, preface to Harlem on My Mind, ed. Allon Schoener (New York: New Press, 1995). Also see Michael Kimmelman, “Culture and Race: Still on America's Mind,” New York Times, November 19, 1995; and Steven C. Dubin, Displays of Power: Controversy in the American Museum from the Enola Gay to Sensation (New York: New York University Press, 1999), 18–63.
121. Katharine Kuh, “What's an Art Museum For?” Saturday Review, February 22, 1969, 58–59.
122. A. Zachs et al., “Public Attitudes toward Modern Art,” Museum 22 (1969): 144. These findings echoed an earlier survey by Theodore Low in the 1940s that found a marked public preference for art appreciation over “art and daily living” in educational programming at the Met. Theodore Low, The Museum as Social Instrument (New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1942), 24–30.
123. Hoving, preface to Schoener, Harlem on My Mind.
124. Allon Schoener, “Introduction to the New Edition,” in Schoener, Harlem on My Mind.
125. Hoving, untitled introduction, 244.
126. Thomas Hoving, “Report of the Director,” Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin 27 (October 1968): 55, 61.
127. Grace Glueck, “The Total Involvement of Thomas Hoving,” New York Times Magazine, December 8, 1968, 45.
128. Sherman E. Lee, “The Art Museum in Today's Society,” Dayton Art Institute Bulletin 27 (March 1969): 6.
129. John Walker, Self-Portrait with Donors (Boston: Little, Brown, 1974), xiv.
130. Grace Glueck, “The Guggenheim Cancels Haacke's Show,” New York Times, April 7, 1971, 52 (my thanks to Gina Fraone for this reference). On the piece in question, “Shapolsky et al. Manhattan Real Estate Holdings, a Real-Time Social System, as of May 1, 1971,” see Wallis, Hans Haacke, 92–97.
131. Quoted in Milton Esterow, “The Future of American Museums,” ARTnews 74 (January 1975): 34.
132. George Heard Hamilton, “Education and Scholarship in the American Museum,” in On Understanding Art Museums, ed. Sherman Lee (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1975), 113. Also see Grace Glueck, “The Ivory Tower versus the Discotheque,” Art in America 59 (May–June 1971): 80–85. On the “effacement” of art's meanings in the museum, see Philip Fisher, Making and Effacing Art: Modern American Art in a Culture of Museums (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991), esp. ch. 6.
133. Otto Wittmann, Art Values in a Changing Society (Toledo, OH: Toledo Museum of Art, 1974) l8–19.
134. Jean-Hubert Martin, Magiciens de la Terre (Paris: Centre Pompidou, 1989). All quotations come from the catalog's preface, 8–9.
135. Homi K. Bhabha, “Double Visions,” in Grasping the World: The Idea of the Museum, ed. Donald Preziosi and Claire Farago (Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2004), 240–41.
136. J. Carter Brown, Rings, Five Passions in World Art (New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1996), 17.
137. Ibid. 15, 19.
138. “Vision for the New de Young,” www.thinker.org/deyoung/newdeyoung/index.html (accessed February 2000). According to the architects' statement on the same Web site, entitled “Building the People's Museum,” the building would itself manifest “the distinctiveness of different cultures” while revealing “the hidden kinship between divergent cultural forms.”
139. Herbert Muschamp, “An Iraqi-Born Woman Wins Pritzker Architecture Award,” New York Times, March 22, 2004, B1.
140. Herbert Muschamp, “An Architect at the Service of a Cosmopolitan Ideal,” New York Times, March 22, 2004, B4.
141. Christina A. Kreps, Liberating Culture: Cross-cultural Perspectives on Museums, Curation and Heritage Preservation (New York: Routledge, 2003), 9–10.
142. Ellen Lochrane Hirzy, Excellence and Equity: Education and the Public Dimension of Museums (Washington, DC: American Association of Museums, 1992), 6, 8. Weil notes that this tract was endorsed by the governing board of the AAM and that an earlier AAM publication, Museums for a New Century (1984), declared education to be the museum's “primary” purpose; see Making Museums Matter, 32–33. It is worth noting that art museums were conspicuously underrepresented on the task force that produced Excellence and Equity and, more generally, that art museum curators and directors are scarce at AAM and other professional museum conferences.
143. Quoted in Janet Tassel, “Reverence for the Object: Art Museums in a Changed World,” Harvard Magazine, September–October 2002, 49.
144. Philippe de Montebello, “Art Museums, Inspiring Public Trust,” in Cuno, Whose Muse? 166.
145. Here and Now, WBUR, National Public Radio, September 25, 2001.
146. Ibid.
147. Philippe de Montebello, “Open Letter from the Metropolitan Museum of Art Family to Your Family,” www.metmuseum.org/news/metmuseum_openletter.html (accessed October 3, 2001).
148. Malcolm Rogers, Boston Museum of Fine Arts, “Free Admission,” www.mfa.org/pressroom/news/freeadmission.html (accessed October 3, 2001).
149. Metropolitan Museum of Art, “September 11: Curators' Choices,” press release, September 11, 2002, www.metmuseum.org/September_11/curators_choices.html (accessed October 2002); see also press release of September 6, 2002.
150. Quoted in Tom Mullaney, “A Director Whose Eye Is Focused on Change,” New York Times, March 29, 2006, E4.
151. Kwame Anthony Appiah, Cosmopolitanism: Ethics in a World of Strangers (New York: W. W. Norton, 2006), xix, 78.
152. Ibid., 126, 85. The work of an earlier “cosmopolitan” philosopher, Ananda K. Coomaraswamy, is worth remembering. Quoting Aristotle, Coomaraswamy reminds us that “[t]he general end of art is man.” “What Is the Use of Art, Anyway?” (1937), in Coomaraswamy, Christian and Oriental Philosophy of Art (New York: Dover, 1956), 96.
153. Milo C. Beach, “Look to Museums to Bridge the Gap between Cultures,” Wall Street Journal, May 15, 2003, D8. A year later an article in the New York Times noted the upsurge in exhibitions of Islamic art in the West whose purpose was to “bridge the cultural divide.” The benefits were threefold: “[T]he Islamic world would feel that its heritage was admired in countries that increasingly link Islam with terrorism; Westerners could look beyond today's turmoil to recognize one of the world's great civilizations; and alienated Muslim youths in Europe could identify with the glories of their Islamic roots.” Alan Riding, “Islamic Art as a Mediator for Cultures in Confrontation,” New York Times, April 6, 2004, B1; also see Holland Carter, “What Does Islam Look Like?” New York Times, February 26, 2006, sec. 2, 1, 36.
154. Quoted in John Tagliabue, “Louvre Gets $20 Million for New Islamic Wing,” New York Times, July 28, 2005, E1. Prince Alwaleed Bin Talal Bin Abdulaziz AlSaud also hopes the new Islamic wing “will assist in the true understanding of the true meaning of Islam, a religion of humanity, forgiveness and acceptance of other cultures.” New York Times, August 3, 2005, A13. In 2006 a new Islamic wing, funded by another Saudi, Mohammed Jameel, opened at London's Victoria and Albert Museum. Alan Riding's review of it concluded: “The Prophet [Muhammad] himself is quoted as saying: ‘God is beautiful, and he loves beauty.’ In these ugly times, this too may be worth remembering.” New York Times, August 9, 2006, E3.
155. New York Times, August 3, 2005.
156. Quoted in Alan Riding, “London Sees Political Force in Global Art,” New York Times, August 4, 2005, B3.
157. Quoted in Alan Riding, “Imperialist? Moi? Not This French Museum,” New York Times, June 22, 2006, B1, B8.
158. “Abu Dhabi and French Governments in Historic Cultural Accord,” http://www.ameinfo.com/112754.htmI. See also Alan Riding, “The Louvre's Art: Priceless. The Louvre's Name: Expensive,” New York Times, March 7, 2007, B1.
Chapter 2. Architecture
In the epigraphs, Karl Friedrich Schinkel and Gustav Waagen's Uber das Aufgaben der Berliner Galerie (1828) is quoted in D. Watkin and T. Mellinghof, German Architecture and the Classical Ideal (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1987), 99; Renzo Piano is quoted in Leah Garchik, “Shrugging Off Celebrity Mantle, Sort Of,” San Francisco Chronicle, July 15, 2002.
1. See ARTnews 97 (Summer 1998): 76.
2. Herbert Muschamp, “Culture's Power Houses,” New York Times, April 21, 1999, E6.
3. For the Guggenheim's impact on Bilbao, see “The Museo Guggenheim Bilbao: The Art of Titanium,” www.bilbao-city.net (accessed June 2002); Maria V. Gomez, “Reflective Images: The Case of Urban Regeneration in Glasgow and Bilbao,” International Journal of Urban and Regional Research 22 (March 1998): 106–21; Beatriz Plaza, “The Guggenheim-Bilbao Museum Effect: A Reply to Maria V. Gomez,” International Journal of Urban and Regional Research 23 (September 1999): 589–92; Marjorie Rauen, “Reflections on the Space That Flows: The Guggenheim Museum Bilbao,” Journal of Arts Management, Law and Society 30 (Winter 2001): 283–300.
4. Blake Eskin, “The Incredible Growing Art Museum,” ARTnews 100 (October 2001): 138. On the “Bilbao effect,” see Benjamin Forgey, “Beyond Bilbao: Revisiting a Special Effect,” Washington Post, October 20, 2002.
5. Roberta Smith, “Memo to Art Museums: Don't Give Up on the Art,” New York Times, December 3, 2000, quoted in James Cuno, “Against the Discursive Museum,” in The Discursive Museum, ed. Peter Noever (Vienna: Hatje Cantz, 2001), 51.
6. Jed Perl, “Welcome to the Funhouse: Tate Modern and the Crisis of the Museum,” New Republic, June 19, 2000, 31.
7. Christopher Knight, “When the Museum Becomes an Event,” Los Angeles Times, May 28, 2000.
8. Michael Kimmelman, “All Too Often, the Art Itself Gets Lost in the Blueprints,” New York Times, April 21, 1999, E7.
9. Marcin Fabianski, “Iconography of the Architecture of Ideal Musaea in the Fifteenth to Eighteenth Centuries,” Journal of the History of Collections 2 (1990): 95–134.
10. Lewis Mumford, “Utopia, the City and the Machine,” in Utopias and Utopian Thought, ed. Frank Manuel (Boston: Beacon Press, 1965), 14; also Krishan Kumar, Utopianism (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1991), 12–16; Helen Rosenau, The Ideal City in Its Architectural Evolution (Boston: Book and Art Shop, 1959); Ruth Eaton, Ideal Cities: Utopianism and the (Un) Built Environment (London: Thames and Hudson, 2001).
11. Lewis Mumford, The City in History (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1975), 693.
12. See Marcia Hall, ed., Raphael's School of Athens (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1997), especially Ralph E. Lieberman, “The Architectural Background,” 64–84.
13. [Louis-Sebastien Mercier], L'an deux mille quatre cent quarante: Rêve s'il en fût jamais, 3 vols. ([Paris], 1786), 2:25–26.
14. On Boullée, see J.-M. Pérouse de Montclos, Etienne-Louis Boullée (1728–1799): Theoretician of Revolutionary Architecture, trans. J. Emmons (New York: George Braziller, 1974); Helen Rosenau, Boullée and Visionary Architecture (London: Academy Editions, 1976); Les architects de la liberté, 1789–1799, exhib. cat. (Paris: École Nationale Supérieure des Beaux-Arts, 1989). Other influences were no doubt also in play in the late eighteenth century. In 1742 Count Francesco Algarotti proposed a similar museum design of four wings punctuated by cupolas and Corinthian porticos to Augustus III of Saxony. Michelangelo Simonetti's Pio-Clementino Museum at the Vatican had opened in 1773 with its own imposing rotunda and dignified galleries. In the end the question of influence is less important than the establishment by the third quarter of the eighteenth century of a standard vocabulary for public buildings devoted to knowledge and the arts comprising a complex central plan, vaulted galleries, and domed rotundas.
15. J.-N.-L. Durand, Précis of the Lectures on Architecture (1802–5) (Los Angeles: Getty Center, 2000), 159–61. Durand conflates museums, libraries, and academies and alludes to their function as sites of scholarly discourse. On Durand, see Werner Szambien, Jean-Nicolas-Louis Durand, 1760–1834 (Paris: Picard, 1984).
16. Etienne-Louis Boullée, “Architecture, Essai on Art,” in Rosenau, Boullée, 90. On character, see also Nicolas Camus de Mazières, The Genius of Architecture; or, The Analogy of That Art with Our Sensations (1780), trans. D. Britt, with an introduction by Robin Middleton (Santa Monica, CA: Getty Center, 1992); and Sylvia Lavin, Quatremère de Quincy and the Invention of a Modern Language of Architecture (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1992).
17. Léon Dufourny, quoted in Les architects de la liberté, 331.
18. Rosenau, Boullée, 107.
19. Ibid., 104.
20. Charles-Axel Guillaumot, Mémoire sur la manière d'éclairer le galerie du Louvre (Paris, 1797), 4.
21. Ibid., 21–22.
22. Ibid., 24.
23. Thomas Jessop, Journal d'un voyage à Paris en Septembre–Octobre 1820 (Paris, 1928), 28. A range of responses to the Louvre are discussed by Dominique Poulot, “Surveiller et s'instuire”: La Révolution française et l'intelligence de l'héritage historique (Oxford: Voltaire Foundation, 1996), 417ff.
24. Anonymous review of William Shepherd, Paris in 1802 and in 1814, in the Edinburgh Review, September 1814, 470.
25. John Scott, A Visit to Paris in 1814 (London: Longman, 1815), 251–52.
26. François-Xavier de Burtin, Traité théoretique et pratique des connaissances qui sont nécessaires à tout amateur de tableaux, 2 vols. (Brussels: L'auteur, 1808), 1:15.
27. Quoted in Michael Snodin, ed., Karl Friedrich Schinkel: A Universal Man (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1991), 132. On “liminality” and museums, see Carol Duncan, Civilizing Rituals: Inside Public Art Museums (New York: Routledge, 1995), ch. 1.
28. Quoted in Douglas Crimp, On the Museum's Ruins (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1993), 300. For Hirt's design, see Volker Plagemann, Das deutsche Kunstmuseum, 1790–1870 (Munich: Prestel-Verlag, 1967), 38–42. On the dispute between Hirt and Schinkel, see Steven Moyano, “Quality vs. History: Schinkel's Altes Museum and Prussian Arts Policy,” Art Bulletin 72 (December 1990): 585–608, and James J. Sheehan, Museums in the German Art World: From the End of the Old Regime to the Rise of Modernism (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000), 70–81.
29. Schinkel and Waagen, Uber das Aufgaben der Berliner Galerie, quoted in Watkin and Mellinghof, German Architecture and the Classical Ideal, 99.
30. See Eve Blau, Ruskinian Gothic: The Architecture of Deane and Woodward, 1845–61 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1982).
31. See John Physick, The Victoria and Albert Museum: The History of the Building (Oxford: Phaidon, 1982).
32. J. Randolph Coolidge Jr., “The Architectural Scheme,” Bulletin of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston 5 (June 1907): 41. On the design and the moral influence of the Beaux Arts museum in America, see Ingrid A. Steffensen-Bruce, Marble Palaces, Temples of Art: Art Museums, Architecture and American Culture, 1890–1930 (Lewisburg, PA: Bucknell University Press, 1998).
33. Quoted in Steffensen-Bruce, Marble Palaces, 120.
34. Ibid., 73; also 141.
35. Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, Communications to the Trustees (Boston: Museum of Fine Arts, 1904), 84.
36. Coolidge, “Architectural Scheme,” 41; Arthur Fairbanks, untitled piece, Bulletin of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston 7 (December 1909): 44.
37. Walter Muir Whitehill, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston: A Centennial History, 2 vols. (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 1970), 1:227.
38. Richard F. Bach, “The Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago, Illinois,” Architectural Record 56 (July 1924): 1–15.
39. Richard F. Bach, “The Fogg Museum of Art, Harvard University,” Architectural Record 61 (June 1927): 465–77; Meyric R. Rogers, “Modern Museum Design as Illuminated by the New Fogg Museum, Harvard University,” Architectural Forum 47 (December 1927): 601–8; and Kathryn Brush, Vastly More Than Brick and Mortar: Reinventing the Fogg Art Museum in the 1920s (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2003) .
40. Bach, “Fogg Museum of Art,” 469.
41. Philip N. Youtz, “Museum Equipment, Exhibition Rooms, and Sections Open to the Public,” in League of Nations, International Museums Office, “International Study Conference on the Architecture and Equipment of Art Museums, Madrid, 1934,” typescript, Fine Arts Library, Harvard University, 2–17.
42. Philip Youtz, “Museums among Public Services,” Museum News 11 (September 15, 1933): 7.
43. Philip Youtz, “Museum Architecture,” Museum News 15 (December 1, 1937): 10.
44. Ibid., 12.
45. Paul Cret, “L'architecture des musées en tant que plastique,” Mouseion 25–26 (1934): 7–16; also see John H. Markham, “Le plan et la conception architecturale des musées,” Mouseion 29–30 (1935): 7–22. On Cret and his place between the Enlightenment and the modernism of Wright and Kahn, see Richard A. Etlin, Symbolic Space: French Enlightenment Architecture and Its Legacy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994), ch. 3.
46. Fiske Kimball, “The Modern Museum of Art,” Architectural Record 66 (December 1929): 558–80, and “Planning the Art Museum,” Architectural Record 66 (December 1929): 582–90.
47. William Lescaze, “A Modern Housing for a Museum,” Parnassus 6 (November 1937): 14. The architect Clarence Stein agreed that architecture must not “steal the show.” Clarence Stein, “Making Museums Function,” Architectural Forum 56 (June 1932): 609–16.
48. Lescaze, “Modern Housing,” 14.
49. John Coolidge, Patrons and Architects: Designing Art Museums in the Twentieth Century (Fort Worth, TX: Amon Carter Museum, 1989), 81.
50. Ibid., 81–85. Also see Talbot F. Hamlin, “Modern Display for Works of Art,” Pencil Points 20 (September 1939): 615.
51. For the Guggenheim, see Neil Levine, The Architecture of Frank Lloyd Wright (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996), 299–363.
52. Peter Blake, “The Guggenheim: Museum or Monument,” Architectural Forum 111 (December 1959): 92.
53. Coolidge, Patrons and Architects, 45.
54. Quoted in Blake, “Guggenheim,” 93.
55. Quoted in Levine, Frank Lloyd Wright, 348.
56. Ibid., 335.
57. Henry-Russell Hitchcock, “Museums in the Modern World,” Architectural Review 86 (September 1939): 148.
58. Coolidge, Patrons and Architects, 81.
59. Mies van der Rohe, “Museum for a Small City,” Architectural Forum 78 (May 1943): 84.
60. Blake, “Guggenheim,” 89. Blake used Mies's design as a model for his own projected museum for Jackson Pollock; see Victoria Newhouse, Towards a New Museum (New York: Monacelli Press, 1998), 130–32.
61. William Rubin, “When Museums Overpower Their Own Art,” New York Times, April 12, 1987, H31.
62. Coolidge, Patrons and Architects, 74. Also see Gabriela Wachter, ed., Mies van der Rohe's New National Gallery in Berlin (Berlin: Vice Versa, 1995).
63. Quoted in Paul Goldberger, “What Should a Museum Building Be?” ARTnews 74 (October 1975): 35. In a paper presented at the 2006 College Art Association conference in Boston (“From the Romanesque Church to the Modern Museum: Displaying the Sacred Structures of Pierre Soulages's Abstract Paintings”), Marcia Brennen showed that as director of the Houston MFA in the 1960s J. J. Sweeney suspended paintings by Pierre Soulages from the ceiling in the manner recommended earlier by Mies.
64. Goldberger, “What Should a Museum Building Be?” 38.
65. Ibid., 37.
66. “Centre Pompidou, Paris,” Architectural Review 161 (May 1977): 272. Also see Newhouse, Towards a New Museum, 193–98.
67. Quoted in Elizabeth C. Baker, “Beaubourg Preview,” Art in America 65 (January-February 1977): 100.
68. Jean Baudrillard, “The Beaubourg-Effect: Implosion and Deterrence,” trans. R. Krauss and A. Michelson, October 20 (Spring 1982): 7.
69. B. S. M., “Darling of the Architectural Avant-Garde for US Designs Museum,” Art Newspaper, November 2000, 18.
70. Quoted in Mary Louise Schumacher, “Museums Move with a Splash to Center Stage,” Milwaukee Journal Sentinel, September 23, 2000.
71. Paul Goldberger, “Art Houses,” New Yorker, November 5, 2001, 98.
72. In addition to articles referenced above, see also Franklin W. Robinson, “No More Buildings!” Museum News 81 (November–December 2002): 28–29; Cuno, “Against the Discursive Museum”; Jeffrey Hogrefe, “Lost Art: Has Architecture Become the Museum's Worst Enemy?” Metropolis, December 1999, 71–74; and Hilton Kramer, “Critic's Notebook: Growing Pains,” Art and Antiques 25 (November 2002): 130–31. As early as 1986, Philippe de Montebello observed: “In order to retain or gain new audiences, museums are building highly visible, dramatic symbolic centers in imitation of the great European cathedrals…. It's an indication that the appreciation of art as a personal experience is being lost.” Quoted in Andrea Oppenheimer Dean, “Showcases for Architecture,” Architecture 75 (January 1986): 30.
73. Douglas Davis, The Museum Transformed: Design and Culture in the Post-Pompidou Age (New York: Abbeville, 1990), 124.
74. For a recent appreciation, appropriately contrasted with Calatrava's Quadracci Pavilion at Milwaukee, see Goldberger, “Art Houses,” 98–100.
75. Quoted in the New York Times, November 7, 2004, sec. 2, 21.
76. Nicolai Ouroussoff, “Even More Modern,” New York Times, September 12, 2004, 97.
77. Backlash may produce a similar mismatch in the choice of the minimalist Tokyo firm Sanaa to build the new Louvre II in Lens, a declining provincial city like Bilbao. Significantly, Sanaa's design for the new Louvre was praised by the former French culture minister, Jack Lang, a keen supporter of Pei's Pyramid and Mitterrand's ambitious projects in the 1980s, as an “an anti-Guggenheim.” Claire Downey, “Louvre Annex to Open in Lens, France,” Architectural Record 193 (September 2005): 36.
78. Michael Kimmelman, “The Greatest Generation,” New York Times Magazine, April 6, 2003, 76. For a survey of the loft type, see Helen Searing, “The Brillo Box in the Warehouse: Museums of Contemporary Art and Industrial Conversions,” in The Andy Warhol Museum (New York: Distributed Art Publishers, 1994), 39–65.
79. Quoted in Julie V. Iovine, “A New Broom Sweeps a Meier Design Clean,” New York Times, May 23, 2002, E5. Richard Meier clearly believes his museums achieve the proper balance between art and architecture: “The primary intention of our museum architecture is to encourage the discovery of aesthetic and cultural values and to foster a contemplative appreciation for the museum's collection through its own spatial experience. We believe that art objects should be displayed in surroundings that have strong spatial definition, but at the same time, create a place in which art is enhanced rather than overwhelmed.” Richard Meier, Building for Art (Basel: Birkhauser, 1990), 96.
80. J. E. Kaufman, “Whitney Announces Major Expansion—Again,” Art Newspaper, July–August 2004, 10. Also see Nicolai Ouroussoff, “Whitney's New Plan: A Respectful Approach,” New York Times, November 9, 2004, B1.
81. On Kahn, see Patricia Cummings Loud, The Art Museums of Louis I. Kahn (Durham: Duke University Press, 1989); and Coolidge, Patrons and Architects, 27ff. On Kahn and Cret, see Etlin, Symbolic Spaces.
82. Louis Kahn, “Monumentality,” in New Architecture and City Planning, ed. Paul Zucker (New York: Philosophical Library, 1944), 577–88, quoted in Loud, Art Museums, 48.
83. Charles Saumarez-Smith, “Architecture and the Museum,” Journal of Design History 8 (1995): 255.
84. Goldberger, “Art Houses,” 99.
85. Herbert Muschamp, “The Miracle in Bilbao,” New York Times Magazine, September 7, 1997, 57; Peter Plagens, “Another Tale of Two Cities,” Newsweek, November 3, 1997, 82.
86. Quoted in Edmund P. Pillsbury, “The New Sackler Museum at Harvard,” Burlington Magazine 128 (January 1986): 64.
87. Douglas Crimp, “The Postmodern Museum,” in On the Museum's Ruins, 282–325.
88. These quotations come from two articles on Stirling: Robert Campbell's “Putting a Wry Face on Adversity,” Architecture 75 (January 1986): 48, 50, and Martin Fisher's “Cultural Centering,” Architectural Record 172 (September 1984): 146.
Chapter 3. Collecting, Classification, and Display
Epigraphs are from George Brown Goode, “Museum History and Museums of History,” paper read before the American Historical Association in December 1888, quoted in Benjamin Ives Gilman, Museum Ideals of Purpose and Method (Boston: Boston Museum of Fine Arts, 1923), 77, and from Gilman, Museum Ideals, 77.
1. See Lisa G. Corrin, ed., Mining the Museum: An Installation by Fred Wilson (New York: New Press, 1994); and Maurice Berger, Fred Wilson: Objects and Installations, 1979–2000 (New York: Distributed Art Publishers, 2001).
2. Patterson Sims, The Museum: Mixed Metaphors (Seattle: Seattle Art Museum, 1993).
3. Ibid., 29.
4. Michel Foucault, The Order of Things: An Archaeology of the Human Sciences (New York: Pantheon Books, 1971), xv, originally published as Les mots et les choses: Une archéologie des sciences humaines (Paris: Gallimard, 1966).
5. On theories of collecting, see John Elsner and Roger Cardinal, eds., The Cultures of Collecting (London: Reaktion Books, 1994); and Susan Stewart, On Longing (Durham: Duke University Press, 1993). An extreme psychoanalytic view of collecting is offered by Werner Muensterberger, Collecting: An Unruly Passion (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994).
6. For Jean de la Bruyère on collecting, see his Characters (1688), ch. 13: “Of Fashion.” On Flaubert's tale of Bouvard and Pécuchet, see Eugenio Donato, “The Museum's Furnace: Notes toward a Contextual Reading of Bouvard and Pécuchet,” in Textual Strategies: Perspectives in Post-Structuralist Criticism, ed. Josue V. Harari (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1979), 213–38. According to Donato, Bouvard and Pécuchet's collection underlines the “fiction” of representational coherence that sustains all museums: “The set of objects the Museum displays is sustained only by the fiction that they somehow constitute a coherent representational universe…. Such a fiction is the result of an uncritical belief in the notion that order and classifying, that is to say, the spatial juxtaposition of fragments, can produce a representational understanding of the world. Should the fiction disappear, there is nothing left of the Museum but ‘bric-a-brac,’ a heap of meaningless and valueless fragments of objects” (223).
7. Rosamond Wolff Purcell and Stephen Jay Gould, Illuminations: A Bestiary (New York: Norton, 1986), 14.
8. James Clifford, The Predicament of Culture: Twentieth-Century Ethnography, Literature, and Art (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1988), 219.
9. Daniel Costello, “Museum Envy,” Wall Street Journal, January 14, 2000, W12.
10. Quoted in Carol Vogel, “The Met Makes Its Biggest Purchase Ever,” New York Times, November 10, 2004, B7. Elsewhere in the article Montebello described the acquisition as “one of the highest points”of his twenty-seven years as director. For a reverential “background” piece on the Duccio, see Calvin Tomkins, “The Missing Madonna,” New Yorker, July 11 and 18, 2005, 42–49.
11. John Walker's illustrated guide National Gallery of Art, Washington (New York: Abrams, 1984) begins its chronological survey of attributed masterpieces with a Duccio panel from the Maestà (1308–11) and ends with Jackson Pollock's Number 1 (Lavender Mist) of 1950.
12. Carol Duncan and Alan Wallach, “The Universal Survey Museum,” Art History 3 (December 1980): 448–69. Duncan develops these ideas further in her book Civilizing Rituals: Inside Public Art Museums (New York: Routledge, 1995).
13. Quoted in Eugenio Donato, “Museum's Furnace,” 222.
14. The literature on this topic is immense, but the indispensable works include Oliver Impey and Arthur MacGregor, eds., The Origins of Museums: The Cabinet of Curiosities in Sixteenth- and Seventeenth-Century Europe (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1985); Krzysztof Pomian, Collectors and Curiosities: Paris and Venice, 1500–1800, trans. E. Wiles-Portier (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1990); Paula Findlen, Possessing Nature: Museums, Collecting, and Scientific Culture in Early Modern Italy (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994); and Lorraine Daston and Katherine Park, Wonders and the Order of Nature (New York: Zone Books, 1998).
15. Daston and Park, Wonders, 272. Stephen Bann's excellent study of John Bargrave reveals the contingency of seventeenth-century curiosity cabinets; see Under the Sign: John Bargrave as Collector, Traveler, and Witness (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1994).
16. Daston and Park, Wonders, 272; also see Pomian, Collectors and Curiosities, 45.
17. Quoted in Stephen Greenblatt, Marvelous Possessions: The Wonder of the New World (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991), 20. On the dangers of wonder unmodified, also see Daston and Park, Wonders, 11–14, 110–23.
18. Impey and MacGregor, Origins of Museums, 14.
19. Findlen, Possessing Nature, 95.
20. Ibid., 390.
21. See Stephen Bann, “The Return to Curiosity: Shifting Paradigms in Contemporary Museum Display,” in Art and Its Publics: Museum Studies at the Millennium, ed. Andrew McClellan (Oxford: Blackwell, 2003), 97–115.
22. On the early museums of Vienna, see Debora Meijers, Kunst als natuur: De Hapsburgse schilderijengalerie in Wene omstreeks 1780 (Amsterdam: sua, 1991); also Germain Bazin, The Museum Age, trans. Jane van Nuis Cahill (New York: Universe, 1967), 158–59. On the arrangement of picture collections more generally, see Colin B. Bailey, “Conventions of the Eighteenth-Century Cabinet de Tableaux: Blondel d'Azincourt's La première idée de la curiosité,” Art Bulletin 69 (1987): 431–46.
23. See ch. 1 of Andrew McClellan, Inventing the Louvre: Art, Politics, and the Origins of the Modern Museum in Eighteenth-Century Paris (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1994).
24. André Félibien, Entretiens sur les vies et sur les ouvrages des plus excellens peintres, 2 vols. (Paris: P. Le Petit, 1666–88), 2:3.
25. Lettre de M. le Chevalier de Tincourt à Madame la Marquise de *** sur les tableaux et dessins du cabinet du roi (Paris, 1751), 7, 22. For a full discussion of the Luxembourg Gallery, see McClellan, Inventing the Louvre, ch. 1.
26. See Carol Gibson-Wood, Studies in the Theory of Connoisseurship from Vasari to Morelli (New York: Garland, 1988), 35 and passim.
27. C. F. Neickel[ius], Museographia oder Anleitung zum rechten Begriff und nutzlicher Anlegung der Museorum oder Raritaten Kammern (Leipzig: Hubert, 1727), 4. Similar priorities inform Jonathan Richardson's An Account of Some of the Statues…and Paintings in Italy (1722).
28. L.-J.-M. Daubenton, Histoire naturelle, générale et particulière avec le description du cabinet du roi (Paris: Imprimerie royale, 1749–), 3:1.
29. J.-B.-P. Lebrun, Observations sur le Muséum national (Paris: Charon, 1793), 15.
30. For the arrangement of early modern print collections, see the essays by Peter Parshall and Antony Griffiths, based on their M. Victor Leventritt Lectures, 7 and 8 April 1993, Print Collecting in Sixteenth and Eighteenth Century Europe, Bulletin of the Harvard University Art Museums 2 (Summer 1994).
31. Nicolas de Pigage, La Galerie Electorale de Dusseldorf (Basel: C. de Mechel, 1778); on eighteenth-century German collections, see James J. Sheehan, Museums in the German Art World: From the End of the Old Regime to the Rise of Modernism (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000).
32. Quoted and translated in Sheehan, Museums, 40.
33. Casimir Varon, Rapport du conservatoire du muséum (1794), quoted in McClellan, Inventing the Louvre, 113.
34. Ludwig I of Bavaria, Briefweschel zwischen Ludwig I. von Bayern und Georg von Dillis, ed. R. Messerer (Munich: Beck, 1966), xvii.
35. Quoted in Sheehan, Museums, 76. On the arrangement dispute at the Altes Museum, also see Steven Moyano, “Quality vs. History: Schinkel's Altes Museum and Prussian Arts Policy,” Art Bulletin 57 (December 1990): 585–608, and Christoph Martin Vogtherr, “Zwischen Norm und Kunstgeschichte: Wilhelm von Humboldts Denskschrift von 1829 zur Hängung in der Berliner Gemäldgalerie,” Jahrbuch der Berliner Museen 34 (1992): 53–64.
36. Karl Friedrich Schinkel and Gustav Waagen, Uber die Aufgaben der Berliner Galerie, quoted in D. Watkin and T. Mellinghoff, German Architecture and the Classical Ideal (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1987), 99. On the dispute between Schinkel, Waagen, and Hirt, see Sheehan, Museums, and Vogtherr, “Zwischen Norm und Kunstgeschichte.”
37. “Thoughts on the New Building for the National Gallery,” Art Journal, May 1, 1853, 121–25, quoted in Giles Waterfield, Palaces of Art: Art Galleries in Britain, 1790–1990 (London: Dulwich Picture Gallery, 1991), 56. Waterfield provides an incisive account of display strategies in Britain during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.
38. Waterfield, Palaces of Art, 145.
39. Quoted in Sheehan, Museums, 145.
40. “Horrors of Museum Trotting,” Atlantic Monthly, December 1929, 855–57; also see 768–73.
41. For a beautifully illustrated historical survey of display strategies, see Victoria Newhouse, Art and the Power of Placement (New York: Monacelli Press, 2005).
42. The idea was suggested as early as 1864 by J. Edward Gray, Keeper of Zoology at the British Museum, “Address to Section D,” Report of the British Association for the Advancement of Science 34 (1864): 76.
43. On German museum reform of the 1880s, see Alexis Joachimides, Die Museumsreformbewegung in Deutschland und die Entstehung des modernen Museums 1880–1940 (Dresden: Verlag der Kunst, 2001); also Sheehan, Museums, ch. 4.
44. Frank Jewett Mather, “Two Theories of Museum Policy,” Nation, December 28, 1905, 518.
45. Arthur Fairbanks, untitled piece, Bulletin of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston 7 (December 1909): 44.
46. “Museums,” Burlington Magazine 13 (September 1908): 322; Frank J. Mather, “Art in America,” Burlington Magazine 9 (April 1906): 62.
47. Charles G. Loring, “A Trend in Museum Design,” Architectural Forum 47 (December 1927): 579
48. F. Schmidt-Degener, “General Principles regarding the Enhancement of Works of Art,” in League of Nations, International Museums Office, “International Study Conference on the Architecture and Equipment of Art Museums, Madrid, 1934,” typescript, Fine Arts Library, Harvard University, 17. Interestingly, Schmidt-Degener wondered “whether the modern tendency towards restraint and severity is not…a fashion which we are following unconsciously.” Also see reports in P. d'Espezel and G. Hilaire, eds., Musées (Paris: Cahiers de la République des Lettres, des Sciences, et des Arts, n.d.), and early issues of the journal Mouseion, for example, J. Jaujard, “Les principes muséographiques de la réorganisation du Louvre,” Mouseion 31–32 (l935): 7–22.
49. Blake-More Godwin, “Le Toledo Museum of Art,” Mouseion 29–30 (1935): 1.
50. Arthur Melton, Problems of Installation in Museums of Art (Washington, DC: American Association of Museums, 1935), 2 and passim.
51. Exposition Internationale de 1937. Musées et expositions. Section 1: Muséographie (Paris: Denoël, 1937), 18–19. The organizers included Henri Focillon, Paul Vitry, Georges-Henri Rivière, René Huyghe, Paul Valéry, and Germain Bazin.
52. Brian O'Doherty, Inside the White Cube: The Ideology of the Gallery Space (San Francisco: Lapis Press, 1986), 14.
53. Clarence Stein, “The Art Museum of Tomorrow,” Architectural Record 67 (January 1930): 5–12; Lee Simonson, “Skyscrapers for Art Museums,” American Mercury, August 1927, 399–404; for a one-story variation, see Auguste Perret, “Le musée moderne,” Mouseion 3 (1929): 225–35.
54. Luc Benoist, Musées et muséologie (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1960), 120–21.
55. Joshua C. Taylor, “The Art Museum in the United States,” in On Understanding Art Museums, ed. Sherman E. Lee (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1975), 45.
56. Paul Ortwin Rave, quoted in Wilhelm Treue, Art Plunder: The Fate of Works of Art in War and Unrest, trans. B. Creighton (New York: John Day, 1961), 233–34. Also see Stephanie Barron et al., “Degenerate Art”: The Fate of the Avant-Garde in Nazi Germany (Los Angeles: Los Angeles County Museum of Art, 1991).
57. Theodore Schmit, “Les musées de l'Union des Républiques Socialites Soviétiques,” in d'Espezel and Hilaire, Musées, 206–21; also Exposition Internationale de 1937, 20. On Soviet museum practice, see Adam Jolles, “Stalin's Talking Museums,” Oxford Art Journal 28 (2005): 429–55.
58. George Harold Edgell, “Policies in Acquisition,” Art in America 34 (October 1946): 179–82. Decades earlier, Joseph Breck, director of the new Minneapolis museum then under construction, said of its acquisition policy that “it should strive even more rigorously [than before] to acquire the best and only the best.” “The Minneapolis Institute of Arts: Its Purpose and Its Collections,” Bulletin of the Minneapolis Institute of Arts 3 (October 1914): 118.
59. Quoted in Carol Vogel, “Surprises and Big Sales at London Art Auctions,” New York Times, June 27, 2005, B7.
60. For the Seager system, see F. Hurst Seager, “The Lighting of Picture Galleries and Museums,” Journal of the Royal Institute of British Architects 20 (November 1912): 43–54. Paul Cret, in his article “Theories of Museum Planning,” in Paul Philippe Cret: Architect and Teacher, ed. Theo B. White (Philadelphia: Art Alliance Press, 1973), 78, quotes museum people who disliked the Seager system; also see Laurence V. Coleman, The Museum in America (Washington, DC: American Association of Museums, 1937), 207. For a good overview of lighting issues, see Michael Compton, “The Architecture of Daylight,” in Waterfield, Palaces of Art, 37–47; for a 1930s perspective, see Exposition Internationale…1937, 22–23.
61. See Geoffrey N. Swinney, “Gas Lighting in British Museums and Galleries,” Journal of Museum Management and Curatorship 18 (June 1999): 113–43.
62. Among those who preferred natural light were Eric Maclagen, “Museum Planning,” Journal of the Royal Institute of British Architects 38 (June 6, 1931): 534; Kenneth Clark, “Ideal Picture Galleries,” Museums Journal 45 (November 1945): 132; Fiske Kimball, “Planning the Art Museum,” Architectural Record 66 (December 1929): 582–90; and William Valentiner, “The Museum of Tomorrow,” in New Architecture and City Planning: A Symposium, ed. Paul Zucker (New York: Philosophical Library, 1944), 660. Articles in Mouseion and other journals in the late 1920s and 1930s chart the increased use of artificial light in museums, especially in northern Europe and the United States.
63. See Garry Thomson, The Museum Environment (London: Butterworths, 1978).
64. Lee Simonson, “Museum Showmanship,” Architectural Forum 56 (June 1932): 534.
65. Quoted in Helen Searing, New American Art Museums (New York: Whitney Museum of American Art, 1982), 112.
66. On Lenoir and his museum, see McClellan, Inventing the Louvre, ch. 5, and Francis Haskell, History and Its Images (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1993), ch. 9.
67. On this movement in France, see Dominique Poulot, Musée, nation, patrimoine, 1789–1815 (Paris: Gallimard, 1997).
68. Emile Deschamps, quoted in translation in Stephen Bann, The Clothing of Clio: A Study of the Representation of History in Nineteenth-Century Britain and France (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984), 82.
69. See Joachimides, Die Museumsreformbewegung, 53ff. On Bode, see also Thomas W. Gaehtgens, Die Berliner Museuminsel in Deutschen Kaiserreich (Munich: Deutscher Kunstverlag, 1992); and Malcolm Baker, “Bode and Museum Display: The Arrangement of the Kaiser-Friedrich Museum and the South Kensington Response,” Jahrbuch der Berliner Museen Suppl., 38 (1996): !43–53.
70. On Valentiner, see Margaret Sterne, The Passionate Eye: The Life of William R. Valentiner (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1980); and Jeffrey Abt, A Museum of the Verge: A Socio-economic History of the Detroit Institute of Arts (Detroit: Wayne State Press, 2001); on his work in New York, see William Valentiner, “The Arrangement,” Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin 5 (March 1910). A curious manifestation of the German vogue for period settings occurred in eastern France during World War I. Following the bombing of Saint-Quentin, the Germans salvaged the contents of the Musée Lécuyer, including important pastels by Maurice de Saint-Quentin, and transferred them to Maubeuge, where, as proof of their solicitude for endangered French art, they reinstalled the collection following Bode's modern principles. See Baron Frh. von Hadeln, Das Museum au Pauvre Diable zu Maubeuge: Ausstellung der aus St. Quentin und Umgebung geretteten Kunstwerke (Stuttgart: Julius Hoffmann, 1918).
71. Fiske Kimball, “The Art Museum—Ideals and Progress,” in Fairmount Park Art Association, 65th Annual Report (Philadelphia, 1937), 17–18; see also Fiske Kimball, “The Modern Museum of Art,” Architectural Record 66 (December 1929): 559–80.
72. Quoted in Elizabeth Grossman, The Civic Architecture of Paul Cret (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 124. The term personal collection museum comes from Anne Higonnet, whose forthcoming book promises to be the definitive study of the subject.
73. “Visitors to Pennsylvania Museum Express Preference for Period Rooms,” ARTnews 28 (December 7, 1929): 9. Forty-four percent preferred period rooms, against 32 percent for paintings. Also see F. Kimball, “Musée d'art de Pennsylvanie: Statistique des visiteurs d'après leur profession,” Mouseion 4 (1930): 32–43.
74. Loring, “Trend in Museum Design,” 579.
75. Thomas Munro, “The Place of Aesthetics in the Art Museum,” College Art Journal 6 (Spring 1947): 183. For an example of the problematic “authenticity” of period rooms, see John Harris, “A Cautionary Tale of Two ‘Period’ Rooms,” Apollo 142 (July 1995): 56–57.
76. Arthur W. Melton, “Studies of Installation at the Pennsylvania Museum of Art,” Museum News 10 (January 15, 1933): 6.
77. Sir Eric Maclagen, “Different Methods of Presenting Collections,” in League of Nations, “International Study Conference,” 20–21. See also Maclagen, “Museum Planning,” 529: “[A]ll forms of architectural decoration are…quite definitely detrimental” to the display of art. He calls period rooms “the worst mistake of all” (530) and labels Valentiner's efforts at Detroit a failure.
78. Henri Verne, “Faut-il brûler le Louvre?” in d'Espezel and Hilaire, Musées, 268.
79. Clark, “Ideal Picture Galleries,” 31.
80. Coleman, Museum in America, 199. Ambivalence toward period interiors in the 1930s is reflected in the official catalog of the Cloisters, which opened in 1938 and was composed of medieval buildings brought from France: “Prominence has been given the exhibits by making the architectural setting unobtrusive. Though the backgrounds are medieval in style, the simplest precedents have been followed for the modern work so as not to detract from original elements.” James J. Rorimer, The Cloisters: The Building and the Collection of Medieval Art (New York: Metropolitan Museum, 1938), xxx.
81. See Michael Brawne, The New Museum: Architecture and Display (London: Architectural Press, 1965), 32.
82. Fairbanks, untitled piece, 44. Also see Walter Muir Whitehill, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston: A Centennial History, 2 vols. (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 1970), 240ff.
83. Ananda K. Coomaraswamy, “Why Exhibit Works of Art?” (1941), in Christian and Oriental Philosophy of Art (New York: Dover, 1956).
84. Frederic H. Douglas and René d'Harnoncourt, Indian Art of the United States (New York: Museum of Modern Art, 1941), 11.
85. Quoted in Mary Anne Staniszewski, The Power of Display: A History of the Exhibition Installations at the Museum of Modern Art (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1998), 94, which offers a good account of the exhibition (84–98).
86. Susan Vogel, “Bringing African Art to the Metropolitan Museum,” African Arts 15 (February 1982): 40.
87. Susan Vogel and Francine N'Diaye, African Masterpieces from the Musée de l'Homme (New York: Harry N. Abrams: 1985), 11. For an excellent overview of the challenges of assimilating African art into Western museums, see Christa Clarke, “From Theory to Practice: Exhibiting African Art in the Twenty-First Century,” in McClellan, Art and Its Publics, 165–84. Also see the essays in Dominique Taffin, ed., Du musée colonial au musée des cultures du monde (Paris: Maisonneuve et Larose/Musée National des Arts d'Afrique et d'Océanie, 2000).
88. Tom Phillips, ed., Africa: The Art of a Continent (New York: Prestel, 1995), 11.
89. Quoted in Clifford, Predicament of Culture, 203 (emphasis mine).
90. Ibid., 200.
91. Susan Vogel, “Always True to the Object, in Our Fashion,” in Exhibiting Cultures: The Poetics and Politics of Museum Display, ed. Ivan Karp and Steven D. Lavine (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1991), 192–93.
92. Susan Mullin Vogel, Baule: African Art/Western Eyes (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1997), 80, and “Objets africains dans les musées d'art: Évolution d'un paradoxe,” in Taffin, Du musée colonial, 219–24; also see Holland Cotter's review of the exhibition, “Beyond Beauty, Art That Takes Action,” New York Times, September 28, 1997.
93. Susan Mullin Vogel, “History of a Museum, with Theory,” in Exhibition-ism: Museums and African Art, ed. Mary Nooter Roberts and Susan Vogel (New York: Museum for African Art, 1994), 94.
94. Frank Jewett Mather, “Atmosphere versus Art,” Atlantic Monthly, August 1930, 171–77.
95. Mark O'Neill, director of the Glasgow Museum, discusses the impressionist and other exhibitions in his article “The Good Enough Visitor,” in Museums, Society, Inequality, ed. Richard Sandell (New York: Routledge, 2002), 24–40.
96. Quoted by Andrea Kupfer Schneider, Creating the Musée d'Orsay: The Politics of Culture in France (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1998), 78. Also see Patricia Mainardi, “Postmodern History at the Musée d'Orsay,” October 41 (Summer 1987): 31–51.
97. Stephen Greenblatt, “Resonance and Wonder,” in Karp and Lavine, Exhibiting Cultures, 54.
98. Clifford, Predicament of Culture, 191, 195. Also see Clarke, “From Theory to Practice,” 168–69, and Jean-Hubert Martin, “La modernité comme obstacle à une appreciation égalitaire des cultures,” in Taffin, Du musée colonial, 149–62.
99. On the acquisition of African art for Western collections, see Sally Price, Primitive Art in Civilized Places (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989).
100. Clifford, Predicament of Culture, 190.
101. An interesting early “experimental” exhibition, involving labels written by various people from different points of view, was The Label Show: Contemporary Art and the Museum, organized by Trevor Fairbrother at the Boston MFA in 1994. Two years later, a follow-up show, Labeltalk 1996, was organized by the Williams College Museum of Art.
102. Neil MacGregor, “The Purpose of the Enlightenment Museum,” Art Newspaper, January 2004, 22.
103. Quoted in Josie Appleton, “Museums Need More Confidence in the Power of Their Collections,” Art Newspaper, June 2004, 24. Appleton cites further examples of “relevant” programming at UK museums.
104. Nicholas Serota, Experience or Interpretation: The Dilemma of Museums of Modern Art (New York: Thames and Hudson, 1996), 55.
105. “The Tates: Structures and Themes,” Burlington Magazine 142 (August 2000): 480. Also see Giles Waterfield, “Tate Britain: A Plaything for the Staff?” Art Newspaper, May 2000. For a defense of the new hang at Tate Britain, see “Chronology Undone,” Art Newspaper, March 2000, 21.
106. See Mignon Nixon's remarks in “Round Table: Tate Modern,” October 98 (Fall 2001): 7.
107. Quoted in Eleanor Heartney, “Chronology Dethroned,” Art in America 89 (May 2001): 63.
108. David Sylvester, “Mayhem at Millbank,” London Review of Books, May 18, 2000, 20. Philip Fisher has argued separately for the essential historicity of modern art in Making and Effacing Art: Modern American Art in a Culture of Museums (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991).
109. John Elderfield et al., Modern Starts: People, Places, Things (New York: Museum of Modern Art, 1999), 9.
110. Peter Schjeldahl, “The Reinvention of MOMA,” New Yorker, January 17, 2000, 84. Echoing reviews of the Tate, Schjeldahl called the show an instance of “millennial narcissism.”
111. Jed Perl, “Welcome to the Funhouse,” New Republic, 35–36.
112. John Elderfield, ed., Imagining the Future of the Museum of Modern Art (New York: Museum of Modern Art, 1998), 242.
113. Ibid., 278. Taniguchi's (albeit limited) embrace of openness contrasts with the modernist commitment to narrative voiced in Edward Larrabee Barnes's program for the Dallas Art Museum (1984): “There must be a sense of entrance, or logical sequence, of climax and return…. The museum is an architectural composition involving time—the measured unfolding of the collection in quiet, supportive space.” Quoted in Searing, New American Art Museums, 89.
114. Elderfield, Imagining the Future, 32–33. For Varnedoe's views on the collection, and modernism, also see his “Evolving Torpedo: Changing Ideas of the Collection of Painting and Sculpture of the Museum of Modern Art,” in John Elderfield, et al., The Museum of Modern Art at Mid-Century: Continuity and Change (New York: Museum of Modern Art; distributed by Abrams, 1995), and his Fine Disregard: What Makes Modern Art Modern (New York: Abrams, 1990).
115. Elderfield, Imagining the Future, 31.
116. On the Benin Bronzes, see Annie E. Coombes, Reinventing Africa: Museums, Material Culture and Popular Imagination (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1994), 7–28. For the Horniman display, see Ruth B. Phillips, “Where Is ‘Africa’? Re-viewing Art and Artifact in the Age of Globalization,” in Grasping the World: The Idea of the Museum, ed. Donald Preziosi and Claire Farago (Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2004), 758–74.
117. Holland Cotter, “America the Contradictory,” New York Times, June 30, 2006, B25.
118. Tony Bennett, “The Political Rationality of the Museum,” Continuum 3 (1990): 50–51. Bennett cites these museums as evidence of heightened reflection on “the processes of showing who takes part in those processes and their consequences for the relations they establish between the museum and the visitor.” Elsewhere, small ethnic and regional museums, each of them rich with local color, offer alternative stories and identities; see, for example, Joseph Berger, “Ethnic Museums Abounding,” New York Times, July 4, 2003; on the Ecomuseum in France, see Dominique Poulot, “Identity as Self-Discovery: The Ecomuseum in France,” in Museum Culture: Histories, Discourses, Spectacles, ed. Daniel J. Sherman and Irit Rogoff (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1994), 66–84.
119. James Clifford, “Four Northwest Coast Museums: Travel Reflections,” in Karp and Lavine, Exhibiting Cultures, 215, and “Looking Several Ways: Anthropology and Native Heritage in Alaska,” Current Anthropology 45 (February 2004): 5–30. Also see the remarkable exhibition ExitCongoMuseum, organized by Boris Wastiau at the Royal Museum for Central Africa in Tervuren in 2000.
120. Information about the NMAI is taken from their Web site, www.nmai.si.edu, under “Visitor Information,” “About NMAI,” 2006 (accessed November 14, 2006).
121. A session at the 2005 American Association of Museums Annual Meeting, “Community Curatorship: The National Museum of the American Indian (NMAI) and Natives Peoples Working Collaboratively,” featured tribal representatives from the Yakama Nation (Washington State), Saint-Laurent Metis (Manitoba, Canada), and the Native American community of Chicago discussing their work at the museum.
122. Edward Rothstein, “Who Should Tell History: The Tribes or the Museums?” New York Times, December 21, 2004, B1.
Chapter 4. The Public
1. Stephen E. Weil, Making Museums Matter (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 2002), 28–52.
2. Quoted in Janet Tassel, “Reverence for the Object: Art Museums in a Changed World,” Harvard Magazine, September–October 2002, 57.
3. See Krzysztof Pomian, Collectors and Curiosities: Paris and Venice, 1500–1800, trans. E. Wiles-Portier (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1990), especially the essay “Between the Visible and the Invisible,” and Hans Belting, Likeness and Presence: A History of the Image before the Era of Art (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993).
4. On art appreciation and social distinction in Britain, see John Barrell, The Political Theory of Painting from Reynolds to Hazlitt (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1986); and Iain Pears, The Discovery of Painting: The Growth of Interest in the Arts in England, 1680–1768 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1988).
5. Kant, quoted in Nick Prior, Museums and Modernity: Art Galleries and the Making of Modern Culture (New York: Berg, 2002), 27.
6. See Andrew McClellan, “Watteau's Dealer: Gersaint and the Marketing of Art in Eighteenth-Century Paris,” Art Bulletin 78 (September 1996): 439–53.
7. Quoted in Thomas Crow, Painters and Public Life in Eighteenth-Century Paris (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1985), 10.
8. See John Goodman, “Altar against Altar: The Colisée, Vauxhall Utopianism and Symbolic Politics in Paris (1769–77),” Art History 15 (1992): 434–69; and Richard D. Altick, The Shows of London (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 1978).
9. On early modern European museums, see Edouard Pommier, ed., Les musées en Europe à la veille de l'ouverture du Louvre (Paris: Klincksieck, 1995); also Germain Bazin, The Museum Age, trans. Jane van Nuis Cahill (New York: Universe Books, 1967). James J. Sheehan, Museums in the German Art World: From the End of the Old Regime to the Rise of Modernism (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000), is very good on the art museum public in Germany.
10. William Shepherd, Paris in 1802 and 1814 (London: Longman, 1814), 52; and W. E. Frye, After Waterloo: Reminiscences of European Travel, 1815–1819, ed. Salomon Reinach (London: W. Heinemann, 1908), 62–66.
11. Andrew McClellan, Inventing the Louvre: Art, Politics, and the Origins of the Modern Museum in Eighteenth-Century Paris (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1994), 8–12. A good survey of nineteenth-century visitors and cartoons is provided by Luce Abélès, “Roman, musée,” and Dominique Poulot, “Le musée et ses visiteurs,” in Chantal Georgel, La jeunesse des musées: Les musées de France au XIXe siècle (Paris: Réunion des Musées Nationaux, 1994), 316–31 and 332–51, respectively; for Britain, see Frances Borzello, Civilizing Caliban: The Misuse of Art, 1875–1980 (New York: Routledge, 1987).
12. A British parliamentary report on London's National Gallery in 1836 recommended that the paintings be divided into schools and carry labels including name, dates, and information about teachers and pupils: “This ready (though limited) information is important to those whose time is much absorbed by mental or bodily labor.” Quoted in Brandon Taylor, Art for the Nation: Exhibitions and the London Public, 1747–2001 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1999), 47.
13. [Carl Christian Berkheim], Lettres sur Paris (Heidelberg: Mohr, 1809), 353.
14. Quoted in Francis Henry Taylor, The Taste of Angels (Boston: Little, Brown, 1948), 542.
15. Henry Milton, Letters on the Fine Arts Written from Paris in the Year 1815 (London: Longman, 1816), 2, 9.
16. John Scott, A Visit to Paris in 1814 (London: Longman, 1815), 42.
17. Ibid., 57.
18. Sir John Dean Paul, Journal of a Party of Pleasure to Paris in the Month of August, 1802 (London: Cadell and Davies, 1802).
19. Milton, Letters on the Fine Arts, 28.
20. For an interesting survey of living artists' responses to museums, see Michael Kimmelman, Portraits: Talking with Artists at the Met, the Modern, the Louvre and Elsewhere (New York: Modern Library, 1999).
21. Dr. G. F. Waagen, “Thoughts on the New Building to Be Erected for the National Gallery of England,” Art Journal 5 (May 1, 1853): 123. On the museum as utilitarian institution, see Tony Bennett, The Birth of the Museum: History, Theory, Politics (New York: Routledge, 1995).
22. Quoted in Louise Purbrick, “The South Kensington Museum,” in Art Apart: Art Institutions and Ideology across England and North America, ed. Marcia Pointon (New York: Manchester University Press, 1994), 77. On attitudes toward the public in nineteenth-century Britain, see Taylor, Art for the Nation, chs. 2 and 3.
23. Matthew Arnold, Culture and Anarchy (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1994).
24. Quoted in Borzello, Civilizing Caliban, 109.
25. Quoted in Charlotte Klonk, “Mounting Vision: Charles Eastlake and the National Gallery of London,” Art Bulletin 82 (June 2000): 331.
26. Quoted in Neil MacGregor, “A Pentecost in Trafalgar Square,” in Whose Muse? Art Museums and the Public Trust, ed. James Cuno (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2004), 42.
27. Borzello, Civilizing Caliban, 42–44.
28. Quoted in Seth Koven, “The Whitechapel Picture Exhibition and the Politics of Seeing,” in Museum Culture: Histories, Discourses, Spectacles, ed. Daniel J. Sherman and Irit Rogoff (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1994), 34.
29. Borzello, Civilizing Caliban, 33, 51ff.
30. Henrietta O. Barnett, “Women as Philanthropists,” in The Woman Question in Europe, ed. Theodore Stanton (New York: G.P. Putnam, 1884), 124–25. See also her “Pictures for the People,” in Rev. Canon S. A. Barnett and Henrietta Barnett, Practicable Socialism, 2nd ed. (London: Longmans, 1894).
31. Sir Henry Cole, Fifty Years of Public Work, 2 vols. (London: George Bell, 1884), 2:346.
32. Ibid., 2:302; in a lecture at the École centrale d'architecture in Paris in 1867, Cole described museums as “une espèce de monument socialiste, où le niveau est le même pour tous.”
33. The Works of John Ruskin, ed. E.T. Cook and A. Wedderburn, 39 vols. (London: George Allen, 1907–8) 34:250. Echoing Ruskin, a National Gallery report of 1886 said the museum should avoid becoming, “especially on cold and wintry nights, the resort of a class of persons whose presence would be most undesirable.” Quoted in Borzello, Civilizing Caliban, 42.
34. On Waagen and the Berlin Museum, see Carmen Stonge, “Making Private Collections Public: Gustav Friedrich Waagen and the Royal Museum in Berlin,” Journal of the History of Collections 10 (1998): 61–74; and Sheehan, Museums.
35. Bennett, Birth of the Museum, 98 and passim. Codes of behavior were also put in place in France; see Daniel J. Sherman, Worthy Monuments: Art Museums and the Politics of Culture in Nineteenth-Century France (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1989).
36. Arnold, Culture and Anarchy, 48.
37. Ibid., 128.
38. Ibid., 90.
39. Ibid., 106–8.
40. Ibid., 29–30.
41. Cole, Fifty Years of Public Work, 2:293.
42. Barnett, “Pictures for the People,” 185; also see Thomas Greenwood, Museums and Art Galleries (London: Simkin, Marshall, 1888), 173–74.
43. Quoted in Borzello, Civilizing Caliban, 118.
44. Greenwood, Museums and Art Galleries, 11.
45. William Stanley Jevons, “The Use and Abuse of Museums,” in Methods of Social Reform (London: Macmillan, 1883), 60.
46. Greenwood, Museums and Art Galleries, 182.
47. Ibid., 7–8.
48. See Alexis Joachimedes, Die Museumsreformbewegung in Deutschland und die Entstehung des modernen Museums, 1880–1940 (Dresden: Verlag der Kunst, 2001).
49. Quoted in Sheehan, Museums, 163.
50. [Benjamin Ives Gilman], “The Copley Square Museum,” Bulletin of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston 7 (April 1909): 19.
51. Arthur Fairbanks, untitled piece, Bulletin of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston 7 (December 1909): 44.
52. Benjamin Ives Gilman, Museum Ideals of Purpose and Method (Boston: Boston Museum of Fine Arts, 1923), 68, 303; also “Guides or Docents in Museums,” Proceedings of the American Association of Museums 7 (June 1913): 64–65.
53. Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, Forty-first Annual Report for the Year 1916 (Boston: Metcalf, 1917). Also see [Gilman], “Copley Square Museum,” 18, and “Sunday Docent Service,” Bulletin of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston 8 (August 1910): 28, for references to the diversity of the public. The docent service was first offered in 1895, two years after Gilman joined the museum.
54. Quoted in “Children's Parties at the Museum,” Bulletin of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston 9 (August 1911): 40. On children in museums, also see Anna Curtis Chandler, “School Children and the Art Museum,” American Magazine of Art 15 (October 1924): 508–13.
55. [Gilman], “Copley Square Museum,” 18.
56. See Calvin Tomkins, Merchants and Masterpieces: The Story of the Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York: Dutton, 1970), 118ff.
57. Toledo Art Museum, The Museum Educates (Toledo, OH: Toledo Art Museum, 1935), n.p.
58. Charles R. Morey, “Research and Art Museums,” Museum News 12 (September 15, 1934): 7.
59. Paul J. Sachs, “An Address to the Trustees,” Bulletin of the Museum of Modern Art 6 (July 1939): 11, reproduced as “Why Is a Museum of Art,” Architectural Forum 71 (September 1939): 198.
60. Ibid., 12.
61. John Cotton Dana, The Gloom of the Museum (Woodstock, VT: Elm Tree Press, 1917), 23. For Gilman scholarship was a secondary function of the museum; see Gilman, Museum Ideals, 95–97 108.
62. Theodore L. Low, The Museum as Social Instrument (New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1942), 9; see also his The Educational Philosophy and Practice of Art Museums, 10, 88–90.
63. Ibid., 17.
64. Ibid., 9.
65. S. Dillon Ripley, The Sacred Grove: Essays on Museums (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1969), 73.
66. Low, Educational Philosophy, 190.
67. Morey, “Research and Art Museums,” 7. No doubt with rival Harvard in mind, Morey said that graduate art history programs “should not be asked, at the risk of compromising their objective of pure scholarship, to undertake as well the vocational training of museum workers.”
68. Francis Henry Taylor, Babel's Tower: The Dilemma of the Modern Museum (New York: Columbia University Press, 1945), 22–23, 51
69. Low, Museum as Social Instrument, 11.
70. Philip Youtz, “The Sixty-ninth Street Branch Museum of the Pennsylvania Museum of Art,” Museum News 10 (December 15, 1932): 6–7. On branch museums, also see Paul M. Rea, The Museum and the Community (Lancaster, PA: Science Press, 1932); and “Chicago Institute Opens Its First Branch,” Museum News 13 (January 1, 1936): 1.
71. “The New Director Now Takes Over Brooklyn Museum,” ARTnews 32 (April 21, 1934): 3.
72. Philip Youtz, “Museums among Public Services,” Museum News 11 (September 15, 1933): 8.
73. Victor d'Amico, “The Museum of Art in Education,” Art Education Today 7 (1941), 51, quoted in Low, Educational Philosophy, 80.
74. Philip Youtz, “The Social Science Approach to Art in Adult Education,” Museum News 8 (October 15, 1930): 10.
75. Philip Youtz, “Museumitis,” Journal of Adult Education 6 (1934): 387, 391 and “Museums among Public Services,” 7–9.
76. Toledo Art Museum, The Museum Educates, not paginated. For Gilman's influence, at least in the United States, one has only to survey museum bulletins from the 1920s and 1930s, such as those of Wadsworth Atheneum, Hartford, the Art Institute of Chicago, and the Philadelphia Museum of Art. As early as 1910, the Met had adopted Gilman's aims, saying the purpose of its docent programs was not to impart facts and history but to “fire enthusiasm” through “appreciation.” “Expert Guidance to the Museum,” Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin 5 (September 1910): 201–7; also see Rossiter Howard, “Changing Ideals of the Art Museum,” Scribner's Magazine 71 (January 1922): 125–28. An excellent history of museum education is provided by Terry Zeller, “The Historical and Philosophical Foundations of Art Museum Education,” in Museum Education: History, Theory, and Practice, ed. N. Berry and S. Mayer (Reston, VA: Art Education Association, 1989), 10–89.
77. See Mary Anne Staniszewski, The Power of Display: A History of the Exhibition Installations at the Museum of Modern Art (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1998), 81 and passim.
78. Gilman, Museum Ideals, 109.
79. Ibid., 342–43.
80. Arthur Melton, Problems of Installation in Museums of Art (Washington, DC: American Association of Museums, 1935), 11.
81. T. R. Adam, The Civic Value of Museums (New York: American Association for Adult Education, 1937), 25.
82. The Visual Arts: A Report Sponsored by the Darlington Hall Trustees; published on behalf of the Arts Enquiry by PEP (Political and Economic Planning) (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1946), 149. The report especially recommended gallery-based lectures.
83. Sir Kenneth Clark, “Ideal Picture Galleries,” Museums Journal 45 (November 1945): 133. Twenty years earlier, in a testy rebuttal of Gilman's beliefs, William Ivins had argued to the contrary that most museum visitors “don't have ecstasies and…do ask questions, where, when, why, how, and how much—all of which imply interest about art but not in art.” William M. Ivins, “Of Museums,” The Arts 3 (January 1923): 32. Though Ivins wrote several still useful books on the print medium while serving as the Met's curator of prints, his wider views on education did not prevail.
84. John Coolidge, Some Problems of American Art Museums (Boston: Club of Odd Volumes, 1953) 12, 19.
85. James R. Johnson and Adele Z. Silver, The Educational Program of the Cleveland Museum of Art (Cleveland, OH: Cleveland Museum of Art, 1971), 26.
86. Quoted in Anthony Burton, Vision and Accident: The Story of the Victoria and Albert Museum (London: Victoria and Albert Museum, 1999), 179.
87. Eric Maclagen, “Museums and the Public,” Museums Journal 36 (August 1936): 182.
88. John Walker, Self-Portrait with Donors (Boston: Little, Brown, 1974), 51–52.
89. See Brian O'Doherty, Inside the White Cube: The Ideology of the Gallery Space (San Francisco: Lapis Press, 1986), 42.
90. On labor union views on museums, see Mark Starr, “Museums and the Labor Unions,” Museum News 26 (January 1, 1949): 7–8. Starr was educational director of the International Ladies' Garment Workers' Union in New York.
91. Visual Arts, 145.
92. Low, Museum as Social Instrument, 24–30. An intriguing survey conducted by Low at the Met in the early 1940s found that a clear majority of visitors (just under 50 percent) favored aesthetic appreciation over “art and daily living” (5 percent), a social theme developed for its appeal to the less well educated.
93. Pierre Bourdieu and Alain Darbel, The Love of Art: European Art Museums and Their Public, trans. C. Beattie and N. Merriman (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1991), 67, originally published as L'amour de l'art, les musées d'art européens et leur public, 2nd ed. (Paris: Editions de minuit, 1966); also see Pierre Bourdieu's Distinction: A Social Critique of the Judgement of Taste, trans. R. Nice (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1984), and The Field of Cultural Production (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1993).
94. Bourdieu and Darbel, Love of Art, 67.
95. Ibid., 112.
96. See Rebecca J. DeRoo, The Museum Establishment and Contemporary Art: The Politics of Artistic Display in France after 1968 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006), ch. 2.
97. “New York Annual Meeting: Going to Meet the Issues,” Museum News 49 (September 1970) : 18. Among the resolutions proposed by some AAM delegates was a more organized effort to address the problems of “racism, sexism, repression and war” and to increase opportunities for women, minorities, and “other oppressed people.”
98. Ibid., 19.
99. See Dominique Poulot, “Identity as Self-Discovery: The Ecomuseum in France,” in Sherman and Rogoff, Museum Culture, 66–84.
100. I. Michael Heyman, “A New Day Begun,” Smithsonian Magazine, August 1999, www.smithsonianmag.si.edu/smithsonian/issues99/aug99/heyman_aug99.html (accessed November 14, 2006).
101. Emily Dennis Harvey and Bernard Friedberg, eds., A Museum for the People (New York: Arno Press, 1971), 28.
102. Quoted in ibid. On Anacostia, also see Caryl Marsh, “A Neighborhood Museum That Works,” Museum News 47 (October 1968): 11–16; John Kinard, “To Meet the Needs of Today's Audience,” Museum News 50 (May 1972): 15–16; and Emily Dennis, “Seminar on Neighborhood Museums,” Museum News 48 (January 1970): 13–18.
103. Ripley, Sacred Grove, 105.
104. Ibid., 73.
105. Quoted in Harvey and Friedberg, Museum for the People, 3–4.
106. Quoted in ibid., x.
107. James Johnson Sweeney, “The Artist and the Museum in Mass Society,” in Culture for the Millions? Mass Media in Modern Society, ed. Norman Jacobs (Boston: Beacon Press, 1961) 95.
108. Walker, Self-Portrait with Donors, xiv.
109. Ibid., 28.
110. Sherman Lee, “The Art Museum in Today's Society,” Dayton Art Institute Bulletin 27 (March 1969), quoted in Zeller, “Historical and Philosophical Foundations,” 31.
111. Grace Glueck, “The Ivory Tower versus the Discotheque,” Art in America 59 (May–June 1971) : 80–85.
112. American Association of Museums, Museums for a New Century (Washington, DC: American Association of Museums, 1984), 19, 60, 104.
113. Quoted in Harvey and Friedberg, Museum for the People, 6–7.
114. Quotes taken from book advertisements in AAM Bookstore, Spring/Summer 2006, 6.
115. Martin Bailey, “We'll Have Ways of Making Muslims Like Rubens Nudes,” Art Newspaper, July–August 2000, 10.
116. See Sandy Nairne, “Final Report and Recommendations of the National Museum Directors' Conference on Cultural Diversity,” March 2006, www.nationalmuseums.org.uk/images/publications/cultural_diversity_final_report.prf (accessed July 2006). For a response to diversity goals, see Josie Appleton, “Art for Inclusion's Sake,” April 7, 2004, www.spiked-online.com/Articles/0000000CA4BC.htm (accessed July 2006).
117. As early as 1932 Philip Youtz noted that a steady bill of “temporary exhibitions” would “undoubtedly stimulate attendance.” “Sixty-ninth Street Branch,” 6. On Hoving's role in creating the blockbuster boom in the 1970s, see Michael Conforti, “Hoving's Legacy Reconsidered,” Art in America 74 (June 1986): 19–23.
118. Franz Schulze described the Pei wing as “a temple of cultural democracy” in “A Temple of Cultural Democracy,” ARTnews 80 (November 1981): 132.
119. Margaret Mead, “Museums in a Media-Saturated World,” Museum News 49 (September 1970): 23–26.
120. Rudolph Morris, “Leisure Time and the Museum,” Museum News 41 (December 1962): 17–18.
121. Alan Wallach, “Class Rites in the Age of the Blockbuster,” Harvard Design Magazine 11 (Summer 2000): 48–54; see also Gary O. Larson, American Canvas (Washington, DC: National Endowment for the Arts, 1997).
122. Robert Coles, “The Art Museum and the Pressures of Society,” in On Understanding Art Museums, ed. Sherman Lee (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1975), 185–202.
123. Quoted in Roberta Smith, “Should Museums Always Be Free?” New York Times, July 13, 2006, A19.
124. From 2003 on, the Cincinnati Art Museum offered free admission, thanks to a gift from the Lois and Richard Rosenthal Foundation. See Jim Knippenburg, “Art Museum ‘Free’ Policy Begins Today,” Cincinnati Enquirer, May 17, 2003. My thanks to Sarah Moser for this information and for interviewing museum staff who told her that attendance rose by 25 percent in the first year following the new policy.
125. See Smith, “Should Museums Always Be Free?” A19. Smith lists many U.S. museums that no longer charge, or have never charged, for admission, including St. Louis, Minneapolis, Dayton, Cleveland, Toledo, Des Moines, Virginia, and the Nelson-Atkins in Kansas City.
126. Jonathan Mahler, “High Culture Hits the Strip,” Talk, May 2001, 84–85. On Krens, see also Michael Kimmelman, “The Globe Straddler of the Art World,” New York Times, April 19, 1998; and Peter Plagens, “In a Spiral,” Newsweek, May 20, 1996.
127. Malcolm Rogers, “Popular and Accessible Does Not Equal Stupid,” Art Newspaper, November 2004, 20; also Geoff Edgers, “MFA's Monets: Dicey Deal?” Boston Globe, January 25, 2004.
128. James Cuno, “Art Museums Should Get Back to Basics,” Boston Globe, October 26, 2000, and “In the Crossfire of the Culture Wars: The Art Museum in Crisis,” Occasional Papers, Harvard University Art Museum, no. 3, 1995, www.artmuseums.harvard.edu/professional/occpapers3.html (accessed November 19, 2006); Philippe de Montebello, “Musings on Museums,” CAA News, March–April 1997; Calvin Tomkins, “The Importance of Being Elitist,” New Yorker, November 24, 1997. “Hip vs. Stately: The Tao of Two Museums,” New York Times, February 20, 2000, opposed Krens and Montebello much as Hoving and Lee had been opposed thirty years earlier.
129. James Delingpole, “Ouch! Is This the Direction Our Museums Have to Go?” Times (London), March 18, 2006, 25.
130. Adam Gopnik, “The Death of an Audience,” New Yorker, October 5, 1992; Jed Perl, “Welcome to the Funhouse,” New Republic, June 19, 2000.
131. James Cuno, “Against the Discursive Museum,” in The Discursive Museum, ed. Peter Noever (Vienna: Hatje Cantz, 2001), 52.
132. James Cuno, “The Object of Art Museums,” in Cuno, Whose Muse? 57.
133. Ibid., 59.
134. Coolidge, Some Problems, 18. Francis Henry Taylor at the Met had similar misgivings in the early 1950s; see Tomkins, Merchants and Masterpieces, 324. On the need to visually stimulate museum visitors, also see Nelson Goodman, Of Mind and Other Matters (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1984), 179, and Ivan Gaskell, Vermeer's Wager: Speculations on Art History, Theory and Art Museums (London: Reaktion Books, 2000).
135. VTS was designed by cognitive psychologist Abigail Houston and museum educator Philip Yenawine. For an introduction to how it works, see “What Is VTS?” 2001, www.vue.org/whatisvts.html (accessed July 2006).
136. Bryan Robertson, “The Museum and the Democratic Fallacy,” in Museums in Crisis, ed. Brian O'Doherty (New York: Braziller, 1972), 79.
137. R.L. Duffus, The American Renaissance (New York: Knopf, 1928), 239.
138. Adam, Civic Value of Museums, 54: “[T]he difficulties faced by museums in attaining educational objectives spring principally from the lack of educational support by outside organizations.”
139. See, for example, Beth B. Schneider, A Place for All People (Houston, TX: Museum of Fine Arts, 1998), which documents an extraordinary outreach program funded by a host of institutional grants. The American Association of Museums' Museums for a New Century (1984), 57, noted that most of the outreach efforts described in Museums: Their New Audiences of 1972 no longer existed. Youtz's Sixty-ninth Street Branch Museum closed in 1932 when Carnegie funding was withdrawn; twice, in the 1920s and again in the 1960s, plans to create branch museums of the Met in New York fell through for lack of donors. For the earlier scheme, see W. Howe, A History of the Metropolitan Museum, 2 vols. (New York: Columbia University Press, 1946), 2:203.
140. John H. Falk, “Visitors: Who Does, Who Doesn't and Why,” Museum News 81 (March–April 1998): 38ff.
141. Cuno, “In the Crossfire,” 3.
142. AAM, Museums for a New Century, 55.
143. Vera L. Zolberg, “Tensions of Mission in American Art Museums,” in Nonprofit Enterprise in the Arts, ed. Paul Dimaggio (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986), 185.
144. “Final Report and Recommendations,” passim.
145. On the recent diversification of San Francisco museums, see Edward Rothstein, “Anecdotal Evidence of Homesick Mankind,” New York Times, July 20, 2006, B1.
Chapter 5. Commercialism
Epigraphs are from Benjamin Ives Gilman, Museum Ideals of Purpose and Method (Boston: Boston Museum of Fine Arts, 1923), 388, and Philip Johnson, quoted in Andrea Oppenheimer Dean, “Showcases for Architecture,” Architecture 75 (January 1986): 28.
1. Judith H. Dobrzynski, “Glory Days for the Art Museum,” New York Times, October 5, 1997, sec. 2, 1.
2. Douglas Martin, “This Isn't Your Father's Art Museum: Brooklyn's Got Monet, but Also Karaoke, Poetry and Disco,” New York Times, October 27, 1997. A further selection of headlines from the late 1990s includes “The Hot Place to Party: Museums” (Boston Globe, August 21, 1997); “Art(?) to Go: Museum Shops Broaden Wares, at a Profit” (New York Times, December 10, 1997); and “Impressionists Sure Move the Merchandise” (New York Times, April 21, 1999).
3. Ellen Hoffman, “Painting a New Picture,” USAir Magazine, May 1996, 52ff.
4. Roberta Smith, “Memo to Art Museums: Don't Give Up on Art,” New York Times, December 3, 2000, sec. 2, 1.
5. Michael Kimmelman, “Museums in a Quandary: Where Are the Ideals?” New York Times, August 26, 2001, sec. 2, 1. It should be noted that journalists had raised a similar alarm a good deal earlier; see, for example, Mark Lilla, “The Great Museum Muddle,” New Republic, April 8, 1985, 25–30, which begins: “Never has the American art museum been so popular, never has it been so confused.” Also see Thatcher Freund, “Art and Money: How New England's Greatest Museum Saved Its Life by Mortgaging Its Soul,” New England Monthly, October 1987, 49ff.
6. Michael Kimmelman, “What Price Love?” New York Times, July 17, 2005, sec. 2, 1.
7. Glenn D. Lowry, “A Deontological Approach to Art Museums and the Public Trust,” in Whose Muse? Art Museums and the Public Trust, ed. James Cuno (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2004), 146–47.
8. Philippe de Montebello, “Art Museums, Inspiring Public Trust,” in Cuno, Art Museums, 161.
9. Sir Joshua Reynolds, Discourses on Art, ed. Robert R. Wark (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1975), 13. Also see David H. Solkin, Painting for Money: The Visual Arts and the Public Sphere in Eighteenth-Century England (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1993); and Annie Becq, “Creation, Aesthetics, Market: Origins of the Modern Concept of Art,” in Eighteenth-Century Aesthetics and the Construction of Art, ed. Paul Mattick (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1993) 240–54.
10. Quoted in Nikolaus Pevsner, Academies of Art Past and Present (1940; reprint, New York: Da Capo Press, 1973), 153.
11. A museum of modern French art was established at Versailles in 1797, a forerunner to the better-known Luxembourg Museum, which opened in Paris in 1818. A Sèvres museum opened in 1800, as did the Musée des arts et métiers.
12. On these exhibitions, see Patricia Mainardi, Art and Politics of the Second Empire: The Universal Expositions of 1855 and 1867 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1987), ch. 2; and Paul Greenhalgh, Ephemeral Vistas: The Expositions Universelles, Great Exhibitions and Worlds Fairs, 1851–1939 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1988), 3–6.
13. Quoted in Dominique Poulot, Musée, nation, patrimoine, 1789–1815 (Paris: Gallimard, 1997) 195.
14. Sir John Deal Paul, Journal of a Party of Pleasure to Paris in the Month of August, 1802 (London: Cadell and Davies, 1802), 39.
15. On the Chalcographie, see George D. McKee, “Collection publique et droit de reproduction: Les origines de la Chalcographie du Louvre, 1794–1797,” Revue de l'Art 98 (1992): 54–65; and Françoise Viatte, “La Chalcographie du Louvre d'hier à aujourd'hui,” Nouvelles de l'Estampe, nos. 148–49 (October 1996): 43–44.
16. For museums and photography, see Pierre-Lin Renié, “Braun versus Goupil et quelques autres histoires: La photographie au musée du Louvre au XIXe siècle,” in État des lieux (Bordeaux: Musée Goupil, 1999), 97–152; Anthony J. Hamber, “A Higher Branch of Art”: Photographing the Fine Arts in England, 1839–1880 (Amsterdam: Gordon and Breach, 1996); and Ivan Gaskell, Vermeer's Wager: Speculations on Art History, Theory and Art Museums (London: Reaktion Books, 2000), ch. 7.
17. On Berlin, see Steven Moyano, “Quality vs. History: Schinkel's Altes Museum and Prussian Arts Policy,” Art Bulletin 57 (December 1990): 585–608; on Britain, see Anthony Burton, Vision and Accident: The Story of the Victoria and Albert Museum (London: Victoria and Albert Museum, 1999); and on France, see J.-B. Pujoulx, Paris à la fin du XVIIIe siècle (Paris: Brigite Mathé, 1801), 259ff.
18. Quoted in Louise Purbrick, “The South Kensington Museum: The Building of the House of Henry Cole,” in Art Apart: Art Institutions and Ideology across England and North America, ed. Marcia R. Pointon (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1994), 70.
19. Quoted in Greenhalgh, Ephemeral Vistas, 33.
20. Horace Greeley, Art and Industry as Represented in the Exhibition at the Crystal Palace, New York 1853–4 (New York: Redfield, 1853), xix.
21. A good overview of arts and crafts museums in Europe is provided by Michael Conforti, “Les musées des arts appliqués et l'histoire de l'art,” in Histoire de l'histoire de l'art, XVIIIe et XIXe siècles (Paris: La documentation française/Musée du Louvre, 1997), 329–47.
22. Founding Charter of 1870, quoted in R. Craig Miller, Modern Design in the Metropolitan Museum, 1890–1990 (New York: Metropolitan Museum and Abrams, 1990), 1. Also see Michael Conforti, “The Idealist Enterprise and the Applied Arts,” in A Grand Design: The Art of the Victoria and Albert Museum (New York: Abrams, 1997).
23. General Luigi P. di Cesnola, An Address on the Practical Value of the American Museum (Troy, NY: Stowell Printing House, 1887), 10.
24. See Gillian Naylor, The Arts and Crafts Movement (London: Studio Vista, 1971); and Burton, Vision and Accident.
25. Greenwood, Museums and Art Galleries, 256. See Jeffrey A. Auerbach, The Great Exhibition of 1851: A Nation on Display (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1999), 21.
26. Quoted in Greenwood, Museums and Art Galleries, 257.
27. Quoted in ibid., 32. On the “antimodernism” of the Arts and Crafts movement in America, see T. J. Jackson Lears, No Place of Grace: Antimodernism and the Transformation of American Culture, 1880–1920 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1981).
28. On the Columbian Exposition and efforts to counter the commercial image of Chicago, see Neil Harris et al., Grand Illusions: Chicago's World's Fair of 1893 (Chicago: Chicago Historical Society, 1993), esp. 60–63.
29. Masterpieces of Art: Exhibition at the New York World's Fair 1939 (New York: Art News, 1939) 5.
30. Gilman, Museum Ideals, 62–72, 92–97. Gilman documents the failure of the South Kensington method in a report to his museum's trustees, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, Communications to the Trustees (Boston: Museum of Fine Arts, 1904), 49ff.
31. Gilman, Museum Ideals, 384.
32. Ibid., 388.
33. Ibid., 381; also Benjamin Ives Gilman, “Museum Publicity,” American Magazine of Art 8 (February 1917): 145–47.
34. Justus Brinckmann, director of the Hamburg Museum, quoted in Charles Richards, Industrial Art and the Museum (New York: Macmillan, 1927), 22.
35. Richards, Industrial Art, 53, also 55–56.
36. Quoted in Robert W. Rydell, All the World's a Fair: Visions of Empire at American International Expositions, 1876–1916 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984), 45.
37. John Cotton Dana, The Gloom of the Museum (Woodstock, VT: Elm Tree Press, 1917), 22.
38. John Cotton Dana, A Plan for a New Museum (Woodstock, VT: Elm Tree Press, 1920), 30–31.
39. Zelda F. Popkin, “Art: Three Aisles Over,” Outlook and Independent 156 (November 26, 1930): 502: “[T]he department stores of the land have given themselves over to the trading of aesthetics, because this is a stimulus to business.”
40. Jesse I. Strauss, “The Architecture of Merchandising,” Architectural Forum 58 (May 1933): 343. On the interaction of New York stores and museums, see William Leach, Land of Desire: Merchants, Power, and the Rise of a New American Culture (New York: Vintage, 1993), 164–73. On Berlin, see Charlotte Klonk, “From Shop Windows to Gallery Rooms in Early Twentieth-Century Berlin,” Art History 28 (September 2005): 468–95.
41. Carlos E. Cummings, “East Is East and West Is West: Some Observations on the World's Fair of 1939 by One Whose Main Interest Is in Museums,” Bulletin of the Buffalo Society of Natural Sciences 20 (1940): 11, 348.
42. See Frederick Kiesler, Contemporary Art Applied to the Store and Its Displays (New York: Brentano's, 1930); also Leach, Land of Desire, 303ff.
43. See Florence Levy, “The Service of the Museum to the Community,” American Magazine of Art 15 (November 1924): 583; also R. L. Duffus, The American Renaissance (New York: Knopf, 1928), 228ff.
44. “The New Director Now Takes Over Brooklyn Museum,” Art News 32 (April 21, 1934): 5.
45. Dana, Gloom of the Museum, 23. Also see John Cotton Dana, Should Museums Be Useful? (Newark: Newark Museum, 1927), 5.
46. John Cotton Dana, “In a Changing World Should Museums Change?” in Papers and Reports Read at the Twenty-first Annual Meeting of the American Association of Museums (Washington, DC: American Association of Museums, 1926), 20.
47. Richard F. Bach, “The Museum as a Laboratory,” Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin 14 (1919): 3; also Richard F. Bach's Museums and the Industrialized World (New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1926) and Museum Service to the Art Industries (New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1927).
48. Quoted in Leach, Land of Desire, 314; also see 170–73.
49. Robert de Forest, quoted in Popkin, “Art,” 502. Also see Richards, Industrial Art, 60, which recommended store windows as a source of inspiration for museums: “The museums cannot set up House Beautiful within their walls, but they can present models of fine arrangement of superlatively beautiful things that will stand as permanent lessons in good taste.”
50. W. Howe, A History of the Metropolitan Museum, 2 vols. (New York: Columbia University Press, 1946), 138.
51. Leach, Land of Desire, 314.
52. Robert W. de Forest, Art in Merchandise: Notes on the Relationship of Stores and Museums (New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1928), 5.
53. Lee Simonson, “The Land of Sunday Afternoon,” New Republic, November 21, 1914, 22–23.
54. Lee Simonson, “Museum Showmanship,” Architectural Forum 56 (June 1932): 533.
55. On these exhibitions, see Kristina Wilson, “Style and Lifestyle in the Machine Age: The Modernist Period Rooms of ‘The Architect and the Industrial Arts,’” Visual Resources 21 (September 2005): 245–61.
56. Quoted in Miller, Modern Design, 28. Miller provides a good account of the history of modern design at the Met.
57. Quoted in Russell Lynes, Good Old Modern: An Intimate Portrait of the Museum of Modern Art (New York: Atheneum, 1973), 91–92. Also see Mary Anne Staniszewski, The Power of Display: A History of the Exhibition Installations at the Museum of Modern Art (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1998), 158.
58. “Platonic Precepts,” ARTnews 32 (April 28, 1934): 10. On MoMA's interaction with department stores and the industrial arts, see A. Joan Saab, For the Millions: American Art and Culture between the Wars (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2004), ch. 3.
59. See Donald J. Bush, The Streamlined Decade (New York: George Braziller, 1975); Jeffrey L. Meikle, Twentieth-Century Limited: Industrial Design in America, 1925–1939 (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2001); Jonathan M. Woodman, Twentieth-Century Design (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997); and Richard Guy Wilson et al., The Machine Age in America, 1918–1941 (New York: Brooklyn Museum of Art/Abrams, 2001).
60. Le Corbusier, The Decorative Art of Today, trans. James I. Dunnett (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1987), 87.
61. See Nigel Whiteley, “Toward a Throw-away Culture: Consumerism, ‘Style Obsolescence’ and Cultural Theory in the 1950s and 1960s,” Oxford Art Journal 10 (1987): 9.
62. Art in Our Time (New York: Museum of Modern Art, 1939), 332–34. By comparison, approximately four hundred paintings, sculptures, prints, and photographs were shown. Architecture and film were also well represented. A more comprehensive survey of contemporary design is provided by Sheldon Cheney and Martha Candler Cheney, Art and the Machine: An Account of Industrial Design in 20th-century America (New York: Whittlesey House, 1936).
63. Elodie Courter, “Notes on the Exhibition of Useful Objects,” in Organic Design in Home Furnishings, ed. Eliot Noyes (New York: Museum of Modern Art, 1941), 3. Streamlined objects were omitted.
64. Ibid.; also see Staniszewski, Power of Display, 167.
65. Goodyear is quoted in Lynes, Good Old Modern, 180. On the end of the design shows, see Terence Riley and Edward Eigan, “Between the Museum and the Marketplace: Selling Good Design,” in John Szarkowski et al., The Museum of Modern Art at Mid-Century: At Home and Abroad (New York: Museum of Modern Art; distributed by Abrams, 1994).
66. Arthur Drexler and Greta Daniel, Introduction to Twentieth-Century Design from the Collection of the Museum of Modern Art (New York: Museum of Modern Art, 1959), 4.
67. John Walker, Self-Portrait with Donors (Boston: Little, Brown, 1974), 67.
68. Kenneth Clark, Another Part of the Wood: A Self-Portrait (London: John Murray, 1974), 183.
69. Lynes, Good Old Modern, 134–35. The exhibition reviews quoted here come from Lynes.
70. Philip Youtz, “Exhibition Rooms,” in League of Nations, International Museums Office, “International Study Conference on the Architecture and Equipment of Art Museums, Madrid, 1934,” typescript, Fine Arts Library, Harvard University, 8. Youtz recognized that the permanent collection, “even one filled with masterpieces, soon ceases to draw local visitors, but a well arranged exhibition of lesser work, which is new, will always bring an interested public.”
71. For an overview of funding patterns in U.S. museums after 1960, see Victoria D. Alexander, Museums and Money: The Impact of Funding on Exhibitions, Scholarship, and Management (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1996).
72. In a 1972 article entitled “The Beleaguered Director,” Thomas Leavitt writes: “As the country-club tone of the museum disappeared, private funds became harder to solicit and we had to build a case for public tax support from cities, counties, states, and finally the federal government. And virtually all of these funds from public sources were conditional upon our performing additional services for the public. These additional services in turn required more staff and facilities and therefore higher expenses and often bigger deficits.” In Museums in Crisis, ed. Brian O'Doherty (New York: Braziller, 1972), 95.
73. “Letter from the Director,” Phillips Collection News, November–December 1998, 2.
74. Perry T. Rathbone, “Influence of Private Patrons: The Art Museum as an Example,” in The Arts and Public Policy in the United States, ed. W. McNeil Lowry (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1984), 45. In 1960 Rathbone, when asked by a journalist to name the biggest problem facing the art museum, replied: “[T]he simple answer, of course, was money” (131).
75. Walter Muir Whitehill, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston: A Centennial History, 2 vols. (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 1970), 2:824ff.; and The Museum Year: 1971–72. The Ninety-sixth Annual Report of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston (Boston: Museum of Fine Arts, 1972), 8.
76. Whitehill, Museum of Fine Arts, 2:842.
77. The Museum Year: 1970–71. The Ninety-fifth Annual Report of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston (Boston: Museum of Fine Arts, 1971), 7.
78. This information is drawn from the museum's annual reports for these years; also see Freund, “Art and Money.”
79. The Museum Year: 1975–76. The One Hundredth Annual Report of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston (Boston: Museum of Fine Arts, 1976), 6. The incursion of business practices into museums is the featured subject of Museum News 57 (January–February and July–August 1979); also see Alexander, Museums and Money.
80. The Museum Year: 1985–86. The One Hundred Tenth Annual Report of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston (Boston: Museum of Fine Arts, 1986), 5. Also see Christopher Bowden, “Marketing a Rediscovery: Renoir at the Boston MFA,” Museum News 64 (August 1986): 40–45.
81. The Museum Year: 1989–90. The One Hundred Fourteenth Annual Report of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston (Boston: Museum of Fine Arts, 1990), 5.
82. The Museum Year: 1990–91. The One Hundred Fifteenth Annual Report of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston (Boston: Museum of Fine Arts, 1991), 7.
83. Museum of Fine Arts Boston: Annual Report 1996 (Boston: Museum of Fine Arts, 1996), 5.
84. Steve Friess and Peter Plagens, “Show Me the Monet,” Newsweek, January 26, 2004, 60–61. On the Las Vegas deal, also see Geoff Edgers, “MFA's Monets: Dicey Deal?” Boston Globe, January 25, 2004, A1; and “Casino Loan Earns Boston Unwelcome Attention,” Art Newspaper, July–August 2004, 11.
85. Laurence Vail Coleman, Museum Buildings, vol. 1 (Washington, DC: American Association of Museums, 1950), 125.
86. Julie Connolly, “Impressionists Sure Move the Merchandise,” New York Times, April 21, 1999.
87. Rob Kemery, CEO of The Museum Co., quoted in Kerry Wood, “Rich with History,” Giftware Business, September 2001, 23.
88. Maureen Dezell, “Retail, Once the Star of the MFA, Struggles,” Boston Globe, September 15, 2000, D11.
89. Quoted in Judith Rosen, “MFA's Art and Commerce,” Publishers Weekly, January 27, 2003, 119.
90. See Stefan Toepler and Volker Kirchberg, “Museums, Merchandising and Nonprofit Commercialization,” August 2005, www.nationalcne.org/papers/museum.htm (accessed November 14, 2006). Toepler and Kirchberg demonstrate that even though shop profits at major American museums remained flat through the 1990s and contributed only minimally to operating budgets, museums invest in shops anyway because they help draw visitors who spend money on various fees and services. They suggest furthermore that the public now expects museums to have shops, forcing those that did not have or need retail operations to create them; also see Dezell, “Retail, Once the Star.”
91. Quoted in Ruth La Ferla, “Travel to Exotic Places and Buy, Buy, Buy,” New York Times, August 12, 2001, sec. 9, 2. La Ferla interviewed one young visitor to New York who, pressed for time and with mild regret, chose Bloomingdale's over the Met.
92. John Fiske, Reading the Popular (New York: Routledge, 1989), 4.
93. Herbert Muschamp, “Forget the Shoes, Prada's New Store Stocks Ideas,” New York Times, December 16, 2001, sec. 2, 1, 6.
94. See, for example, Paul DiMaggio, “When the ‘Profit’ Is Quality,” Museum News 63 (June 1985): 28ff.
95. “Behind the Scenes of the Met Store,” www.metmuseum.org/store/st_behind.asp/FromPage/catBehindTheScenes, 2002–6 (accessed November 14, 2006). In a keynote address to the AAM in 2002, the journalist Susan Stamberg complained that a shop at the end of an exhibition “erases the artistic encounter,” to which Beverly Barsook, executive director of the Museum Store Association, responded that shops “can actually enhance visitors' experiences,” “extend their museum encounter,” and therefore reinforce the “institution's mission.” Museum News 81 (November–December 2002): 7. Another store manager wrote: “Millions of visitors pass through museum stores each year and are grateful for the chance to extend their knowledge and appreciation of what the museum offers.” Museum News 81 (September–October 2002): 67.
96. Andreas Huyssen, “Escape from Amnesia: The Museum as Mass Medium,” in Twilight Memories: Marking Time in a Culture of Amnesia (New York: Routledge, 1995), 24. Huyssen is of course referring back to Walter Benjamin's famous essay concerning reproduction and the death of aura, “The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction,” in Illuminations, ed. Hannah Arendt (New York: Schocken Books, 1969), 217–51.
97. Dean MacCannell, The Tourist: A New Theory of the Leisure Class (New York: Schocken Books, 1976), 45. Also see Jonathan Culler, “The Semiotics of Tourism,” in Framing the Sign: Criticism and Its Institutions (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1988), 153–67.
98. On Brooklyn, see Martin, “This Isn't Your Father's Art Museum”; Roberta Smith, “Hip-Hop as a Raw Hybrid,” New York Times, September 22, 2000; and Susan Kirschbaum, “Dinner, Dancing and, Oh Yes, Art,” New York Times, March 14, 1999.
99. Judith Dobrzynski, “Art(?) to Go: Museum Shops Broaden Wares, at a Profit,” New York Times, October 10, 1997, A1; also see Gail Gregg, “From Bathers to Beach Towels: Museums Expand Retailing Operation,” ARTnews 96 (April 1997): 120–22.
100. Joy Hakanson Colby, “How the DIA Rode out Money Woes,” Detroit News, January 22, 2002.
101. Quoted in Brian Wallis, “The Art of Big Business,” Art in America 74 (June 1986): 28.
102. Rem Koolhas et al., Harvard Design School Guide to Shopping (Cologne: Taschen, 2001), 144.
103. At first Krens had doubts about Las Vegas, but the sight of lines outside Steve Wynn's Gallery of Fine Art at the Bellagio resort changed his mind. “You walked into the gallery, and there was total silence. Everyone was on the audio machines, listening to Steve Wynn's tour, which was intelligent and accessible. And I thought to myself, ‘What is wrong with this picture except my own attitude?’” Quoted in Celestine Bohlen, “Guggenheim and Hermitage to Marry in Las Vegas,” New York Times, October 20, 2000, A18. Also see Jonathan Mahler, “High Culture Hits the Strip,” Talk Magazine, May 2001, 83ff.; and Sze Tsung Leong, “…And Then There Was Shopping,” in Harvard Design School Guide to Shopping, ed. Rem Koolhas et al. (New York: Taschen, 2001), 144. The main exhibition hall of the Guggenheim Las Vegas, designed by Rem Koolhas, closed in 2003; the smaller Guggenheim Hermitage at the Venetian is still in business.
104. Quoted in “Hip vs. Stately: The Tao of Two Museums,” New York Times, February 20, 2000, sec. 2, 50. On Krens and his philosophy, also see Paul Werner, Museum, Inc.: Inside the Global Art World (Chicago: Prickly Paradigm Press, 2005); and Hans Haacke, “The Guggenheim Museum: A Business Plan,” in Learning from the Bilbao Guggenheim, ed. Anna Guasch and Joseba Zuleika, Conference Papers No. 2 (Reno: University of Nevada, Reno, Center for Basque Studies, 2005), 113–23.
105. Quoted in Kirschbaum, “Dinner, Dancing,” sec. 9, 6.
106. Michael Kimmelman, “An Era Ends for the Guggenheim,” New York Times, December 6, 2002, E39. The popular press has long taken an unusual interest in Krens and his museums; see, for example, Peter Plagens, “In a Spiral,” Newsweek, May 20, 1996, 68–70; Vicky Ward, “A House Divided,” Vanity Fair, August 2005, 128ff.
107. Quoted in New York Times, May 19, 1996. In 2005 the Getty announced it would begin soliciting private funds to support its operations. New York Times, August 16, 2005, B1.
108. Anne Hawley, “Dances with Trustees: How One Museum Reinvented Its Board and Rediscovered Itself,” Museum News 77 (January–February 1998): 40ff.
109. See, for example, Sarah King, “French Museums' Budget Woes,” Art in America 86 (January 1998): 27; Martin Bailey, “Finance and Culture: UK Museums,” Art Newspaper, December 1999, 13. Also see Gaskell, Vermeer's Wager, ch. 8.
110. Lianne McTavish, “Shopping in the Museum? Consumer Spaces and the Redefinition of the Louvre,” Cultural Studies 12 (1998): 168–92.
111. Alan Riding, “The Louvre's Art: Priceless. The Louvre's Name: Expensive,” New York Times, March 7, 2007, B1.
112. Alan Riding, “European Museums Open Door to Corporate Donors,” New York Times, November 13, 2004, A22.
113. Melinda Henneberger, “Italy Plans to Have Private Sector Run Museums,” New York Times, December 3, 2001, E1; Eric Sylvers, “10 Years Later, Italy Assesses Change in How Its Fabled Museums Are Run,” New York Times, January 1, 2004, E5.
114. See Brook Mason, “Museums Enter the Art and Culture Industry Market,” Art Newspaper, June 2000, 10, on the Internet partnership between MoMA and Tate Modern; and “How the Brits Woo the US Donors,” Art Newspaper, September 2000, 13. These initiatives mark a radical departure from practices in Europe as little as twenty years ago; see Bruno S. Frey and Werner W. Pommerehne, “An Economic Analysis of the Museum,” in Economic Policy for the Arts, ed. W. S. Hendon et al. (Cambridge, MA: Abt Books, 1980), 250–60.
115. Quoted in Judith Dobrzynski, “Passing on the Pain at the Met,” New York Times, April 14, 1999, B4.
116. James Gasser, “Why Cities Need Museums,” Museum News 57 (May–June 1979): 26; Alexander, Museums and Money, 71.
117. See Julia Beizer et al., “Marketing the King: Tut 2 and the New Blockbuster,” Museum News 85 (November–December 2005): 37–43; and Robin Pogrebin and Sharon Waxman, “King Tut, Set for 2nd U.S. Tour, Has New Decree: Money Rules,” New York Times, December 2, 2004, A1, C13.
118. In his last book, the late Francis Haskell argued against the exhibition craze on these grounds. “It is…greatly to be desired that some…sense of responsibility for the irreparable and precious should be restored,” he wrote. The Ephemeral Museum: Old Master Paintings and the Rise of the Art Exhibition (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2000), 145. Yet shortly before his death he was himself involved in a large loan exhibition of Italian Baroque paintings, The Genius of Rome (Royal Academy, 2001), dedicated to his memory. Also see the editorial “To Lend or Not to Lend?” in Burlington Magazine 147 (November 2005): 721.
119. Quoted in Mark W. Rectanus, Culture Incorporated: Museums, Artists, and Corporate Sponsorships (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2002), 26. Promotional literature sent to businesses by the Boston MFA in 2002 reveals that little has changed: “Corporate sponsors…build brand awareness, demonstrate their commitment to the arts, and affiliate themselves with a world-renowned cultural institution.” Sponsorship is described as a “blend of philanthropy and cost-effective marketing.”
120. Quoted in ibid., 25.
121. On museums and the “culture wars,” see Steven C. Dubin, Displays of Power: Controversy in the American Museum from the Enola Gay to Sensation (New York: NYU Press, 1999).
122. Quoted in Michael Kimmelman, “Does It Really Matter Who Sponsors a Show?” New York Times, May 19, 1996, H33. Also see Rathbone, “Influence of Private Patrons,” 138–39.
123. Hans Haacke, “Museums, Managers of Consciousness,” in Unfinished Business (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1988), 71; on Haacke, also see Wallis, “Art of Big Business,” 28–32.
124. Quoted in Martin Feldstein, ed., The Economics of Art Museums (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991), 57; also see James Wood, “Citizens or Consumers: Today's Art Museum and Its Public,” in Museums and the Price of Success, ed. Truus Gubbels and Annemoon van Hemel (Amsterdam: Boekman Foundation, 1993).
125. John House, “Possibilities for a Revisionist Blockbuster: Landscapes/Impressions of France,” in The Two Art Histories: The Museum and the University, ed. Charles W. Haxthausen (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2002), 159–60.
126. Malcolm Rogers defends popularizing exhibitions on grounds of access in “Popular and Accessible Does Not Equal Stupid,” Art Newspaper, November 2004, 20.
127. Scholars were identified some time ago as the losers in the turn toward popular appeal; see Germain Bazin, “Musées d'hier et d'aujourd'hui,” Musées et Collections Publiques de France 168 (1985): 7–10; Grace Glueck, “The Ivory Tower versus the Discotheque,” Art in America 59 (May-June 1971): 85; and S. Dillon Ripley, The Sacred Grove: Essays on Museums (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1969), 73.
128. On the bartering behind a blockbuster, see Terry Pristin, “The Art behind the Art Show: Wheeling and Dealing to Get Monet to Brooklyn,” New York Times, October 2, 1997; also see de Montebello on this topic in Cuno, Whose Muse? 163–65.
129. Quoted in Deborah Solomon, “As Art Museums Thrive, Their Directors Decamp,” New York Times, August 2, 1998, 35; also see Grace Glueck, “The Job Description Reads, ‘Do It All,’” New York Times, April 21, 1999, E:10–11; Marjorie Schwarzer, “Turnover at the Top: Are Directors Burning Out?” Museum News 81 (May–June 2002): 43ff.; “Where Are the Museum Directors?” ARTnews 104 (Summer 2005): 72; Jacob Russell, “Art Museums Debate Skills for Top Post,” Wall Street Journal, August 18, 2005, B1; and the profiles of directors, curators, and trustees by Thomas W. Leavitt, Edward F. Fry, and Grace Glueck in O'Doherty, Museums in Crisis.
130. See James Cuno, “'Sensation' and the Ethics of Funding Exhibitions,” in Unsettling “Sensation”: Arts-Policy Lessons from the Brooklyn Museum of Art Controversy, ed. Lawrence Rothfield (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 2001). This collection includes much good discussion about museum funding.
131. Quoted in Rothfield, Unsettling “Sensation,” 2.
132. Eleanor Heartney, “Annals of Sponsorship I: The Guggenheim's New Clothes,” Art in America 89 (2001): 61–63; Herbert Muschamp, “Armani at the Guggenheim: Where Ego Sashays in Style,” New York Times, October 20, 2000, sec. 2, 1, 38.
133. Quoted in Cuno, Whose Muse? 16. The issue of curatorial control seems vital in this case. A few years later the Met largely escaped criticism when it mounted a show of Chanel fashion sponsored by the House of Chanel. The difference? The Met rejected the input of Chanel designer Karl Lagerfeld and made that point clear to the public: “While the sponsorship of the exhibition is the House of Chanel, the curatorial responsibilities were exercised exclusively by the [curators]. At no point did Karl Lagerfeld express any interest in directing or controlling the curatorial concept or substance of the exhibition.” Harold Koda, “Chanel at the Met,” New York Times, May 11, 2005.
134. See Gilbert S. Edelson, “Some Sensational Reflections,” in Rothfield, Unsettling “Sensation.” Also see Judith H. Dobrzynski, “Private Collections Routine at Museums,” New York Times, October 1, 1999, B6; Geoff Edgers, “Furor Ahoy: MFA Exhibit of Koch's Collections Stirs Questions over Choices, Motives,” Boston Globe, August 30, 2005, A1; and Ken Johnson, “Mixed Blessing: The Highs, Lows, and Limits of Modernism—and Private Collections,” Boston Globe, December 29, 2006, D4.
135. See American Association of Museums, “Guidelines for Museums in Developing and Managing of Business Support,” November 2001, www.aam-us.org/museumresources/ethics/bus_support.cfm (accessed November 14, 2006). Also see David Barstow, “After ‘Sensation’ Furor, Museum Group Adopts Guidelines on Sponsors,” New York Times, August 3, 2000, E1, 3.
136. András Szántó, “Don't Shoot the Messenger: Why the Art World and the Press Don't Get Along,” in Rothfield, Unsettling “Sensation,” 194.
137. Quoted in Kimmelman, “Does It Really Matter?” H33.
138. See Roberta Smith, “Corporate Taste in Art, and the Art of Donation,” New York Times, February 14, 2005, B35.
139. An interesting exhibition curated by Sarah Hyde at the Courtauld Gallery in London entitled The Value of Art (1999) tested the seeming incompatibility between financial and aesthetic value by displaying a wide variety of art objects with their current market estimates. The show provoked predictable outrage among traditional art world types while appealing to the public's fascination with the worth of things. Also see the review by Natasha Walter, “It's Art, but Is It Worth It?” Independent, Monday Review, July 5, 1999, 5.
140. Gilbert S. Edelson, “Some Sensational Reflections,” in Rothfield, Unsettling “Sensation,” 178.
141. See Nick Prior, “Having One's Tate and Eating It: Transformations of the Museum in the Hypermodern Era,” in Art and Its Public: Museum Studies at the Millennium, ed. Andrew McClellan (Oxford: Blackwell, 2003), 51–76.
142. Muschamp, “Armani at the Guggenheim,” 38.
Chapter 6. Restitution and Reparation
For the epigraph's quote from Walter Benjamin's “Theses on the Philosophy of History,” see Illuminations, ed. Hannah Arendt (New York: Schocken Books, 1969), 256.
1. Andrew McClellan, Inventing the Louvre: Art, Politics, and the Origins of the Modern Museum in Eighteenth-Century Paris (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1994); also Cecil Gould, Trophy of Conquest: The Musée Napoléon and the Creation of the Louvre (London: Faber and Faber, 1965).
2. On Belgium, see Charles Piot, Rapport à Mr. le Ministre de l'Intérieur sur les tableaux enlevés à la Belgique en 1794 et restitués en 1815 (Brussels: E. Guyot, 1883).
3. Le Moniteur Universelle, September 24, 1794; reprint, ed. A. Ray (Paris: Au Bureau Central, 1840–), vol. 22 (1847): 26–27.
4. F.-A. de Boissy d'Anglas, Quelques idées sur les arts (Paris: Imprimerie Nationale, 1794), 164.
5. Quoted in Gould, Trophy of Conquest, 41.
6. Ibid., 45. On Napoleon's confiscations, also see F. H. Taylor, The Taste of Angels (Boston: Little, Brown, 1948), 542–64; Charles Saunier, Les conqûetes artistiques de le Révolution et de l'Empire (Paris: Renouard, 1902); Dorothy Mackay Quynn, “The Art Confiscations of the Napoleonic Wars,” American Historical Review 50 (April 1945): 437–60; M.-L. Blumer, “La Commission pour la recherche des objets de sciences et arts en Italie, 1796–1797,” in La Révolution Française 87 (1934): 62–88, 124–50, 222–59.
7. Correspondance de Napoléon Ier, 32 vols. (Paris: Imprimérie Impériale, 1858–69), 1:516, 527–29.
8. Corrière de Milano, July 5, 1797, quoted in Eugène Müntz, “Les annexions de collections d'art ou de bibliothèques et leur rôle dans les relations internationals. Principalement pendant la Révolution française,” Revue d'histoire diplomatique 9 (1896): 481–508.
9. See McClellan, Inventing the Louvre, 121–23; and Patricia Mainardi, “Assuring the Empire of the Future: The 1798 Fête de la Liberté,” Art Journal 48 (Summer 1989): 155–63.
10. Moniteur Universelle, June 6, 1796, quoted in Blumer, “La Commission,” 63.
11. Wellington to Viscount Castlereagh, September 23, 1815, The Dispatches of Field Marshall the Duke of Wellington…from 1799 to 1815, ed. Lieutenant Colonel Gurwood (London: John Murray, 1838), 12:644–46. At the same time Lord Liverpool observed: “It is most desirable to remove [the museum's contents] if possible from France as whilst in that country they must necessarily have the effect of keeping up the remembrance of their former conquests and of cherishing the military spirit and vanity of the nation.” Quoted in Taylor, Taste of Angels, 572; also see Gould, Trophy of Conquest, ch. 7.
12. Gurwood, Dispatches, 645.
13. Quoted in Saunier, Les conqûetes artistiques, 111.
14. See Benedicte Savoy, “'Le naufrage de toute une époque': Regards allémands sur les restitutions de 1814–1815,” in Dominique-Vivant Denon: L'oeil de Napoléon (Paris: Réunion des Musées Nationaux, 1999), 258–67.
15. Quoted in Piot, Rapport, 351.
16. Ibid., 363, 341–42.
17. Henry Milton, Letters on the Fine Arts, Written from Paris in the Year 1815 (London: Longman, 1816), 92.
18. Quoted in Saunier, Les conqûetes artistiques, 99.
19. M.-L. Blumer, “Catalogue des peintures transportées d'Italie en France de 1796 à 1814,” Bulletin de la Société de l'Histoire de l'Art Français, 1936, 244–348.
20. See Francis Haskell and Nicholas Penny, Taste and the Antique (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1981), 115–16.
21. See Louis Hautecoeur, Catalogue des peintures, vol. 2, École italienne et école espagnole (Paris: Musées nationaux, 1926), 11–12. Hautecoeur describes the confiscations as an indemnity for the army's “effort” and “blood” and as a “singularly idealistic” policy.
22. Milton, Letters on the Fine Arts, iii. Also see W. D. Fellowes, Paris during the Interesting Month of July 1815 (London: Gale and Fenner, 1815), 109: “At the Musée Napoléon are to be seen the rarest specimens of art, collected into one focus by robbery and plunder! Let the French nation call it whatever they please!”
23. See Hector Feliciano, The Lost Museum: The Nazi Conspiracy to Steal the World's Greatest Art, trans. Tim Bent and Hector Feliciano (New York: Basic Books, 1997), ch. 2.
24. British visitors found Napoleon's resort to ancient example insolent and absurd. The Reverend John Eustace, for example, said that “[t]o sanction or even excuse such lawless rapacity by the conduct of the Romans is too absurd.” Letter from Paris to George Petre, Esq. (London: J. Mawman, 1814), 48.
25. Quoted in Piot, Rapport, 311–12.
26. Quoted in Taylor, Taste of Angels, 579.
27. Milton, Letters on the Fine Arts, 116. Also see Piot, Rapport, 66.
28. Quoted in Lavinia Stainton, “English Visitors to the Musée Napoléon,” in Essays Presented to Professor Johannes Wilde on His Sixtieth Birthday by the Staff and Past and Present Students of the Courtauld Institute of Art, 2 vols., typescript, 1951, Courtauld Institute of Art, London, 2:163.
29. Milton, Letters on the Fine Arts, 2, 9.
30. Quoted in Dominique-Vivant Denon, 264.
31. John Scott, A Visit to Paris in 1814 (London: Longman, 1815), 248.
32. Friedrich von Schlegel, The Aesthetic and Miscellaneous Works of Friedrich von Schlegel, trans. E.J. Millington (London: H.G. Bohn, 1849), 102–3.
33. A.-C. Quatremère de Quincy, Lettres à Miranda sur le déplacement des monuments de l'art de l'Italie (1796), ed. Edouard Pommier (Paris: Macula, 1989), 88. Pommier offers a fine contextual analysis of this important text. On Quatremère's art criticism and politics during the Revolution, see A. D. Potts, “Political Attitudes and the Rise of Historicism in Art Theory,” Art History 1 (1978): 191–213.
34. Quoted in Dominique Poulot, Musée, nation, patrimoine, 1789–1815 (Paris: Gallimard, 1997), 278; also see Daniel J. Sherman, “Quatremère/Benjamin/Marx: Art Museums, Aura, and Commodity Fetishism,” in Museum Culture: Histories, Discourses, Spectacles, ed. Daniel J. Sherman and Irit Rogoff (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1994), 123–43.
35. Quatremère de Quincy, Lettres à Miranda, 102. Quatremère spoke on behalf of Rome “comme membre de cette république générale des arts et des sciences, et non comme habitant de telle ou telle nation” (89). On the “republic” to which he refers, see Dena Goodman, The Republic of Letters: A Cultural History of the French Enlightenment (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1994).
36. Quoted in McClellan, Inventing the Louvre, 195.
37. See Ivan Gaskell, “Sacred to Profane and Back Again,” in Art and Its Publics: Museum Studies at the Millennium, ed. Andrew McClellan (Oxford: Blackwell, 2003), 149–62.
38. Milton, Letters on the Fine Arts, 4.
39. On the Aegina Marbles, see William St. Clair, Lord Elgin and the Marbles (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998), 201–4.
40. The best general accounts of the Elgin episode are provided by St. Clair, Lord Elgin, and Jeanette Greenfield, The Return of Cultural Treasures, 2nd ed. (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 42–90; but other sources cited below should also be consulted.
41. Report from the Select Committee of the House of Commons on the Earl of Elgin's Collection of Sculptured Marbles [1816], reproduced in E.J. Burrow, The Elgin Marbles (London: John Duncan, 1837), 139.
42. Quoted in John Henry Merryman, Thinking about the Elgin Marbles: Critical Essays on Cultural Property, Art and Law (The Hague: Kluwer, 2000), 38; also see St. Clair, Lord Elgin, 337–41.
43. Quoted in Christopher Hitchens, The Elgin Marbles: Should They Be Returned to Greece? (London: Chatto and Windus, 1987), 44.
44. Katharine Eustace, Canova: Ideal Heads (Oxford: Ashmoleon Museum, 1997), 107–9.
45. Quoted (and translated) in St. Clair, Lord Elgin, 63.
46. For a concise account of Hamilton's career, see Eustace, Canova.
47. Quoted in Hitchens, Elgin Marbles, 56.
48. Saunier, Les conqûetes artistiques, 135.
49. Ibid., 138.
50. Quoted in Burrow, Elgin Marbles, 140. Also see Jacob Rothenberg, Descensus ad Terram: The Acquisition and Reception of the Elgin Marbles (New York: Garland, 1977); and Hitchens, Elgin Marbles, for a fuller account of the proceedings.
51. In due course, many canonical ancient sculptures, including the Apollo Belvedere and others taken from the Vatican by Napoleon, were recognized as Roman copies rather than Greek originals and gradually lost their preeminent standing to the Parthenon sculptures; see Haskell and Penny, Taste and the Antique. By 1821, in an appreciation of the Venus de Milo, lately discovered on the island of Melos and bought for the Louvre by the French ambassador to Constantinople, Quatremère recognized that his beloved Italy was in reality “a kind of secondary market for Greek works of art.” A.-C. Quatremère de Quincy, Sur la statue antique de Vénus (Paris: Debure Frères, 1821), 7.
52. Ennio Quirino Visconti, A Letter from the Chevalier Antonio Canova and Two Memoirs…on the Sculptures in the Collection of the Earl of Elgin (London: John Murray, 1816), xxii. On the reception of the marbles, also see Rochelle Gurstein, “The Elgin Marbles, Romanticism and the Waning of ‘Ideal Beauty,’” Daedalus 131 (Fall 2002): 88–100.
53. Benjamin Robert Haydon, The Judgment of Connoisseurs upon…the Elgin Marbles (London, 1816), 17.
54. A.-C. Quatremère de Quincy, Lettres sur l'enlèvement des ouvrages d'art antique à Athènes et à Rome (Paris: Adrien Le Clerc, 1836), ix–xi.
55. Ibid., 2, xv.
56. Ibid., 28.
57. Ibid., 49. Visconti defended their display in a museum by claiming, “It was usual…to exhibit to the public, for close inspection, the statues which were intended to be placed at a certain height.” Letter, 10.
58. Quatremère de Quincy, Lettres sur l'enlèvement, 170.
59. Hitchens, Elgin Marbles, summarizes Byron's case against Elgin.
60. Ibid., 65. Hitchens, himself a strong advocate of repatriation, documents a significant history of support for the marbles' return. For an overview of the recent literature on the controversy, see Mary Beard, “Plunder Blunder,” Times Literary Supplement, June 12, 1998, 5–6.
61. Quoted in Merryman, Thinking about the Elgin Marbles, 25
62. Ibid., 62, 50.
63. For the current Greek position, which disavows nationalistic motives and insists on restoring the integrity of the Parthenon, see Hellenic Ministry of Culture, “The Official Greek Position on the Restitution of the Parthenon Marbles to Athens, 1995–2001,” www.culture.gr/6/68/682/e68202.html (accessed November 14, 2006).
64. Ernest Gellner, Nations and Nationalism (Oxford: Blackwell, 1983), 36.
65. Sir David Wilson, quoted in Sharon Sullivan, “Repatriation,” Getty Conservation Institute Newsletter 14 (Fall 1999): 20.
66. On the Benin episode, see Anne E. Coombes, Reinventing Africa: Museums, Material Culture and Popular Imagination (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1994), ch. 1 and passim; also Martin Bailey, “British Museum Sold Benin Bronzes,” Art Newspaper, April 2002, 1, 5.
67. Dr. Zahi Hawass, director of Egypt's Supreme Council of Antiquities, quoted in Martin Bailey, “The Rosetta Stone Will Stay in London, Say Trustees,” Art Newspaper, September 2003, 13. Hawass also wants the return of the bust of Nefertiti from Berlin's Egyptian Museum, the statue of Hatshepsut from the Met, and the obelisk from the Place de la Concorde in Paris.
68. Thurstan Shaw, “Restitution of Cultural Property,” Museum 149 (1986): 46.
69. Jeanette Greenfield points to Denmark's return of Icelandic manuscripts as “the outstanding example of a major state-to-state return of cultural property…an unusually civilized and rational act in the face of all the common, legal, political and historic arguments against return.” Return of Cultural Treasures, 311; also 12–41.
70. Quoted in Maev Kennedy, “A Lesson in Lost Property,” Guardian, October 30, 1999, www.guardian.co.uk/parthenon/article/0,,195562,00.html (accessed November 14, 2006).
71. Ernest Fenollosa to Edward Morse, quoted in Walter Muir Whitehill, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston: A Centennial History, 2 vols. (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 1970), 1:113.
72. My thanks to Ikumi Kaminishi for this information. A 1906 article in the Burlington Magazine stated: “If Japan and China have not yet their Lord Elgin, the sort of enterprise, at least, which brought that great figure to the fore is at length awake, and the great sculpture of China, if not that of Japan, lies ready to his hand obscurely buried in the ruins of Lo-yang.” The MFA's Fenellosa and William Bigelow were likened to Elgin's associates, William Hamilton and Mazo. Paul Chalfin, “Japanese Art in Boston,” Burlington Magazine 8 (1906): 220 (Kraus Reprint, 1968).
73. Stephen Kinzer, “Seeing Pergamon Whole,” New York Times, September 14, 1997, sec. 2, 29.
74. George Perrot, “L'île de Cypre, son rôle dans l'histoire,” Revue des Deux Mondes, May 15, 1879, 374. France and Britain were interested in his collection, but it went to New York and the fledgling Metropolitan Museum in 1879, the year Cesnola became the museum's first director.
75. “Cypriot Antiquities at the Metropolitan,” August 2000, www.pio.gov.cy/cyprus_today/may_aug2000/page31.htm (accessed February 2004). For more on the Cesnola collection, see Tomkins, Merchants and Masterpieces, 44ff.; Karl E. Meyer, The Plundered Past: The Story of the Illegal International Traffic in Works of Art (New York: Atheneum, 1977), 68–69; Karl E. Meyer, “Met Goes to the Closet, Gets Out Its Skeletons and Tells the Stories,” New York Times, April 15, 2000; Vassos Karageorghis et al., Ancient Art from Cyprus: The Cesnola Collection in the Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York: Metropolitan Museum, 2000). Ottoman attempts to regulate the flow of antiquities during this era are discussed in Wendy M. K. Shaw, Possessors and Possessed: Museums, Archaeology, and the Visualization of History in the Late Ottoman Empire (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003). My thanks to Lindsay Commons for her help on this topic.
76. For the early history of excavation and archaeology in Egypt, see Donald Malcolm Reid, Whose Pharaohs? Archaeology, Museums, and Egyptian National Identity from Napoleon to World War I (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002).
77. Quoted in Esther Singleton, Old World Masters: New World Collections (New York: Macmillan, 1929), ix–x.
78. W. G. Dooley, “Middle Ages,” Boston Evening Transcript, February 17, 1945, 6.
79. Anne Higonnet offers intelligent insights on this process in her essay “Museum Sight,” in McClellan, Art and Its Publics, 133–47.
80. James Clifford, The Predicament of Culture: Twentieth-Century Ethnography, Literature, and Art (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1988), 229: “Ideally the history of its own collection and display should be a visible aspect of any exhibition.” Such a strategy was tried in a remarkable temporary exhibition, ExitCongoMuseum (2000), held at the Musée Royal de l'Afrique Central in Tervuren, Belgium; see its catalog, Boris Wastiau, ExitCongoMuseum (Tervuren: Royal Museum for Central Africa, 2000), and the review of the show by Marie-Therèse Brincard in African Arts 34 (December 22, 2001).
81. Hellenic Ministry of Culture, “Official Greek Position”: “The proposal is that a long-term loan be agreed between the British Museum and the New Acropolis Museum…. More specifically, the proposal envisions the exhibition of the Parthenon's sculptures, in the large hall of the New Acropolis Museum, coming together as a joint project of the New Acropolis Museum and the British Museum. In exchange for this co-operation, the Greek Government assumes the responsibility of organising important temporary exhibitions of Greek antiquities on the grounds of the British Museum. These temporary exhibitions, through extensive media coverage, will continually generate international public interest.”
82. Mark Jones, quoted in Alan Riding, “Islamic Art as a Mediator for Cultures in Confrontation,” New York Times, April 6, 2004, B5.
83. “Cypriot Antiquities.”
84. Kwame Anthony Appiah, Cosmopolitanism: Ethics in a World of Strangers (New York: Norton, 2006), 132.
85. Ibid., 133.
86. The standard texts on Nazi looting are Feliciano, Lost Museum, and Lynn H. Nicholas, The Rape of Europa: The Fate of Europe's Treasures in the Third Reich and the Second World War (New York: Knopf, 1994). The Canadian Jewish Congress operates a very useful Web site on Nazi loot; see Canadian Jewish Congress Charities Committee, “Nazi-Looted Art,” www.cjccc.ca. A remarkable recent book gives a sense of the scale of looting by focusing just on Vienna: Sophie Lille, Was einmal war: Handbuch der enteigneten Kunstsammlungen Wiens (Vienna: Czernin, 2003).
87. On Allied restitution efforts, see Elizabeth Simpson, ed., The Spoils of War (New York: Abrams, 1997), as well as the memoirs of Thomas Carr Howe, Salt Mines and Castles: The Discovery and Restitution of Looted European Art (New York: Bobbs-Merrill, 1946); James Rorimer, Survival: The Salvage and Protection of Art in War (New York: Abelard, 1950); James Cuno, “The Fogg Art Museum and the Spoils of War,” in Shop Talk: Studies in Honor of Seymour Slive (Cambridge, MA: Harvard Art Museums, 1995), 59–63; and Wojciech Kowalski, Art Treasures and War: A Study on the Restitution of Looted Cultural Property (Leicester: Institute of Art and Law, 1998), 38ff.
88. American Association of Museums, Museum Policy and Procedures for Nazi-Era Issues (Washington, DC: American Association of Museums, 2001), 90. Further information about the task force appeared on the AAMD Web site.
89. Both quotations appear in Walter V. Robinson, “170 Museums to Review Collections for Stolen Art,” Boston Globe, June 5, 1998, A23.
90. See Feliciano, Lost Museum, ch. 5.
91. My information on this episode comes from articles in the Boston Globe on November 28 and 30 and December 1, 2, and 19, 1998, as well as David d'Arcy, “French Relent over War Loot,” Art Newspaper, June 1999, and the MFA's flier, “Claude Monet's Water Lilies (1904) and the Restitution of Art after World War II,” distributed at the exhibition Monet and the 20th Century. After some resistance, the French government agreed to return the Monet to the Rosenberg family in April 1999.
92. The MFA wall label in the Monet exhibition (and accompanying flier) declared that the painting had been exhibited “in order to facilitate its identification,” a claim rejected as disingenuous by the World Jewish Congress; see Walter V. Robinson, “Doubts Raised on Monet Plaque,” Boston Globe, December 19, 1998. In another article Robinson states: “When the painting was repatriated after the war, French officials failed to learn its connection to Rosenberg, even though the French government's own 1947 list of missing artworks lists the painting, notes Rosenberg's ownership, and even cites dimensions that are identical to the Monet in Boston. Despite those clues, the painting was eventually shunted off to Caen.” Walter V. Robinson, “Family Cites Nazi Records in Claim to Monet,” Boston Globe, December 2, 1998, A14.
93. American Association of Museums, Museum Policy and Procedures, 92, 91.
94. Two cases from the late 1990s involving the Goudstikker collection in Amsterdam and a pair of Egon Schiele paintings from the Leopold Foundation in Vienna were closely followed by the press and illustrate the enormous challenges facing heirs seeking restitution; for the former, see New York Times, January 12, 1998, and March 27, 1998; for the latter, see New York Times, December 24, 1997, January 1, 10, and 29, 1998; March 7, 1998; and April 16, 1998, as well as the Boston Globe, January 9, March 5, and September 11, 1998.
95. See Celestine Bohlen, “Museums Accept Stronger Role in Search for Looted Art,” New York Times, November 30, 2000, B1. A casual survey of Web sites worldwide suggests that only a very small percentage of the hundreds of objects initially viewed as suspect have turned out to be problematic.
96. See Isabel von Klitzing, “1938–1948—the Dangerous Years: How We Check Art for Tainted Provenance,” Art Newspaper, July–August 2004, 28. The Art Loss Register monitors the market and cooperates with at least some major auction firms.
97. See Randy Kennedy, “Museums' Research on Looting Seen to Lag,” New York Times, July 25, 2006, B1.
98. Marilyn Henry, “Restitution: Broken Promises,” ARTnews 104 (March 2005): 100–111.
99. Ibid., 102.
100. See Konstantin Akinsha and Grigorii Kozlov, Beautiful Loot: The Soviet Plunder of Europe's Art Treasures (New York: Random House, 1995); and Steven Lee Myers, “In Moscow, a Proud Display of Spoils of War,” New York Times, May 17, 2005. For the exhibition of German loot, see Hidden Treasures Revealed: Impressionist Masterpieces and Other Important French Paintings Preserved by the State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg (New York: Abrams, 1995). The catalog's introduction sidesteps questions of restitution and nowhere acknowledges the circumstances under which many objects from private Jewish collections were acquired by the Germans before being confiscated by the Soviet Trophy Brigades.
101. See Sterling Seagrave and Peggy Seagrave, Gold Warriors: America's Secret Recovery of Yamashita's Gold (London: Verso, 2003), reviewed in Art Newspaper, January 2004, 31.
102. Quoted in Martin Bailey, “We Serve All Cultures, Say the Big, Global Museums,” Art Newspaper, January 2003, 6.
103. Quoted in Walter I. Farmer, “Custody and Controversy at the Wiesbaden Collecting Point,” in Simpson, Spoils of War, 133. Farmer also quotes the supporting document issued by American museum officials. Also see Charles L. Kuhn, “German Paintings in the National Gallery: A Protest,” College Art Journal 5 (January 1946): 78–79; and Howe, Salt Mines and Castles, 304–11.
104. John L. Hess, The Grand Acquisitors (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1974), 134–35. A revealing account of the post-UNESCO art world, with an excellent bibliography, is provided in Meyer, Plundered Past.
105. See Hannah Beech, “Stealing Beauty,” Time, October 27, 2003. In 1972 a curator at the Cleveland Museum told a reporter that 95 percent of ancient art in the United States had been smuggled in: “Unless you're naïve or not very bright you'd have to know that much ancient art is stolen.” Quoted in Meyer, Plundered Past, 123.
106. Edek Osser, “London and Paris Markets Flooded with Looted Iranian Antiquities,” Art Newspaper, January 2004, 9.
107. For a full account of the Iraq Museum, see Matthew Bogdanos, “The Casualties of War: The Truth about the Iraq Museum,” American Journal of Archaeology 109 (July 2005): 477–526.
108. For a recent well-documented case, see Barry Meier and Martin Gottleib, “An Illicit Journey out of Egypt, Only a Few Questions Asked,” New York Times, February 23, 2004.
109. Hugh Eakin, “An Odyssey in Antiquities Ends in Questions at the Getty Museum,” New York Times, October 15, 2005, A33.
110. Walter V. Robinson, “Museums' Stance on Nazi Loot Belies Their Role in a Key Case,” Boston Globe, February 13, 1998. The AAMD joined with the Association of Dealers in Ancient, Oriental and Primitive Art to appeal a federal court decision that upheld U.S. Customs' seizure of a gold platter smuggled out of Italy. The then-president of the National Association of Dealers in Ancient, Oriental and Primitive Art was later convicted of trafficking in looted art.
111. See Eakin, “Odyssey in Antiquities”; Elisabetta Povoledo, “Prosecutors Bet Big on Antiquities Trial in Italy,” New York Times, November 16, 2005, B1, B7; Hugh Eakin, “Museums under Fire on Ancient Artifacts,” New York Times, November 17, 2005, B1, B8; Geoff Edgers, “Italian Authorities Said to Have Evidence of Looted Works at MFA,” Boston Globe, November 1, 2005, C1, C5.
112. Elisabetta Povoledo, “The Met May Settle with Italy,” New York Times, November 24, 2005, E6. Montebello said the Met would cooperate with Italian authorities but that Italy would have to provide “incontrovertible evidence” that the pieces had been illegally exported: “If we are convinced by the evidence, we will take appropriate action” (E1). The Met settled with the Italian government in February 2006, agreeing to return the Euphronios Krater and other objects in exchange for an array of Etrurian artifacts; see the New York Times, February 3, 2006, A1; February 21, 2006, B2; and March 15, 2006, B2.
113. Quoted in Beech, “Stealing Beauty.”
114. See Walter V. Robinson, “Mali Presses for Museum Artifacts,” Boston Globe, December 6, 1997. For a strong statement on the damage done by looting in Mali, see R. J. McIntosh and S. K. McIntosh, “Dilettantism and Plunder: Illicit Traffic in Ancient Malian Art,” Museum 149 (1986): 49–57.
115. Quoted in Walter V. Robinson, “MFA Won't Relinquish Guatemalan Artifacts,” Boston Globe, July 9, 1998, A1.
116. Alan Shestack, “The Museum and Cultural Property: The Transformation of Institutional Ethics,” in The Ethics of Collecting: Whose Culture? Whose Property? ed. Phyllis Mauch Messenger (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1999), 98. Also see Lorenz Homberger and Christine Stelzig, “Contrary to the Temptation! An Appeal for a New Dialogue among Museums and Collectors, Scholars, and Dealers,” African Arts 34 (Summer 2006): 1, 4, 6, 83.
117. Thomas Farragher, “Some Museumgoers Miss Reason for Debate,” Boston Globe, December 6, 1997, A1.
118. Greenfield, Return of Cultural Treasures, points to Denmark's return of Icelandic manuscripts as “the outstanding example of a major state-to-state return of cultural property…an unusually civilized and rational act in the face of all the common, legal, political and historic arguments against return” (311) but seems hopeful that other examples will follow. Another exceptional case worth noting is Thomas K. Seligman, “The Murals of Teotihuacán: A Case Study of Negotiated Restitution,” in Messenger, Ethics of Collecting, 73–90. Seligman tells of an important series of pre-Columbian wall paintings from Mexico left to the Fine Arts Museums of San Francisco by a local collector. Though entitled by U.S. law to keep the murals, the museum decided restitution was the proper course. In conclusion, Seligman wrote: “I am convinced that ethical considerations are much more important than legal ones.”
Conclusion
1. Mokoto Rich, “Build Your Dream, Hold Your Breath,” New York Times, August 6, 2006, sec. 2, 1, 22.
2. Ibid., 22.
3. Alan Riding, “Art Arranged: Shock of the New, Comfort of the Old,” New York Times, July 22, 2006, B19.
4. Deborah F. Schwartz, “Dude, Where's My Museum? Inviting Teens to Transform Museums,” Museum News 84 (September–October 2005): 36–41.
5. This and the following quotation are from “The Great Court” at the museum's Web site: www.thebritishmuseum.ac.uk/greatcourt/read.html (accessed July 2006). The museum celebrated its 250th anniversary in 2003 with an exhibition, The Museum of the Mind: Art and Memory in World Cultures, highlighting its “incomparable collection of humanly created artifacts covering all times and places…displayed…in a single building accessible free to visitors seven days a week.” John Mack, The Museum of the Mind: Art and Memory in World Cultures (London: British Museum, 2003), 8.
6. Elisabetta Povoledo, “Former Curator in Courtroom As Her Trial Begins in Rome,” New York Times, November 17, 2006, B8.
7. See, for example, Randy Kennedy and Hugh Eakin, “Met Chief, Unbowed, Defends Museum's Role,” New York Times, February 28, 2006, B1; Hugh Eakin, “Getty Museum Agrees to Return Two Antiquities to Greece,” New York Times, July 11, 2006, B1.
8. See “Universal Museums,” ICOM News 57, no. 1 (2004), http://icom.museum/universal.html (accessed November 14, 2006), where other responses to the declaration may be found. Also see Mark O'Neill, “Enlightenment Museums: Universal or Merely Global,” Museum and Society 2 (November 2004): 190–202.
9. Kwame Anthony Appiah, Cosmopolitanism: Ethics in a World of Strangers (New York: Norton, 2006), 130.
10. Ibid., 133.