Notes

 

With the exception of encyclopedia entries, which are always cited in full, short citations have been employed throughout the notes. Full citations for all sources can be found in the bibliography. Also, the following abbreviations have been used throughout the notes:

 

EACW	David S. Heidler and Jeanne T. Heidler, eds., Encyclopedia of the American Civil War (New York, 2000).
ENK	Paul A. Tenkotte and James C. Claypool, eds., The Encyclopedia of Northern Kentucky (Lexington, 2009).
Governors	Lowell H. Harrison, ed., Kentucky's Governors (1985), 2nd ed.(Lexington, 2004).
KE	John E. Kleber, ed., The Kentucky Encyclopedia (Lexington, 1992)
LE	John E. Kleber, ed., The Encyclopedia of Louisville (Lexington,2001).
OR	The War of the Rebellion: A Compilation of the Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies, 73 vols. (Washington, DC, 1880–1901).

Introduction

1. Flannery, “Cultural Context,” 36.

2. Flannery, “Medical Botany,” 23.

3. Greeley, ed., Clay, 73; Hopkins et al., eds., Papers of Henry Clay, 10:635–36, 651.

4. Tallant, Evil Necessity, 149–50.

5. Aron, How the West Was Lost, 183.

6. Ibid., 133, 148. For a discussion of the optimism of antebellum Kentuckians, see Friend, Maysville Road.

7. Perkins, “Consumer Frontier,” 503.

8. Ramage, John Wesley Hunt, 21–40, 67–68, 70–71, 81–84, and Rebel Raider, 11–12, 50; Aron, How the West Was Lost, 130–33; Wade, Urban Frontier, 12, 42, 49–51.

9. See Tallant, Evil Necessity, 3–25.

10. Loveland, “Farewell Tour,” 89.

11. Idzerda, “Lafayette,” 10–18, 25, 40; Hume, Lafayette in Kentucky, 97–98.

12. Bailey, Diplomatic History, 177, 187; Neely, “Politics of Liberty,” 155–56.

13. KE, s.v. “Lafayette's Visit” Hume, Lafayette in Kentucky, 13; Neely, “Politics of Liberty,” 156–57.

14. ENK, s.v. “Desha, Joseph,” by John Klee; Hammack, Second American Revolution, 82; Charles J. Bussey, “Joseph Desha,” in Governors, 30–31; Hume, Lafayette in Kentucky, 15–16.

15. Hume, Lafayette in Kentucky, 17.

16. Ibid., 31–38; Lietzenmayer, “Lafayette,” 13–14. The plan was for Lafayette to arrive in Portland, the port city for Louisville, on the steamboat Artisan, but, with his entourage aboard, the Artisan struck a snag in the Ohio River and sank, with no loss of life. Lafayette was rescued in a skiff, and his son, George, refused to leave the sinking boat until all the other passengers were safe. Lietzenmayer, “Lafayette,” 12; Mullen, “Lafayette on Kentucky,” 191.

17. KE, s.v. “Anderson, Richard Clough,” by Charles Snow Guthrie; Hume, Lafayette in Kentucky, 29, 34, 98; Loveland, “Farewell Tour,” 66.

18. KE, s.v. “Sharp, Solomon P.,” by Frank F. Mathias; Hume, Lafayette in Kentucky, 35–37.

19. Hume, Lafayette in Kentucky, 50–53.

20. Ibid., 53–54; Levasseur, Lafayette in America, 2:167.

21. Hume, Lafayette in Kentucky, 30, 60–62; Coleman, Lafayette's Visit, 9; U.S. Census, 1860. Louisville overtook Lexington in 1830 with 10,341 people; Lexington had only 6,087. U.S. Census, 1860.

22. Hume, Lafayette in Kentucky, 60–65, 81, 97–98.

23. Ibid., 71–72. Six other colleges and universities conferred on Lafayette the same degree. Ibid., 71.

24. Levasseur, Lafayette in America, 2:168; Hume, Lafayette in Kentucky, 80.

25. Hume, Lafayette in Kentucky, 66–71; Mullen, “Lafayette on Kentucky,” 193. As discussed in chapter 4, in 1848 Kentucky voters approved a school tax of two cents per one hundred dollars of taxable property. In 1855, they voted in favor of increasing the rate to five cents.

26. Levasseur, Lafayette in America, 2:168–69; Hume, Lafayette in Kentucky, 84–85.

27. Hume, Lafayette in Kentucky, 97–98, 101.

28. Coleman, Lafayette's Visit, 14, 16.

29. Hume, Lafayette in Kentucky, 45; Levasseur, Lafayette in America, 2:155, 165–71.

30. Levasseur, Lafayette in America, 2:171; Mullen, “Lafayette on Kentucky,” 194.

1. Henry Clay, Part One: American Hero

1. Wecter, Hero in America, 6–15.

2. For scholarly biographies of Henry Clay, see Remini, Henry Clay; Eaton, Henry Clay; and Van Deusen, Henry Clay.

3. Remini, Henry Clay, 3–13.

4. Ibid., 3, 5; Basler, ed., Works of Abraham Lincoln, 2:121, 124.

5. Eaton, Henry Clay, 160.

6. Carrier, Monument, 323, 474; Basler, ed., Works of Abraham Lincoln, 2:126; Ellenberg, Henry Clay, xxiii; Remini, Henry Clay, 642.

7. Fischer, Tippecanoe and Trinkets Too, 50; New York Times, June 7, 12, 1852; Roland, American Iliad, 1; Ellenberg, Henry Clay, 19–20.

8. Richardson, Personal History of Ulysses S. Grant, 528; Eaton, Henry Clay, 98, 159, 190; Remini, Henry Clay, 737, 742; Littell, Clay Minstrel, 261; Garland, Ulysses S. Grant, x; Work, Songs; Foreman, “Choctaw Academy,” 473. Countless other Kentuckians bore the name, including Williamstown constable Henry Clay Gouge. Covington Journal, November 19, 1859.

9. Wecter, Hero in America, 13–14. Many Clay nicknames are in Littell, Clay Minstrel; and Moore, “Anti-Clay Songs.” The raccoon was the Whig Party mascot, and, thus, Clay was a “coon.”

10. Littell, Clay Minstrel, 153–378; Moore, “Anti-Clay Songs,” 223; Ellenberg, Henry Clay, 27; William G. Mickell, The Natal Day Song, W. Townsend, The Ashland Farmer, and W. Townsend, Gallant Harry, printed song lyrics, broadside collection, Special Collections, University of Kentucky Library.

11. Moore, “Anti-Clay Songs,” 226, 227, 232. The duel was with Humphrey Marshall on January 19, 1809. Ibid., 235.

12. Littell, Clay Minstrel, 365; Hopkins et al., eds., Papers of Henry Clay, 1:767, 10:243–44; McCord Museum of Canadian History Web Site, Great Lakes Ships Downward Bound Archives; Free Republic Home Page, Flag Day Quotes; Polk County, Iowa, Senior Bulletin; New York Times, July 29, 30, 31, 1852; Shea and Winschel, Vicksburg Is the Key, 99; American Merchant Marine at War Web Site, Liberty Ships; USS Henry Clay SSBN-625 Home Page. S. Palmer of New York City published a lithograph of William Marsh's painting in 1845. Hopkins et al., eds., Papers of Henry Clay, 10:244.

13. Fischer, Tippecanoe and Trinkets Too, 17, 29, 55–61.

14. KE, s.v. “Clay, Henry,” by Melba Porter Hay; Eaton, Henry Clay, 26; Hammack, Second American Revolution, 14; Remini, Henry Clay, 60, 95; Hopkins et al., eds., Papers of Henry Clay, 1:715.

15. Hammack, Second American Revolution, x, 107–8, 110, 112; Gleason's Pictorial Drawing Room Companion, 76, Henry Clay Picture Collection, Drawer 1, Special Collections, University of Kentucky.

16. Eaton, Henry Clay, 12; Ramage, John Wesley Hunt, 31, 66, 90, 92–94; Lucas, From Slavery to Segregation, xviii, 30; Goodwin, Team of Rivals, 95. Lucretia's brother Thomas Hart Jr. was married to Eleanor Grosh from Hagerstown, Maryland, and Eleanor's two sisters, Catherine and Sophia, came to Lexington with her. Catherine Grosh married John Wesley Hunt only a few months before Clay arrived in Lexington in the fall of 1797. Ramage, John Wesley Hunt, 31–32.

17. Carrier, Monument, 335; KE, s.v. “Nicholas, George”; Prentice, Henry Clay, 23–25; Remini, Henry Clay, 29.

18. KE, s.v. “Clay, Henry,” by Hay; Williams and Hay, eds., “Roundtable,” 43435; Carrier, Monument, 131–36.

19. Akers, Abigail Adams, 135; Miller, Federalist Era, 63, 65, and Alexander Hamilton, 296, 298.

20. Williams and Hay, eds., “Roundtable,” 434; Carrier, Monument, 324–25.

21. Eaton, Henry Clay, 10; Carrier, Monument, 236–37; Lexington Observer and Reporter, July 7, 1852; New York Times, February 10, 1852. According to Clement Eaton, Clay had free privileges along the National Road beginning in 1829 when he came home to Kentucky after serving as secretary of state. Eaton, Henry Clay, 96.

22. Carrier, Monument, 211; Remini, Henry Clay, 442; Bradford Dunfee et al. to Henry Clay, October 19, 1833, Henry Clay Papers, 71M13, May 4, 1813-June 29, 1852, Special Collections, University of Kentucky Library; Hopkins et al., eds., Papers of Henry Clay, 8:243.

23. Ellenberg, Henry Clay, 5–7.

24. Littell, Clay Minstrel, 165.

25. “The Ashland Farmer” and “The Life and Public Services of Henry Clay,” broadsides, Special Collections, University of Kentucky Library; The Campaign of 1844, May 18, 1844, in Kentucky Imprints, Wilson, unclassified, Special Collections, University of Kentucky Library; Fischer, Tippecanoe and Trinkets Too, 57, 59; Boston Atlas, September 20, 1844.

26. Covington Journal, September 14, 1849; Pottsville Republican, August 27, 1985; Schuylkill County Historical Society Web site; New York Times, June 30, 1852.

27. Remini, Henry Clay, 636–38, 642.

28. Ibid., 642, 643.

29. Ibid., 643, 644; McPherson, Abraham Lincoln, vii-viii, 61–64, 111, 137–38; Williams and Hay, eds., “Roundtable,” 428, 456. The outstanding roundtable discussion included Kenneth H. Williams, Robert V. Remini, and The Papers of Henry Clay editors Melba Porter Hay and Mary W. M. Hargreaves.

30. Eaton, Henry Clay, 167; KE, s.v. “Prentice, George Dennison,” by Betty Carolyn Congleton; undated, unidentified newspaper clipping, reprinted from the Louisville Journal, Henry Clay File (1), Special Collections, Kentucky Historical Society Library. In 1816, Pope thought he might have a chance because there was considerable voter resentment against Clay and other incumbent House members owing to the fact that they had participated in the enactment of the Compensation Act, which increased the compensation of congressmen by canceling their $1,500 annual salary and creating a more lucrative per diem allowance. Several incumbents were defeated, but Clay was reelected nevertheless. Eaton, Henry Clay, 78–79.

31. Carrier, Monument, 271–72, 275–76.

32. Eaton, Henry Clay, 53; Remini, Henry Clay, 271.

33. Remini, Henry Clay, 648, 653, 659; undated, unidentified newspaper clipping, Henry Clay Picture Collection, Special Collections, University of Kentucky Library.

34. Franks, ed., Journal of William Conrad, 67, 69, 71. Clay was baptized at Ashland by Reverend Edward F. Berkley. Remini, Henry Clay, 686.

35. Remini, Henry Clay, 260, 631–32; Van Deusen, Henry Clay, 377.

36. Remini, Henry Clay, 586, 617–19, 670.

37. Eaton, Henry Clay, 69–70; Lucas, From Slavery to Segregation, 6; Remini, Henry Clay, 670, 721–22.

38. Ellenberg, Henry Clay, 25; Williams and Hay, eds., “Roundtable,” 465; Remini, Henry Clay, 664–65; Moore, “Anti-Clay Songs,” 225. Clay made the mistake in the campaign of 1844 of allowing Polk to seize the issue of the annexation of Texas; Polk was clearly for annexation, and Clay appeared lukewarm or opposed. This was one time when Clay should have paid more attention to Kentuckians, who were enthusiastic for annexation.

39. Eaton, Henry Clay, 65, 161; Ellenberg, Henry Clay, xx; undated, unidentified newspaper clipping, Henry Clay Picture Collection, Special Collections, University of Kentucky Library.

40. Remini, Henry Clay, 31, 200, 281–83, 481, 765.

41. Ibid., 201, 519, 684–85, 767; Williams and Hay, eds., “Roundtable,” 435. On Henry Clay Jr. and his death, see Block, “‘The stoutest son.’”

42. New York Times, June 30, 1852; Remini, Henry Clay, xxii, 724.

2. Henry Clay, Part Two: Champion of the Union

1. Charleston Mercury, July 9, 1852.

2. Hopkins et al., eds., Papers of Henry Clay, 1:6; Remini, Henry Clay, 26–27; Tallant, Evil Necessity, 1–3.

3. Tallant, Evil Necessity, 1–3; Eaton, Henry Clay, 118.

4. Hopkins et al., eds., Papers of Henry Clay, 10:574–81; Tallant, Evil Necessity, 2–3.

5. Tallant, Evil Necessity, 12–15.

6. Eaton, Henry Clay, 118; Remini, Henry Clay, 180; Tallant, Evil Necessity, 75, 105; Carrier, Monument, 261–62; Cincinnati Enquirer, April 8, 1863; Hopkins et al., eds., Papers of Henry Clay, 9:283, 852.

7. Cincinnati Enquirer, April 8, 1863; Hopkins et al., eds., Papers of Henry Clay, 9:852.

8. Hopkins et al., eds., Papers of Henry Clay, 10:363–64, 372, 376; Remini, Henry Clay, 692.

9. North Star, December 3, 1847; Hopkins et al., eds., Papers of Henry Clay, 10:900–904; Remini, Henry Clay, 772–73.

10. Franks, ed., Journal of William Conrad, 69, 70.

11. Basler, ed., Works of Abraham Lincoln, 2:129; Remini, Henry Clay, 181, 187; Carrier, Monument, 450.

12. Remini, Henry Clay, 414, 435; Coulter, Civil War and Readjustment, 4; Frank F. Mathias, “John Breathitt,” in Governors, 40.

13. Bailey, Diplomatic History, 181.

14. Ibid., 174; Eaton, Henry Clay, 40–41; Remini, Henry Clay, 156, 175; Memorandum of Outstanding Facts Regarding Clay of Kentucky and South American Independence, by Rudolph Bolge and C. B. Truesdell, 2, 6, Henry Clay File (3), Kentucky Historical Society; “The Life and Public Services of Henry Clay,” 1844 campaign broadside, Special Collections, University of Kentucky Library. President James Monroe's secretary of state, John Quincy Adams, delayed recognition of the Latin American republics until after the Adams-Onis Treaty with Spain was finally signed in 1821. Bailey, Diplomatic History, 173–74.

15. Carrier, Monument, 340.

16. Remini, Henry Clay, xxii, 724; McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom, 68–71.

17. Roland, American Iliad, 11; Remini, Henry Clay, 735; Hamilton, Prologue to Conflict, 59; Hopkins et al., eds., Papers of Henry Clay, 10:661–72.

18. Remini, Henry Clay, 755.

19. Hopkins et al., eds., Papers of Henry Clay, 10:782–83; Remini, Henry Clay, 755; Coulter, Civil War and Readjustment, 5; Roland, American Iliad, 10; McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom, 69.

20. Remini, Henry Clay, 746, 761, 766; Carrier, Monument, 368. The Compromise of 1850 was enacted in five separate laws: an act for the admission of California as a free state; a law organizing the Utah Territory under popular sovereignty (let the settlers decide on slavery); an act that settled the Texas and New Mexico boundary, paid the Texas state debt in return for Texas giving territory to New Mexico, and organized the New Mexico Territory under popular sovereignty; a law suppressing the slave trade in the District of Columbia; and the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850. Hamilton, Prologue to Conflict, 201–8.

21. Remini, Henry Clay, 762–63; Eaton, Henry Clay, 193.

22. Remini, Henry Clay, 763–64, 766.

23. Ibid., xxii, 766–69, 771–72; Coleman, Last Days, 1. In 1851, Clay had given up on gradual emancipation and confidently hoped that, once the number of white laborers increased, slavery would be abolished voluntarily because it would be more expensive than white labor. Remini, Henry Clay, 770.

24. Remini, Henry Clay, 773–74; Lexington Observer and Reporter, November 5, 1851; Frankfort Yeoman, undated clipping quoted in Lexington Observer and Reporter, November 5, 1851.

25. Remini, Henry Clay, 774–75. On December 1, Clay attended the opening session of the Senate, but, on December 17, he resigned because of his health, effective in September 1852. Remini points out that Clay delayed the date of his resignation so that Whigs in the Kentucky legislature could select his replacement, not Democratic governor Lazarus W. Powell. Remini, Henry Clay, 774–75.

26. Remini, Henry Clay, 780; New York Times, February 10, 1852; Ellenberg, Henry Clay, xix. Clay submitted the list of achievements to the committee preparing the medal. Ellenberg, Henry Clay, xix. The New York delegation asked him to return the medal to correct his image, and, when he sent it, it was stolen. They replaced it with a bronze copy. Remini, Henry Clay, 779.

27. Hopkins et al., eds., Papers of Henry Clay, 10:963; New York Times, April 13, 14, 1852; Coleman, Last Days, 4. Kentucky was not the first state admitted to the Union after the original thirteen states; Vermont was the fourteenth state. Kentucky was fifteenth, but it had been the first to apply, several years before Vermont. Harrison and Klotter, New History, 61; Clark, History of Kentucky, 91.

28. Hopkins et al., eds., Papers of Henry Clay, 10:963; Remini, Henry Clay, 780, 781; New York Times, May 4, 26, June 30, July 1, 1852; Carrier, Monument, 343; Lexington Observer and Reporter, July 7, 1852. In Clay's hotel room when he died were his son, Thomas, Senator James C. Jones, and Clay's servant, James. Cole-man, Last Days, 7.

29. New York Times, June 30, July 21, 1852; Remini, Henry Clay, 781–82; Carrier, Monument, 331, 369.

30. Simon, ed., Papers of Ulysses S. Grant, 1:245; Washington Globe, July 1, 1852, quoted in Congressional Record, Senate, S 10821, September 18, 1969, copy in Henry Clay File (4), Kentucky Historical Society Library; Remini, Henry Clay, 781, 783; Carrier, Monument, 489–90, 495, 498.

31. Remini, Henry Clay, 782; Carrier, Monument, 489–90; Gleason's Drawing Room Companion (hereafter Gleason's), 76, in Henry Clay Picture Collection, Special Collections, University of Kentucky Library.

32. New York Tribune, July 21, 1852; Gleason's, 76.

33. New York Tribune, July 21, 1852; Gleason's, 76.

34. Gleason's, 76; Remini, Henry Clay, 783; Lexington Observer and Reporter, July 14, 1852.

35. Remini, Henry Clay, 784; New York Times, July 7, 9, 1852; Coleman, Last Days, 11.

36. Coleman, Last Days, 9, 11; Lexington Observer and Reporter, July 14, 1852.

37. Coleman, Last Days, 12; New York Times, July 10, 1852.

38. Lexington Leader, July 2, 1957; Remini, Henry Clay, 784–85; Gleason's, 76; Coleman, Last Days, 13.

39. Lexington Observer and Reporter, July 14, 1852; Coleman, Last Days, 14–15.

40. Coleman, Last Days, 13, 18; Lexington Observer and Reporter, July 14, 1852; New York Times, July 12, 1852.

41. Coleman, Last Days, 14, 19; Lexington Observer and Reporter, July 14, 1852. Clay's body was soon moved from the public vault to his family lot; the Clay Monument Association began plans to erect his monument in the cemetery. On July 4, 1857, the cornerstone was laid, and work began. The monument was completed on July 4, 1861. Lucretia died on April 4, 1864, surviving Clay by almost twelve years. On the day of her funeral, on April 8, 1864, Clay's body was moved to the monument, and her body was placed next to his. Coleman, Last Days, 20–25; Remini, Henry Clay, 785.

42. Charleston Mercury, July 7, 1852; New York Times, July 7, 10, 17, 22, 23, 24, 1852; Covington Journal, July 3, 10, 1852; Lexington Observer and Reporter, July 14, 1852.

43. Carrier, Monument, 516.

44. Franks, ed., Journal of William Conrad, 70; Basler, ed., Works of Abraham Lincoln, 2:122.

45. Oates, With Malice toward None, 237; Harrison, Lincoln of Kentucky, 79, 80; “Kentucky Bloodlines,” 10. Lincoln decided to issue the Preliminary Emancipation Proclamation by July 13, 1862. McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom, 504. Mark Neely has asserted that Lincoln's eulogy emphasized what James McPherson later called positive liberty. See Neely, “American Nationalism.”

46. McDonough, War in Kentucky, 61.

47. Abraham Lincoln to Orville H. Browning, in Basler, ed., Works of Abraham Lincoln, 4:532.

48. Ibid., vii, 132; Williams and Harris, “Kentucky in 1860,” 751–56. In his eulogy of Clay, Lincoln endorsed Clay's promotion of gradual emancipation and colonization. He said that colonization was “the possible ultimate redemption of the African race.” Harrison, Lincoln of Kentucky, 80.

49. Coulter, Civil War and Readjustment, 19, 24. In 1860, Kentucky cast 66,051 votes for John Bell, 53,143 for John C. Breckinridge, 25,638 for Stephen A. Douglas, and 1,364 for Abraham Lincoln. Williams and Harris, “Kentucky in 1860,” 759.

50. Coulter, Civil War and Readjustment, 25–26, 30, 39, 40.

51. Harrison, Lincoln of Kentucky, 245; Louisville Journal, July 21, 1863.

3. Art and Architecture: Where Artists Found a Home

1. Floyd, Jouett-Bush-Frazer, 6; KE, s.v. “Art and Artists,” by Lynn Renau and Harriet Fowler. See also Wilson, “Matthew Harris Jouett.” For a collection of antebellum portraits of Kentuckians by various artists and a few artist biographies, see Whitley, Kentucky Ante-Bellum Portraiture.

2. KE, s.v. “Art and Artists,” by Renau and Fowler; Jones and Weber, Kentucky Painter, 11.

3. Floyd, Jouett-Bush-Frazer, 3.

4. KE, s.v. “Jouett, John,” by Thomas D. Clark.

5. Floyd, Jouett-Bush-Frazer, 11–12, 15; KE, s.v. “Jouett, Matthew Harris”; Jonas, Matthew Harris Jouett, 22.

6. Price, Old Masters of the Bluegrass, 20–21.

7. Ears and hands proved to be the most difficult for Jouett to paint, and the hair of his subjects also appeared less convincing. Unlike his portraits of adults, those of children contained more background details. Floyd, Jouett-Bush-Frazer, 15–19; Jonas, Matthew Harris Jouett, 25–26; KE, s.v. “Jouett, Matthew Harris.”

8. Jouett made copies of Gilbert Stuart's Anthenaeum George Washington and Edgehill Thomas Jefferson. Floyd, Jouett-Bush-Frazer, 25, 69; KE, s.v. “Jouett, Matthew Harris.”

9. Newcomb, Architecture in Old Kentucky, 94.

10. Journal of the Senate of the Commonwealth of Kentucky, Begun November 7, 1825, 108. See also “Jouett's Portrait of Lafayette.”

11. Journal of the Senate of the Commonwealth of Kentucky, Begun November 7, 1825, 108. Floyd, Jouett-Bush-Frazer, 60–61.

12. Floyd, Jouett-Bush-Frazer, 80–81; Newcomb, Architecture in Old Kentucky, 95; Jones and Weber, Kentucky Painter, 11; KE, s.v. “Jouett, Matthew Harris.”

13. KE, s.v. “Bush, Joseph Henry”; Floyd, Jouett-Bush-Frazer, 83–123; Jones and Weber, Kentucky Painter, 11.

14. Floyd, Jouett-Bush-Frazer, 89.

15. Jones and Weber, Kentucky Painter, 11; KE, s.v. “Bush, Joseph Henry”; Floyd, Jouett-Bush-Frazer, 83–123.

16. Rudisill, Mirror Image, 33–76, 227–32.

17. KE, s.v. “Bush, Joseph Henry” Floyd, Jouett-Bush-Frazer, 83–123; Jones and Weber, Kentucky Painter, 11.

18. KE, s.v. “;Frazer, Oliver” Floyd, Jouett-Bush-Frazer, 125–26; Jones and Weber, Kentucky Painter, 12.

19. Floyd, Jouett-Bush-Frazer, 139; KE, s.v. “Frazer, Oliver.”

20. Floyd, Jouett-Bush-Frazer, 150; Price, Old Masters of the Bluegrass, 115–16.

21. Price, Old Masters of the Bluegrass, 117.

22. Floyd, Jouett-Bush-Frazer, 161; KE, s.v. “Frazer, Oliver.”

23. KE, s.v. “Price, Samuel Woodson”; Coleman, Three Kentucky Artists, 27–33.

24. Louisville Journal, October 20, 1853.

25. Coleman, Three Kentucky Artists, 27–33; KE, s.v. “Price, Samuel Woodson.”

26. Jones and Weber, Kentucky Painter, 11; Floyd, Jouett-Bush-Frazer, 2.

27. Coleman, Three Kentucky Artists, 54–57; KE, s.v. “Troye, Edward.” See also Coleman, “Edward Troye.”

28. Lacer, Edward Troye, 19–22.

29. Coleman, Three Kentucky Artists, 57–63; KE, s.v. “Troye, Edward.” Troye held the position of auxiliary professor of drawing and French at Jesuit Spring Hill College in Alabama for five years. The post paid well and allowed him the freedom to pursue his art. See Cort, “Edward Troye in Alabama.”

30. Coleman, Three Kentucky Artists, 67. Troye exhibited the painting of General Scott, and for years it hung on the staircase wall of the House of Representatives in Washington, DC. In 1891, the government purchased the painting from Troye's widow and put it in storage. In 1939, the portrait was permanently loaned to the Virginia Military Institute.

31. KE, s.v. “Troye, Edward”; Coleman, Three Kentucky Artists, 68–71. For more information on Woodburn Farms and R. A. Alexander, see Mangum, Kingdom for the Horse.

32. Coleman, Three Kentucky Artists, 53.

33. KE, s.v. “Audubon, John James,” by Constance Alexander and Roy Davis; Keating, Audubon, 1–5; Rhodes, John James Audubon, 8–9.

34. Keating, Audubon, 6–7, 12–14, 20–22; KE, s.v. “Audubon, John James,” by Alexander and Davis; Audubon, Ornithological Biography, 437.

35. Lucy Audubon to Euphemia Gifford, May 27, 1808, quoted in Keating, Audubon, 25.

36. Keating, Audubon, 35.

37. Ibid., 16, 27, 36.

38. Ibid., 48–49; KE, “Audubon, John James,” by Alexander and Davis.

39. Rhodes, John James Audubon, 110–11, 122, 125–28; Keating, Audubon, 58–62, 66–67, 71; Audubon, Ornithological Biography, 455–60; Warren, Constantine Samuel Rafinesque, 72–75.

40. Rhodes, John James Audubon, 138–41; Keating, Audubon, 76–77. One of Audubon's business partners in Henderson was George Keats, younger brother of John Keats, the famous English poet. The partnership failed, and George Keats moved to Louisville, where he established a successful lumber business. Smith, “George Keats.”

41. Rhodes, John James Audubon, 141–42; KE, “Audubon, John James,” by Alexander and Davis; Keating, Audubon, 58–62, 80–84; Whitley, Kentucky Ante-Bellum Portraiture, 621.

42. KE, s.v. “Audubon, John James,” by Alexander and Davis; Keating, Audubon, 84–87.

43. Coleman, Three Kentucky Artists, 4–78; KE, s.v. “Hart, Joel Tanner.”

44. Coleman, Three Kentucky Artists, 8–16; Whitley, Kentucky Ante-Bellum Portraiture, 158–59; KE, s.v. “Hart, Joel Tanner.” See also Dearinger, “Kentucky's NeoClassic Sculptor,” and “Diary of Joel Tanner Hart”; Carver, “Joel Tanner Hart”; and Berry, Joel Tanner Hart.

45. Newcomb, Architecture in Old Kentucky, 88–90.

46. Lancaster, Antebellum Architecture of Kentucky, 120, 157.

47. Oberwarth, History of the Profession, 5, 7–8.

48. Ibid., 4. See also KE, s.v. “Kennedy, Matthew, Jr.,” by William B. Scott Jr.; and Pitts, “Making of a Kentucky Architect.”

49. KE, s.v. “Shryock, Gideon,” by William B. Scott Jr.; Lancaster, Vestiges of the Venerable City, 55–56; Newcomb, Architecture in Old Kentucky, 110–11; Ober-warth, History of the Profession, 8–9.

50. Oberwarth, History of the Profession, 9; Newcomb, Architecture in Old Kentucky, 114; KE, s.v. “Shryock, Gideon,” by Scott; Lancaster, Antebellum Architecture of Kentucky, 45. See also KE, s.v. “Architecture,” by William B. Scott Jr.

51. Oberwarth, History of the Profession, 5, 10–11; Newcomb, Architecture in Old Kentucky, 29; KE, s.v. “Architecture,” by Scott; Lancaster, Antebellum Architecture of Kentucky, 45.

52. KE, s.v. “Lewinski, Thomas,” by William B. Scott Jr.; Oberwarth, History of the Profession, 11.

53. Lancaster, Antebellum Architecture of Kentucky, 288; KE, s.v. “Lewinski, Thomas,” by Scott; KE, s.v. “Ward Hall,” by William B. Scott Jr.; KE, s.v. “Ashland,” by Bettie L. Kerr.

54. KE, s.v. “Architecture,” by Scott; LE, s.v. “Architectural Firms,” by Stephen A. Wiser.

4. Politics, Stump Speaking, and How the West Was Won

1. Davis, “‘Taking the stump,’” 367–74. In the early days, campaign speakers sometimes stood on a sycamore stump to speak, and everywhere in Kentucky a political speech was a stump speech. Ibid., 367.

2. Klotter, Breckinridges of Kentucky, 99, 101, 105–6; Frank H. Heck, “Robert Perkins Letcher,” in Governors, 55–56; Davis, “‘Taking the stump,’” 383.

3. Clay, Life, 1:76–77; Richardson, Cassius Marcellus Clay, 76–77; KE, s.v. “Clay, Cassius Marcellus,” by H. Edward Richardson.

4. Mathias and Shannon, “Gubernatorial Politics,” 253, 256, 258, 264; Shannon and McQuown, Presidential Politics, 16; Mathias, “Turbulent Years,” 313–14; Harrison and Klotter, New History, 113.

5. Klotter and Klotter, Concise History, 101–2. See also Hamilton, Three Kentucky Presidents.

6. Shannon and McQuown, Presidential Politics, 1, 7, 16; Remini, Henry Clay, 198–99; KE, s.v. “Morehead, Charles Slaughter,” by Lowell H. Harrison.

7. Mathias and Shannon, “Gubernatorial Politics,” 270, 272; H. E. Everman, “James Garrard,” in Harrison, ed., Governors, 7–11; James F. Hopkins, “Christopher Greenup,” in ibid., 12–15; Harrison and Klotter, New History, 83; Knepper, “Kentucky Penitentiary,” 44, 55, 64; Remini, Henry Clay, 35–36, 38; KE, s.v. “Bank of Kentucky,” by Dale Royalty.

8. Harry M. Ward, “Charles Scott,” in Harrison, ed., Governors, 16–19; James F. Hopkins, “George Madison,” in ibid., 20–21; James F. Hopkins, “Gabriel Slaughter,” in ibid., 22–25.

9. Harrison and Klotter, New History, 110–11; Fackler, “John Rowan”; Stickles, Critical Court Struggle, 82–83, 102–13. Governor John Adair (1820–24), popular because of his debate with Andrew Jackson over the contribution of Kentucky to the Battle of New Orleans, approved the charter of the Bank of the Commonwealth that inflated the money supply during relief and supported the New Court Party effort to remove the Old Court judges. He had funds appropriated to construct more cells in the penitentiary and signed an emergency law to purchase food and clothing for prisoners. Knepper, “Kentucky Penitentiary,” 54; Charles J. Bussey, “John Adair,” in Governors, 26–28. Governor Joseph Desha (1824–1828) lobbied furiously for the act that abolished the Old Court and attacked Transylvania University president Horace Holley. He supported change in 1825 at the penitentiary to the convict-lease system, which made life somewhat more bearable for prisoners. Bussey, “Joseph Desha,” in Governors, 29–32; Knepper, “Kentucky Penitentiary,” 55–56. Arndt M. Stickles, a historian of the conflict, discussed the greed behind the speculation and declared: “Every one wanted to get rich.” Stickles, Critical Court Struggle, 10.

10. Meyer, Colonel Richard M. Johnson, 226–31; Fackler, “John Rowan,” 19; KE, s.v. “Robertson, George,” by Robert M. Ireland; Stickles, Critical Court Struggle, 98.

11. Aron, How the West Was Lost, 1–149, 192–200. When the Daniel Boone biographer Michael Lofaro was asked whether Boone betrayed the homesteader ethic, he replied: “I see Boone as someone who paved the way for homesteading rather than as someone who embraced it as an ethic. He never enjoyed his scratch farming and preferred commercial hunting, land speculating, and surveying as a means for providing for his family. He, and other explorer-adventurers like him, opened Kentucky for men like Henry Clay who would rise to heights of prosperity that these frontiersmen would be hard pressed to imagine.” Harris and Williams, eds., “Interview with Michael Lofaro,” 504.

12. Fackler, “John Rowan”; KE, s.v. “Rowan, John.”

13. Fackler, “John Rowan,” 23; Ramage, “The Green River Pioneers,” 187, 189–90; Tocqueville, Democracy in America, 2:254. Daniel Walker Howe wrote that Clay's goal in the American System was to create, “not division between haves and have-nots, but a framework within which all could work harmoniously to improve themselves both individually and collectively.” Howe, What Hath God Wrought, 270.

14. Aron, How the West Was Lost, 124–49; Remini, Henry Clay, 36, 40, 198–99.

15. Frank F. Mathias, “Thomas Metcalf,” in Governors, 33–37; Harrison and Klotter, New History, 103, 113, 128; LE, s.v. “Louisville and Portland Canal,” by George H. Yater; Wade, Urban Frontier, 39.

16. Harrison and Klotter, New History, 132; Wright, Lexington, 50–51; Kerr and Wright, Lexington, 15.

17. Mathias, “John Breathitt,” in Harrison, ed., Governors, 38–42; Frank F. Mathias, “James Turner Morehead,” in ibid., 43–46; Victor B. Howard, “James Clark,” in ibid., 47–50; Helen Bartter Crocker, “Charles Anderson Wickliffe,” in ibid., 51–54; Heck, “Robert Perkins Letcher,” in ibid., 55–59.

18. KE, s.v. “Kentucky Central Railway,” by Paul A. Tenkotte; Klein, Louisville and Nashville Railroad, 16–17; Mathias and Shannon, “Gubernatorial Politics,” 268; Harrison and Klotter, New History, 122, 132; Victor B. Howard, “John Jordan Crittenden,” in Harrison, ed., Governors, 64–67; Tom Owen, “John Larue Helm,” in ibid., 68–70; James A. Ramage, “Lazarus Whitehead Powell,” in ibid., 71–74; and James A. Ramage, “Charles Slaughter Morehead,” in ibid., 75–77.

19. Harrison and Klotter, New History, 149; Hopkins, “Gabriel Slaughter,” in Governors, 22–25; Mathias, “Kentucky's Struggle,” 214–21.

20. Mathias, “Kentucky's Struggle,” 222–24; Howard, “James Clark,” in Governors, 47–50; Klotter, Breckinridges of Kentucky, 59.

21. Mathias, “Kentucky's Struggle,” 223–28; Louisville Journal, February 21, 1851.

22. Klotter, Breckinridges of Kentucky, 59; Harrison and Klotter, New History, 150; Mathias, “Kentucky's Struggle,” 228–31; Bartlett, Familiar Quotations, 419.

23. KE, s.v. “Crittenden, John Jordan,” by Lowell H. Harrison and Frank F. Mathias; Owen, “John Larue Helm,” in Governors, 68–70; Mathias, “Kentucky's Struggle,” 232–33; Klotter, Breckinridges of Kentucky, 59; Harrison and Klotter, New History, 150.

24. Ramage, “Lazarus Whitehead Powell,” in Harrison, ed., Governors, 73; Ramage, “Charles Slaughter Morehead,” in ibid., 76–77; Klotter, Breckinridges of Kentucky, 60.

25. Lucas, From Slavery to Segregation, 140–45; LE, s.v. “Gibson, William H.,” by Cornelius Bogert.

26. Tenkotte, “Note on Regional Allegiances,” 213; Ross, General's Wife, 110.

27. Harrison and Klotter, New History, 122–23; Turner, “Know-Nothing Movement,” 279.

28. Harrison and Klotter, New History, 151; Ramage, John Wesley Hunt, 80–86, 90–94, and Rebel Raider, 35, 38.

5. Half Horse and Half Alligator: War of 1812

1. Steven Watkins, Interview by James A. Ramage, May 26, 2005; Clark, History of Kentucky, 50; Rowe, Bulwark of the Republic, 2; KE, s.v. “Kentucky Militia,” by Richard G. Stone. For discussion of the complex response of the Ohio Indians to the settlement of Kentucky, see Aron, “Significance of the Kentucky Frontier.” For a description of Indian warfare in Kentucky during the American Revolution, see Watlington, “Discontent in Frontier Kentucky.”

2. Langguth, Union-1812, 269; Clift, Remember the Raisin! 24, 28; Federal Writers' Project (hereafter FWP), Military History of Kentucky, 95.

3. Clark, History of Kentucky, 130; M'Carty, War of 1812, 103.

4. Rowe, Bulwark of the Republic, x, 1; Laver, “Social Role of the Militia,” 81416, and Citizens More Than Soldiers, 7–8, 36–39, 45–47, 144–46; Cincinnati Times, July 11, 1863.

5. Paris Western Citizen, June 1846, quoted in Harrison and Klotter, New History, 115; Hammack, Second American Revolution, x, 21, 110; Coulter, Civil War and Readjustment, 3; Library of Congress, America Singing.

6. Hammack, Second American Revolution, 4, 10–11; Clift, Remember the Raisin! 4–8; “War! War! War!” undated broadside, Special Collections, Kentucky Historical Society; Hopkins et al., eds., Papers of Henry Clay, 1:450. Actually, rather than encouraging the Indians to raid, the British attempted to avoid war between settlers and Indians. Clift, Remember the Raisin! 7. Recalling the causes of the War of 1812 in his speech on November 13, 1847, criticizing the Mexican War, Henry Clay said that the War of 1812 was a war to defend national rights and honor, free trade, and the rights of sailors. Eubank, Mexican War, 128, 131.

7. Hammack, Second American Revolution, 24; Stone, Brittle Sword, 60; Rowe, Bulwark of the Republic, 48, 53; Hickey, War of 1812, 81; Latimer, 1812, 186.

8. Clift, Remember the Raisin! 11; KE, s.v. “War of 1812,” by James W. Hammack Jr.; Hammack, Second American Revolution, 14.

9. Roosevelt, Winning of the West, 3:381; KE, s.v. “Shelby, Isaac,” by Lowell H. Harrison; Gilmore, Rear-Guard of the Revolution, 65–66. Roosevelt concluded that militias would fight as well as regulars but that they could never be trusted. Sometimes they would not fight at all, and, if the campaign became long and fatiguing, they would become “sulky and mutinous” and desert. Roosevelt, Winning of the West, 3:375.

10. Clift, Remember the Raisin! 12; Paul W. Beasley, “Isaac Shelby,” in Harrison, ed., Governors, 5; Hammack, Second American Revolution, 29, 38; Rowe, Bulwark of the Republic, 6, 45.

11. Clift, Remember the Raisin! 17, 52, 107–8; Hammack, Second American Revolution, 30–31; Remini, Henry Clay, 95; Hopkins et al., eds., Papers of Henry Clay, 1:715; Jelsma, “Imperishable Honor,” 200–201. For a study of the role of Charles S. Todd as an aide to General William Henry Harrison during the Battle of the Thames, see Jelsma's excellent “Imperishable Honor.” After the war, Todd became a prominent state leader who had the honor of earning the title Kentucky colonel.

12. Kentucky Gazette, undated article quoted in Hammack, Second American Revolution, 35. Harrison had about sixty-five hundred men by mid-December. Coles, War of 1812, 114. General Hull's official report of his surrender commended his quartermaster general, General James Taylor from Newport, Kentucky, “for his great exertions in procuring every thing in his department which it was possible to furnish for the convenience of the army.” Brannan, ed., Official Letters, 49. Taylor became a prisoner of war but was soon paroled. ENK, s.v. “Taylor, James, Jr., General,” by Jack Wessling.

13. Hammack, Second American Revolution, 43–48; Coles, War of 1812, 113; Clift, Remember the Raisin! 44. The term of enlistment of the Kentucky militia detachment was extended from two months to six. Clift, Remember the Raisin! 44.

14. KE, s.v. “Hopkins, Samuel,” by James W. Hammack Jr.; Hammack, Second American Revolution, 44–46; Rowe, Bulwark of the Republic, 46–47.

15. Hammack, Second American Revolution, 47; Clift, Remember the Raisin! 44–48; Coles, War of 1812, 115.

16. Clift, Remember the Raisin! 52, 57, 81; Coles, War of 1812, 115.

17. Clift, Remember the Raisin! 56–57; Hammack, Second American Revolution, 48–49.

18. Clift, Remember the Raisin! 61, 63, 166; Hammack, Second American Revolution, 49.

19. Coles, War of 1812, 116, 117; Hammack, Second American Revolution, 51–52.

20. Hammack, Second American Revolution, 53.

21. Ibid.; Meyer, Colonel Richard M. Johnson, 121; Clift, Remember the Raisin! 102; Coles, War of 1812, 117. The British and Canadians had 24 killed and 161 wounded. Hammack, Second American Revolution, 53.

22. Clift, Remember the Raisin! 89–90, 95.

23. Ibid., 90, 95; Hammack, Second American Revolution, 54.

24. Rowe, Bulwark of the Republic, 45–46; Hickey, War of 1812, 164; Hammack, Second American Revolution, 58–59.

25. Hammack, Second American Revolution, 59; Coles, War of 1812, 118; KE, s.v. “Clay, Green,” by Richard Sears.

26. Hammack, Second American Revolution, 64–66; Nelson, “Dudley's Defeat.” Nelson's valuable article demonstrates that Dudley's key mistake was in failing to inform his officers and men that the mission of the raid was not to capture and hold the batteries but to spike them and immediately withdraw. Another mistake was that the spikes Harrison sent ended up in the possession of an officer with Clay's detachment instead of Dudley's, and, therefore, the best spikes Dudley's men had were the ramrods of their muskets; these were ineffective. Dudley's raid temporarily captured the cannon but failed to disable them. Nelson, “Dudley's Defeat,” 31–32.

Harrison blamed the excessive zeal of the Kentucky militia for Dudley's defeat. After the siege of Fort Meigs ended, on May 9, he issued a general order stating: “It rarely occurs that a General has to complain of the excessive ardor of his men, yet such appears always to be the case whenever the Kentucky Militia are engaged. It is indeed the source of all their misfortunes. They appear to think that valor can alone accomplish everything.” Nelson, “Dudley's Defeat,” 5. Governor Shelby disagreed and blamed Harrison for his mistakes in asking too much of green militia. Ibid., 40.

27. Edmunds, Tecumseh, 190; Latimer, 1812, 137–38; Hammack, Second American Revolution, 66.

28. Hammack, Second American Revolution, 70, 72–73; “To the Militia of Kentucky,” broadside by Isaac Shelby, July 31, 1813 (hereafter Shelby broadside), Special Collections, University of Kentucky Library. Both the Kentucky legislature and Harrison had requested that Shelby personally command the Kentucky militia. Hammack, Second American Revolution, 72–73.

29. Shelby broadside; Hammack, Second American Revolution, 73–74. On March 2, 1811, Madison had forbidden trade with Great Britain. Soon after the war began, Congress enacted the enemy trade act that made most trade with Britain illegal. However, the act did not prevent British government licenses to U.S. merchants trading with Canada and the British West Indies. In early 1813, when Madison learned that British officials in the West Indies had been ordered to give preference to New England shippers, he requested an embargo on all foreign trade. Hickey, War of 1812, 117–18. Kentuckians gathered in public rallies in support of the embargo because they believed that it would stimulate domestic manufacturing and hinder the British war effort. Hammack, Second American Revolution, 73–74.

30. Hammack, Second American Revolution, 76; Coles, War of 1812, 120.

31. Coles, War of 1812, 121; Hammack, Second American Revolution, 77; Rowe, Bulwark of the Republic, 52.

32. Hammack, Second American Revolution, 77, 79–80; Rowe, Bulwark of the Republic, 53.

33. Rowe, Bulwark of the Republic, 54, 55; Coles, War of1812, 131; Meyer, Colonel Richard M. Johnson, 121–22.

34. Coles, War of 1812, 130; FWP, Military History of Kentucky, 86–88; Rowe, Bulwark of the Republic, 51; Skinner, Kentucky; a Poem.

35. Rowe, Bulwark of the Republic, 51; FWP, Military History of Kentucky, 89; Meyer, Colonel Richard M. Johnson, 110.

36. Hatfield, “Richard Mentor Johnson”; KE, s.v. “Johnson, Richard Mentor”; Ohio State Journal, February 8, 1840.

37. Rowe, Bulwark of the Republic, 55; Hammack, Second American Revolution, 81; Edmunds, Tecumseh, 212; New York Herald, July 9, 1840; “Democratic Republican Nomination,” 1836 presidential campaign broadside, Special Collections, Filson Historical Society Library.

38. Clift, Remember the Raisin! 166.

39. New York Herald, July 9, 1840.

40. Clift, Remember the Raisin! 91.

41. New York Herald, July 9, 1840; Latimer, 1812, 188; Brewer's Dictionary, 375; Hammack, Second American Revolution, 9, 83; KE, s.v. “Whitley, William,” by Betty B. Ellison. Whitley was born in Virginia and settled in Lincoln County. He fathered eleven children and was a veteran of many Indian battles and a former member of the Kentucky House of Representatives. KE, s.v. “Whitley, William,” by Ellison. See also Talbert, Colonel William Whitley.

42. Bolt, “Richard M. Johnson,” 194; Coles, War of 1812, 134; Latimer, 1812, 189.

43. Hammack, Second American Revolution, 84; Jelsma, “Imperishable Honor,” 218.

44. New York Herald, July 9, 1840; Skinner, Kentucky; a Poem; KE, s.v. “Whitley, William,” by Ellison; Ohio State Journal, February 12, 1840; Bolt, “Richard M. Johnson,” 195–96; Hatfield, “Richard Mentor Johnson”; Meyer, Colonel Richard M. Johnson, 401–2; Edmunds, Tecumseh, 216.

45. Bolt, “Richard M. Johnson,” 197; Louisville Journal, July 17, 1840; KE, s.v. “Johnson, Richard Mentor.” Johnson won the Democratic nomination for vice president in 1835 but failed by one vote to win a majority of electoral votes. Virginia cast its votes for William Smith because slave owners objected that Johnson, who never married, had two daughters with his slave mistress Julia Chinn. Johnson was open about it and educated the daughters in white schools. He was elected vice president in the Senate, the only individual to be elected to that office under the Twelfth Amendment. In 1840, the Democratic convention nominated Martin Van Buren for president but left the selection of vice president up to state party organizations. KE, s.v. “Johnson, Richard Mentor.”

46. Louisville Journal, July 17, 1840; KE, s.v. “Johnson, Richard Mentor.”

47. Harrison and Klotter, New History, 93; Remini, Battle of New Orleans, 116; Hammack, Second American Revolution, 100–101. Jackson expected the British to land near Baton Rouge, but on December 13, 1814, the fleet entered Lake Borgne, landing at Bayou Bienvenu, and the army marched from there toward New Orleans. Jackson organized an army and went on the offensive with a night attack about seven miles south of the city on December 23, 1814. This halted the British advance and gave him time to withdraw and construct a breastwork five miles south of New Orleans. The two armies fought a battle of artillery on January 1, 1815, and Jackson expected an assault on his defensive position any day.

48. Remini, Battle of New Orleans, 122; Hammack, Second American Revolution, 99–101.

49. Vitz, “General James Taylor”; Hammack, Second American Revolution, 100; ENK, s.v. “Taylor, James, Jr., General,” by Wessling; KE, s.v. “Taylor, James.” The city of Taylor Mill was named for Taylor's sawmill and gristmill, and the city of Bellevue was named for his Newport mansion. ENK, s.v. “Taylor Mill,” by Jack Wessling; ENK, s.v. “Bellevue,” by Margaret Warminski.

50. Remini, Battle of New Orleans, 123, 132; Hammack, Second American Revolution, 101–2.

51. Remini, Battle of New Orleans, 129, 131, 143; Coles, War of 1812, 228, 231; Hickey, War of 1812, 211–12. Including reserves, Pakenham had fifty-three hundred men on the line. Others were crossing the Mississippi River to attack on the west bank. Engineers, sailors, and others were in support in the rear. Hickey, War of 1812, 211; Remini, Battle of New Orleans, 131.

52. Remini, Battle of New Orleans, 144–47, 149, 151–52, 155.

53. Ibid., 155, 158–59.

54. Gillig, “Pursuit of Truth and Honor,” 182. About eight hundred Kentucky militiamen remained unarmed through the battle and were held in reserve under General Thomas.

55. Remini, Battle of New Orleans, 126–27, 134, 159–62; Coles, War of 1812, 226.

56. Brannan, ed., Official Letters, 456–57; James, Life of Andrew Jackson, 248. James wrote: “He placed the incompetent Morgan in command there, permitted him to locate his line badly, and then refused sufficient troops to defend it.” Ibid. Jackson's bias is clearly evident in his report when he refers to the exhausted detachment of two hundred Kentuckians as “a strong detachment” that should have successfully defended his batteries. Ibid.

57. Remini, Battle of New Orleans, 193; Gillig, “Pursuit of Truth and Honor,” 199, 200.

58. Skeen, Citizen Soldiers, 171; Carrier, Monument, 235; Remini, Battle of New Orleans, 193; FWP, Military History of Kentucky, 98–99; Rowe, Bulwark of the Republic, 67.

59. Stone, Brittle Sword, 60; McCaffrey, Army of Manifest Destiny, 136. Determining the number of Kentuckians who served in the War of 1812 is difficult because of the lack of accurate and complete contemporary rosters. Anderson C. Quisenberry estimated that 25,705 served and 1,200 were killed in battle. Quisenberry, War of 1812, 7, 11. James Russell Harris analyzed the sources and estimated from the best source available, the index of the Adjutant General's Report, that 18,038 served, but he could not determine an estimate of the men killed or wounded. He concluded that Quisenberry's estimate probably includes deaths from disease. Harris, “Kentuckians in the War of 1812.”

6. Steamboats, Entertainment, Journalism, and Culture

1. KE, s.v. “Kentucky Gazette,” by Thomas D. Clark; Harrison and Klotter, New History, 159; Flannery, “Cultural Context,” 29. On the history of newspapers in Kentucky, see Evans, Newspaper Press; Perrin, Pioneer Press; and Towles, Press of Kentucky.

2. Congleton, “Louisville Journal,” 100; Evans, Newspaper Press, 13.

3. Congleton, “George D. Prentice,” 105, and “Louisville Journal,” 99; Louisville Journal, January 22, November 30, 1840. The Locofocos acquired their name on October 29, 1835, in New York City in a local Democratic Party meeting to nominate candidates for the approaching city election. The majority of members voted to nominate a slate of candidates, but a minority representing workers refused to accept the slate and attempted to extend the meeting. The regulars turned out the gas lights, and the workers lit candles with matches that were called locofocos. The meeting continued, and the workers nominated a rival slate of candidates, who lost the election to the regular Democrats, but the workers gladly accepted the new name for their faction. Howe, What Hath God Wrought, 546. Whigs such as Prentice delighted in calling all Democrats Locofocos.

4. Perrin, Pioneer Press, 73–74; San Francisco Bulletin, April 13, 1871.

5. Congleton, “Louisville Journal,” 102–3.

6. Coleman, Stage-Coach Days, 51–52, 128–32; Harrison and Klotter, New History, 127–28; Klein, Louisville and Nashville Railroad, 17, 23.

7. Harrison and Klotter, New History, 129; KE, s.v. “Steamboats,” by John B. Briley and Leonard P. Curry; Hunter, Steamboats, 25–27.

8. KE, s.v. “Steamboats,” by Briley and Curry; Hunter, Steamboats, 35–37; KE, s.v. “Falls of the Ohio,” by George H. Yater; LE, s.v. “Steamboats,” by Alan L. Bates.

9. Hunter, Steamboats, 271, 288; Ramage, John Wesley Hunt, 75.

10. Howe, What Hath God Wrought, 214; Hunter, Steamboats, 280–81.

11. Hunter, Steamboats, 285–87.

12. Ibid., 522–23, 532–33, 537–39, 542. In contrast to the decline of accidents that began in 1853, three explosions on the lower Mississippi in 1858 and 1859 cost about 175 lives. Ibid., 542.

13. Ambler, Transportation in the Ohio Valley, 262–63; Hunter, Steamboats, 542–43; EACW, s.v. “Sultana,” by Nathan R. Meyer.

14. Hunter, Steamboats, 22, 25, 142; Bogle, “Eclipse vs. Shotwell,” 127–28; LE, s.v. “Eclipse vs. A. L. Shotwell”; Arkansas Whig, June 2, 1853. The A. L. Shotwell was named for its principal owner, a prominent Louisville businessman.

15. LE, s.v., “Eclipse vs. A. L. Shotwell”; Bogle, “Eclipse vs. Shotwell,” 127–28; Hunter, Steamboats, 143; New Orleans Picayune, May 28, June 13, 1853. The Alice Dean, which Morgan's men burned at Brandenburg on July 8, 1863, when they crossed the Ohio River into Indiana, cost $42,000. Ramage, Rebel Raider, 168.

16. Hunter, Steamboats, 608; LE, s.v. “Eclipse vs. A. L. Shotwell”; Louisville Journal, January 8, April 25, 1853; New Orleans Picayune, March 20, 1853.

17. New Orleans Picayune, May 19, June 13, 1853.

18. Bogle, “Eclipse vs. Shotwell,” 132; New Orleans Picayune, June 13, 1853.

19. Louisville Journal, June 1, 1853; Arkansas Whig, June 2, 1853.

20. Bogle, “Eclipse vs. Shotwell,” 130–31, 135; New Orleans Picayune, June 13, 1853; Arkansas Whig, June 2, 1853; Louisville Journal, June 30, 1853; Memphis Appeal, May 21, 28, 1853.

21. Memphis Appeal, May 26, 1853; Arkansas Whig, June 9, 1853; New Orleans Picayune, June 13, 1853; Bogle, “Eclipse vs. Shotwell,” 135. Victor M. Bogle calculated that both boats ran at the rate of 13.6 miles per hour, port to port, and that in actual running time they ran at 14.3 miles per hour, accomplishing “a feat that was never repeated on the western waters.” Ibid., 136.

22. Bogle, “Eclipse vs. Shotwell,” 129–30, 137; Louisville Journal, May 23, June 7, 30, 1853. The Natchez captain claimed to have won, and, as with the race in 1853, the 1870 winner “was never satisfactorily determined.” Ambler, Transportation in the Ohio Valley, 295.

23. Turner quoted in Aron, “Significance of the Kentucky Frontier,” 298; Flannery, “Frontier Thesis.”

24. Flannery, “Frontier Thesis,” 253–57; “Moore,” “History Revisited,” and “Cultural Context,” 1–62.

25. Perkins, “Consumer Frontier,” 486–510. Amicability in society in frontier Kentucky relates to the issue of land ownership. Frederick Jackson Turner and his students pointed out that there was conflict in Kentucky between landless settlers and wealthy speculators, but Turner nevertheless described society as egalitarian. Stephen Aron agreed on the conflict of renters and squatters with speculators but added that the landless also resented fellow pioneers who speculated on landholdings beyond the four hundred acres needed for a homestead. Aron, “Pioneers and Profiteers.” Aron and other scholars have demonstrated that stratification developed quickly on the Kentucky frontier. Patricia Watlington described the tensions over land distribution and resentment against leaders in Virginia for not protecting Kentuckians from Indian attacks during the Revolutionary War. Watlington, “Discontent in Frontier Kentucky,” 77–93. In Partisan Spirit, Watlington stated that, before statehood, instead of being united politically, Kentucky residents were divided into three parties (historians disagree on whether they were parties or factions). First, the partisan party included nearly half the residents, those without land, and demanded land redistribution. The other two parties were from the small minority of prosperous gentlemen; they were divided between the country party of large landowners and the court party of lawyers and judges. Both the country and the court parties successfully opposed the redistribution of land. Richard Wade confirmed that stratification developed quickly in western cities, but he described a great deal of movement up and down in society and an absence of “dangerous tensions.” Wade, Urban Frontier, 229. He wrote that, even though class lines were well developed by 1830, social relations between classes were marked by a neighborliness that was evident in cultural life, “for travelers and local citizens alike agreed that in this regard Western cities provided a surprisingly rich and varied offering.” Ibid., 230.

26. Wade, Urban Frontier, 107–29, 341–42; Flannery, “Cultural Context,” 58, and “History Revisited,” 30.

27. Casto, Actors, Audiences, and Historic Theaters, xii, xiv, 25–31, 161; Hill, Theatre in Early Kentucky, 9; Wade, Urban Frontier, 143; Harrison and Klotter, New History, 162; Weisert, “End and Several Beginnings,” 6.

28. Casto, Actors, Audiences, and Historic Theaters, 7, 8, 31; Hill, Theatre in Early Kentucky, 49–50.

29. Hill, Theatre in Early Kentucky, xii; Casto, Actors, Audiences, and Historic Theaters, 3–20; Louisville Journal, October 20, 1854.

30. Casto, Actors, Audiences, and Historic Theaters, 33; Weisert, “End and Several Beginnings,” 9, 20.

31. Weisert, “End and Several Beginnings,” 13. For an account of how Thomas D. Rice wrote the song, see LE, s.v. “Jim Crow,” by Jane D. Julian.

32. Weisert, “End and Several Beginnings,” 8; Casto, Actors, Audiences, and Historic Theaters, 18–19.

33. Carden, Music in Lexington, 8–9, 11.

34. Ibid., 12–21, 34–49; Ramage, preface to Music in Lexington; Flannery, “Cultural Context,” 52.

35. Ramage, John Wesley Hunt, 7; Flannery, “Cultural Context,” 28, 40; Wade, Urban Frontier, 139, 140, 142; KE, s.v. “Kentucky Historical Society,” by Gretchen M. Haney. The Kentucky Historical Society closed in 1854, and, while it was being reorganized, its books were held by the Kentucky Mechanics' Institute. Flannery, “Cultural Context,” 42.

36. Flannery, “Cultural Context,” 37; Carden, Music in Lexington, 77; Ramage, John Wesley Hunt, 78–79, and Rebel Raider, 38; William M. Pratt diary, March 21, 1858, University of Kentucky Library.

37. FWP, Military History of Kentucky, 65, 107; Stone, Brittle Sword, 37; Rowe, Bulwark of the Republic, x; Laver, Citizens More Than Soldiers, 67–79.

38. Ford, “Frontier Democracy,” 158.

7. Religion and Women: Toward a More Compassionate Home Life

1. Boles, Religion in Antebellum Kentucky, 21–51; Aron, How the West Was Lost, 171, 183–84.

2. KE, s.v. “Religion,” by Clyde F. Crews; Randolph Hollingsworth, Lexington, 21.

3. Aron, How the West Was Lost, 172–73; KE, s.v. “Religion,” by Crews; KE, s.v. “Great Revival,” by John B. Boles.

4. Boles, Religion in Antebellum Kentucky, 21. Logan County at this time included part of present-day Todd County and all of Butler and Simpson counties.

5. Smith, “James McGready, 1797 Revivalist”; Boles, Religion in Antebellum Kentucky, 21–22; Aron, How the West Was Lost, 173. See also Whitaker, “Gasper River Meeting House”; KE, s.v. “McGready, James”; KE, s.v. “Great Revival,” by Boles; and Friend, Maysville Road, 59–178.

6. Smith, “James McGready, 1797 Revivalist,” 465–67; Boles, Religion in Antebellum Kentucky, 23–24; Aron, How the West Was Lost, 174.

7. Boles, Religion in Antebellum Kentucky, 27–30; Aron, How the West Was Lost, 175–78. For a look at the growth and influence of Protestant evangelicalism in the South, see Heyrman, Southern Cross.

8. Aron, How the West Was Lost, 180–81; Smith, “James McGready, 1797 Revivalist,” 468.

9. Boles, Religion in Antebellum Kentucky, 32–37.

10. Ibid., 48–51; KE, s.v. “Cumberland Presbyterian Church,” by Michael E. Jones.

11. KE, “Stone, Barton Warren,” by Frederick I. Murphy; Boles, Religion in Antebellum Kentucky, 38–46.

12. Boles, Religion in Antebellum Kentucky, 29; Aron, How the West Was Lost, 181–82.

13. Aron, How the West Was Lost, 183; Smith, “James McGready, 1797 Revivalist,” 468.

14. Clark and Ham, Pleasant Hill, 6–13; KE, s.v. “Shaker Communities,” by Susan Matarese and James C. Thomas; Wolford, “South Union, Kentucky, Shakers and Tradition,” 208–9. See also Neal, Kentucky Shakers; Robb, Shakerism in Kentucky; and Stein, Shaker Experience in America.

15. Aron, How the West Was Lost, 181; Boles, Religion in Antebellum Kentucky, 38–39. According to John B. Boles, when the New Light dissenters joined the Shakers, it proved a good thing for the new Disciples of Christ church because it removed the more radical elements. Boles, Religion in Antebellum Kentucky, 39.

16. Clark and Ham, Pleasant Hill, 6–13; KE, s.v. “Shaker Communities,” by Matarese and Thomas. Pleasant Hill was the third largest Shaker community in the United States. KE, s.v. “Shaker Communities,” by Matarese and Thomas.

17. Clark and Ham, Pleasant Hill, 25–29.

18. Aron, How the West Was Lost, 181; Neal, By Their Fruits, 33–46, 101–17; KE, s.v. “Shaker Communities,” by Matarese and Thomas.

19. Neal, By Their Fruits, 105, 109.

20. Clark and Ham, Pleasant Hill, 37, 72–74; Neal, Kentucky Shakers, 84.

21. Neal, By Their Fruits, 52; Clark and Ham, Pleasant Hill, 14–15. In 1815, the state legislature ordered restitution paid to those Shakers who had paid fines for not serving in the military. Lawmakers believed that the Shakers had the right to refuse military service on the grounds of their religious beliefs.

22. Clark and Ham, Pleasant Hill, 10–11; Neal, Kentucky Shakers, 58; Kanon, “‘Seduced, bewildered, and lost,’” 8–16.

23. Clark and Ham, Pleasant Hill, 41–45; Neal, Kentucky Shakers, 59–61; Kanon, “‘Seduced, bewildered, and lost,’” 17–23.

24. Aron, How the West Was Lost, 190–91; Clark and Ham, Pleasant Hill, 59; Neal, By Their Fruits, 60.

25. Neal, By Their Fruits, 174–76. Incidents and threats against the Shakers at South Union because of their antislavery stand continued sporadically until the Civil War. Ibid.

26. Clark and Ham, Pleasant Hill, 66–69; Neal, By Their Fruits, 178–79.

27. South Union sold all land, buildings, and equipment in 1922. Pleasant Hill gave its remaining land and buildings to Harrodsburg resident George Bohon in 1910, and Bohon kept his promise to care for all remaining members until their deaths. The last Kentucky Shaker, Sister Mary Settles, died in 1923. KE, s.v. “Shaker Communities,” by Matarese and Thomas.

28. Boles, Religion in Antebellum Kentucky, 52–58; KE, s.v. “Badin, Stephen Theodore,” by Clyde F. Crews. The three priests who came to Kentucky to assist Badin were Michael Fournier, Anthony Salmon, and John Thayer. Salmon died from injuries suffered after falling off his horse; Fournier died suddenly; Thayer left Kentucky. Boles, Religion in Antebellum Kentucky, 58.

29. Boles, Religion in Antebellum Kentucky, 60–61, 64; KE, s.v. “Nerinckx, Charles,” by Clyde F. Crews.

30. KE, s.v. “Trappists,” by Felix Donahue; Boles, Religion in Antebellum Kentucky, 61–62.

31. Louisville Journal, May 10, 1852.

32. Boles, Religion in Antebellum Kentucky, 64–68, 72; KE, s.v. “Flaget, Benedict Joseph,” by Clyde F. Crews.

33. Boles, Religion in Antebellum Kentucky, 76–78.

34. Ibid., 78; KE, s.v. “Bloody Monday,” by George H. Yater. See also Crews, American Holy Land, 140–47; Deusner, “Know Nothing Riots”; Mittlebeeler, “Bloody Monday Election Riot”; McGann, Nativism in Kentucky.

35. Louisville Journal, August 8, 1855.

36. KE, s.v. “Religion,” by Crews. See also Boles, Religion in Antebellum Kentucky, 101–22.

37. Eslinger, “Beginnings of Afro-American Christianity,” 208–11.

38. Boles, Religion in Antebellum Kentucky, 81–85; Aron, How the West Was Lost, 183; Harrison, Antislavery Movement, 15.

39. Lucas, From Slavery to Segregation, 118–19.

40. Boles, Religion in Antebellum Kentucky, 81–83; Lucas, From Slavery to Segregation, 132–33. Lucas includes a discussion of the conflicting views of the impact of an African heritage on the religious life of American slaves. Ibid., 131–35.

41. Lucas, From Slavery to Segregation, 119–20.

42. Ibid., 121–24.

43. LE, s.v. “Baptists,” by Bill J. Leonard; Boles, Religion in Antebellum Kentucky, 86–87; KE, s.v. “Afro-Americans,” by George C. Wright.

44. Aron, How the West Was Lost, 184.

45. McMillen, Southern Women, 111–14. See also Friedman, Enclosed Garden.

46. Irvin, Women in Kentucky, 45; KE, s.v. “Sisters of Loretto,” by Florence Wolff; KE, s.v. “Sisters of Charity of Nazareth,” by Mary Michael Creamer. See also Baker, “Borderlands of Gender.”

47. Remini, Henry Clay, 30–31, 480–81.

48. McMillen, Southern Women, 17–25, 48–56. For information on women's property rights, see Salmon, Women and the Law of Property.

49. See Norton, Liberty's Daughters; and Kerber, Women of the Republic.

50. Farnham, Education of the Southern Belle, 37, 50–51; McMillen, Southern Women, 90–103; KE, s.v. “Mentelle's for Young Ladies”; LE, s.v. “Science Hill Female Academy,” by Lynn S. Renau.

51. McMillen, Southern Women, 57–89; Irvin, Women in Kentucky, 39, 43. For more specific information on motherhood, see McMillen, Motherhood in the Old South.

52. Remini, Henry Clay, 281–82.

53. Henry Clay to Lucretia Clay, August 24, 1825, in Hopkins et al., eds., Papers of Henry Clay, 4:589.

54. Etienne Mazureau to Henry Clay, September 19, 1825, in Hopkins et al., eds., Papers of Henry Clay, 4:659; Remini, Henry Clay, 283.

55. Irvin, Women in Kentucky, 32; KE, s.v. “Holley, Mary Phelps (Austin),” by John D. Wright Jr.; Baker, Mary Todd Lincoln, 61.

56. Irvin, Women in Kentucky, 41.

57. Ibid., 46; LE, s.v. “Ward, Sallie,” by Thomas D. Clark.

58. Charleston Mercury, January 4, 1849.

59. Peacock, Famous American Belles, 156.

60. New York Herald, June 3, 1850.

61. Ibid.

62. Ibid., July 12, 1850.

63. Aron, How the West Was Lost, 183.

8. Mexican War: Honor Reconfirmed

1. KE, s.v. “Lexington Light Infantry,” by John M. Trowbridge; Louisville Journal, February 24, 1840.

2. Eubank, Mexican War, 59, 129; Ramage, “Mexican War,” 345.

3. Ramage, “Mexican War,” 345–46; Stone, Brittle Sword, 59. Kentucky chartered two military schools in the 1840s: Kentucky Military Institute at Lyndon and Western Military Institute at Georgetown. Stone, Brittle Sword, 59. Alexander Morgan was about forty-four years old.

4. FWP, Military History of Kentucky, 127; McCaffrey, Army of Manifest Destiny, 19.

5. Ramage, “Mexican War,” 344; Eubank, Mexican War, 12–13, 21–22. Other southern and western states also had more volunteers than they could accept. Eubank, Mexican War, 121.

6. Rowe, Bulwark of the Republic, 121; LE, s.v. “Ward, Sallie,” by Clark; Eubank, Mexican War, 30; Stone, Brittle Sword, 58; Frankfort Commonwealth, undated article reprinted in Louisville Journal, January 29, 1848. When the First Kentucky Infantry returned, it returned the flag to Sallie Ward. Eubank, Mexican War, 30.

7. Eubank, Mexican War, 18; Rowe, Bulwark of the Republic, 121; Ramage, “Mexican War,” 353.

8. Ramage, “Mexican War,” 348, and Rebel Raider, 21; Richardson, Cassius Marcellus Clay, 58; Eubank, Mexican War, 38, 44; New Orleans Picayune, July 20, 1847.

9. Eubank, Mexican War, 29–31; Singletary, Mexican War, 29, 33–37; Bauer, Zachary Taylor, 168, 184. Taylor and Ampudia also agreed to an eight-week armistice with the understanding that either government could reject this provision. Singletary, Mexican War, 41.

10. Eubank, Mexican War, 31; FWP, Military History of Kentucky, 125.

11. KE, s.v. “Butler, William Orlando,” by Gerald F. Roberts; Johannsen, To the Halls of the Montezumas, 121; Eubank, Mexican War, 17, 72; Bauer, Zachary Taylor, 180–81, 184; Smith, The War with Mexico, 1:506. Johannsen pointed out that Butler became famous for being as “brave as an Ajax.” Johannsen, To the Halls of the Montezumas, 121.

12. Ramage, “Mexican War,” 355–57. President Polk, a Democrat, was jealous of Taylor's fame, and, since Taylor was a likely Whig candidate for president, he sought to give him as little credit as possible. He wrote that Taylor deserved little commendation for Buena Vista and that all the praise should go to the volunteers and regulars, who did not need any generals to lead them. He wrote that volunteers needed no officers of rank higher than lieutenant. “It is an injustice to award the generals all the credit,” Polk wrote. Singletary, Mexican War, 115.

13. Ramage, “Mexican War,” 357; Hamilton, Zachary Taylor, 226, 247; Smith, The War with Mexico, 1:400.

14. Ramage, “Mexican War,” 357.

15. Bauer, Zachary Taylor, 200, 205; Hamilton, Zachary Taylor, 241; Tyler, Mexican War, 38.

16. Eubank, Mexican War, 32; LE, s.v. “Clay, Henry, Jr.”

17. Hamilton, Zachary Taylor, 235–37; Bauer, Zachary Taylor, 201–2.

18. Hamilton, Zachary Taylor, 238–40; Bauer, Zachary Taylor, 203–5.

19. Johannsen, To the Halls of the Montezumas, 93, 95; Ramage, “Mexican War,” 357.

20. Block, “‘The stoutest son,’” 40–42; Hamilton, Zachary Taylor, 239; Johannsen, To the Halls of the Montezumas, 132, 210; Eubank, Mexican War, 47; Remini, Henry Clay, 684. Cutter was a lawyer in Covington who later wrote and published poems on the Mexican War. Eubank, Mexican War, 43; Hopkins et al., eds., Papers of Henry Clay, 10:341.

21. Remini, Henry Clay, 339, 685. Henry Clay Jr. married Maria Julia Prather of Louisville; they had five children: Henry Clay III, Matilda, Martha, Anne, and Thomas. Matilda and Martha died as infants. Remini, Henry Clay, 765. Julia died in 1840, a few years before the Mexican War. Henry Clay Jr. farmed for a time in Fayette County, where voters elected him twice to the Kentucky House of Representatives. LE, s.v. “Clay, Henry, Jr.”

22. Hollingsworth, Lexington, 30; Remini, Henry Clay, 684, 685; Eubank, Mexican War, 71; Hopkins et al., eds., Papers of Henry Clay, 10:341.

23. KE, s.v. “Marshall, Humphrey,” by C. David Dalton; Eubank, Mexican War, 36; Johannsen, To the Halls of the Montezumas, 121.

24. Ramage, “Mexican War,” 358, and Rebel Raider, 29.

25. Ramage, “Mexican War,” 359–60.

26. Hamilton, Zachary Taylor, 245; Stone, Brittle Sword, 57–58; Bauer, Zachary Taylor, 202; Tindall and Shi, America, 1:355; Eubank, Mexican War, 61.

27. Hamilton, Zachary Taylor, 21, 25, 37, 179, 237; Hamilton, Three Kentucky Presidents, 22; Grant, Personal Memoirs, 47. Taylor County, Kentucky, was named in honor of Zachary Taylor in 1848. Eubank, Mexican War, 72.

28. Singletary, Mexican War, 54; Rowe, Bulwark of the Republic, 121; Eubank, Mexican War, 60–61; Broadside, Paris Western Citizen, March 31, 1847, Special Collections, University of Kentucky Library; Maysville Tri-Weekly Herald, April 14, 1847, quoted in Eubank, Mexican War, 61; Shelbyville Shelby News, May 26, 1847, quoted in ibid.

29. Ramage, “Mexican War,” 362; Hammond, “Spartan Toughness,” 97, 101–2; undated clipping, Frankfort Commonwealth, reprinted in Louisville Journal, January 29, 1848; Tyler, Mexican War, 27; Hamilton, Zachary Taylor, 241.

30. Hughes and Ware, Theodore O'Hara, 70–71.

31. Ramage, “Mexican War,” 360, 362. In October 1847, Governor William Owsley sent the two regiments of the second requisition: the Third Kentucky Infantry from eastern Kentucky and the Fourth Kentucky Infantry from the Pennyroyal region. These regiments served for the duration mostly on garrison duty in Mexico City under General William O. Butler. John C. Breckinridge served in the Third Regiment with the rank of major, and William Preston of Louisville was the lieutenant colonel of the Fourth. Leander Cox's company in the Third Regiment was reported to have only men who were at least six feet tall. Stone, Brittle Sword, 58; Eubank, Mexican War, 39.

In the first requisition, a company of Clark County volunteers organized by Captain John S. Williams was late departing because of confusion in their orders. They missed the Battle of Monterey and the Battle of Buena Vista but fought courageously in the Battle of Cerro Gordo on April 18, 1847. Leading his men in an assault on an artillery position, Williams reportedly yelled: “Boys, remember old Kentuck!” And one of his men recalled that he felt eager to “jump headlong into the mouth of every cannon” in the Mexican battery. Williams returned with the second requisition as colonel of the Fourth Kentucky Infantry Regiment. Eubank, Mexican War, 3, 38–39, 124; Johannsen, To the Halls of the Montezumas, 64.

32. KE, s.v. “Combs, Leslie”; undated clipping, Frankfort Commonwealth, reprinted in Louisville Journal, January 29, 1848.

33. LE, s.v. “Clay, Henry, Jr.”; Hughes and Ware, Theodore O'Hara, 62. Additional bodies were brought to the cemetery from Buena Vista in September 1847. Rowe, Bulwark of the Republic, 122.

34. KE, s.v. “O'Hara, Theodore”; Hughes and Ware, Theodore O'Hara, 51, 54, 63, 141. On the Cuban expedition, see Antonio de la Cova, “Kentucky Regiment That Invaded Cuba.”

35. Hughes and Ware, Theodore O'Hara, ix-x, 65, 142. That same summer of 1850, O'Hara wrote “The Old Pioneer” on Daniel Boone, and, since he published it in the Frankfort Yeoman on December 19, 1850, he became famous in Kentucky as the author. Ibid., 57, 62.

36. Ibid., 69.

37. FWP, Military History of Kentucky, 139; Rowe, Bulwark of the Republic, 122.

9. Surgery, Medical Botany, and Science: 1800–1825

1. New York Times, March 2, 1929; Architect of the Capitol Web Site, National Statuary Hall Collection; Kentucky Division of Historic Properties Web Site.

2. Flannery, “McDowell,” 4:859; KE, s.v. “McDowell, Ephraim,” by Allen J. Share.

3. Gray, Ephraim McDowell, 69–70; Schachner, Ephraim McDowell, 59.

4. Schachner, Ephraim McDowell, 292; KE, s.v. “Crawford, Jane (Todd),” by Allen J. Share.

5. Baird, Healing Kentucky, 3; KET, Ephraim McDowell's Kentucky Ride; Flexner, Doctors on Horseback, 123–24; Mayo, Medicine, 164.

6. Flexner, Doctors on Horseback, 124; Schachner, Ephraim McDowell, 65, 70.

7. Schachner, Ephraim McDowell, 66, 307, 309; Duffy, Healers, 135; KE, s.v. “Crawford, Jane (Todd),” by Share. Another son, Thomas Howell Crawford, was a Louisville businessman, alderman, and mayor from 1859 to 1861. LE, s.v. “Crawford, Thomas Howell.”

8. Flannery to Ramage, July 17, 2007; Flannery, “McDowell,” 4:859; KE, s.v. “McDowell, Ephraim,” by Share.

9. National Statuary Hall Collection; Boston Herald, April 10, 1862; New Orleans Daily Picayune, September 24, 1863; Flannery to Ramage, July 17, 2007; Gray, Ephraim McDowell, 108–16.

10. Ellis, Medicine in Kentucky, 1–7; KE, s.v. “Medicine,” by Richard C. Smoot.

11. Peter, Medical Department of Transylvania University, 9; KE, s.v. “Brown, Samuel,” by James J. Holmberg; Duffy, Healers, 163–64; Wells, comp., Roadside History, 184; Ramage, John Wesley Hunt, 68.

12. Jillson, “Flamma Clara,” 155–56; KE, s.v. “Brashear, Walter,” by Nancy D. Baird; Works Progress Administration, Medicine and Its Development, 116–17; Eberson, “Dr. Frederick Ridgely,” 224; Medscape Reference Web Site, Amputations of the Lower Extremity. Brashear was born in Maryland and came to Kentucky early in life with his family. Jillson, “Flamma Clara,” 155.

13. KE, s.v. “Dudley, Benjamin Winslow,” by Porter Mayo.

14. Ibid.; Mayo, Medicine, 139; Ellis, Medicine in Kentucky, 9.

15. Ellis, Medicine in Kentucky, 33.

16. Mayo, Medicine, 144, 147; KE, s.v. “Dudley, Benjamin Winslow,” by Mayo; Bullock, “Benjamin Winslow Dudley,” quoted in KE, s.v. “Dudley, Benjamin Wins-low,” by Mayo.

17. Ellis, Medicine in Kentucky, 4; Lexington Kentucky Gazette, November 29, 1817, quoted in Mayo, Medicine, 141; Mayo, Medicine, 143; Wright, Transylvania, 85.

18. Remini, Henry Clay, 286–88.

19. Christianson, “Conditions for Science,” 307–8; Wright, Transylvania, 67.

20. Sonne, Liberal Kentucky, 154, 260.

21. Ibid., 142–43, 154, 157–58. The board voted to record the election as unanimous, and Holley spoke of being elected unanimously. Of the 121 legislative votes on removing the old trustees, only nineteen were opposed. Ibid., 155, 157–58.

22. Ibid., 162–64; KE, s.v. “Holley, Horace,” by John D. Wright Jr.

23. Ramage, John Wesley Hunt, 93. Holley's wife was Mary Austin Holley, a niece of Moses Austin of Texas. KE, s.v. “Holley, Mary Phelps (Austin),” by Wright.

24. Sonne, Liberal Kentucky, 109, 167, 170; Wright, Transylvania, 63. James Fishback, who warned Holley, began as a Presbyterian layman but later became a Baptist minister. He taught medicine at Transylvania and in Holley's administration was a trustee who resigned to join the opposition. Wright, Transylvania, 52, 54, 79, 113.

25. Wright, Transylvania, 62, 63, 68; Christianson, “Conditions for Science,” 318; Sonne, Liberal Kentucky, 170.

26. Lexington Kentucky Gazette, December 25, 1818, quoted in Sonne, Liberal Kentucky, 171; Sonne, Liberal Kentucky, 173, 256; Wright, Transylvania, 70–71; Christianson, “Conditions for Science,” 319.

27. Warren, Constantine Samuel Rafinesque, 79.

28. Ibid., xii, 6–7, 47; Wright, Transylvania, 71–73.

29. Warren, Constantine Samuel Rafinesque, 83–85; Christianson, “Conditions for Science,” 313–14; Wright, Transylvania, 74.

30. Warren, Constantine Samuel Rafinesque, 73, 79, 84–85, 113–14, 173, 176, 192; Wright, Transylvania, 75; Boewe et al., eds., Precis, 104–5.

31. Warren, Constantine Samuel Rafinesque, 16.

32. Rafinesque, “Visit to Big-Bone Lick”; Harrison and Klotter, New History, 83–84; KE, s.v. “Spas”; ENK, s.v. “Big Bone Lick,” by James C. Claypool and Don Clare; Hedeen, Big Bone Lick, 15–16.

33. Heeden, Big Bone Lick, 22; Jillson, Big Bone Lick, 9, 15; Semonin, American Monster, 107.

34. Eslinger, introduction to Running Mad for Kentucky, 55; KE, s.v. “Big Bone Lick,” by Stephen F. Greb; Semonin, American Monster, 183.

35. Semonin, American Monster, 108, 348.

36. Ibid., 107–8, 138, 141, 295, 399; Jillson, Big Bone Lick, 36, 119.

37. Jillson, Big Bone Lick, 10; Semonin, American Monster, 101, 182, 309.

38. Hedeen, Big Bone Lick, 149.

39. Semonin, American Monster, 105–6, 211, 381.

40. Jillson, Big Bone Lick, 87, 94, 96; Semonin, American Monster, 87; Filson, Present State of Kentucke, 33, 87. The Clay House burned in the mid-1840s and a new Clay House was built and after the Civil War repaired and reopened. Hedeen, Big Bone Lick, 16–17.

41. KE, s.v. “Boone, Daniel,” by Joe Nickell; KE, s.v. “Ingles, Mary (Draper).” On the escape of Mary Ingles, see Duvall, Mary Ingles.

42. KE, s.v. “Filson, John,” by James J. Holmberg; Semonin, American Monster, 210; Harrison and Klotter, New History, 48–49; Filson, Present State of Kentucke, 6.

43. KE, s.v. “Filson, John,” by Holmberg; Filson, Present State of Kentucke, 30, 33–36; Semonin, American Monster, 145–46. Book dealers sold Filson's book and map together and separately. KE, s.v. “Filson, John,” by Holmberg.

44. Hedeen, Big Bone Lick, 64; Filson, Present State of Kentucke, 93; Semonin, American Monster, 6–7, 274. John Filson is memorialized today in the contributions of the Filson Historical Society, founded in 1884.

45. Filson, Present State of Kentucke, 34–35. The first elephant was brought to the United States and exhibited in 1797. Semonin, American Monster, 297. The first discovery of remains of the American incognitum was the finding of a large tooth in 1705 near Albany, New York, in the Hudson River valley. For several decades, some naturalists thought that the tooth confirmed the Native American legend of a giant human taller than the pine trees. He hunted bear by chasing them to the tops of trees and then caught them with his hand and crushed them with his huge teeth and jaws. Among colonists, this was the legend of the “Claverack Monster,” or the “Giant of Claverack,” named for the Dutch patroonship or manor where the tooth was discovered. The first discovery of the American incognitum at Big Bone Lick—the second such discovery in America—was in 1739 by the French expedition of Charles Le Moyne, Baron de Longueuil. Semonin, American Monster, 3, 15–18, 22–23, 87; Dugatkin, Giant Moose, 83–84.

46. Semonin, American Monster, 7, 182.

47. Ibid., 181; Hedeen, Big Bone Lick, 64–65. Jefferson included a table comparing the sizes of animals that showed that the American bear was twice as large as the European bear. At a dinner hosted by Buffon in Paris, Jefferson pointed out that a European reindeer could walk under the belly of an American moose. Buffon scoffed at the idea. Therefore, Jefferson sent him the skin, horns, and skeleton of a large moose along with antlers of a caribou, elk, and other animals. Semonin, American Monster, 182, 222, 224–25; Dugatkin, Giant Moose, 95–100.

48. Semonin, American Monster, 184, 263, 270–76, 313, 326–28. The skeleton in Peale's museum was eleven feet tall at the shoulders and fifteen feet long from face to rump. Ibid., 348.

49. Holmberg, “Lewis and Clark,” 10, 14, 16, 42.

50. Semonin, American Monster, 344–45, 348. Dr. Goforth's collection was stolen and exhibited in England by Thomas Ashe, the agent he employed. Ibid., 345.

51. Ibid., 304, 344.

52. Holmberg, “Lewis and Clark,” 14, 16, 44, 46; Semonin, American Monster, 347–48.

53. Holmberg, “Lewis and Clark,” 46; Semonin, American Monster, 350.

54. Semonin, American Monster, 289–90, 353–55.

55. Ibid., 354, 356, 363. In the late eighteenth century, one of the popular names in America for the American incognitum was mammoth. Ibid., 67. Eventually, some of the bones from Big Bone Lick were identified as the separate species the wooly mammoth.

56. Semonin, American Monster, 378–79; Louisville Journal, June 24, 1841.

57. Hedeen, Big Bone Lick, xviii; Jillson, Big Bone Lick, 64–73; ENK, s.v. “Behringer-Crawford Museum,” by Laurie Risch. In 1935, Willard Rouse Jillson, John Uri Lloyd, and others organized the Big Bone Lick Association, which sponsored Jillson's book. In 1959, the Boone County Historical Society revived the association, and, under the leadership of Bruce Ferguson as president, the group purchased about sixteen acres that it presented to the state of Kentucky for Big Bone Lick State Park, which was established in 1960. The Friends of Big Bone was organized in 1999. ENK, s.v. “Ferguson, Bruce,” by Laurie Wilcox; Friends of Big Bone Web Site.

58. Rafinesque, “Visit to Big-Bone Lick,” 356; Warren, Constantine Samuel Rafinesque, 95, 96; Peter, Medical Department of Transylvania University, 31, 38.

59. KE, s.v. “Rafinesque, Constantine Samuel,” by Charles Boewe; Warren, Constantine Samuel Rafinesque, 20, 29, 74, 93, 163.

60. Flannery, “Rafinesque,” 28, 41, and “Medical Botany,” 22; Warren, Constantine Samuel Rafinesque, 118–19; Wright, Transylvania, 74. Horace Holley approved his teaching a course in medical botany in 1823–1824 and another in 1825–1826. Flannery, “Medical Botany,” 22.

61. Flannery, “Medical Botany,” 22; Warren, Constantine Samuel Rafinesque, 118–19; Flannery, “Rafinesque,” 41.

62. Flannery, “Cultural Context,” 33; Warren, Constantine Samuel Rafinesque, 63; Jordan, “Sketch,” 220, quoted in ibid., 157; Flannery, “Medical Botany,” 18, 22, and “Rafinesque,” 42.

63. Wright, Transylvania, 75; Warren, Constantine Samuel Rafinesque, 82, 102, 105. Rafinesque opened his model bank in Philadelphia in 1835, and in its first two years it earned 17 percent interest for investors. The bank was still operating when Rafinesque died in 1840, but, since the bank's records are not extant, it has not been determined how he was finally excluded from the profits and left to die in poverty. Ibid., 104–5.

64. Warren, Constantine Samuel Rafinesque, 109–11; Wright, Transylvania, 75. Rafinesque died in Philadelphia in 1840 and was buried there. Several additional bodies were buried in his grave, and, therefore, there is the question as to whether his body was located when, in 1924, Transylvania University brought his reputed remains back to campus and reinterred them with honors in a crypt inside Old Morrison Hall. For discussion of this question, see Warren, Constantine Samuel Rafinesque, 196–99. The university sponsored scientific symposiums in his honor in 1940 and 1983. Boewe et al., eds., Precis, 7. His autobiography, A Life of Travels (Philadelphia, 1836), was republished in 1944 and translated into French in 1987. Warren, Constantine Samuel Rafinesque, 237; Boewe et al., eds., Precis, 9–18. Today at Halloween the students celebrate “Rafinesque Day” with a bonfire and coffin procession, and four students are given the honor of spending the night in his crypt. Warren, Constantine Samuel Rafinesque, 200.

65. Wright, Transylvania, 70; KE, s.v. “Caldwell, Charles,” by Charles Boewe; KE, s.v. “Holley, Horace,” by Wright; Ellis, Medicine in Kentucky, 12; Louisville Journal, September 2, 1853; Christianson, “Conditions for Science,” 314–15; Sonne, Liberal Kentucky, 175.

66. Wright, Transylvania, 87, 93, 98; Coleman, introduction to Transylvania, x.

67. Wright, Lexington, 32; Sonne, Liberal Kentucky, 175; Christianson, “Conditions for Science,” 317; Louisville Journal, June 29, 1857.

68. Wright, Transylvania, 108–11.

69. Sonne, Liberal Kentucky, 247; Wright, Transylvania, 63, 108, 111–12.

70. Sonne, Liberal Kentucky, 105, 183–84, 187–88, 205, 218; Wright, Transylvania, 101, 115.

71. Wright, Transylvania, 116. The Holleys had two children; the other child was Harriet Williams Holley. KE, s.v. “Holley, Mary Phelps (Austin),” by Wright. The Dry Tortugas is a group of islands in the Gulf of Mexico about sixty-five miles west of Key West, Florida.

10. Calomel, Cholera, and Science: 1825–1865

1. Shryock, “Empiricism versus Rationalism,” 106; Thomas Jefferson to Caspar Wistar, June 21, 1807, quoted in Warren, Constantine Samuel Rafinesque, 117–18; Brodie, Thomas Jefferson, 505; Gray, Ephraim McDowell, 41.

2. Shryock, “Empiricism versus Rationalism,” 107, 109; Rosenberg, “Therapeutic Revolution,” 5–7; Ellis, Medicine in Kentucky, 3–4.

3. Shryock, “Empiricism versus Rationalism,” 110.

4. Ibid., 110–11; Rosenberg, “Therapeutic Revolution,” 23; Mayo, Medicine, 98; Duffy, Healers, 95.

5. Duffy, Healers, 86, 91, 95–97; LE, s.v. “Croghan, John,” by Julia C. Parke.

6. Rosenberg, “Therapeutic Revolution,” 7–9, 12, 22.

7. Peter, Medical Department of Transylvania University, 65; Duffy, Healers, 104–5; Eberson, “Great Purging,” 28–29; Baird, “Asiatic Cholera's First Visit,” 238; Mayo, Medicine, 98, 343. Probably the stools turned black from internal bleeding from laxative overdose. Baird, “Asiatic Cholera's First Visit,” 238.

8. Peter, Medical Department of Transylvania University, 66, 71–74.

9. Ibid., 74, 75, 76; Cox, “Louisville Medical Institute,” 202; Wright, Transylvania, 140; Duffy, Healers, 97; Ross, “Hill-Country Doctor,” 451, 461; Mayo, Medicine, 99; Shryock, “Empiricism versus Rationalism,” 105; Flannery, Civil War Pharmacy, 131, 156–63; Eberson, “Great Purging,” 35. Rush died in 1813, and by 1823 his ideas were questioned. Duffy, Healers, 97. Quinine and inoculation—the forerunner of vaccination—to prevent smallpox developed out of folk medicine and were discovered before the germ theory with crude empiricism (observation and experience, chance, or blind trial). Shryock, “Empiricism versus Rationalism,” 105. However, neither had any direct immediate impact on heroic treatment or the central body metaphor. When physicians inoculated for smallpox, they accompanied the inoculation with purging. Rosenberg, “Therapeutic Revolution,” 7.

Quinine was effective in the treatment and prevention of malaria. “In other fevers,” wrote Flannery, “there might be some modest antipyretic action and some analgesic action but no cure.” Flannery, Civil War Pharmacy, 162.

10. Duffy, Healers, 102; Barlow and Powell, “Heroic Medicine,” 243–47.

11. Barlow and Powell, “Heroic Medicine,” 247–56.

12. Wright, Transylvania, 81–83; Peter, Medical Department of Transylvania University, 25.

13. Thomas, Conner, and Meloy, “History of Mammoth Cave,” 325, 329.

14. Ibid., 320, 334–40; Mammoth Cave National Park Web Site; Ellis, Medicine in Kentucky, 31–32; LE, s.v. “Croghan, John,” by Parke.

15. KE, s.v. “New Madrid Earthquakes,” by R. L. Street; Harrison and Klotter, New History, 156; Baird, “Asiatic Cholera's First Visit,” 233.

16. Baird, “Asiatic Cholera's First Visit,” 233–34; Rosenberg, Cholera Years, 3. For lists of diseases, see Ellis, Medicine in Kentucky, 1–2; and KE, s.v. “Medicine,” by Smoot.

17. Baird, “Asiatic Cholera's First Visit,” 228–29; Louisville Public Advertiser, February 18, 1832, quoted in Mary Doyle, Pioneer Spirit, 100.

18. Baird, “Asiatic Cholera's First Visit,” 230–31, 233; Wright, Lexington, 44.

19. Baird, “Asiatic Cholera's First Visit,” 230; “Cholera,” broadside, Special Collections, University of Kentucky Library. When the color of bowel discharges changed to green, physicians believed that it was from increased bile production and that this was laudable. Actually, the color changed to green, not from increased liver function, but because the cathartic action of the mercurous chloride in the intestines caused the contents to be discharged before the greenish-colored bile became converted into bilirubin, a normal color. So the color changed, but it was not from increased bile production. Flannery, Civil War Pharmacy, 148; Flannery to Ramage, August 12, 2007.

20. Rosenberg, Cholera Years, 3; Baird, “Asiatic Cholera's First Visit,” 228.

21. Baird, “Asiatic Cholera's First Visit,” 231, 237; Wright, Transylvania, 54, and Lexington, 44. In 1814, Lexington trustees limited the depth of cesspools in the city for fear of contamination of the well water. Wade, Urban Frontier, 98.

22. Eberson, “Great Purging,” 31–33; KE, s.v. “Drake, Daniel,” by Paul A. Tenkotte; Mayo, Medicine, 145; Ross, “Hill-Country Doctor,” 449; Duffy, Healers, 104–5.

23. Doyle, Pioneer Spirit, 100–104; LE, s.v. “Spalding, Catherine,” by Thomas W. Spalding; Baird, “Asiatic Cholera's First Visit,” 231–35; LE, s.v. “Flaget, Benedict Joseph,” by Clyde F. Crews. Spalding refused to accept payment for the nursing care and returned the Louisville mayor's check. Doyle, Pioneer Spirit, 104.

24. Baird, “Asiatic Cholera's First Visit,” 235; Wright, Lexington, 44–45. The epidemic left several children without parents, and citizens responded by opening orphanages in Louisville and Lexington. In Louisville, during the outbreak in 1832, the Sisters of Charity cared for orphans, and a well-known eyewitness account described Catherine Spalding walking along a street with a baby in her apron, a small child in one arm, and a toddler grasping her skirt. Louisville citizens worked with the sisters in raising funds through four charity fairs, and in 1833 St. Vincent's Orphanage opened. In Lexington, citizens collected four thousand dollars and established an orphanage, and the city's leaders organized a free school soon after the epidemic ended. Doyle, Pioneer Spirit, 102, 103–5; LE, s.v. “Spalding, Catherine,” by Spalding; Baird, “Asiatic Cholera's First Visit,” 240. For discussion of the painting of William Solomon by Samuel W. Price, see Wright, Lexington, 44–45.

25. Baird, “Asiatic Cholera's First Visit,” 231, 232, 234; Mayo, Medicine, 124, 125; Wright, Transylvania, 170; Ramage, John Wesley Hunt, 97. From 1849 to 1854, cholera struck in epidemic proportions again, and thousands of people died, 341 in Lexington in 1849. KE, s.v. “Cholera Epidemics,” by Nancy D. Baird; Ellis, Medicine in Kentucky, 24; Mayo, Medicine, 124–27.

26. Duffy, Healers, 105.

27. Shryock, “Empiricism versus Rationalism,” 117; Rosenberg, “Therapeutic Revolution,” 4–5, 18, 24.

28. Rosenberg, “Therapeutic Revolution,” 18; Flannery, Civil War Pharmacy, 150–55, 257.

29. Wright, Lexington, 21, 33, and Transylvania, 124, 127, 129, 131; KE, s.v. “Shryock, Gideon,” by Scott. The building was used as a Union army hospital in the Civil War, and today it contains Rafinesque's crypt. Wright, Lexington, 33, 88.

30. Wright, Transylvania, 145, 149; KE, s.v. “Harlan, John Marshall,” by Charles R. Lee Jr.; KE, s.v. “Louisville and Portland Canal,” by George H. Yater; LE, s.v. “Louisville Medical Institute,” by Dwayne Cox; Cox, “Louisville Medical Institute,” 197–219; Anderson, “Henry Clay Lewis.” On the history of the Louisville Medical Institute, see also Baird, David Wendel Yandell, 4–17.

31. Ellis, Medicine in Kentucky, 13, 14; Wright, Transylvania, 147, 149; Baird, David Wendel Yandell, 5–6; undated, unidentified newspaper clippings cited and quoted in Baird, David Wendel Yandell, 5–6. The Louisville Medical Institute was chartered in 1833. Ellis, Medicine in Kentucky, 14.

32. Wright, Transylvania, 152–55.

33. Flannery, “Frontier Thesis,” 255, and “Cultural Context,” 36, 37; KE, s.v. “Bacon College”; Christianson, “Conditions for Science,” 316. Bacon College closed June 14, 1850. KE, s.v. “Bacon College.” One area of progress in science applied mathematics to medicine through scientific observation and record keeping. Kentucky was one of twelve states that established birth and death registration systems before the Civil War. Cassedy, Medicine and American Growth, 83. This showed that scientific consciousness had reached the state legislature. The vital statistics law of 1851 required counties to record births and deaths, including the cause of death. It was the first such law in the West. The first report, for the year that ended June 1, 1852, listed dysentery as the most frequent cause of death (over 18 percent), followed by fevers (over 15 percent) and then consumption or tuberculosis (about 9 percent). Fevers included malaria, scarlet fever, pneumonia, measles, and chicken pox. Mayo, Medicine, 150–51. The reporting system remained in effect through 1910, but officials in many counties failed to collect and maintain the required records. In 1910, the General Assembly enacted the second vital statistics law, and it required the state board of health to register births and deaths. Therefore, accurate and complete vital statistics began in Kentucky in 1911. Ellis, Medicine in Kentucky, 69–70.

34. KE, s.v. “Peter, Robert,” by Eric H. Christianson; Christianson, “Conditions for Science,” 320–22.

35. Taylor, “Tipping the Balance,” 2, 7, 9, 10, 12.

36. Wright, Transylvania, 150, 154; Peter, Medical Department of Transylvania University, 91; Christianson, “Conditions for Science,” 323.

37. Christianson, “Conditions for Science,” 322–23; Wright, Transylvania, 164, 149. Charles Wilkins Short taught medical botany at Transylvania from 1825 to 1838, when he transferred to the Louisville Medical Institute. In 1840, the prominent botanist Asa Gray named a plant genus Shortia in Short's honor. KE, s.v. “Short, Charles Wilkins,” by Deborah Skaggs. Transylvania University published the first medical journal in Kentucky, the Transylvania Journal of Medicine and the Associate Sciences, from 1828 to 1838. Beginning in 1840, the Louisville Institute of Medicine published the Western Journal of Medicine and Surgery. Ellis, Medicine in Kentucky, 41; Baird, David Wendel Yandell, 9–10.

38. Louisville Journal, January 22, June 13, 1840; Flannery, “Medical Botany,” 23.

39. Baird, David Wendel Yandell, 6–7, 12; Lexington Observer and Reporter, July 7, 1849; LE, s.v. “Gross, Samuel David”; Ellis, Medicine in Kentucky, 33, 86; Schachner, Ephraim McDowell, 248, 250. In general, Kentucky surgeons were quick to see the value of ether and chloroform. Ellis, Medicine in Kentucky, 33.

40. Wright, Transylvania, 158, 163, 173; Lexington Inquirer, undated article reprinted in Louisville Journal, April 13, 1844. Transylvania's law school closed in 1858. The Academic Department became a high school in 1858, and the high school remained open through the Civil War. The medical school closed in 1859. Wright, Transylvania, 174, 175. From 1859 through the Civil War, Transylvania operated as a high school, and the Union army used its buildings as hospitals. KE, s.v. “Transylvania University,” by John D. Wright Jr. and Eric H. Christianson.

41. Harrison and Klotter, New History, 160; Duffy, Healers, 110–15; Flannery, “Medical Botany,” 23.

42. Smith, “Civil War Recruits.” Not many draftees were exempted—Kentucky had the fifth lowest percentage of draftees given medical exemptions of the twenty-two states (and the District of Columbia) subject to the draft. Of nineteen thousand draftees examined, about four thousand were exempted. On the other hand, many draftees feigned disabilities, possibly to avoid serving in the Union army, which had become odious to most Kentuckians. They claimed they had such conditions as hernia, hemorrhoids, or stricture of the urethra. When a draftee pretended to have a bladder stone, Dr. John M. Best would show him a metallic catheter, a long slender instrument known as a “sound,” and propose using it—usually the man was suddenly healed. On the other hand, volunteers and substitutes who wanted in the army attempted to conceal hernias, lied about their age, and used as many strategies of deception to get in as draftees used to stay out. Smith, “Civil War Recruits,” 190–92, 196.

43. Kaufman, “American Medical Education,” 10–14; Wright, Transylvania University, 174; Baird, David Wendel Yandell, 72–73; Cox, “Louisville Medical Institute,” 214. After a few years, the Kentucky School of Medicine became independent of the support of Transylvania University and, in 1908, merged with the Medical Department of the University of Louisville. Wright, Transylvania University, 174.

11. The Experience of Slavery

1. Stowe, Uncle Tom's Cabin, 103; Meer, Uncle Tom Mania, 58–59; KE, s.v. “Foster, Stephen Collins.”

2. U.S. Census, cited in Harrison and Klotter, New History, 99.

3. Littell, ed., Statute Law, 2:113–23; Lucas, From Slavery to Segregation, 17; Harrison and Klotter, New History, 99. Some masters allowed their slaves to use firearms to hunt regardless of the code.

4. Harrison, Antislavery Movement, 3; Klotter and Klotter, Concise History, 93. In 1850, 24.7 percent of families owned slaves in Virginia and 29.6 percent in Georgia. U.S. Census, 1850.

5. Harrison, Antislavery Movement, 3–4; U.S. Census, 1860, Population, 598–99.

6. Aron, How the West Was Lost, 129.

7. Hopkins, Hemp Industry, 14.

8. Aron, How the West Was Lost, 129.

9. Bullitt, My Life at Oxmoor, 45.

10. Women most likely worked as cooks and housekeepers for the male workers who lived on the premises. Ramage, John Wesley Hunt, 62, 69; Hopkins, Hemp Industry, 136; Starobin, Industrial Slavery, 17–18.

11. Bullitt, My Life at Oxmoor, 45–46; Hopkins, Hemp Industry, 135.

12. Coleman, Slavery Times, 64–65.

13. Ibid., 51; Bullitt, My Life at Oxmoor, 43.

14. Bullitt, My Life at Oxmoor, 38.

15. Ibid., 63.

16. Coleman, Slavery Times, 50.

17. Wickliffe, Will, 5–6.

18. Bibb, Narrative, 16.

19. FWP, Kentucky Slave Narratives, 58.

20. Louisville Courier, November 12, 1849, quoted in Coleman, Slavery Times, 127. The ad also appeared in the Louisville Examiner on November 24, 1849.

21. Murray and Brucker, Trapped! 28–29; Schmitzer, “Sable Guides”; Ramage, Rebel Raider, 34.

22. Lucas, From Slavery to Segregation, 8–9, 101–3; Coleman, Slavery Times, 124; Barton, “‘Good cooks and washers,’” 436–46.

23. J. H. Shopshire to Robert Wickliffe, March 17, 1859, Wickliffe-Preston Papers, Special Collections, University of Kentucky Library.

24. Aron, How the West Was Lost, 144–45; Hopkins, Hemp Industry, 135; Bullitt, My Life at Oxmoor, 46; Coleman, Slavery Times, 79–80.

25. Aron, How the West Was Lost, 165.

26. Watkins, “Patriarchal Politics,” 171.

27. Genovese, Roll, Jordan, Roll, 3–7.

28. Bullitt, My Life at Oxmoor, 49.

29. Coleman, Slavery Times, 63–64; Lucas, From Slavery to Segregation, 16; Genovese, Roll, Jordan, Roll, 550–51.

30. Coleman, Slavery Times, 64.

31. FWP, Kentucky Slave Narratives, 13, 18.

32. Joseph Angell to Robert Wickliffe, May 5, 1858, Wickliffe-Preston Papers, Special Collections, University of Kentucky Library. Joseph Angell, Wickliffe's overseer at Piedmont Farm, overheard the two slave women speaking insolently to his wife. He slapped Nancy, and she slapped him back. He whipped her and beat her until she seemed to submit, but she escaped from the farm. After she was captured, she humbled herself before Angell and promised to submit and obey.

33. FWP, Kentucky Slave Narratives, 24–25.

34. Harrison, Antislavery Movement, 13–14; Coleman, Slavery Times, 53; Lucas, From Slavery to Segregation, 14–15; Bullitt, My Life at Oxmoor, 39, 54; FWP, Kentucky Slave Narratives, 14.

35. Watkins, “Patriarchal Politics,” 165–69; Bullitt, My Life at Oxmoor, 53; FWP, Kentucky Slave Narratives, 7. Dock leaves were from dockweed.

36. Lucas, From Slavery to Segregation, 43–44, 48–49; Harrison, Antislavery Movement, 4–5; Littell, ed., Statute Law, 2:117–18. Benefit of clergy, in medieval England, exempted clergy from trial and punishment in secular courts and provided for their trial in ecclesiastical courts, which were more lenient. For Kentucky slaves, benefit of clergy was used by the state courts to exempt slaves sentenced to death for capital crimes when, in the judge's opinion, there was reasonable doubt of guilt. For example, Bird, a Barren County slave, was granted benefit of clergy and exempted from execution for the crime of assaulting a white woman; the judge was not convinced of Bird's guilt. Lucas, From Slavery to Segregation, 49.

37. Bibb, Narrative, 13. Bibb escaped from slavery three different times. After his initial escape in 1837, he returned to Kentucky in 1838 to help his wife and daughter escape but was captured in Cincinnati. He escaped the next day but made a second attempt to reach his wife in July 1839. This time he was sold with his family in New Orleans. In 1842, Bibb escaped again and traveled to Detroit. He began touring as an abolitionist lecturer in 1844, and his narrative was published in 1859. For a brief overview of his life, see KE, s.v. “Bibb, Henry Walton.”

38. FWP, Kentucky Slave Narratives, 23, 47; Coleman, Slavery Times, 247–49; Lucas, From Slavery to Segregation, 48; Bullitt, My Life at Oxmoor, 62.

39. Coleman, Slavery Times, 252; Lucas, From Slavery to Segregation, 43.

40. Coleman, Slavery Times, 255–61; Lucas, From Slavery to Segregation, 47–48. For a detailed account, see Merrill, Jefferson's Nephews.

41. Coleman, Slavery Times, 249–51; Lucas, From Slavery to Segregation, 47.

42. Harrison, Antislavery Movement, 81–82; Aron, How the West Was Lost, 14748; Ramage, John Wesley Hunt, 64–65.

43. FWP, Kentucky Slave Narratives, 67; Harrison, Antislavery Movement, 81–82; Coleman, Slavery Times, 267–68. The woman who owned the parrot never learned the truth about its death. The slave who killed it stated: “She often wondered who or what killed the bird.” FWP, Kentucky Slave Narratives, 67.

44. Harrison, Antislavery Movement, 82, 84; Coleman, Slavery Times, 88, 108–9.

45. Coleman, Slavery Times, 88–92.

46. Bibb, Narrative, 3; FWP, Kentucky Slave Narratives, 6.

47. Harrison, Antislavery Movement, 85–88.

48. Licking Valley Register, August 10, 1844.

49. Ibid.

50. Covington Journal, September 14, 1849; Weisenburger, Modern Medea, 27578; Hendrick and Hendrick, eds., Fleeing for Freedom, 91–98. It is a mystery why the Underground Railroad in Cincinnati failed to move the Garner family on to the relative safety of stations north of the city. Steven Weisenburger found no conclusive evidence, but he mentions that an estimated 175 slaves escaped during the eleven weeks when the river was frozen, and conductors who might have helped may have been helping others. At about the same time of the Garner escape, nine fugitives from Kenton County crossed on the ice and escaped through the system. Weisenburger, Modern Medea, 71.

51. Lucas, From Slavery to Segregation, 18–20; Boles, Religion in Antebellum Kentucky, 85.

52. Lucas, From Slavery to Segregation, 20–21.

53. Coleman, Slavery Times, 59–61.

54. Bullitt, My Life at Oxmoor, 48; FWP, Kentucky Slave Narratives, 102; Epstein, Sinful Tunes, 187.

55. FWP, Kentucky Slave Narratives, 3, 23; Bullitt, My Life at Oxmoor, 72.

56. Bullitt, My Life at Oxmoor, 48–49; Epstein, Sinful Tunes, 187.

57. Dunaway, “Put in Master's Pocket,” 119.

58. Epstein, Sinful Tunes, 177.

59. Ibid., 177–78.

60. Starobin, Industrial Slavery, 18.

61. Bullitt, My Life at Oxmoor, 47.

62. Bibb, Narrative, 10; Boles, Religion in Antebellum Kentucky, 99.

63. Tallant, Evil Necessity, 13; Hopkins et al., eds., Papers of Henry Clay, 10:361–77; Rochester North Star, December 3, 1847.

12. The Politics of Slavery

1. Hopkins et al., eds., Papers of Henry Clay, 10:580; Harrison and Klotter, New History, 117; Tallant, Evil Necessity, 155–62.

2. KE, s.v. “Rice, David,” by Richard C. Brown.

3. Rice, Slavery Inconsistent with Justice and Good Policy, 36.

4. Ibid., 13; Harrison and Klotter, New History, 62–63, 99; KE, s.v. “Slavery,” by Harold D. Tallant Jr.; Wright, Slavery and American Economic Development, 44–45; Aron, How the West Was Lost, 89–95; Harrison, Road to Statehood, 2–11, 103–19.

5. Tallant, Evil Necessity, 6.

6. Ibid., 13–14.

7. Ibid., 15.

8. Harrison, Antislavery Movement, 27–29. The other antislavery paper in the nation at the time was Benjamin Lundy's Genius of Universal Emancipation, published in Greeneville, Tennessee. Ibid., 29.

9. Aron, How the West Was Lost, 145; KE, s.v. “Constitutions,” by William Green.

10. Burin, Peculiar Solution, 14; Remini, Henry Clay, 179–80, 439–40.

11. Streifford, “American Colonization Society,” 204; Bennett, “All Things to All People,” 34.

12. Staudenraus, African Colonization Movement, 63–66; KE, s.v. “Kentucky Colonization Society”; Burin, Peculiar Solution, 14–15.

The area on the African coast that became the colony of Liberia was chosen on the recommendation of British officials in Sierra Leone, the British colony that had been settled by British abolitionists in 1787 as a refuge for freed slaves. Sierra Leone became a model of success and in 1808 was organized as a crown colony. Stockton and Ayres visited British officials in Freetown, Sierra Leone, and they recommended Cape Mesurado south of Sierra Leone because of its harbor, healthy climate, and fertile soil. Staudenraus, African Colonization Movement, 63.

In his village, King Peter refused to sell the land at Cape Mesurado, and Stockton and Ayres refused to accept the king's answer. Negotiations continued, and the villagers began shouting with anger. According to P. J. Staudenraus, Stockton gave one of his two loaded pistols to Ayres and told him to fire if necessary. Stockton pointed his other pistol at the head of King Peter, directed that negotiations would resume the next day, and insisted that the king would have no choice but to sign the treaty of cession. The king and five chiefs signed the treaty a few days later. Staudenraus, African Colonization Movement, 63–65.

13. Tallant, Evil Necessity, 27–32; Harrison, Antislavery Movement, 29–31; Martin, Anti-Slavery Movement in Kentucky, 56; Bennett, “All Things to All People,” 42–45; Watkins, “Patriarchal Politics,” 63.

14. Tallant, Evil Necessity, 41–44.

15. Wickliffe, Speech, 44.

16. Harrison, Antislavery Movement, 35; Coleman, Slavery Times, 275–89; Watkins, “Patriarchal Politics,” 178.

17. KE, s.v. “Kentucky Colonization Society”; Tallant, Evil Necessity, 29, 49; Acts of the General Assembly of the Commonwealth of Kentucky, 1850–1851, 1:308, 37376; Acts of the General Assembly of the Commonwealth of Kentucky, 1855–56, 1:50.

18. Marcellus Mundy to Abraham Lincoln, July 28, 1864, Abraham Lincoln Papers at the Library of Congress.

19. Acts of the General Assembly of the Commonwealth of Kentucky, 1832–33, 258–61; Harrison, Antislavery Movement, 47; Martin, Anti-Slavery Movement in Kentucky, 94; Tallant, Evil Necessity, 95.

20. Tallant, Evil Necessity, 91.

21. Ibid., 92–93.

22. Lexington Western Luminary, October 4, 1826, quoted in Coleman, Slavery Times, 145. For more information on the domestic slave trade throughout the United States, see Deyle, Carry Me Back.

23. Johnson, Soul by Soul, 48; Ramage, John Wesley Hunt, 37; Aron, How the West Was Lost, 147; Harrison, Antislavery Movement, 9.

24. Coleman, Slavery Times, 131–34, 150; Watkins, “Patriarchal Politics,” 71, 98–99, 170–74; Lucas, From Slavery to Segregation, 71.

25. Coleman, Slavery Times, 139–40.

26. Western Luminary, November 23, 1831.

27. Lucas, From Slavery to Segregation, 99.

28. Tallant, Evil Necessity, 93–98.

29. Clay, Clay, 1:27. For more on the story, see Sears, Kentucky Abolitionists, 14; Richardson, Cassius Marcellus Clay, 12; McQueen, Cassius M. Clay, 8–9; and Smiley, Lion of White Hall, 20–25.

30. Sears, Kentucky Abolitionists, 14–15; Tallant, Evil Necessity, 116–18.

31. Tallant, Evil Necessity, 118–21.

32. Ibid., 121–23; Harrison, Antislavery Movement, 50–53.

33. KE, s.v. “Webster, Delia Ann”; Lucas, From Slavery to Segregation, 70–73; Coleman, Slavery Times, 196–202.

34. Tallant, Evil Necessity, 134–42; Harrison, Antislavery Movement, 58–60.

35. Martin, Anti-Slavery Movement in Kentucky, 133; Coleman, Slavery Times, 315–16; Tallant, Evil Necessity, 147; Richardson, Cassius Marcellus Clay, 69–70; Smiley, Lion of White Hall, 139–41. E. J. “Patrick” Doyle led the mass escape in 1848. He was an abolitionist and a student at Centre College. He led the group of armed slaves from Fayette and Bourbon counties toward the Ohio River, but they were surrounded and captured by a large posse in a hemp field north of Cynthiana. Doyle was convicted in Lexington and sentenced to twenty years at hard labor; he died in prison. Three of the slaves who were from Fayette County were convicted of being ring leaders of the rebellion, and they were executed. About forty others were sold into the Deep South. Tallant, Evil Necessity, 146; Lucas, From Slavery to Segregation, 73.

36. Tallant, Evil Necessity, 148–51; Martin, Anti-Slavery Movement in Kentucky, 134–36.

37. Tallant, Evil Necessity, 151–57; Martin, Anti-Slavery Movement in Kentucky, 135–37.

38. Tallant, Evil Necessity, 159; Martin, Anti-Slavery Movement in Kentucky, 137–38.

39. Martin, Anti-Slavery Movement in Kentucky, 146; Tallant, Evil Necessity, 159.

40. Sears, Kentucky Abolitionists, 1–5, 37–45; Harrison, Antislavery Movement, 68–71; Tallant, Evil Necessity, 168–69. Cassius Clay's intention for Berea was that it would be a community of antislavery residents. In 1859, Fee organized Berea College in the community. Tallant, Evil Necessity, 185; KE, s.v. “Berea College,” by Richard Sears. For a fuller treatment of Fee's views and activities in Kentucky, see Tallant, Evil Necessity, 165–219.

41. Harrison, Antislavery Movement, 74; Tallant, Evil Necessity, 177–81, 187, 194, 206–8; Harrison, Antislavery Movement, 74. In support of his theory that humans were all the same race, Fee referred to Acts 17:26 when he declared: “God hath made of ONE blood all nations of men.” Tallant, Evil Necessity, 178.

42. Harriet Beecher Stowe quoted in American Missionary, November 1858, 269–70, quoted in Sears, Kentucky Abolitionists, 202.

43. Fee, Autobiography, 146–47.

44. Tallant, Evil Necessity, 213–14; Harrison, Antislavery Movement, 75–76.

45. Harrison, Antislavery Movement, 64–66; Coleman, Slavery Times, 112; Tallant, Evil Necessity, 162; KE, s.v. “Free South,” by Will Frank Steely; ENK, s.v. “Bailey, William S.,” by Theodore H. H. Harris.

46. Lucas, From Slavery to Segregation, 147–48, 157–60.

47. Howard, Black Liberation, 4–5, 91–94; Lucas, From Slavery to Segregation, 147–48, 178–85.

48. Tallant, Evil Necessity, 18.

13. Civil War, Part One: Fighting Spirit, Divided Families, and the Confederate War of Proclamations

1. Louisville Journal, October 29, 1862; OR, ser. 1, 39, pt. 3:724–25, and 52, pt. 1:156; Matthews, “Beleaguered Loyalties,” 9.

2. Moore, ed., Rebellion Record, 1:74–75; Coulter, Civil War and Readjustment, 40–41; KE, s.v. “Dixon, Archibald”; Klotter, “Echoes of the Civil War,” 14; Smith, “Civil War Recruits,” 193.

3. Davis, “Kentucky Orphan Brigade,” 57; Jenkins, Battle Rages Higher, 99.

4. Davis, Orphan Brigade, 2, 81, 84–85, 99; Davis, “Kentucky Orphan Brigade,” 59.

5. Jenkins, Battle Rages Higher, 78, 79, 81, 252, 254. On the Battle of Perryville, see Hafendorfer, Perryville; and Noe, Perryville.

6. Ramage, “Basil W. Duke,” Rebel Raider, 116–17, and “Brig. Gen. John Hunt Morgan.” Daniel E. Sutherland declared that John Hunt Morgan was “a master of guerrilla tactics” who “stood alone as the premier Confederate partisan. Scores of young men flocked to him.” Sutherland, Savage Conflict, 76–78.

7. Blair, “Wild Wolf,” 146–47; Tapp, “Frank Wolford”; Cincinnati Commercial, May 25, 1863.

8. Blair to Ramage, January 30, 2008; Tapp, “Frank Wolford,” 88–89; Ramage, Rebel Raider, 85.

9. Blair, “Wild Wolf,” 146; Tapp, “Frank Wolford,” 91; Tarrant, Wild Riders, 250; Louisville Journal, April 11, 1864.

10. Berry, House of Abraham, 69; Harrison and Klotter, New History, 167, 181–82; Jenkins, Battle Rages Higher, 5; Matthews, “Beleaguered Loyalties,” 21–22.

11. Harrison, Lincoln of Kentucky, 218.

12. Ibid., 217; Berry, House of Abraham, ix, 89, 115, 116.

13. Berry, House of Abraham, 51, 71; KE, s.v. “Helm, Benjamin Hardin”; Harrison, Lincoln of Kentucky, 218.

14. Berry, House of Abraham, 151, 153–54; Harrison, Lincoln of Kentucky, 219.

15. Gilliam, “Family Friends and Foes,” 38; Ramage, “Raids into Kentucky,” 262; Klotter, Breckinridges of Kentucky, 143. Late in the war, Theophilus Steele was promoted to colonel. Duke, History, 574. Robert Breckinridge's youngest son, Charles, attended West Point and served as a Union officer. Klotter, Breckinridges of Kentucky, 81.

16. Gilliam, “Family Friends and Foes,” 38; Klotter, Breckinridges of Kentucky, 89. Willie and Issa's second child was Sophonisba and the third was Desha. Gilliam, “Family Friends and Foes,” 44.

17. KE, s.v. “Prentice, George Dennison,” by Congleton; Vidette, November 2, 1862.

18. OR, ser. 1, 16, pt. 1:1014–15, and pt. 2:556–57; Cincinnati Gazette, September 29, 1862; Matthews, Basil Wilson Duke, 94–95; Davis, Orphan Brigade, 93.

19. New York Times, October 12, 1862; Richmond Enquirer, October 22, 1862; Louisville Journal, October 22, 1862.

20. OR, ser. 1, 4:342; Jenkins, Battle Rages Higher, 5; Harrison, Lincoln of Kentucky, 135; KE, s.v. “Horse Farms,” by Mary E. Wharton; McDowell, City of Conflict, 13; Clark, “Civil War Governors.”

21. OR, ser. 1, 4:255–56; Roland, American Iliad, 41–42; McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom, 284; Howard, Black Liberation, 56; New York Times, October 30, 1861.

22. Berry, House of Abraham, 69; Klein, Louisville and Nashville Railroad, 28–29; Coulter, Civil War and Readjustment, 133. Tennessee governor Isham G. Harris seized the L&N from the Tennessee state line to the south on July 4, 1861. Klein, Louisville and Nashville Railroad, 28.

23. New York Times, September 12, 1861.

24. Graybar, “Buckners of Kentucky,” 202–4; KE, s.v. “Buckner, Simon Bolivar,” by Lowell H. Harrison; Harrison, Lincoln of Kentucky, 139–41. After the Civil War, Kentuckians elected Buckner governor, and, in 1896, he was nominated for vice president on the Gold Democrat ticket of John M. Palmer. In retirement, he developed cataracts, and, when his surgeon warned that surgery might leave him blind, he memorized five Shakespeare plays to “read” in his mind just in case. The surgery was successful, and he never had to resort to his remarkable memory. KE, s.v. “Buckner, Simon Bolivar,” by Harrison; and EACW, s.v. “Buckner, Simon Bolivar.”

25. Richmond Dispatch, September 23, 1861.

26. Grant, Personal Memoirs, 187; KE, s.v. “Johnston, Albert Sidney,” by Charles P. Roland; Roland, History Teaches Us to Hope, 163–65.

27. Davis, Orphan Brigade, 26; Harrison, Civil War, 16–17.

28. Klein, Louisville and Nashville Railroad, 28–30; Davis, Orphan Brigade, 26–27, 31; Coulter, Civil War and Readjustment, 135; OR, ser. 1, 4:201; Crocker, Green River, 16, 26.

29. OR, ser. 1, 4:413–15; New York Times, September 22, 1861; Richmond Dispatch, September 23, 1861; New Orleans Picayune, September 29, 1861; Memphis Appeal, October 2, 1861.

30. Davis, Orphan Brigade, 37–38, 127; Coulter, Civil War and Readjustment, 133; OR, ser. 1, 4:420–21.

31. New York Times, January 5, February 3, 1862.

32. KE, s.v. “Breckinridge, John Cabell,” by James C. Klotter; Klotter, Breckinridges of Kentucky, 121; Coulter, Civil War and Readjustment, 133; OR, ser. 1, 4:445, 468–70, 505; Lewis, Sherman, 189. Estimates vary on how many Kentuckians joined the Confederate army in late 1861 and early 1862. The Confederate War Department stated that 7,950 men joined from Kentucky by March 1, 1862, but this number is low because many men joined other state units. Coulter, Civil War and Readjustment, 135.

33. Coulter, Civil War and Readjustment, 137–38; OR, ser. 1, 4:450–51. General Zollicoffer moved into eastern Kentucky on September 9, and on October 21 he advanced north from the Cumberland Gap to Wildcat Mountain in Laurel County and attacked Union forces, who had the high ground on the mountain. The Union forces were reinforced, and the Confederates withdrew, losing eleven men dead and missing and killing four of the Union force. The fight had little strategic significance, but Union officials claimed it as a major victory. KE, s.v. “Wildcat Mountain, Battle of,” by Mark McFerron; KE, s.v. “Zollicoffer, Felix Kirk,” by D. Warren Lambert; Harrison, Civil War, 19.

34. OR, ser. 1, 4:435, 457.

14. Civil War, Part Two: Union War of Pacification

1. KE, s.v. “Anderson, Robert,” by George H. Yater; KE, s.v. “Johnston, Albert Sidney,” by Roland; Harper's Weekly, January 12, 1861. Anderson served in the Seminole War, and Johnston fought for the Texas Republic and served in the expedition against the Mormon rebellion in the Utah Territory.

2. Roland, History Teaches Us to Hope, 127. In Bowling Green, Kentucky, when youthful Unionist Josie Underwood learned of Anderson's surrender of Fort Sumter, she wrote in her diary: “Oh! I wish I could see Major Anderson—the brave man to hold out so nobly for duty and country!” Baird, ed., Josie Underwood's Civil War Diary, 76.

3. OR, ser. 1, 4:140, 161; Harrison, Civil War, 14; Louisville Journal, May 28, 1861; New York Herald, May 1, 1861.

4. Hughes, “Camp Dick Robinson,” 50–52. A friend of Lincoln's, Nelson was on duty in Washington in early May 1861. He met with Lincoln and requested five thousand rifles to be issued to Kentucky Unionists. Lincoln approved and sent Nelson to Kentucky to distribute the weapons. On July 1, Nelson received authority to begin recruiting for the Union army and to establish Camp Dick Robinson. Coulter, Civil War and Readjustment, 88–89, 101–2.

5. Sherman, Memoirs, 210; Warner, Generals in Blue, 442, 500; Hughes, “Camp Dick Robinson,” 57; Lewis, Sherman, 181–82.

6. OR, ser. 1, 4:256; Sherman, Memoirs, 212, 213; McDowell, City of Conflict, 37, 43.

7. Sherman, Memoirs, 215; New York Times, September 20, October 3, 1861; OR, ser. 1, 4:260, 487; Louisville Journal, September 20, 1861. In the absence of reliable information on what was happening in the distance, both sides generally overestimated enemy strength. On October 4, 1861, Buckner stated that he believed that a Union force of fourteen thousand was headed toward Bowling Green. On October 29, 1861, General Felix Zollicoffer at Cumberland Gap reported the rumor that thirty thousand men were heading his way from Cincinnati. OR, ser. 1, 4:437, 487.

8. McDowell, City of Conflict, 49, 50; Coulter, Civil War and Readjustment, 148; Louisville Journal, September 19, 20, 1861; OR, ser. 2, 2:70, 806, 808–9. Walter N. Haldeman, owner and editor of the Louisville Courier, fled to Confederate lines in Bowling Green, Kentucky, to avoid arrest. He published the paper in Bowling Green and then in Nashville until the Confederate army withdrew from Nashville in February 1862. He lived in Madison, Georgia, until the war ended and then returned to Louisville and reopened the paper. In 1868, he agreed to merge the paper with the Louisville Journal, then owned by Henry Waterson, and the Courier-Journal was created. LE, s.v. “Haldeman, Walter Newman,” by Dennis Cusick; LE, s.v. “Louisville Courier.”

9. New York Times, September 22, 25, 1861; Coulter, Civil War and Readjustment, 120, 132; Louisville Journal, September 25, 27, 1861; McDowell, City of Conflict, 47.

10. New York Times, September 22, 27, October 3, 1861; OR, ser. 1, 4:261, 266; McDowell, City of Conflict, 50, 51.

11. New York Times, September 24, 1861; OR, ser. 1, 4:266, 280; McDowell, City of Conflict, 50; Louisville Journal, September 27, 1861.

12. Hughes, “Camp Dick Robinson,” 58; OR, ser. 1, 4:294. Confederate general George Crittenden had been placed in command, and Zollicoffer was subordinate to him in the Battle of Mill Springs. KE, s.v. “Mill Springs, Battle of,” by C. David Dalton; KE, s.v. “Crittenden, George Bibb,” by James A. Ramage.

13. Hughes, “Camp Dick Robinson,” 58; OR, ser. 1, 4:257, 268, 269, 425.

14. Hughes, “Camp Dick Robinson,” 58; OR, ser. 1, 4:281.

15. Hughes, “Camp Dick Robinson,” 50, 59; OR, ser. 1, 4:202, 281–82. Both sides exaggerated enemy strength and reacted to rumors. For example, Zollicoffer reported in early October 1861 that he was expecting an attack from Camp Dick Robinson. He sent a reconnaissance to London and determined that it was only a rumor. OR, ser. 1, 4:433, 435, 439.

16. OR, ser. 1, 4:293–95.

17. OR, ser. 1, 4:259; Sherman, Memoirs, 216; Louisville Journal, July 25, 1862; OR, ser. 1, 16, pt. 2:733–34. After resigning, Anderson first recruited and then retired from active duty; when the war ended, he was the center of attention at the flag raising at Fort Sumter. He went to Europe for his health and died in 1871 in Nice, France. He was buried at West Point. EACW, s.v. “Anderson, Robert,” by John C. Fredriksen.

18. Thorndike, ed., Sherman Letters, 127–28, 131, 132, 134; OR, ser. 1, 4:279; Sherman, Memoirs, 215, 217, 219; Lewis, Sherman, 190; New York Times, October 20, 1861.

19. Lewis, Sherman, 189, 192; Sherman, Memoirs, 227; Thorndike, ed., Sherman Letters, 135; Curl, Murat Halstead, 27. In reality, Sherman's forces outnumbered Buckner's. On October 4, 1861, Buckner reported that he had fewer than six thousand men. OR, ser. 1, 4:437.

20. Lewis, Sherman, 194; Sherman, Memoirs, 220; Curl, Murat Halstead, 27.

21. Curl, Murat Halstead, 27; Simpson and Berlin, eds., Sherman's Civil War, 174; Lewis, Sherman, 197–98; Thorndike, ed., Sherman Letters, 138.

22. OR, ser. 1, 4:342, 355. The federal government appointed a provost marshal for each county, and he was given authority to arrest anyone suspected of aiding the Confederacy. Ramage, Rebel Raider, 100.

23. Warner, Generals in Blue, 40; KE, s.v. “Boyle, Jeremiah T.,” by Ross A. Webb. Boyle was a slaveholder who advocated abolition before the war.

24. New York Times, September 25, 1861; OR, ser. 1, 4:296; Coulter, Civil War and Readjustment, 146, 149–50.

25. Coulter, Civil War and Readjustment, 151; McDowell, City of Conflict, 67–68.

26. Coulter, Civil War and Readjustment, 139–40, 146; Lowell H. Harrison, “Beriah Magoffin,” in Governors, 80.

27. Coulter, Civil War and Readjustment, 142–43; Harrison, “Beriah Magoffin,” in Governors, 80; New York Times, August 18, 1862. Magoffin supported slavery and states' rights and believed that secession was legal. KE, s.v. “Magoffin, Beriah,” by Lowell H. Harrison. The New York Times published Magoffin's farewell speech on August 18, 1862.

28. Coulter, Civil War and Readjustment, 151–53.

29. OR, ser. 1, 16, pt. 1:769, pt. 2:733–34; Louisville Journal, July 25, 1862; Ramage, Rebel Raider, 99–101. When Morgan challenged Kentuckians to strike for the graves of their forefathers, he was encouraging them to defend their homeland by quoting the popular poem Marco Bozzaris by Fitz-Greene Halleck.

30. OR, ser. 1, 16, pt. 1:733, 736, 738.

31. Ibid., 741, 743; New York Times, July 27, 1862.

32. OR, ser. 1, 16, pt. 1:747, 749–51; Ramage, Rebel Raider, 102. Raising the black flag meant taking no prisoners; it derived from the use of black flags by pirates.

33. Louisville Journal, August 29, 1862; Vidette, August 19, 1862; OR, ser. 1, 16, pt. 2:519.

34. OR, ser. 1, 16, pt. 2:822; Ramage, Rebel Raider, 123; Noe, Perryville, 129.

35. Louisville Journal, September 1, 1862; New York Herald, September 26, 1862; Noe, Perryville, 89; OR, ser. 1, 16, pt. 1:371, 375, 378.

36. Franks, ed., Journal of William Conrad, 80–83; Harrison, Lincoln of Kentucky, 197–98.

37. Smith and Cooper, eds., Union Woman, 148–49; Yonkers, “Civil War Transformation,” 675; OR, ser. 3, 3:416; Harrison, Lincoln of Kentucky, 200. It seems incredible that Boyle as military commander in 1863 campaigned for governor of Kentucky and congressman from Kentucky. Harrison, Lincoln of Kentucky, 200. After he was relieved, Boyle resigned his commission. After the war, he was president of the Louisville City Railway Company and then president of the Evansville, Henderson and Nashville Railroad Company. He died in Louisville on July 28, 1871, and was buried in Danville. KE, s.v. “Boyle, Jeremiah T.,” by Webb.

15. Civil War, Part Three: Lincoln's War on Slavery

1. Lucas, From Slavery to Segregation, 160. Lincoln's political capital in Kentucky was the support he had gained for the Union by treating the state more leniently than the other border states.

2. Harrison, Lincoln of Kentucky, 200; Warner, Generals in Blue, 6–7; De Falaise, “Burbridge's Command in Kentucky,” 103; OR, ser. 1, 32, pt. 2:401, pt. 3:39.

3. EACW, s.v. “Burbridge, Stephen Gano,” by James M. Prichard; OR, ser. 1, 39, pt. 3:725; Harrison, Lincoln of Kentucky, 201, 206.

4. OR, ser. 1, 39, pt. 3:456–57, and 45, pt. 2:402; Harrison, Lincoln of Kentucky, 206.

5. Ramage, Rebel Raider, 213, 219–23; OR, ser. 1, 39, pt. 1:27, and pt. 2:116, 135, 136, 144–45, 158, 162.

6. Louisville Journal, July 20, 1864.

7. Mulesky, Thunder from a Clear Sky, 46–47; Martin, “Black Flag over the Bluegrass,” 370–71. On guerrilla warfare in Kentucky, see Sutherland, Savage Conflict; McKnight, Contested Borderland, and “‘Time by the forelock’”; Streater, “‘Not much a friend to traiters’”; Wright, “Edward H. Hobson”; Rockenbach, “‘War upon our border’”; Blair, “Wild Wolf,” 146–47; Crane, “‘The rebels are bold, defiant, and unscrupulous’”; and Ramage, “Recent Historiography.” On the continuing violence after the war, see Rhyne, “‘We are mobed & beat.’”

8. Clark, “Bushwackers and Bandits,” 104.

9. McKnight, Contested Borderland, 229.

10. OR, ser. 1, 39, pt. 2:181; Harrison, Lincoln of Kentucky, 203; Coulter, Civil War and Readjustment, 232–33; KE, s.v. “Burbridge, Stephen Gano,” by Aloma Williams Dew. See also Bush, Butcher Burbridge. Bush wrote that Burbridge had two goals: “the suppression of any disloyalty of sentiment that might weaken Kentucky's attachment to the Union, and the suppression of the guerillas.” Ibid., 13.

11. OR, ser. 1, 39, pt. 2:174, 213, 217; Louisville Journal, July 20, 1864.

12. Head, Atonement of John Brooks, vii, 163–65, 217. On October 26, 1864, Bur-bridge ordered that guerrillas were not to be considered prisoners of war but were to be shot when captured. Harrison, Lincoln of Kentucky, 205; Coulter, Civil War and Readjustment, 233. Most field commanders apparently ignored this order; it caused less criticism than General Order No. 59 and Union army interference with elections.

13. De Falaise, “Burbridge's Command in Kentucky,” 109; Coulter, Civil War and Readjustment, 185; OR, ser. 3, 4:688.

14. Franks, ed., Journal of William Conrad, 78, 83–95. Conrad was released on August 14, 1864, over two weeks after he was arrested. Ibid., 95.

15. OR, ser. 1, 39, pt. 3:321, 724–25, and ser. 3, 4:690. Burbridge worried that Kentucky livestock might fall into the hands of Confederates, and, therefore, for nearly a month, beginning October 28, 1864, he required that all hogs marketed be sold to his officers in Louisville, who paid less than the market value. Bramlette protested in a letter to Lincoln and sent a delegation to Washington to complain in person. Lincoln ordered Burbridge to cancel the program, and he did on November 27, 1864. Harrison, Lincoln of Kentucky, 206–7. Later, Bramlette reported to the state legislature: “The hog swindle was promptly ended, but not until the farmers had sustained losses to at least $300,000.” Journal of the House of Representatives of Kentucky, January 6, 1865, 20. The program became known as “the Great Hog Swindle.”

General Eleazer A. Paine, in command in Paducah in the summer of 1864, used Burbridge's permit system and his own decrees to conduct a reign of terror on southern sympathizers in western Kentucky. Burbridge sent a commission to investigate Paine; he fled the state and was later reprimanded in a court-martial. Coulter, Civil War and Readjustment, 221–22; Harrison, Civil War, 100; Robertson, Paducah, 53–54.

16. Coulter, Civil War and Readjustment, 186–87; De Falaise, “Burbridge's Command in Kentucky,” 114; Shannon and McQuown, Presidential Politics, 37; Harrison, Lincoln of Kentucky, 191.

17. OR, ser. 1, 39, pt. 3:726; Harrison, Lincoln of Kentucky, 193. Wolford had been arrested three times before for making speeches, and, when he was arrested this time, it was complicated because he was a McClellan elector. If he had been banished from the state, he would not have been present to cast his electoral vote. Coulter, Civil War and Readjustment, 207.

18. OR, ser. 1, 39, pt. 2:211, 215; 45, pt. 1:903; Coulter, Civil War and Readjustment, 185, 206, 208; Howard, Black Liberation, 61; Louisville Journal, January 28, 1865. Huston, Shipman, and Wolford were pardoned as well. Coulter, Civil War and Readjustment, 208.

19. Harrison, Lincoln of Kentucky, 206–7; OR, ser. 1, 45, pt. 1:994; and 49, pt. 1:667; Richmond Sentinel, undated article reprinted in Louisville Journal, January 28, 1865; De Falaise, “Burbridge's Command in Kentucky,” 123.

20. Coulter, Civil War and Readjustment, 161; Louisville Journal, undated article reprinted in Boston Herald, September 30, 1862; Harrison, Lincoln of Kentucky, 207; De Falaise, “Burbridge's Command in Kentucky,” 123; OR, ser. 1, 49, pt. 1:683, 698; Howard, Black Liberation, 74.

21. Coulter, Civil War and Readjustment, 161; Louisville Journal, undated article reprinted in Boston Herald, September 30, 1862.

22. Coulter, Civil War and Readjustment, 161–62; Louisville Journal, July 14, 1863.

23. Coulter, Civil War and Readjustment, 197; Louisville Journal, February 4, 1863; Smith, “Recruitment of Negro Soldiers,” 367; Tallant, Evil Necessity, 144–50. Both the Union and Confederate armies impressed Kentucky slaves as soon as they entered the state. They were employed in constructing roads and fortifications and on other labor projects. During Bragg's invasion, about one thousand freedmen and slaves were impressed in Louisville to work on the trenches. Lucas, From Slavery to Segregation, 149–50. In northern Kentucky, freedmen impressed in Cincinnati were released and encouraged to volunteer. The next morning, over six hundred volunteered to enroll in the Cincinnati Black Brigade, which was part of the labor force that constructed defenses south of Newport and Covington, including Battery Hooper in Fort Wright, Kentucky. Today, Battery Hooper Park includes the James A. Ramage Civil War Museum. On the fortifications in northern Kentucky, see Kreinbrink, “Northern Kentucky Fortification System.” On the museum, see ENK, s.v. “James A. Ramage Civil War Museum,” by Andrea S. Watkins.

24. OR, ser. 3, 3:416, 418–420; Coulter, Civil War and Readjustment, 197, 199; Harrison, Civil War, 89; Howard, Black Liberation, 59; Smith, “Recruitment of Negro Soldiers,” 377–78; Chicago Tribune, January 28, 1864.

25. Blair, “Wild Wolf,” 146–47; Peter, History of Fayette County, 465.

26. Blair, “Wild Wolf,” 146–47; Tapp, “Frank Wolford,” 97; Louisville Journal, March 14, 1864; Lexington Observer and Reporter, undated article reprinted in Louisville Journal, March 14, 1864; Smith, “Recruitment of Negro Soldiers,” 379; Wright, Kentucky Soldiers, 4:49–50.

27. Harrison, Lincoln of Kentucky, 183; Louisville Journal, March 17, 1864; Smith, “Recruitment of Negro Soldiers,” 381.

28. Smith, “Recruitment of Negro Soldiers,” 381–82; Coulter, Civil War and Readjustment, 200–201.

29. Klotter, Breckinridges of Kentucky, 85; Smith, “Recruitment of Negro Soldiers,” 382–83. On March 24, 1864, Wolford was discharged from the army and released, and he resumed touring the state and speaking to large audiences that applauded almost every sentence. The Louisville Journal compared him to the patriots of ancient Rome and declared: “He has our love, our respect, and confidence.” Bramlette's heart was with Wolford, and, when the War Department authorized the organization of a state militia, Bramlette placed Wolford in charge. Wolford was speaking for McClellan for president when he was arrested again, on June 27, 1864, and Bramlette threatened to retaliate against Union authorities by taking hostages for his “battle-scarred patriot-hero.” Blair, “Wild Wolf,” 147; Louisville Journal, April 11, 18, 1864; Coulter, Civil War and Readjustment, 206.

30. Coulter, Civil War and Readjustment, 203; Smith, “Recruitment of Negro Soldiers,” 383–84, 389–90; Howard, Black Liberation, 55, 63.

31. Howard, Black Liberation, 57, 63; Sears, Camp Nelson, xxxviii-xxxix, 65; Lucas, From Slavery to Segregation, 155–56; OR, ser. 1, 39, pt. 2:213–14. On June 1, 1864, Bramlette protested to Burbridge that the enlistments violated his agreement with Lincoln, but Burbridge was undeterred. Howard, Black Liberation, 63–64; Lucas, “Freedom Is Better Than Slavery,” 194–96.

32. Smith, “Recruitment of Negro Soldiers,” 385–86, 389; Lucas, From Slavery to Segregation, 157–58, 160, 166; Smith, “Civil War Recruits,” 193–94; Foner, Give Me Liberty! 1:453–54. John V. Cimprich wrote: “Enlistment would give more slave men and their families a Federal freedom in Kentucky than elsewhere.” Cimprich, afterword to Sister States, Enemy States, 365.

33. Sears, Camp Nelson, xxx, l-lii, 134–48; Lucas, From Slavery to Segregation, 161–62; Sears, “Long Way from Freedom,” 221, 230–33; Lucas, “Camp Nelson,” 446–48.

34. Sears, Camp Nelson, 147–48, 181, and “Long Way from Freedom,” 223, 23233; OR, ser. 3, 4:1228.

35. Howard, Black Liberation, 72–74; OR, ser. 3, 4:1017–18.

36. Sears, Camp Nelson, 103–5; OR, ser. 1, 39, pt. 2:158, 231; Howard, Black Liberation, 49, 54.

37. Ramage, introduction to Kentucky Cavaliers, ix; OR, ser. 1, 39, pt. 1:556–57.

38. Ramage, introduction to Kentucky Cavaliers, x; Mosgrove, Reminiscences, 202; OR, ser. 1, 39, pt. 1:556–57, and pt. 3:200.

39. OR, ser. 1, 39, pt. 1:553–54, 556–57; and 42, pt. 2:494–95; Ramage, introduction to Kentucky Cavaliers, xi; Matthews, Basil Wilson Duke, 188; Sears, Camp Nelson, 195–96.

40. Sears, Camp Nelson, 169; Coulter, Civil War and Readjustment, 258–60. Kentucky was the only state that refused to ratify the Thirteenth Amendment. Prentice recommended ratification, and Governor Bramlette requested the legislature to approve with the condition of compensation for slaveholders. State legislators stood on their interpretation of the U.S. Constitution, and both houses voted against ratification. Tallant, Evil Necessity, 18; Howard, Black Liberation, 88–89; Coulter, Civil War and Readjustment, 259–61. Victor Howard wrote that the vote was a rejection of everything the Union party in Kentucky had done since 1862. Howard, Black Liberation, 89.

41. KE, s.v. “Palmer, John McCauley”; Howard, Black Liberation, 83, 85, 86, 88.

42. Lucas, From Slavery to Segregation, 160; Harrison, Civil War, 95; Klotter, “Echoes of the Civil War,” 16–17; Coulter, Civil War and Readjustment, 246, 250.

43. Flannery, “History Revisited,” 40; Wright, Transylvania, 187; LE, s.v. “Galt House,” by Kay Gill. See also Flannery, “Cultural Context,” 59–62.

44. FWP, Kentucky Slave Narratives, 7, 9–11, 16; De Falaise, “Burbridge's Command in Kentucky,” 124; Coulter, Civil War and Readjustment, 393; EACW, s.v. “Burbridge, Stephen Gano,” by James M. Prichard. Palmer was elected governor of Illinois and a U.S. senator and ran for president as a Gold Democrat in 1896 with Simon B. Buckner as his vice presidential running mate. KE, s.v. “Palmer, John McCauley.” Harriet Mason said that the return trip to Kentucky was in two covered wagons and an ambulance. FWP, Kentucky Slave Narratives, 10.

45. Ramage, Rebel Raider, 248–50, 257. Christopher Phillips wrote that fifty-six of Kentucky's sixty-eight Civil War monuments are Confederate. Phillips, “‘The Chrysalis State,’” 158.

Epilogue

1. Greeley, ed., Clay, 72.

2. Louisville Journal, March 5, 1849.

3. Laver, Citizens More Than Soldiers, 7, 144.

4. Flannery, “Cultural Context,” 54–55; Carden, Music in Lexington, 9, 73–77, 86, 89–93.

5. Flannery, “Cultural Context,” 28–29, 58; Evans, Newspaper Press, 10; Harrison and Klotter, New History, 99.

6. Shannon and McQuown, Presidential Politics, 37; Louisville Journal, July 18, 1865.

7. Rhyne, “‘We are mobed & beat,’” 40.

8. Harrison and Klotter, New History, 218, 237; Lucas, From Slavery to Segregation, 236; Tapp and Klotter, Kentucky: Decades of Discord, 6–10.

9. Phillips, “‘The Chrysalis State,’” 158; Flannery, “Cultural Context,” 65–66.

10. Harrison and Klotter, New History, 240; Ramage, Rebel Raider, 253; KE, s.v. “McCreary, James Bennett,” by Lowell H. Harrison; KE, s.v. “McCreary County,” by Frank C. Thomas.

11. Tapp and Klotter, Kentucky: Decades of Discord, 231.

12. Ramage, Rebel Raider, 248, 251, 254.

13. Ibid., 250.

14. Foster, Ghosts of the Confederacy, 39; Collins and Collins, History of Kentucky, 1:207; Head, Atonement of John Brooks, 203–4; Bush, Butcher Burbridge, 157. The soldier from Maysville, whose body had been transferred by his family earlier, was S. Thomas Hunt. According to James Head, the other three were Elijah Horton, Captain William Jones, and Thornton Lafferty. Head, Atonement of John Brooks, 203–4. Kentucky highway marker 504 identifies the site of the execution and first burial.

15. Foster, Ghosts of the Confederacy, 101–3, 131; Brown, Public Art, 22. For an examination of how Lost Cause leaders and former Unionists united in memorial services to celebrate the heroism of soldiers on both sides and to ignore the fact that the war was fought to free the slaves, see Blight, Race and Reunion. The North and South reconciled, but that generation failed to address racial injustice.

16. Confederate Veteran 15 (1907): 234; photocopy of unidentified, undated newspaper article in possession of James A. Ramage; Ramage, Rebel Raider, 257; Thomas H. Appleton Jr., “Augustus Everett Willson,” in Harrison, ed., Governors, 141–44.

17. Ramage, Rebel Raider, 257; Lexington Herald, October 19, 1911; Lexington Leader, October 18, 1911.

18. Lexington Herald, October 19, 1911.

19. Ibid. For a discussion of John Hunt Morgan's strengths and weaknesses, see Ramage, Rebel Raider.

20. KE, s.v. “Breckinridge, William Campbell Preston,” by James C. Klotter; Klotter, Breckinridges of Kentucky, 151, 153, 159; Harrison and Klotter, New History, 248.

21. Harrison, Lincoln of Kentucky, 245; Harrison and Klotter, New History, 180.