1. P. E. Razzell, ‘An Interpretation of the Modern Rise of Population in Europe’, Population Studies, 28: 5–17 (1974), 13; W. Reyburn, Flushed with Pride: The Story of Thomas Crapper (London: Macdonald, 1969); Lawrence Wright, Clean and Decent: The History of the Bath and Loo, and of Sundry Habits, Fashions and Accessories of the Toilet Principally in Great Britain, France and America (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1960). See also Lucinda Lambton, Temples of Convenience and chambers of Delight (London: Pavillion, 1995). The standard text for most occasions when referring to the history of hygiene was Henry Sigerist’s elegant essay Landmarks in the History of Hygiene, Heath Clark Lectures (London: Oxford University Press, 1956); this superseded his previous survey article ‘The Philosophy of Hygiene’, Bulletin of the Institute of the History of Medicine, 1 (1933), 323–32.
2. Wright, Clean and Decent, 1.
3. William Morris, News from Nowhere; or, An Epoch of Rest, ed. James Redmond (London, 1890; London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1970), 6. See also the classic 19th-century text by Sir John Simon, English Sanitary Institutions, Reviewed in the Course of their Development, and in Some of their Political and Social Relations (London, 1890), 142.
4. F. Braudel, ‘The History of Civilisations: The Past Explains the Present’, in Braudel, On History (Écrits sur l’histoire), trans. Sarah Matthews (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1980); Norbert Elias, The Court Society, trans. Edmund Jephcott (1st German edn., 1969; Oxford: Blackwell, 1983), 13: ‘biological evolution, social development, and history, form three distinct layers … the speed of change being different at each level … In the contexts of different rates of change, phenomena in the slower current are apt, from the position of the faster current, to seem immutable, and eternally recurrent.’ See also Elias, Time: An Essay, trans. Edmund Jephcott (Oxford: Blackwell, 1993), 96–7.
5. The chess analogy is usually cited for malarial disease, not hygiene; but the analogy arguably still holds true. See L. W. Hackett, Malaria in Europe: An Ecological Study (London: Oxford University Press, 1937); cited in Mary J. Dobson, Contours of Health and Disease in Early Modern England (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997). See also W. H. McNeill, Plagues and Peoples (London: Penguin, 1979), 15–16.
6. Robert Boyle, quoted in A. C. Crombie, Augustine to Galileo: Science in the Later Middle Ages and Early Modern Times, 13th–17th Century, 2 vols. (New York: Doubleday, 1959), ii. 297; see also Robert Boyle’s ‘Heads’ and ‘Inquiries’, ed. Michael Hunter, Robert Boyle Project (London: University of London, 2005).
1. See e.g. Kenneth Jon Rose, The Body in Time (New York: Wiley, 1988).
2. As in Frank Macfarlane Burnet, The Integrity of the Body (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1962); id., Self and Not-Self: Cellular Pathology (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1969). See also A. I. Tauber, The Immune Self: Theory or Metaphor? (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994); Ian Burkitt, ‘The Shifting Concept of the Self’, History of the Human Sciences, 7 (1994), 7–28.
3. Quoted from Günter von Hagens, Autopsy: Life and Death, Lesson III: ‘Poison’, Channel Four TV, 18 Jan. 2006.
4. Diane Ackerman, A Natural History of the Senses (London: Phoenix, 1990), 10–11; Bartolomeus Anglicus, De Propriatibus Rerum (‘On the Properties of Things’), trans. John Trevisa (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1975), ii. 1296–7. For historical views on smell, see the pioneer anthropologist Dan Mackenzie, Aromatics and the Soul: A Study of Smells (London: Heinemann, 1923); Alain Courbin, The Foul and the Fragrant (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1986).
5. What is happening in the brain here is as yet not fully understood. See generally Susan Greenfield, The Private Life of the Brain (London: Allen Lane, 2000); ead., Brain Story: Unlocking our Inner World of Emotions, Memories, Ideas and Desires (London: BBC, 2000); and more specifically William Ian Miller, The Anatomy of Disgust (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1997).
6. Robin Dunbar, Grooming, Gossip, and the Evolution of Language (London: Faber & Faber, 1996), 36–8; see also B. M. Spruijt, J. A. R. A. M. van Hoof, and W. H. Gispen, ‘Ethology and Neurobiology of Grooming Behaviour’, Physiological Review, 72/3 (1992), 834–9.
7. Lyall Gordon, ‘The Sweet Stench of Success’, Independent on Sunday, 12 Sept. 1999, 18–20; see also id., Jacobson’s Organ and the Remarkable Nature of Smell (London: Allen Lane, 1999); London Evening Standard, 5 Aug. 1999, 22.
8. For a recent overview, see Matt Ridley, Nature via Nurture: Genes, Experience and What Makes Us Human (London: Harper Perennial, 2004); also Steven Pinker, The Language Instinct: The New Science of Language and Mind (London: Allen Lane, 1992).
9. Constance Classen, Worlds of Sense: Exploring the Senses in History and Across Cultures (London: Routledge, 1993), introd., 1–3, and passim; see also D. Howes (ed.), The Varieties of Sensory Experience: A Sourcebook in the Anthropology of the Senses (Toronto: Toronto University Press, 1991), and L. Vinge, The Five Senses: Studies in a Literary Tradition (Lund: C. W. K. Gleerup, 1975).
10. Many further examples are raised in T. McLaughlin, Coprophilia, or, A Peck of Dirt (London: Cassell, 1971); and in R. Reynolds, Cleanliness and Godliness (London: Allen & Unwin, 1943). An Internet trawl of the word ‘disgust’ brings up the subjects of food, sex, racial politics, referees, dirty clothing, and (in one experiment) being asked to kiss a stranger—most people had a disgust reaction at that.
11. Paul Rozin, Towards a Psychology of Food Choice (Brussels: Institut Danone, 1998); see also Miller, Anatomy of Disgust.
12. Mary Douglas, Purity and Danger: An Analysis of the Concepts of Pollution and Taboo (1966; London: Routledge & Kegan Paul/Ark, 1984), p. viii.
13. Norbert Elias, The Civilising Process: Sociogenetic and Psychogenetic Investigations, trans. Edmund Jephcott (1939; Oxford: Blackwell, 2000), 68–72; an additional note on cleanliness appears at 530–1 n. 124.
14. On ethology, see P. J. Bowler, The Environmental Sciences (London: Fontana, 1972); Desmond Morris, The Naked Ape: A Zoologist’s Study of the Human Animal (London: Jonathan Cape, 1967); id., Manwatching: A Field Guide to Human Behaviour (London: Jonathan Cape, 1977); William McGrew, Chimpanzee Material Culture: Implications for Human Evolution (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992); Frans de Waal, The Ape and the Sushi Master: Cultural Reflections by a Primatologist (London: Allen Lane, 2001).
15. Dunbar, Grooming, Gossip, and the Evolution of Language, 35.
16. Robert Barton, ‘Grooming Site Preferences in Primates and their Functional Implications’, International Journal of Primatology, 6/5 (1985), 519–32.
17. The classic work on body techniques is Marcel Mauss, Sociology and Psychology Essays, trans. Ben Brewster (1950; London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1979), pt. IV: ‘Body Techniques’; see esp. p. 104.
18. On relic gestures, see Morris, Manwatching, 47–52.
19. As with Frank McCourt’s father—‘sucking the bad stuff out of Michael’s head … that’s what we did in Antrim long before there were doctors riding their horses’ (Frank McCourt, Angela’s Ashes: A Memoir of a Childhood (London: Flamingo, 1997), 112–13).
20. See M. D. Murray, ‘Effects of Host Grooming on Louse Populations’, Parasitology Today, 3/9 (1987), 276–9.
21. Francis Beckett interviewing Rosa Rust, ‘Unsentimental Education’, Independent on Sunday Review, 19 Mar. 1995, 2.
22. See Dunbar, Grooming, Gossip, and the Evolution of Language, passim; but see also id., Primate Social Systems (London: Croom Helm, 1988); W. G. Runciman, J. Maynard Smith, and R. Dunbar (eds.), Evolution of Social Behaviour Patterns in Primates and Man (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996); Frans de Waal (ed.), Tree of Origin: What Primate Behaviour Can Tell Us About Human Social Evolution (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2001).
23. One female Tanzanian chimpanzee once gave a fascinating display of grooming and nursing care. As chief allo-groomer she particularly liked grooming teeth, laying the patient on his or her back, using the thumb to groom the upper teeth and the forefinger to groom the lower teeth, and using a twig for close work. These dental grooming bouts were exceptionally long-lasting, particularly for a young male losing his early molars; but she also regularly performed dental care during normal grooming sessions (W. C. McGrew and C. E. G. Tutin, ‘Chimpanzee Tool Use in Dental Grooming’, Nature, 24 (16 Feb. 1973), 477–8).
24. For an excellent short description of the Neolithic domestic healing context, see Guenter B. Risse, ‘Medical Care’, in W. F. Bynum and Roy Porter (eds.), Companion Encyclopedia of the History of Medicine (London: Routledge, 1993), esp. ‘The Healing Framework’, 47–51; see also the early anthropologist Daniel Mackenzie, The Infancy of Medicine: An Enquiry into the Influence of Folk-Lore upon the Evolution of Medicine (London: Macmillan, 1927). On food-gathering and the extra time provided by the ‘grandmother revolution’, see Richard Rudgley, Secrets of the Stone Age (London: Century, 2000).
25. Dunbar, Grooming, Gossip, and the Evolution of Language, 1. See also J. Sparks, ‘Allo-Grooming in Primates: A Review’, in D. Morris (ed.), Primate Ethology (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1967); C. Goosen, G. Mitchell, J. Erwin (eds.), Social Grooming in Primates (New York: Arliss, 1987).
26. Spruijt et al., ‘Ethology and Neurobiology of Grooming Behaviour’, 830 and passim.
27. See generally Clive Ponting, World History: A New Perspective (London: Chatto & Windus, 2000); Andrew Sherratt, Economy and Society in Prehistoric Europe: Changing Perspectives (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1997); Richard Rudgley, Lost Civilisations of the Stone Age (London: Century, 1998); Paul G. Bahn (ed.), The Story of Archaeology (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson/Phoenix Illustrated, 1997).
28. See the classic text by Bernard Rudofsky, Architecture without Architects: A Short Introduction to Non-Pedigreed Architecture (1964; New York: Academy Editions, 1973), preface; see also contributions to the Sixth International Theriological Congress, ‘Perspectives in Mammalian Environmental Physiology’, Sydney, Australia, 1994, Australian Journal of Zoology, 24/1. The term ‘habitus’ was first used by the anthropologist Marcel Mauss, but was greatly extended by Pierre Bourdieu, Outline of a Theory of Practice, trans. Richard Nice (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977). The phrase ‘customs, habits and manners’ was commonly used by 18th-century ethnographers.
29. Robert Parker, Miasma: Pollution and Purification in Early Greek Religion (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1983), 18 and passim. See also the range of psychologies discussed in Margaret Horsfield, Biting the Dust: The Joys of Housework (London: Fourth Estate, 1998).
30. T. Darvill and J. Hawes, Neolithic Houses in North West Europe and Beyond (Oxford: Oxbow, 1996); see also M. Parker Pearson and C. Richards (eds.), Architecture and Order: Approaches to Social Space (London: Routledge, 1994).
31. V. Gordon Childe, Skara Brae (Edinburgh: HMSO, 1983); see photographs in Bahn (ed.), The Story of Archaeology, 76–7.
32. The classic description of the ‘string revolution’ is Elizabeth Wayland Barber, Women’s Work: The First 20,000 Years. Women, Cloth, and Society in Early Times (New York: Norton, 1994).
33. UK Association of Housebuilders, Model Schedule of Works, courtesy of Cityshape plc (London, 1997). The majority of references to cleanliness on the Internet come from the industrial cleaning sector.
34. ‘Cleanliness’: Oxford English Dictionary on Historical Principles (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1893), 475–9. The OEDHP contextual definitions (actually full of later 12th-century Middle English words) describe clene as ‘clear—free from anything that dims lustre or transparency…Pure—undefiled, unsullied, free from dirt or filth, unstained, chaste, innocent …Fine—comely, neat, clever, trim, smart …Clear of obstruction or unevenness—clear, bare, void, clean-cut … Nothing left behind—complete, perfect, total, a clean sweep, get clean away… ‘. On genus words and those categorized as ‘achievements of the imagination’, see G. Lakoff, Women, Fire and Dangerous Things (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987), 1–38; David Crystal, The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), pt. I, ch. 3: ‘Old English’, 22–3 and passim; see also id., Language Play (London: Penguin, 1998).
35. See generally Uno Winblad and Wen Kilama, Sanitation without Water (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1985), 1 and passim.
36. This particular ger is in the collection of tents held by the Horniman Museum of Natural History, Dulwich, London.
37. Quotation from a Berber woman in a refugee camp in the Sahara. Older refugees had built solidly sculpted mud huts, but with their original tent still pitched beside them—a sign of their eventual return to their homelands; see Michael Palin in the Sahara, BBC TV, 13 Oct. 2002; see also Michael Palin, Sahara (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2002).
38. The traditional ‘Table of Opposites’ used by the Greek Pythagoreans, and Aristotle, were left-right, female-male, below-above, back-front, cold-hot, wet-dry, heavy-light, dense-rare. See G. E. R. Lloyd, Polarity and Analogy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1966), 64–6; Jansheed K. Chosky, Purity and Pollution in Zoroastrianism: Triumph over Evil (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1989).
39. The full list of thirty-six demons is described in William R. Lafleur, ‘Hungry Ghosts and Hungry People’, in Michel Feher, Ramona Nadeff, Nadia Tazi, and E. Alliez (eds.), Fragments for a History of the Human Body (New York: Zone; Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1989), 270–303.
40. P. P. Jensen, ‘Graded Holiness: A Key to the Priestly Conception of the World’, Journal for the Study of the Old Testament, NT Supplement Series, 106 (1992), 80–2. Zoroastrianism was especially hylozoic (i.e. worshipping of matter): ‘The use of water to wash away dirt and impurities, or to purify a polluted body, is regarded as a heinous sin, for through such action water is exposed to demonic impurities … The Vendidad states that anyone who pollutes water with carrion becomes ritually impure forever’ (Chosky, Purity and Pollution in Zoroastrianism, 11–12; Mary Boyce, Zoroastrianism: Their Beliefs and Practices (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1979)).
41. E. N. Fallaize, ‘Purification (Introductory and Primitive)’, quoting Pitt-Rivers, in J. Hastings (ed.), The Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark; New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1913), 455–66, 461. Mary Douglas thought that a comprehensive categorization of purity rules was ‘utterly beyond the scope of objective scholarship … The formal ritual of public occasions teaches one set of doctrines. There is no reason to suppose that its message is necessarily consistent with those taught in private rituals, or that all public rituals are consistent with one another, nor all private rituals. There is no guarantee that the ritual is homogeneous … ‘ (Purity and Danger, 166).
42. Douglas, Purity and Danger, 165.
43. Jacob Neusner, The Idea of Purity in Ancient Judaism (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1973), 1.
44. Douglas, Purity and Danger, 176–9.
45. Kumbh Mela: The Greatest Show on Earth, Channel Four TV, 8–12 Jan. 2001.
46. Louis Dumont, Homo Hierarchicus: The Caste System and its Implications (1966; Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1981).
47. ‘Purdah indicates that a family can do without the income of its women’ (Santi Rozario, Purity and Communal Boundaries: Women and Social Change in a Bangladeshi Village (London: Allen & Unwin, 1992), 94); see also Douglas, Purity and Danger, 140.
48. As described by a prince of the South African Xhosa, Nelson Mandela, in Nelson Mandela, Long Walk to Freedom (London: Little, Brown/Abacus, 1995), 30–6.
49. N. Soderblum, ‘Holiness (General and Primitive)’, in Mircea Eliade (ed.), Encyclopedia of Religion (London: Macmillan, 1987), 731, on the perceived ‘absurdity’ of total holiness, which also requires that there be profanity.
50. Mary Douglas, ‘Purity and Danger: Leviticus—a Retrospective’, seminar at Clare College, Cambridge, 21 Oct. 1997.
51. See Claudia Benthien, Skin: On the Cultural Borderline between Self and the World, trans. Thomas Dunlop (New York: Columbia University Press, 2002); Mark Lappé, The Body’s Edge: Our Cultural Obsession with Skin (New York: H. Holt, 1996); Steven Connor, The Book of Skin (London: Reaktion, 2004).
52. M. Gompper and A. M. Hoylman, ‘Grooming with Trattinnickia Resin: Possible Pharmaceutical Plant Use by Coatis in Panama’, Journal of Tropical Ecology, 9 (1993), 533–7; see also Cindy Engel, Wild Health (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2002).
53. Leo Kanner, The Folklore of the Teeth (London: Macmillan, 1928).
54. Bruce M. Knauft, ‘Bodily Images in Melanesia: Cultural Substances and Natural Metaphors’, in Feher et al. (eds.), Fragments for a History of the Human Body, 253; Victoria Ebin, The Body Decorated (London: Thames & Hudson, 1979), 81. The main body parts were usually named earliest; see Stanley R. Witowski and Cecil H. Brown, ‘Climate, Clothing, and Body-Part Nomenclature’, Ethnology, 24/3 (1985), 197–214.
55. Karl Gröning, Decorated Skin: A World Survey of Body Art, trans. Lorna Dale (London: Thames & Hudson, 1997); see also Ebin, The Body Decorated, passim.
56. W. D. Hambley, The History of Tattooing and its Significance: With Some Account of Other Forms of Corporal Marking (London: H. F. & G. Witherby, 1925), 806–7 and passim. On Melanesian dress code, see Knauft, ‘Bodily Images in Melanesia’, 240.
57. Description of Dolní Věstonice by the historian Richard Rudgley in The Secrets of the Stone Age, Channel Four TV, 15 Dec. 2001; see also Rudgley, Secrets of the Stone Age: A Prehistoric Journey (London: Century, 2000), passim. Castelmerle in France had three main sites (Abri de la Souquette, Abri Castanet, and Abri Blanchard) where intensive bead-making was carried out c.35,000 BC.
58. John Hoffecker, ‘Ice Age Art and Burials in Eastern Europe’, in Bahn (ed.), The Story of Archaeology, 64–5.
59. Sherrat, Economy and Society in Prehistoric Europe, passim.
60. See e.g. Bahn (ed.), The Story of Archaeology, 156–7; and the archaeologist Natalya Polosmak in Ice Mummies (2), BBC TV, 30 Jan. 1997.
61. P. and J. Read (eds.), Long Time, Olden Time: Aboriginal Accounts of Northern Territory History (Alice Springs: Institute for Aboriginal Development Publications, 1991), 120, 145–6; Paul G. Bahn, ‘Water Mythology and the Distribution of Paleolithic Parieta Art’, Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society, 44 (1978), 125–34.
62. Alfred Martin, ‘The Bath in Japan’, Ciba Symposia, 1/5 (1939), 156–62 and passim.
63. See the 17th-century description of an Indian sweat-bath and river-sluice in G.R. [George Rosen], ‘Early Observations on Sweatbaths’, CIBA Symposia, 1/5 (1939), 163.
64. Herodotus, The Histories, trans. Aubrey de Sélincourt (London: Penguin, 1996), book IV, paras. 73–4, pp. 238–9. See also Richard Rudgley, Essential Substances: A Cultural History of Intoxicants in Society (London: British Museum Press, 1993).
65. Pietro Querini, quoted by Leslie Plommer, ‘In Cod They Trust’, Guardian Weekend, 25 Jan. 1997, 40–2.
66. One thinks especially of flood, wartime conditions—and rock festivals. For a general introduction to body sociology, see Chris Shilling, The Body and Social Theory (London: Sage, 1993), 12, 100–6; B. S. Turner, Regulating Bodies: Essays in Medical Sociology (London: Routledge, 1992).
1. See generally Geoffrey Barraclough (ed.), The Times Atlas of World History (London: Times Books, 1979), passim; Clive Ponting, A Green History of the World: The Environment and the Collapse of Great Civilisations (London: Penguin, 1992), 295–314; id., World History: A New Perspective (London: Chatto & Windus, 2000), 109–37, 195.
2. The rough figure of a 10 per cent elite is an acceptable estimate for ancient societies (and seems remarkably modern), i.e. in the planned city of Ahkentaten, 7–9 per cent of the population was elite royal retinue; 40 per cent middle-rank craftsmen, tradesmen, and administrators; the remaining 50 per cent rural labourers and craftsmen. See Eugen Strouhal, Life in Ancient Egypt (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), 67, recording the findings of Christian Tietze.
3. Louis Dumont, Homo Hierarchicus: The Caste System and its Implications (1966; London: Paladin, 1972), 106–7 and passim.
4. W. H. McNeill, Plagues and Peoples (London: Penguin, 1979), 64. Half a million bodies are required to keep measles in circulation in modern urban communities—the size of the capital of ancient Sumeria.
5. Herodotus, The Histories, trans. A. Selincourt (London: Penguin, 1972), 198.
6. Cynthia Wright Shelmerdine, The Perfume Industry of Mycenan Pylos (Göteborg: Astroms, 1985), 131–2.
7. Dioscorides, quoted in Lise Manniche, An Ancient Egyptian Herbal (Austin: University of Texas; London: British Museum Press), 51.
8. Maurizio Forte (ed.), Virtual Archaeology: Great Discoveries Brought to Life through Virtual Reality (London: Thames & Hudson, 1997), 75.
9. This cosmetic case is held in the British Museum. See also Alan Gardiner, The Egyptians: An Introduction (Oxford: Oxford University Press; London: Folio Society, 1962), 383–7; and J. R. Partington, Origins and Development of Applied Chemistry (London: Longmans, Green, 1935), 5–6, 143.
10. Partington, Origins and Development of Applied Chemistry, 135–43; Julia Samson, Nefertiti and Cleopatra: Queen-Monarchs of Ancient Egypt (London: Rubicon, 1985), cataloguer of the Armana Palace Collection. Washtub dowry sets recorded in Amy Tan, The Kitchen God’s Wife (London: Fontana, 1992), 148.
11. Perishability is discussed in Michael Vickers and David Gill, Artful Crafts: Ancient Greek Silverware and Pottery (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1994).
12. Moti Chandra, Costumes, Textiles, Cosmetics and Coiffure in Ancient and Medieval India (Delhi: Oriental Publishers, Indian Archaeological Society, 1973), 185.
13. Kunda B. Patkar and P. V. Bole, Herbal Cosmetics in Ancient India: With a Treatise on Planta Cosmetica (Mumbai: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, 1997), 45.
14. Crito, summarized in Florence E. Wall, ‘Historical Development of the Cosmetic Industry’, in Edward Sagarin (ed.), Cosmetics, Science and Technology (New York: Interscience Publishers, 1957), 11.
15. See generally H. S. F. Saggs, The Babylonians: A Survey of the Ancient Civilisation of the Tigris-Euphrates Valley (London: Folio Society, 1999); Ernst H. Kantorowicz, The King’s Two Bodies: A Study in Mediaeval Political Thought (1957; Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1981), 3–5.
16. Philip Peter Jensen, ‘Graded Holiness: A Key to the Priestly Conception of the World’, Journal for the Study of the Old Testament, NT Supplement Series (Apr. 1992), 37 and passim.
17. Saggs, The Babylonians, 282, 283–4, 288–90.
18. Dimitri Meeks and Christine Faroud-Meeks, Daily Life of the Egyptian Gods, trans. G. M. Gasgherian (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1997), 126–9.
19. Shorter Oxford English Dictionary on Historical Principles (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1933), 401; on ellu, see E. Jan Wilson, ‘Holiness’ and ‘Purity’ in Mesopotamia (Kevelaer: Butzon & Bercker, 1994), esp. ch. 2: ‘Holy Objects’, 67. The Kama Sutra of Vatsyayana, ed. Kenneth Walker, trans. Richard Burton and F. F. Arbuthnot (London: Luxor Press, 1964), chs. 2 and 3; see also Alain Daniélou, Kama Sutra: Le Breviare de l’amour. Traité d’érotisme de Vatsyayana, trans. Alain Daniélou (Monaco: Éditions du Rocher/Jean-Paul Bertrand, 1992), 7–18.
20. Sagg, The Babylonians, 271–2; Jensen, ‘Graded Holiness’, 37 and passim; Bahn (ed.), The Story of Archaeology, 146.
21. Chandra, Costumes, Textiles, Cosmetics and Coiffure in Ancient and Medieval India, 207.
22. Ganges water is also held to behave, taste, and look unusually ‘clean’ (Eric Newby, Slowly Down the Ganges (London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1966), 212–18 and passim). Thanks to Dennis Herbstein for observations on contemporary ear-cleaning services.
23. Herodotus, Histories, 99.
24. A. M. Blackman, ‘Purification (Egyptian)’, in J. Hastings (ed.), The Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark; New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1913), 476–82.
25. Saggs, The Babylonians, 302.
26. Homer, The Iliad, trans. E. V. Rieu (London: Penguin, 1950), book 14, lines 261–2.
27. Homer, The Odyssey, trans. Walter Shewring (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998), 72. See also Jean-Pierre Vernant, ‘Dim Body, Dazzling Body’, in Michel Feher, Ramona Nadeff, Nadia Tazi, and E. Alliez (eds.), Fragments for a History of the Human Body (New York: Zone; Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1989), 30–1; on religious beauty contests, see Richard Hawley, ‘The Dynamics of Beauty in Classical Greece’, in Dominic Montserrat (ed.), Changing Bodies, Changing Meanings: Studies on the Human Body in Antiquity (London: Routledge, 1998), 37–9.
28. Alain Daniélou, Shiva and Dionysus, trans. K. F. Hurry (London: East/West, 1982).
29. Burgo Partridge, A History of Orgies (London: Spring Books, 1958), 19, 20–4.
30. Sagg, The Babylonians, 154; Sosso Logiadou-Platanos, Knossos: The Palace of Minos. A Survey of the Minoan Civilisation, trans. David Hardy (Athens: private publication, 1999). It is suggested that the angle of drainage in the queen’s suite was too shallow to be used for sewage, but does suggest a shower run-off.
31. Richard Hakluyt, Voyages and Documents, ed. Janet Hampden (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1958), 88–9.
32. Homer, Odyssey, 19. 235.
33. Johan Huizinga, Homo Ludens: A Study of the Play Element in Culture (1944; London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1980).
34. Morris, Manwatching: A Field Guide to Human Behaviour (London: Jonathan Cape, 1977), 230–6; Camille Paglia, Sexual Personae: Art and Decadence from Nefertiti to Emily Dickinson (London: Penguin, 1991), 62–4.
35. Shelmerdine, The Perfume Industry of Mycenan Pylos, 129.
36. i.e. bear-grease or beef-fat; A. V. Lucas, ‘Cosmetics, Perfumes, and Incense in Ancient Egypt’, Journal of Egyptian Archaeology, 16 (1930), 41–53. It was also noted in the 17th century that ‘the [wild] Irish have a custom of standing naked before the fire, and rubbing and as it were pickling themselves with old salt butter’ (Francis Bacon, Historia Vitae et Mortis, book 3, vol. iv, in The Collected Works of Francis Bacon, ed. J. Spedding, R. Ellis, and D. Heath (London: Routledge/Thoemmes, 1996), 285.
37. Chandra, Costumes, Textiles, Cosmetics and Coiffure in Ancient and Medieval India, 211. A list of twenty-four rules of the toilette was laid down by the Vedic commentator Susruta sometime between 10 BC and AD 150; see ibid. 202–8.
38. A famous passage from the Roman author Diodorus Siculus on the physical appearance of the Celts, popularly quoted, as, for example, in J. Anthony Delmege, Towards National Health; or, Health and Hygiene in England from Roman to Victorian Times (London: Heinemann, 1931), 4.
39. The Kama Sutra, 14.
40. Chandra, Costumes, Textiles, Cosmetics and Coiffure in Ancient and Medieval India, 208.
41. Samson, Nefertiti and Cleopatra, 42. See also the less well-known but elegant tomb paintings of Queen Nefertari.
42. Elizabeth Wayland Barber, Women’s Work: The First 20,000 Years. Women, Cloth, and Society in Early Times (New York: Norton, 1994), 130–1, 194, and passim.
43. Jack Goody, The Culture of Flowers (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), 12, 18–19. See Chandra, Costumes, Textiles, Cosmetics and Coiffure in Ancient and Medieval India, 212, 223–5, in which at least 133 regional hairstyles are counted and illustrated.
44. Leslie P. Pierce, The Imperial Harem: Women and Sovereignty in the Ottoman Empire (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993), 5.
45. Hakluyt, Voyages and Documents, 80–1.
46. Lise Manniche, Sexual Life in Ancient Egypt (London: Kegan Paul International, 1987), 88.
47. Kama Sutra, 12, 62; see also John Jakob Meyer, Sexual Life in Ancient India: A Study in the Comparative History of Indian Culture (London: George Routledge & Sons, 1930), 269–72 and passim.
48. Kama Sutra, 161.
49. Public women and courtesans do not fit neatly into the status divisions historians have identified in the classical Greek period; see Sarah B. Pomeroy, Goddesses, Whores, Wives and Slaves (1975; London: Pimlico, 1994). The concept of the ‘whore’ in particular is anachronistic, since the word is linked to the Christian concept of sex as a sin; the word ‘prostitute’ also carries the same overtones of self-violation. On Cleopatra, see the excellent book by Lucy Hughes-Hallett, Cleopatra: Histories, Dreams, Distortions (London: Bloomsbury, 1990).
50. Norman Davies, Europe: A History (London: Pimlico, 1997), 90–4; J. M. Roberts, History of the World (London: Penguin, 1990), 98–9; Ponting, A Green History of the World, 71 and passim.
1. The current standard of living index is the Human Development Index, which measures longevity (sanitation and health services), knowledge (education), and income (a certain standard of domestic life). See Sudhir Anand, Human Development Index: Methodology and Measurement, Human Development Report Office Occasional Papers, 12 (United Nations Development Programme, 1994). Public health impacts are notoriously difficult to assess, since all ancientworld demographic statistics are necessarily constructed from relatively slight evidence; but see Mirko Grmek, Diseases in the Ancient Greek World, trans. M. and L. Muellner (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press), 91–2 and passim. See also Robin Osborne, Greece in the Making, 1200–479 BC (London: Routledge, 1996).
2. R. E. Wycherley, How the Greeks Built Cities (London: Macmillan, 1962), 198–204.
3. George Ryley Scott, The Story of Baths and Bathing (London: T. W. Lawrie, 1939), 30.
4. Serge Lancel, Carthage: A History, trans. A. Nevill (Oxford: Blackwell, 1995). On the Greek public fountains, and balneology, see René Ginouvès, Balaneutikē: Recherches sur le bain dans l’antiquité grecque (Paris: Éditions E. de Boccard, 1962).
5. Wycherley, How the Greeks Built Cities, 177; David M. Robinson and J. Walther Graham, Excavations at Olynthus, pt. VIII: The Hellenic House: A Study of the Houses Found at Olynthus with a Detailed Account of those Excavated in 1931 and 1934 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1938), 199–201.
6. Jean-Nicolas Corvisier, Santé et société en Grèce ancienne (Paris: Economica, 1985), 68–9.
7. Inge Nielson, Thermae et Balnea (Aarhus: Aarhus University Press, 1990), 7.
8. Henry E. Sigerist, ‘Religious Medicine: Asclepius and his Cult’, in Sigerist, A History of Medicine, ii: Early Greek, Hindu, and Persian Medicine (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1961); for a modern study, see Robert Parker, Miasma, Pollution and Purification in Early Greek Religion (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1996); and id., Athenian Religion: A History (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1996), 175.
9. On temple baths, see Ginouvès, Balaneutikē, passim.
10. Parker, Miasma, Pollution and Purification in Early Greek Religion, 307.
11. Walter Burkert, The Orientalising Revolution: Near Eastern Influence on Greek Culture in the Early Archaic Age (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1992); on fragmentation, Parker, Miasma, Pollution and Purification in Early Greek Religion, 210, 304–7.
12. Parker, Miasma, Pollution and Purification in Early Greek Religion, app. 2: ‘The Cyrene Cathartic Law’, 332–51, 335, 339.
13. Ibid. 322–3. The translation of the word ‘honest’ comes from ‘to have hosia’.
14. See generally E. Norman Gardiner, Athletics of the Ancient World (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1930); Mark Golden, Sport and Society in Ancient Greece (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998); David Sansone, The Genesis of Sport (Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1988).
15. See also Harold D. Evjen, ‘The Origins and Functions of Formal Athletic Competition in the Ancient World’, in William Coulson and Helmut Kyrileis (eds.), Proceedings of an International Symposium on the Olympic Games, 5–9 September 1988 (Athens: Aohna, 1992); Roland Renson, Pierre Paul de Nay, and Michel Ostyn (eds.), The History, the Evolution and Diffusion of Sports and Games of Different Cultures, Proceedings of the International Association for the History of Physical Education and Sport, Apr. 1975 (Brussels, 1976).
16. Lucian, ‘Anacharsis, or Athletics’, in Lucian, trans. A. M. Harmon (London: Heinemann; New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1925), iv. 11, 13–15, 19.
17. But girls and young women (in Sparta especially) did participate in public games. See Golden, Sport and Society in Ancient Greece, 128–9; Allen Guttmann, Women’s Sports: A History (New York: Columbia University Press, 1991), 23–4. For Amazonian sports, see Lyn Webster Wilde, On the Trail of the Women Warriors (London: Constable, 1999).
18. Golden, Sport and Society in Ancient Greece, Olympic schedule table 2, p. 20.
19. Wycherley, How the Greeks Built Cities, 175–97, 143, ch. VI and passim.
20. Corvisier, Santé et société en Grèce ancienne, 54–5; Nielson, Thermae et Balnea, 1, 9–10.
21. Golden, Sport and Society in Ancient Greece, 65–9.
22. N. J. Richardson, ‘Panhellenic Cults and Panhellenic Poets’, in D. M. Lewis, John Boardman, J. K. Davies, and M. Ostwald (eds.), The Cambridge Ancient History, 2nd edn. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), v: The Athletes: Background and Careers, 232–6.
23. The Dialogues of Plato, v: The Republic, trans. Benjamin Jowett (London: Sphere Books, 1970), 175; Jacques Jouanna, Hippocrates, trans. M. B. DeBevoise (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999), 166–7. See also G. E. R. Lloyd, The Revolutions of Wisdom: Studies in the Claims and Practises of Ancient Greek Science (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987), 19–20; satirical comments by Philostratus on the art of gymnastics, in Robert Brophy and Mary O’Reilly Brophy, ‘Medical Sports Fitness: An Ancient Parody of Greek Medicine’, in K. A. Rabuzzi and R. W. Daley (eds.), Literature and Medicine, viii (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1989).
24. Lucian, ‘Anacharsis, or Athletics’, 3, 5, 7.
25. Golden, Sport and Society in Ancient Greece, 68.
26. The 2001 Australian cricket team had large dustbins of iced water provided after the game for all players when on tour—‘some of us spend half an hour “in the bin”, the body feels great after it’—and travel with a dietitian, masseur, psychologist, and coach. Interview in The Ashes, BBC TV, 15 Aug. 2001.
27. H. A. Harris, Sport in Greece and Rome (London: Thames & Hudson, 1972), 112–32; Gardiner, Athletics of the Ancient World, passim.
28. Grmek, Diseases in the Ancient Greek World, 92, 99; see generally Mark Nathan Cohen, Health and the Rise of Civilisation (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1989).
29. See G. E. R. Lloyd, ‘The Hot and the Cold, the Dry and the Wet in Greek Philosophy’, Journal for Hellenic Studies, 84 (1964), 92–106; Vivian Nutton, ‘Humoralism’ (1), in Bynum and Porter (eds.), Companion Encyclopedia of the History of Medicine, 283, 286.
30. Donald J. Harper, Early Chinese Medical Literature: The Mawangdui Medical Manuscripts (London: Kegan Paul International, 1998), 110–12 and passim. Recently discovered Mawangdui and Zhangjishan medical manuscripts from around 400–200 BCE found in aristocratic tombs at Hubei and Hunan in central north-eastern China revealed a body of macrobiotic hygiene literature that was ‘far more extensive’ than previously thought. I am indebted to Dr Vivienne Lo for this reference.
31. Jouanna, Hippocrates, 156–7; Kenneth G. Zysk, Asceticism and Healing in Ancient India: Medicine in the Buddhist Monastery (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991), 5–6. G. E. R. Lloyd discusses the crucial concept of ‘semantic stretch’ for words such as katharsis, pharmaka, therapeia, and hygieia in his In the Grip of Disease: Studies in the Greek Imagination (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003), 9–11 and passim.
32. See the classic description by L. J. Rather, ‘The Six Non-Naturals: The Origins of a Doctrine and the Fate of a Phrase’, Clio Medica, 3 (1968), 337–47; see also Harold J. Cook, ‘Physical Methods’, in Bynum and Porter (eds.), Companion Encyclopedia of the History of Medicine, 940.
33. ‘A Regimen for Health’, in Hippocratic Writings, ed. Lloyd, trans. J. Chadwick and W. N. Mann (London: Penguin, 1987), 272–6.
34. On temperance, see especially Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics, ed. J. L. Ackrill and J. O. Urmson, trans. David Ross (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998), book 10 and passim.
35. Hippocratic Writings, Aphorisms, 211–12.
36. Ibid. 161. See also Andrew Shail and Gillian Howie (eds.), Menstruation: A Cultural History (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005), esp. Luigi Arata, ‘Menses in the Corpus Hippocraticum’, and Monica H. Green, ‘Flowers, Poisons and Men: Menstruation in Medieval Western Europe’.
37. For miaino (and all other Greek translations given here), see H. W. and F. G. Fowler (eds.), The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Current English (Oxford, 1964); see also ‘Airs, Waters, Places’, in Hippocratic Writings. On miasma, see Owsei Temkin, ‘An Historical Analysis of the Concept of Infection’, in Temkin, The Double Face of Janus, and Other Essays in the History of Medicine (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1977); and more generally Margaret Pelling, ‘Contagion/Germ Theory/Specificity’, in Bynum and Porter (eds.), Companion Encyclopedia of the History of Medicine.
38. Hippocratic Writings, 168–9.
39. T. P. Wiseman, Clio’s Cosmetics: Three Studies in Greco-Roman Literature (Leicester: Leicester University Press, 1979), 8.
40. Anne Carson, ‘Putting her in her Place: Women, Dirt, and Desire’, in D. Halperin, J. J. Winkler, and F. I. Zeitlin (eds.), Before Sexuality: The Construction of the Erotic Experience in the Ancient Greek World (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990), 154–5; Camille Paglia, Sexual Personae: Art and Decadence from Nefertiti to Emily Dickinson (London: Penguin, 1991), 6–28, 54–5; Helen King, Hippocrates’ Women: Reading the Female Body in Ancient Greece (London: Routledge, 1998).
41. Plato, Gorgias, trans. Walter Hamilton (London: Penguin, 1981), 465 (pp. 46–7).
42. Hesiod, Theogony and Works and Days, ed. M. L. West (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988), pp. 52–3, lines 496–563.
43. Plato, The Republic, 401 (p. 169), 431 (p. 203).
1. More than matched by the 50 million living under the Han Empire in China between 206 BCE and AD 220 (Colin McEvedy and Richard Jones, Atlas of World Population in History (London: Penguin, 1978), 126 and passim); Mark Nathan Cohen, Health and the Rise of Civilisation (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1989), 140. See generally V. Hope and E. Marshall, Death and Disease in the Ancient City (London: Routledge, 2000).
2. E. M. Winslow, A Libation to the Gods: The Story of Roman Aqueducts (London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1963), 26–32 and passim; Ray Laurence, The Roads of Roman Italy: Mobility and Cultural Change (London: Routledge, 1999), 1–10, 15–21; Inge Nielson, Thermae et Balnea (Aarhus: Aarhus University Press, 1990), 13.
3. O. F. Robinson, Ancient Rome: City Planning and Administration (London: Routledge, 1992), 47.
4. Quoted in Winslow, A Libation to the Gods, 7.
5. Jerome Carcopino, Daily Life in Ancient Rome: The People and the City at the Height of the Empire, trans. E. O. Lorimer (1941; London Penguin, 1991), 51.
6. Ibid. 52–4.
7. Nielson, Thermae et Balnea, 2; Richard Duncan-Jones, Structure and Scale in the Roman Economy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 178–84; Garret G. Fagan, Bathing in Public in the Roman World (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1999), 343, with an inscription from Serjilla, Syria, AD 473.
8. Garret G. Fagan, ‘The Physical Environment: Splendor and Squalor’, in Fagan, Bathing in Public in the Roman World.
9. Stephen Inwood, A History of London (London: Macmillan, 1998), 23–4.
10. Samuel S. Kottek, Medicine and Hygiene in the Works of Flavius Josephus (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1994), 61–8; Stephen T. Newmeyer, ‘Public Health in the Holy Land: Classical Influence and its Legacy’, in Manfred Wiserman and Samuel S. Kottek (eds.), Health and Disease in the Holy Land (Lewiston, Me.: Edwin Mellen, 1996), 89.
11. On Baiae and the Campanian coast generally, see Fikret Yegül, Baths and Bathing in Classical Antiquity (New York: Architectural History Foundation; Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1992), 93–110; Nielson, Balnae et Thermae, 21–6; Ralph Jackson, ‘Waters and Spas in the Classical World’, in Roy Porter (ed.), The Medical History of Waters and Spas, Medical History Supplement 10 (London: Wellcome Institute for the History of Medicine, 1990).
12. Burgo Partridge, A History of Orgies (London: Spring Books, 1958), 67.
13. Jackson, ‘Waters and Spas in the Classical World’, 1–3.
14. Yegül, Baths and Bathing in Classical Antiquity, 93.
15. Partridge, A History of Orgies, 59.
16. Lucian, ‘Hippias, or, The Bath’, in Lucian, trans. A. M. Harmon (London: Heinemann; New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1925).
17. Otto Kiefer, Sexual Life in Ancient Rome (1934; London: Constable, 1994); Seneca, Epistles 86 and 171.
18. See Fik Meijer and Otto van Nijf, Trade, Transport and Society in the Ancient World: A Sourcebook (London: Routledge, 1992).
19. Ovid, Ars Amatoria, book III, in The Love Poems, trans. A. D. Melville (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990), 131.
20. See generally A. J. Cooley, The Toilet in Ancient and Modern Times (London: Robert Hardwick, 1866); Carcopino, Daily Life in Ancient Rome, 161–90.
21. Ovid, Ars Amatoria, 129–30.
22. Only 100 lines of ‘Cosmetics for Ladies’ have survived; it breaks off abruptly after fifty lines of recipes. Ovid, Love Poems, 83–5.
23. Ibid. 84–5. Ovid’s recipes did not come cheap: ‘take two pounds of ground barley, 10 eggs, two ounces of ground antler horn, twelve narcissus bulbs, two ounces of gum and Tuscan seed. Mix with honey nine times that quantity … [for a cream for a fresh complexion] take incense, nitre, gum, myrrh, honey, fennel, rose petals, frankincense … then pour some barley-liquor on the lot.’
24. Ovid, Ars Amatoria, 129–32; ‘Cosmetics for Ladies’, 83. For an excellent fictional account of a pupil of Ovid, see the character Helena Justina in Lindsey Davis’s Didius Falco detective series.
25. Ars Amatoria, 133–5.
26. Ibid. 100–1.
27. Carcopino, Daily Life, 179, 183, 138. ‘The Maiden’ was the Virgo Aqueduct.
28. Roy Porter, The Greatest Benefit to Mankind: A Medical History of Humanity from Antiquity to the Present (London: HarperCollins, 1997), 66–86; Harold J. Cook, ‘Physical Methods’, in W. F. Bynum and Roy Porter (eds.), Companion Encyclopedia of the History of Medicine (London: Routledge, 1993), 942–5.
29. Celsus, De Medicina, trans. W. G. Spencer, 3 vols. (London: Heinemann; Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1935), i. 7. See also Elizabeth Rawson, ‘The Life and Death of Asclepiades of Bythnia’, Classical Quarterly, 32/2 (1982), 358–79; Vivian Nutton, Ancient Medicine (New York: Routledge; London: Taylor & Francis, 2004), ch. 13: ‘Methodism’.
30. Rawson, Life and Death, 359–60, 7, 175.
31. See Henry Sigerist, Landmarks in the History of Hygiene, Heath Clark Lectures (London: Oxford University Press, 1956); and Ludwig Edelstein, ‘The Methodists’, in Owsei Temkin and C. Lilian Temkin (eds.), Ancient Medicine: Selected Papers of Ludwig Edelstein (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1987), 184 and passim.
32. Edelstein, ‘The Dietetics of Antiquity’, in Temkin and Temkin (eds.), Ancient Medicine, 308.
33. Celsus, De Medicina, 43, 45, Proemium, 41.
34. Galen, Galen’s Hygiene (De Sanitate Tuenda), trans. Robert Montraville Green (Springfield, Ill.: Charles C. Thomas, 1951); Porter, The Greatest Benefit to Mankind, 73; Cook, ‘Physical Methods’, 944–5.
35. See Heinrich von Staden, ‘Body, Soul, Nerves: Epicurus, Herophilus, Erasistratus, the Stoics, and Galen’, in John P. Wright and Paul Potter (eds.), Psyche and Soma: Physicians and Metaphysicians on the Mind-Body Problem from Antiquity to Enlightenment (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 2000), 80, 106–7, 110, and passim. The tag mens sana in corpore sano is found in Juvenal, Satires, 10. 356.
36. Galen, Hygiene, 47. See also L. J. Rather, ‘ “The Six Things Non-Natural”: A Note on the Origins and Fate of a Doctrine and a Phrase’, Clio Medica, 3 (1968), 337–47; Peter H. Niebyl, ‘The Non-Naturals’, Bulletin of the History of Medicine, 45 (1971), 486–92; Nutton, ‘Humoralism’, in Bynum and Porter (eds.), Companion Encyclopedia of the History of Medicine, 289.
37. Galen, Hygiene, 12, 5.
38. Ibid. 57–8. The difficulty of transmitting practical skills was only one reason for the overall decline of massage therapy in western Europe after the fall of Rome, though it survived elsewhere in Eurasia (India, the Middle East).
39. Peter Brown, The Making of Late Antiquity (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1978), 2–8; Norman Davies, Europe: A History (London: Pimlico, 1997), 210–14 and passim.
40. Winslow, A Libation to the Gods, 56–7, 36. See generally Nielson, Thermae et Balnea; Yegül, Baths and Bathing in Classical Antiquity.
41. Yegül, Baths and Bathing in Classical Antiquity, 317–29.
1. See generally Michel Foucault, The History of Sexuality, i: An Introduction, ii: The Use of Pleasure, iii: The Care of the Self, trans. Robert Hurley (London: Penguin, 1986); on askesis, ii. 72–7. See also generally Peter Brown, The Making of Late Antiquity (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1978), and id., ‘Asceticism: Pagan and Christian’, in Averil Cameron and Peter Garnsey (eds.), The Cambridge Ancient History, xiii: The Late Empire, AD 337–425 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998).
2. William James, The Varieties of Religious Experience, ed. Martin E. Marty (London: Penguin, 1985), 392–9.
3. Ilana Friedrich Silber, Virtuosity, Charisma and Social Order (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), 80–6, 211–22.
4. Jean Levi, ‘The Body: The Daoists’ Coat of Arms’, in Michel Feher, Ramona Nadeff, Nadia Tazi, and E. Alliez (eds.), Fragments for a History of the Human Body (New York: Zone; Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1989), pt. III, pp. 114–17. See also the comments of Marcel Mauss, Sociology and Psychology Essays, trans. Ben Brewster (1950; London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1979), 122; and the sociological studies of his friend the religious historian Marcel Granet, The Religion of the Chinese People, trans. Maurice Freedman (1922; Oxford: Blackwell, 1975). See also Francesca Bray, ‘Chinese Medicine’, in W. F. Bynum and Roy Porter (eds.), Companion Encyclopedia of the History of Medicine, 2 vols. (London: Routledge, 1993), i. 728–54; Philip S. Rawson, ‘The Body in Tantra’, in J. Benthall and T. Polhemus (eds.), The Body as a Medium of Expression (London: Penguin/Allen Lane, 1975).
5. Marcus Aurelius, Meditations, trans. Maxwell Staniforth (London: Penguin, 1964), 93; see also Michel Foucault, Technologies of the Self: A Seminar with Michel Foucault, ed. L. H. Martin, H. Gutman, and P. H. Hutton (London: Tavistock, 1988), 22–30.
6. Arnobius, The Case against the Pagans, trans. George E. McCracken (Westminster, Md.: Newmans; London: Longmans Green, 1949), Attack on Philosophy: The Mortality of the Soul, book II, paras. 4 and 10, pp. 116–17, 121–2.
7. See Brown, The Making of Late Antiquity, 7–9; Jacob Neusner, Judaism, Christianity and Zoroastrianism in Talmudic Babylon (Lanham, Md.: University Press of America, 1986), p. x; W. T. Whitley, ‘Sects (Christian)’, in J. Hastings (ed.), The Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark; New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1913); see also Henry Wace and William Coleman Piercy, A Dictionary of Christian Biography and Literature to the End of the Sixth Century AD; with an Account of the Principal Sects and Heresies (London: John Murray, 1911). The sectarian history of these regions is extraordinarily dense; among the Judaic Christian sects alone, main groups included the Gnostics, Manichaeans, Nazarenes, Copts, Nestorians, and Ebionites, with smaller groups of Marcosians, Monarchians, Melchizedekites, Montanites, and Novationists.
8. Luke 5: 12–39; Ezekiel 36: 25–6.
9. Amos 5: 10–23, 6: 1–6.
10. Jacob Neusner, ‘The Idea of Purification in Ancient Judaism’, Haskell Lectures 1972–3, with a critique by Mary Douglas, repr. in Neusner, Studies in Judaism in Late Antiquity from the First to the Seventh Century, i (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1973), 535, 7; Peter Brown, Body and Society: Men, Women, and Sexual Renunciation in Early Christianity (New York: Columbia University Press, 1988), 35–6.
11. Leviticus 19: 27–8, 21: 5.
12. Isaiah 3: 16–24.
13. The belief that their martyred prophet had been miraculously revived from the dead, and deified, has been described as a ‘stunning suspension of the inflexible laws of the normal’, especially in an era when the sciences were apparently so dominant; see Brown, Body and Society, 38–9, 44. Celsus, for example, roundly attacked Christianity for its belief in miracles; see the line-byline rebuttal of this (lost) work in Origen, Contra Celsum, trans. H. Chadwick (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1953), 31 and passim.
14. Lloyd P. Gerson (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to Plotinus (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996); J. A. M. Guckin, ‘Christian Asceticism and the Early School of Alexandria’, in W. J. Shiels (ed.), Monks, Hermits and the Ascetic Tradition (Oxford: Ecclesiastical History Society/Blackwell, 1985), 30–1.
15. St Augustine, Confessions, trans. R. S. Pine-Coffin (London: Penguin, 1961), book VI, pp. 129–30 and passim. See also Henry Chadwick, Augustine: A Very Short Introduction (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1986), 17–26; Peter Brown, Augustine of Hippo (London: Faber & Faber, 1967); Brown, ‘Asceticism’, 602, 605–8, 614. Augustine died quoting Plotinus.
16. St Athanasius, ‘On Sickness and Health’, in David Brakke, Athanasius and the Politics of Asceticism (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1995), 310–11, app. D. See also Michael Williams, ‘Divine Image—Prison of Flesh: Perceptions of the Body in Ancient Gnosticism’, in M. Feher et al. (eds.), Fragments for a History of the Human Body, 128–47.
17. Elizabeth Abbott, A History of Celibacy (Cambridge: Lutterworth Press, 2001), 104–5. The verdict of Edward Gibbon, that they were ‘horrid and disgusting’, has remained; but though their skin was unwashed, since they ate and drank very little, their evacuations were probably not very great.
18. Caroline Walker Bynum, ‘The Female Body and Religious Practice in the Late Middle Ages’, in Feher et al. (eds.), Fragments for a History of the Human Body, 162–3; Brown, Body and Society, 441–2.
19. Including the so-called ‘libertine sects’; see Henry C. Lea, A History of Sacerdotal Celibacy, 2 vols. (London: Williams & Norgate, 1907), i. 20–1.
20. Abbott, A History of Celibacy, 102–4.
21. On the ‘democracy’ of asceticism, see Brown, ‘Asceticism’, 614 and passim; as far as I know, he does not address anarchism.
22. Ibid. 616 and passim.
23. Colin Spencer, The Heretics Feast: A History of Vegetarianism (London: Fourth Estate, 1993), 128–9.
24. See St Athanasius, ‘Second Letter to Virgins’, in Brakke, Athanasius and the Politics of Asceticism, app. B, p. 299; Lea, A History of Sacerdotal Celibacy, 56. See also Joyce E. Salisbury, Church Fathers, Independent Virgins (London: Verso, 1991); Elizabeth Schussler Fiorenza, In Memory of Her: A Feminist Theological Reconstruction of Christian Origins (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992).
25. St Ambrose, Concerning Virginity, in Henry Wace and Philip Schaff (eds.), A Select Library of Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers of the Christian Church: A New Series, 14 vols. (Oxford: Parker, 1890–1900), vol. x, book I, ch. VII, pp. 32, 39. The easiest way to access this text is via the Catholic site <http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/34071.htm>. See also Mary Laven, Virgins of Venice: Enclosed Lives and Broken Vows in the Renaissance Convent (London: Penguin, 2002).
26. St Jerome, Letter 45, in Wace and Schaff (eds.), A Select Library of Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers of the Christian Church, vi. 3–5, <http://newadvent.org/fathers/3001.htm>.
27. Ambrose, Concerning Virginity, book III, chs. II-III, <http://new advent.org/fathers/34073.htm>; id., On the Duties of the Clergy, book I, ch. XVIII, <http://newadvent.org/fathers/34011.htm>; Brakke, Athanasius and the Politics of Asceticism, app. B, p. 294.
28. Ambrose, Concerning Virginity, book I, pp. 37, 39.
29. Abbott, A History of Celibacy, 96; Brown, Body and Society, 157–8.
30. Augustine’s statement of his washing habits in De Sermone Domini in Monte is noted by Henry Chadwick, ‘The Ascetic Ideal in the History of the Church’, in Shiels (ed.), Monks, Hermits, and the Ascetic Tradition, 16 n. 70; Brown, Body and Society, 283–4.
31. Ambrose, Duties of the Clergy, 77–80; Exodus 28: 42.
32. Jerome, see esp. Letters 45 and 125; see also J. N. D. Kelley, Jerome: His Life, Writings and Controversies (London: Duckworth, 1975).
33. St Athanasius, ‘Dangers of the Public Bath’, in ‘Second Letter to Virgins’, 297–8.
34. William Popper, ‘Purification (Muslem)’, in Hastings (ed.), The Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, 497.
35. On Olympias, see Brown, Body and Society, 283; Porter, The Greatest Benefit to Mankind, 88–91; Dorothy Porter, Health, Civilisation and the State: A History of Public Health from Ancient to Modern Times (London: Routledge, 1999), 20–3; Ralph Jackson, Doctors and Diseases in the Roman Empire (London: British Museum Press, 1988), 133–6; on local hospitals in Egypt, see Peter von Minnen, ‘Medical Care in Late Antiquity’, in P. J. van der Eijk, H. F. Horstmanhoff, and P. H. Schrijvers (eds.), Ancient Medicine in its Socio-Cultural Context, i (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1995).
36. The Christian Church ‘had become, in effect, an institution possessed of the ethereal secret of perpetual self-reproduction’, and as such was an entirely new type of public institution (Brown, Body and Society, 120–1). See also Richard Fletcher, The Conversion of Europe: From Paganism to Christianity, 371–1386 AD (London: HarperCollins, 1997).
1. See generally Fernand Braudel, Civilisation and Capitalism, 15th-18th Century, 3 vols., trans. Sian Reynolds (London: Collins, 1981–4), i: The Structures of Everyday Life; Raffaella Sarti, Europe at Home: Family and Material Culture 1500–1800 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2002). The celebrated twenty-seven volumes of Alfred Franklin, La Vie privée d’autrefois: Arts, métiers, mode, mœurs, usage des parisiens du Xlle au XVIIIe siècle (Paris: Plon, 1887–1902) have recently been superseded by Philippe Ariès and George Duby (eds.), A History of Private Life, i-v (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press, 1987–94).
2. Einhard and Notker the Stammerer, Two Lives of Charlemagne, trans. Lewis Thorpe (London: Penguin, 1969), 133, 77; Henry Maguire (ed.), Byzantine Court Culture from 829 to 1204 (Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks, 1997).
3. M. A. Manzalaoui (ed.), Secretum Secretorum: Nine English Versions (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1977), introd. and ‘Regimen Sanitatis: The Booke of Good Governance and Guyding of the Body’, 3–9 and passim. See generally C. Stephen Jaeger, The Origins of Courtliness: Civilising Trends and the Formation of Courtly Ideals (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1985), 113–75, 179, and passim; Aldo Scaglione, Knights at Court: Courtliness, Chivalry, and Courtesy from Ottonian Germany to the Italian Renaissance (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991).
4. As for example in the many editions of Hugh Rhodes’s The Book of Nurture for Menservants and Children (with Stans puer ad mensam) (London: Abraham Veale, 1550?). See generally Norbert Elias, The Civilising Process: Sociogenetic and Psychogenetic Investigations, trans. Edmund Jephcott (1939; Oxford: Blackwell, 2000), pt. 2 and passim.
5. Sarti, Europe at Home, 151.
6. Notker the Stammerer, Two Lives of Charlemagne, introd., 30, 131.
7. See Notker, ‘Shaving the Devil’, in Notker, Two Lives of Charlemagne: ‘The bishop who broke the Lenten fast and then made penance by washing the poor, including the Devil’ (introd., 30, 115–17).
8. John Julius Norwich, The Normans in Sicily: The Normans in the South 1016–1130 and, The Kingdom in the Sun 1130–1194 (London: Penguin, 1992), 464, 599–602, 765–7.
9. Francois Boucher, A History of Costume in the West, trans. John Ross (London: Thames & Hudson, 1987), 171–6; David Jacoby, ‘Silk in Western Byzantium before the Fourth Crusade’, report VII, in Jacoby, Trade, Commodities, and Shipping in the Medieval Mediterranean (Aldershot: Variorum, 1997), 462; Norwich, The Normans in Sicily, 492.
10. On bards, see John Mathews (ed.), The Bardic Source Book: International Legacy and Teachings of the Ancient Celts (London: Blandford, 1988), esp. 26–42; Daniel Corkery, ‘The Bardic Schools’, see also David Crystal (ed.), The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), 34–9.
11. The Owl and the Nightingale: Cleanness. St Erkenwald, trans. Brian Stone (London: Penguin, 1977), 77–8, 84, 100.
12. French tapestry La Dame à licorne embroidered at the end of 15th century, now at the Musée des Thermes, Paris. See Georges Vigarello, Concepts of Cleanliness: Changing Attitudes in France since the Middle Ages, trans. Jean Birrell (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press/Éditions de la Maison des Sciences de l’Homme, 1988), 28; Wilhelm Rudeck, Geschichte der Öffentlichen Sittlichkeit in Deutschland (Jena, 1897; Berlin: H. Barsdorf, 1905), 12–13; believed trans. as the History of Public Morality in Germany (Jena, 1906) (no copies found). I am very grateful to Hedi Stadlen for translating the German used here.
13. Sir Nicholas Harris Nicholas, History of the Orders of Knighthood of the British Empire, 3 vols. (London: William Pickering & John Rodwell, 1842), iii. 5–7, 11–15; John Anstis, Observations Introductory to an Historical Essay upon the Knighthood of the Bath (London, 1725). The ceremonial sequence is painted in full in a medieval Garter Book reproduced in Anthony Wagner, Nicolas Barker, and Ann Payne (eds.), Medieval Pageant: Writhe’s Garter Book: The Ceremony of the Bath and the Earldom of Salisbury Roll (London: Roxburghe Club/Quaritch, 1997). Actual bathing ceased in 1815, when the mature officers of Waterloo were made companions en masse, and was not revived (personal communication, Garter Herald at Arms).
14. Francis Packard, ‘Note on the History of the School of Salerno’, in Humphrey Mitford (ed.), The School of Salernum: Regimen Sanitatis Salernitanum (London: Humphrey Mitford, 1922), 14–15; Fielding H. Garrison, ‘The History of the Regimen Sanitatis’, ibid. 56–7. On Salerno hydraulics, see The Trotula: An English Translation of the Medical Compendium of Women’s Medicine, ed. and trans. Monica Green (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2001), 6 and nn. 18, 19; also Paulo Squatriti, Water and Society in Early Medieval Italy, AD 400–1000 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998).
15. Porter, The Greatest Benefit to Mankind, 106–9. In the 1840s medical historians reported that there was nothing left in the town of Salerno—no remains, no library, and only one doctor, who did not even own a copy of the Salerno Regimen (Mitford (ed.), The School of Salernum, 39–40).
16. Macbeath, Regimen Sanitatis, trans. H. Cameron Gillies (Glasgow: Robert Maclehose, 1911), col. IX, pp. 38–9; Luis García-Ballester, Roger French, Jon Arrizabalaga, and Andrew Cunningham, Practical Medicine from Salerno to the Black Death (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), 1–29, 274. See generally Miriam Usher Chapman, Lay Culture, Learned Culture: Books and Social Change in Strasbourg, 1480–1599 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1982); Michael McVaugh and Nancy G. Siraisi (eds.), Renaissance Medical Learning: Evolution of a Tradition (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1990).
17. Aristotle’s Secrets was still going strong in the 18th century: see Roy Porter, ‘ “The Secrets of Generation Display’d”: Aristotle’s Masterpiece in Eighteenth-Century England’, in R. P. Maccubbin (ed.), “Tis Nature’s Fault’: Unauthorised Sexuality during the Enlightenment (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987), 7–21; Mary E. Fissell, ‘Making a Masterpiece: The Aristotle Texts in Vernacular Medical Culture’, in Charles E. Rosenberg (ed.), Right Living: An Anglo-American Tradition of Self-Help Medicine (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2003).
18. Nicholas Orme, From Childhood to Chivalry: The Education of the English Kings and Aristocracy 1066–1530 (London: Methuen, 1984), 88–90 and passim. A Vienna tacuinum thought to be of Arabic origin, reproduced with tacuinums from Liège, Paris, and Rouen, in Luisa Cogliati Arano, The Medieval Health Handbook: Tacuinum Sanitatis (London: Barrie & Jenkins; New York: George Braziller, 1976), fo. 4.
19. Mitford (ed.), The School of Salernum, 78. On iocunditas, hilaritas, and affabilitas, see Jaeger, The Origins of Courtliness, 116–18.
20. Garrison, ‘The History of the Regimen Sanitatis’, 60–1. For plague regimens, see Jon Arrizabalaga, ‘Facing the Black Death: Perceptions and Reactions of University Medical Practitioners’, in García-Ballester et al., Practical Medicine from Salerno to the Black Death.
21. Glenn Hardingham, ‘The Regimen Sanitatis in Late Medieval England’, unpub., Cambridge, 2003; I am grateful for his assistance, and English regimens are starting to be surveyed. But see Paul Slack, ‘Mirrors of Health and Treasures of Poor Men: The Use of Vernacular Medical Literature in Tudor England’, in Charles Webster (ed.), Health, Medicine and Mortality in the 16th Century (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979); see also Virginia Smith, ‘Cleanliness: The Development of Idea and Practice in Britain, 1770–1850’, Ph.D. thesis, University of London, 1985.
22. W. G. Hoskins, The Making of the English Landscape (London: Penguin, 1978); Montague Fordham, The Rebuilding of Rural England (London: Hutchinson, 1924); Christopher Dyer, Everyday Life in Medieval England (London: Hambledon, 1994), 139, 165; Anthony Emery, Greater Medieval Houses of England and Wales, 1300–1500, i (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996).
23. Guest latrines in Sir Roger Vaughan’s improved hall-house at Tretower, Wales, in 1450 (C. A. Raleigh Radford and David M. Robinson (eds.), Tretower Court and Castle (Cardiff: Welsh Historic Monuments, 1986), 10). Edward III’s two plumbed palaces were Westminster and King’s Langley; my thanks to Dr Ian Mortimer for this reference from his forthcoming book The Perfect King: The Life of Edward III, ch. 12. See also Lawrence Wright, Clean and Decent: The History of the Bath and Loo (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1980), 35–8.
24. A detailed survey of London legislation and practice can be seen in Mark Jenner, ‘Early Modern English Conceptions of “Cleanness” and “Dirt” as Reflected in the Environmental Regulation of London’, D.Phil. thesis, Oxford University, 1991. On urban water provision generally, see Squatriti, Water and Society in Early Medieval Italy, 16; Roberta J. Magnusson, Water Technology in the Middle Ages: Cities, Monasteries and Waterworks after the Roman Empire (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2001), 18–24, 33; and a classic study of water technology by André Guillerme, Les Temps de l’eau: La Cité, l’eau et les techniques. Nord de la France. Fin IIIe—début XIXe siècle (Paris: Éditions du Champ Vallon/Presses Universitaires de France, 1983).
25. Wright, Clean and Decent, 28–30; Mark Girouard, Life in the French Country House (London: Cassell, 2000), 52; on furniture history and changing attitudes to body space, see also the classic work by Sigfried Giedon, Mechanisation Takes Command: A Contribution to Anonymous History (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1948), 266 and passim.
26. Braudel, Civilisation and Capitalism, 285–90.
27. Christine de Pizan, The Treasure of the City of Ladies, or, The Book of the Three Virtues, trans. Sarah Lawson (London: Penguin, 1985), 148.
28. Boucher, A History of Costume in the West, 145–222; Françoise Piponnier and Perrine Mane, Dress in the Middle Ages, trans. Caroline Beamish (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1997), 22–3, 40–4, 99–102; Elias, The Civilising Process, 138–9.
29. Vigarello, Concepts of Cleanliness, 41; Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie, Montaillou: Cathars and Catholics in a French Village 1294–1324 (London: Penguin, 1980), 141.
30. [The Noble Lyfe and Nature of Man, of Bestes, Serpentys, Fowles and Fissches…] An Early English Version of Hortus Sanitatis … 1521, ed. Noel Hudson (London: Quaritch, 1954), 65; Françoise Piponnier, ‘The World of Women’, in Christiane Klapisch-Zuber (ed.), A History of Women in the West, ii: Silences of the Middle Ages (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1994), 330; Eileen Power, ‘The Menagier’s Wife’, in Power, Medieval People (1924; London: Folio Society, 1999), 127.
31. The Trotula, 54–5, 60–1, and passim; Women’s Secrets: A Translation of Pseudo-Albertus Magnus’s ‘De Secretis Mulierum’ with Commentaries, ed. and trans. Helen Rodnite Lemay (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1992), passim; Lynette R. Muir, Literature and Society in Medieval France: The Mirror and the Image 1100–1500 (London: Macmillan, 1985), 128; Montserrat Cabré, ‘Cosmetics in the Middle Ages’, unpub., Wellcome Unit, Cambridge, Feb. 1992.
32. See the survey of early cosmetic literature in Florence E. Wall, ‘Historical Development of the Cosmetic Industry’, in Edward Sagarin (ed.), Cosmetics, Science and Technology (New York: Interscience Publishers, 1957), 19–26 and passim.
33. Monica H. Green, ‘The Possibilities of Literacy and the Limits of Reading: Women and the Gendering of Medical Literacy’, Essay VII in Green, Women’s Healthcare in the Medieval West: Text and Contexts (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2000).
34. ‘Book on the Conditions of Women’, in The Trotula, 73.
35. Ibid. 185 nn. 174–5; the full, uncut passage reproduced in Alexandra Barratt, Women’s Writing in Middle English (London: Longman, 1992).
36. ‘On Treatments for Women’, in The Trotula, 91, 142.
37. Ibid. 99, 171–3.
38. Leslie G. Matthews, The Royal Apothecaries, Wellcome Historical Medical Library, NS 13 (London, 1967), 18–19; Aytoun Ellis, The Essence of Beauty: A History of Perfume and Cosmetics (London: Secker & Warburg, 1960), 11.
39. ‘On Treatments for Women’, 205; ‘On Women’s Cosmetics’, 11314. The reference to ‘steambaths beyond the Alps’ comes from the uncut version in Barratt, Women’s Writing in Middle English.
40. Wall, ‘Origins and Development’, 27.
41. Green, ‘The Possibilities of Literacy and the Limits of Reading’, 36 and passim; see also Montserrat Cabré, ‘From a Master to a Laywoman: A Feminine Manual of Self-Help’, Dynamis: Acta Hisp. Med. Sci. Hist. Illus. (2000), 20: 391 n. 56.
42. Luis García-Ballester, Michael R. McVaugh, and Agustín Rubio-Vela, ‘Medical Licensing and Learning in Fourteenth Century Valencia’, Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, 79/6 (1989), 36–8 n. 13. On 16th-century figures, see Margaret Pelling, ‘Appearance and Reality: Barber-Surgeons, the Body, and Disease in Early Modern London’, in L. Beier and R. Finlay (eds.), London 1500–1700: The Making of the Metropolis (London: Longman, 1986).
43. García-Ballester et al., ‘Medical Licensing and Learning in Fourteenth-Century Valencia’, 30–3.
44. Carlo Ginzburg, The Cheese and the Worms: The Cosmos of a Sixteenth-Century Miller, trans. John and Anne Tedeschi (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1981), 83.
45. Rudeck, Geschichte der Öffentlichen Sittlichkeit in Deutschland, 28–9, 9; Vigarello, Concepts of Cleanliness, 30.
46. Mikkel Aaland, Sweat: The Illustrated History and Description of the Finnish Sauna, Russian Bania, Islamic Hammam, Japanese Mushiburo, Mexican Temescal and American-Indian and Eskimo Sweatlodge (Santa Barbara, Calif.: Capra, 1978), 60.
47. There are many illustrations in Rudeck, Geschichte der Öffentlichen Sittlichkeit in Deutschland; and in Mitford (ed.), The School of Salernum; but see the larger collection in Alfred Martin, Deutsches Badewesen in Vergangenen Tagen. Nebst einem Beiträge zur Geschichte der deutschen Wasserheilkunde (Jena, 1906).
48. Paul B. du Chaillu, The Land of the Midnight Sun: Journeys through Sweden, Norway, Lapland, and Northern Finland, 1882, quoted in Wilhelm Paul Gerhard, Modern Baths and Bathhouses (New York: Wiley, 1908), ch. XVII, pp. 288–92.
49. Rudeck, Geschichte der Öffentlichen Sittlichkeit in Deutschland, 5, quoted from Guarinonius, Die Grewel der Verwustung (1610). See also the many German bath-books noted in Miriam Usher Chapman, Lay Culture, Learned Culture: Books and Social Change in Strasbourg, 1480–1599 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1982), 105.
50. Alfred Martin, ‘The Bath in Japan’, Ciba Symposia, 1/5 (1939), 135 and passim.
51. Pizan, The Treasure of the City of Ladies, 154.
52. George Ryley Scott, The Story of Baths and Bathing (London: T. Werner Lawrie, 1939), 77–80.
53. Henry Card, The Reign of Charlemagne: Considered Chiefly with Reference to Religion, Laws and Literature and Manners (London: Longman, Hurst, Rees, and Orme, 1807), 54.
54. Aaland, Sweat, 61–2.
55. Malcolm Letts, Bruges and its Past (London: A. G. Berry, 1924), quoted in Elspeth Morris (ed.), The Dorothy Dunnett Companion (London: Michael Joseph, 1994), 191–2 (illustrating the dramatized canal journey in Dunnett’s novel Niccolo Rising).
56. Vigarello, Concepts of Cleanliness, 30, 24.
57. Francis Gagens, Wiesbaden: Its Hot Springs, and their Efficacy and Application, trans. Christian William Kreidel (Wiesbaden, 1851), 3–6; B. Fricker, The Swiss Thermal Watering Places ([1881?]), no page number.
58. Arano, ‘Spring’, in Tacuinum Sanitatis, Paris, fo. 103.
59. Elias, The Civilising Process, 178–9; Vigarello, Concepts of Cleanliness, 23–5; Jacques Rossiaud, Medieval Prostitution, trans. Lydia G. Cochrane (Oxford: Blackwell, 1988), ch. 8 and passim.
60. Rudeck, Tractatus de Cursu Mundi (1397), in Rudeck, Geschichte der Öffentlichen Sittlichkeit in Deutschland, 16–21.
61. Ibid. 22; the illustration is from Breslau.
62. Rossiaud, Medieval Prostitution, 5.
63. Margaret Wade Labarge, Women in Medieval Life (London: Hamilton, 1986), 199–201; J. B. Post, ‘A Fifteenth-Century Customary of the Southwark Stews’, Journal of the Society of Archivists, 5 (1976), 422–8.
64. The picture on the cover of Vigarello, Concepts of Cleanliness, and often shown elsewhere.
65. Vigarello, Concepts of Cleanliness, 27; Johannes Fabricius, Syphilis in Shakespeare’s England (London: Jessica Kingsley, 1994), 81–3.
66. Rudeck, Geschichte der Öffentlichen Sittlichkeit in Deutschland, 39.
67. Vigarello, Concepts of Cleanliness, 9–11, 32–4; Rossiaud, Medieval Prostitution, chs. 7, 9, and passim. Both downplay syphilis in favour of plague.
68. Claude Quétel, History of Syphilis, trans. Judith Braddock and Brian Pike (London: Polity Press, 1990), 70.
69. Ibid. 13, 33.
70. Fabricius, Syphilis in Shakespeare’s England, 25; Quétel, History of Syphilis, 71, 66.
71. Quétel, History of Syphilis, 17, 18, 27, 281.
72. Pelling, ‘Appearance and Reality’, 7, 196, and passim; Fabricius, Syphilis in Shakespeare’s England, 72–7.
73. Fabricius, Syphilis in Shakespeare’s England, 81, 110. See also Kevin P. Siena, Venereal Disease, Hospitals and the Urban Poor: London’s ‘Foul Wards’, 1600–1800 (Rochester, NY: Woodbridge, University of Rochester Press, 2004).
74. George Cross, ‘Celibacy (Christian)’, in Hastings (ed.), The Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, 271–5.
1. Sir Francis Bacon, Historia Vitae et Mortis, in Collected Works of Francis Bacon, 12 vols., ed. J. Spedding, R. Ellis, and D. D. Heath (London: Routledge/Thoemmes, 1996), v. 215.
2. Erasmus, ‘Antibarbari’, in The Collected Works of Erasmus, i: Literary and Educational Writings, ed. Craig Thompson (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1978), 23–4. Peter Burke, ‘Without Spot or Stain: Rituals of Purification in Early Modern Europe’, seminar, Cambridge, Oct. 1997, highlighted the phenomenon of the political purge; see also Patrick Collinson, ‘Ecclesiastial Vitriol: Religious Satire in the 1590s and the Invention of Puritanism’, in John Guy (ed.), The Reign of Elizabeth I: Court and Culture in the Last Decade (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995). Erasmus himself supported a late medieval Catholic reform movement known as the Devotio Moderna, a Franciscan ascetic revival promoting personal piety, repentance, and active discipleship that gave rise to the influential Brethren of Common Life. He later refused to endorse Luther, or to join the Protestant cause (Kenneth Ronald Davis, Anabaptism and Asceticism: A Study in Intellectual Origins (Scottdale, Pa.: Herald, 1974), 62 and passim).
3. Roy Porter, Enlightenment: Britain and the Creation of the Modern World (London: Allen Lane, 2000), 54–60; id., Flesh in the Age of Reason: The Modern Foundations of Body and Soul (London: W. W. Norton, 2004).
4. See generally Fernand Braudel, Civilisation and Capitalism, 15th–18th Century, i: The Structures of Everyday Life, trans. Sian Reynolds (London: Collins, 1981), passim; see the chapter ‘Superfluity and Sufficiency: Houses, Clothes, and Fashion’, in Roy Porter and John Brewer (eds.), Consumption and the World of Goods (London: Routledge, 1993); Lorna Wetherill, Consumer Behaviour and Material Culture in Britain, 1660–1760 (London: Routledge, 1988); Lisa Jardine, Worldly Goods: A New History of the Renaissance (London: Macmillan, 1996).
5. Paulo Squatriti, Water and Society in Early Medieval Italy, AD 400–1000 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998); Roberta J. Magnusson, Water Technology in the Middle Ages: Cities, Monasteries and Waterworks after the Roman Empire (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2001), 31.
6. Robert J. Knecht, ‘Francis I and Fontainebleau’, Court Historian, 42 (Aug. 1999), 101. One of the most famous bath paintings of the School of Fontainebleau is the enigmatic Gabrielle d’Estrées and One of her Sisters; see generally the illustrations in Françoise de Bonneville, The Book of the Bath, trans. Jane Brenton (London: Thames & Hudson, 1998), 78 and passim.
7. Documents of the Great House of Easement, and Henry VIII’s bathing facilities generally, still rest in the archives. Some details can be found in Simon Thurley, Royal Palaces of Tudor England: Architecture and Court Life (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1993). I am indebted to Dr Joanna Marschner and Dr Jonathan Foyle for information on recent finds at Hampton Court Palace.
8. Baldesar Castiglione, The Book of the Courtier, ed. George Bull (London: Penguin, 1967), 13. Castiglione was translated into English in 1561, and popularized in Sir Thomas Elyot’s schoolroom book The Gouvernor, from 1564. On conduct books, see Anna Bryson, From Courtesy to Civility: Changing Codes of Conduct in Early Modern England (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1998). For a classic statement on the psychology of intimacy, see Lawrence Stone, ‘The Growth of Affective Individualism’, in Stone, The Family, Sex, and Marriage in England, 1500–1800 (London: Penguin, 1979).
9. See the descriptions in J. E. Neale, Queen Elizabeth I (1934; London: Penguin, 1960), 216–20; more recently, see David Starkey, Elizabeth: Apprenticeship (London: Chatto & Windus, 2000).
10. Susan Watkins, In Public and in Private: Elizabeth I and her World (London: Thames & Hudson, 1998), 59–63; see also Simon Thurley, Whitehall Palace: An Architectural History of the Royal Apartments, 1240–1698 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1999).
11. There is a large historical literature on childbirth; for more unusual visual representations, see Jacqueline Marie Mosocchio, The Art and Ritual of Childbirth in Renaissance Italy (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1999).
12. Neville Williams, Powder and Paint: A History of the Englishwoman’s Toilet, Elizabeth I-Elizabeth II (London: Longmans, Green, 1957), 6–7; Margaret Pelling, ‘Trimming, Shaping and Dyeing: Barbers and the Presentation of Self in Early Modern London’, seminar, Social History Society, Jan. 1993, 7. See generally Margaret Pelling, ‘Appearance and Reality: Barber-Surgeons, the Body, and Disease in Early Modern London’, in L. Beier and R. Finlay (eds.), London 1500–1700: The Making of the Metropolis (London: Longman, 1986); ead., ‘Occupational Diversity: Barbersurgeons and the Trades of Norwich, 1550–1640’, Bulletin of the History of Medicine, 56 (1982), 484–511.
13. Johannes Fabricius, Syphilis in Shakespeare’s England (London: Jessica Kingsley, 1994), 167–8; Sara F. Matthews Grieco, ‘The Body, Appearance, and Sexuality’, in Natalie Zemon Davies and Arlette Farge (eds.), A History of Women, iii: Renaissance and Enlightenment Paradoxes (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press, 1993), 55–63; Michael Walzer, The Revolution of the Saints: A Study in the Origins of Radical Politics (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1966), 254.
14. Williams, Powder and Paint, 14, 46–7. Soap-smuggling dominated parliamentary reports on soap until 1852, when the tax was abolished. On the tax on ‘necessities’ as precursor to income tax, see W. Kennedy, English Taxation, 1640–1799: An Essay on Policy and Opinion (London: G. Bell, 1913), 83 and passim; see also Virginia Smith, ‘Soap’, unpub., 1985.
15. Georges Vigarello, Concepts of Cleanliness: Changing Attitudes in France since the Middle Ages, trans. Jean Birrell (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press/Éditions de la Maison des Sciences de l’Homme, 1988), 62–9, 78, 60.
16. De Bonneville, The Book of the Bath, 84–5 and passim.
17. Vigarello, Concepts of Cleanliness, 16, 69.
18. Margaret Spufford, The Great Reclothing of Rural England: Petty Chapmen and their Wares in the Seventeenth Century (London: Hambledon, 1984), 112–13; Vigarello, Concepts of Cleanliness, 71–2; Raffaella Sarti, Europe at Home: Family and Material Culture 1500–1800 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2002), 196–201.
19. See Gregory King’s scheme, among others, in Peter Laslett, The World We Have Lost (London: Methuen, 1965), 32–3 and passim; see also Peter Earle, The Making of the English Middle Classes: Business, Society and Family Life in London, 1660–1730 (London: Methuen, 1989), 80–1; David Underdown, Revel, Riot and Rebellion: Popular Politics and Culture in England 1603–1660 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987), 20, 24–8.
20. Earle, The Making of the English Middle Classes, 14–15 and passim; see also Lorna Weatherill, Consumer Behaviour and Material Culture in Britain, 1660–1760 (London: Routledge, 1988).
21. On the English evidence of ‘disorder’ in towns of this period, see Peter Clark and Paul Slack (eds.), Crisis and Order in English Towns 1500–1700 (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1972); Anthony Fletcher and John Stevenson, Order and Disorder in Early Modern England (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985); Norman Davies, The Isles: A History (London: Macmillan, 2000), 386.
22. For example, the Anabaptist sects of the lower Rhine valley, the Mennonites, were proselytized by English Quakers (who also maintained contacts with the German Pietists), and later settled in America on land given by the Quaker William Penn. See John L. Ruth, Maintaining the Right Fellowship: A Narrative Account of the Oldest Mennonite Community in North America (Scottdale, Pa.: Herald, 1984).
23. Walzer, The Revolution of the Saints, x. 254–5. Pepys served as an officer of the Navy Board, which had acquired discipline under Cromwell; see Claire Tomalin, Samuel Pepys: The Unequalled Self (London: Penguin, 2002), 111–18, 139–48, and passim.
24. Thomas Hall, The Beauty of Holinesse …or a Description of the Excellency, Amiableness, Comfort, and Content which is to be Found in the Ways of Purity and Holiness (London, 1653), 93.
25. Daniel Defoe, A Journal of the Plague Year (1722; London: Dent Dutton, 1966), 17–19; see also Paul Slack, The Impact of Plague in Tudor and Stuart England (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1985), 23–5, 242–3.
26. Andrew Wear, Knowledge and Practice in English Medicine, 1550–1680 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001), 41. See also Miriam Usher Chrisman, Lay Culture, Learned Culture: Books and Social Change in Strasbourg, 1480–1599 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1982), 170–1, and accompanying volume Bibliography of Strasbourg Imprints, 1480–1599, esp. pie charts S.1, 2, and 3, pp. 229–50 for full outputs; H. S. Bennett, English Books and Readers, 1475 to 1557, 1558 to 1603, 2 vols. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1970). English market figures estimated by Paul Slack, ‘Mirrors of Health and Treasures of Poor Men: The Use of Vernacular Medical Literature in Tudor England’, in Charles Webster (ed.), Health, Medicine and Mortality in the 16th Century (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979).
27. [Humphrey] Lloyd, The Treasuri of Helth contayning Many Profitable Medicines, gathered out of Hippocrats, Galen and Avicen by one Petrus Hyspanus and translated into English by Humfre Lloyd (London, [c.1556]), introd., no page numbers.
28. Thomas Moulton, The Myrrour or Glasse of Helth (London, n.d. [1545?]), no page numbers; Vigarello, Concepts of Cleanliness, 9–15.
29. Thomas Elyot, ‘The Proheme’, in Elyot, The Castel of Helth corrected, & in some places augmented, by the first author (1539; London, 1541), no page number; with editions almost every decade in the second half of the century. See also Thomas Cooper, Bibliotheca Eliotae (London, 1548–52).
30. See the Stuart monarchy’s policy in their Book of Sports (London: J. Baker, 1633), issued by James I in 1618 and enacted in 1633. See also Nicolas Orme, Early British Swimming, 55 BC–AD 1719 (Exeter: University of Exeter Press, 1983), 64 and passim; Wear, Knowledge and Practice in English Medicine, 160–1.
31. Elyot, Castel of Helth (1539), 51–2, 49–50, 53.
32. Leonard Lessius, Hygiasticon: or, The Right Course of Preserving Life and Health unto Extream Old Age (London, 1636), 13, 201–2; see also Gerald G. Gruman, ‘Ideas about the Prolongation of Life’, American Philosophical Society, 56 (1966), 68–73 and passim. The word ‘health’ rather than ‘hygiene’ was preferred in Britain, up until the late 19th century.
33. Sanctorius Sanctorius (Santorio), Medicina Statica: or, Rules of Health, in eight sections of aphorisms. English’d by J.D. (1614; London, 1676); see also J. Mackenzie, The History of Health, and the Art of Preserving It, etc. (Edinburgh: W. Gordon, 1758), chs. xv–xvii. On mechanical Methodism, see Walter Pagel, ‘Religious Motives in the Medical Biology of the XVIIth Century’, Bulletin for the History of Medicine, 3/4 (1935), 272, describing Robert Fludd on expansion and contraction as the key explanation of the world.
34. E. T. Renbourne, ‘The Natural History of Insensible Perspiration: A Forgotten Doctrine of Health and Disease’, Medical History (1960), 4: 135–52. A surprising number of Sanctorean-style diary records are turning up from the 17th and 18th centuries; see also the urine-measuring efforts of 17th-century spa-goer Michel Montaigne, famously recorded in his Travel Diary, for example in E. S. Turner, Taking the Cure (London: Michael Joseph, 1967), 35–7; and Michel Jaltel, La Santé par les eaux: 2000 ans de thermalisme (Orléans: L’Instant Durable, 1983), 28–9.
35. Thomas Junta, De Balneis Omnia quae extant apud Graecos, Latinos et Arabas…In quo Aquarium et Thermarium Omnium (Venice, 1553).
36. William Turner, A Book of the Natures and Properties as well as of the Bathes in England as of Other Bathes in Germanye and Italye (1562; Collen: Arnold Birkman, 1568), 97–8. Mixed bathing was also the custom at the warm springs in Buxton, described by John Jones in The Bathes of Bathes Ayde: Wonderful and Most Excellent against Manie Sicknesses (London, 1572). On the subsequent rise of English bath-books, see Charles F. Mullett, ‘Public Baths and Health in England, 16th–18th Century’, Bulletin for the History of Medicine, suppl. 5 (1946), 56–80.
37. Patrick Madan, A Philosophical and Medicinal Essay of the Waters of Tunbridge (London, 1687), quoted in Turner, Taking the Cure, 45 and passim.
38. Rudeck, Geschichte der öffentlichen Sittlichkeit in Deutschland, 35–9. The regulations mostly forbade naked bathing and segregated men and women, and were still in force for schoolchildren in the 1930s, according to Hedi Stadlen (private communication). See also de Bonneville, The Book of the Bath, 40–1.
39. If there had been anything in Britain like the mainland European urban bathing culture, we would have discovered at least some hard evidence of it by now. Tittle-Tattle (1603), a well-known picture satirizing the idleness and gossip of women AT THE CHILDBED, AT THE CONDUITE, WASHERS AT THE RIVER, and AT THE HOTTE-HOUSE, was probably taken from a reused Dutch printing-block; repr. in Philippa Pullar, Consuming Passions: A History of English Food and Appetite (London: Penguin, 2001). C. J. S. Thompson, ‘Bagnios and Cuppers’, in Thompson, The Quacks of Old London (London: Brentano’s, 1928), 263–75; Lawrence Wright, Clean and Decent: The History of the Bath and Loo (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1980), 64.
40. The Autobiography of Francis Place, ed. M. Thale (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1972), 213–14. Place went on to refurbish his bathhouse lodgings, cheerfully ripping out ‘the very old panelled wainscoating’ and marble slabs to get rooms that were ‘all modern, all neat and good in a very plain stile’, and triumphantly installing ‘a capital water-closet on the first floor’.
41. Peter Chamberlen, A Vindication of Publick Artificial Bathes and Bath-stoves (London, 1648); id., To the Honourable Committee for Bathes and Bath-Stoves: A Paper (London, 1648), 2, 5 (Royal College of Physicians Collection, London).
42. The Christian Householder (London, 1607), 8.
43. Simon Schama, The Embarrassment of Riches: An Interpretation of Dutch Culture in the Golden Age (London: Fontana, 1991), 375–400 and passim. See also Hannah Wooley, The Accomplish’d Ladies Delight, in Preserving, Physick, Beautifying and Cookery (London, 1675); and more generally Caroline Davidson, A Woman’s Work Is Never Done: A History of Housework in the British Isles 1650–1950 (London: Chatto & Windus, 1986), 115–20.
44. J. A. Comenius [Jan Amos Komenský], The School of Infancy: An Essay on the Education of Youth, during their First Six Years (London, 1633), 15–16, 52–3.
45. John Woolman, The Journal of John Woolman, in William James, The Varieties of Religious Experience, ed. Martin E. Marty (London: Penguin, 1985), 294–6: while observing cloth-dyeing, it raised ‘a longing in my mind that people might come into cleanness of spirit, cleanness of person, and cleanness about their houses and garments’. See generally on collars, cuffs, and lace, Vigarello, Concepts of Cleanliness, 69–72 and passim.
46. Edward Topsell, The Reward of Religion (London, 1596); Philip Stubbes, An Anatomie of Abuses: Containing a Discoverie and Brief Summary of Such Noble Vices and Imperfections as now Raigne in Many Countries of the World (London, 1583). See also Keith Thomas, ‘Cleanliness and Godliness in Early Modern England’, in Anthony Fletcher and Peter Roberts (eds.), Religion, Culture and Society in Early Modern Britain: Essays in Honour of Patrick Collinson (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), 62–3.
47. George Herbert, ‘The Church-Porch’, LXII, in The English Works of George Herbert, ed. G. H. Palmer, 3 vols. (London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1905), ii. 214.
48. William Bullein, The Government of Health (London, 1558), 24.
49. Thomas Hall, Loathsomeness of Long Hair… with an appendix against Painting, Spots, Naked Breasts, etc. (London, 1654), 24–49 and passim. Francis Bacon acknowledged the legitimacy of cosmetics as a branch of health: ‘The good of man’s body is of four kinds: health, beauty, strength, and pleasure. So the knowledges are, medicine, or the art of cure; the art of decoration, which is called cosmetic; the art of activity, which is called athletic; and art voluptuary, which Tacitus truly calleth “Eruditas luxus” ‘ (On Life and Death, repr. in Sir John Sinclair, The Code of Health and Longevity, 4 vols. (Edinburgh, 1807), iv. 258–9, 267).
50. J. A. Comenius, Janua Linguarum Reserata (‘The Gates of Language Unlocked’), trans. Thos. Horne and J. Rowbotham, 6th edn. (London, 1643), ch. 53: ‘Of Bathing and Cleanliness’; Arthur Dent, The Plain Man’s Pathway to Heaven (1590; London, 1831), 41–4.
51. Stubbes, An Anatomie of Abuses, 32–3, 40–1; Hall, The Beauty of Holinesse, 3, 90–1.
52. Christopher Hill, The World Turned Upside Down: Radical Ideas during the English Revolution (London: Penguin, 1972), 155–9.
53. See G. Winstanley, The Law of Freedom in a Platform: or, True Magistracy Restored (London: for the author, 1652), and, for example, the empiric practitioner and disciple William Westmacott, Historia Vegetabilium Sacra: or, A Scriptural Herbal (London: T. Salusbury, 1694), cited by Peter Krivatsy, ‘William Westmacott’s Memorabilia: The Education of a Puritan Country Physician’, Bulletin for the History of Medicine, 49 (1975), 331–8; see also Margaret Pelling, ‘Knowledge Common and Acquired: The Education of Unlicensed Medical Practitioners in Early Modern London’, in V. Nutton and R. Porter (eds.), The History of Medical Education in Britain (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1995).
54. Hill, The World Turned Upside Down, 145–50, 317–18. The heresies of Anabaptists and others are described in J. Taylor, A Swarme of Sectaries and Schismatiques (London, 1641); see also Charles Webster, The Great Instauration: Science, Medicine and Reform 1626–1660 (London: Peter Lang, 2002), p. xxiii and passim.
55. Sir John Floyer, An Enquiry into the Right Use and Abuse of Hot, Cold, and Temperate Baths in England (London, 1697), preface.
56. Keith Thomas, Man and the Natural World: Changing Attitudes in England 1500–1800 (London: Penguin, 1984), 289–92; Stubbes, An Anatomie of Abuses, 59–60; Tristram Stuart, The Bloodless Revolution: Radical Vegetarians and the Discovery of India (London: HarperCollins, 2006), 15–59 and passim.
57. The English Hermite, or, Wonder of this Age: Being a Relation of the Life of Roger Crab (London, 1655), no page numbers.
58. Katherine Gillespie, Domesticity and Dissent in the Seventeenth Century (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), 182–3, 203–5; Jane Shaw, ‘Religious Experience and the Formation of the Early Enlightenment Self’, in Roy Porter (ed.), Rewriting the Self: Histories from the Renaissance to the Present (London: Routledge, 1997), 65–7.
59. Thomas Taylor ‘the Platonist’ was a Cambridge usher and secretary who dedicated his life to translating Plato; see W. E. Axon, Thomas Taylor the Platonist: A Biographical and Bibliographical Sketch (London, 1890); Henry More, The Immortality of the Soul, So Farre Forth as is Demonstrable from the Knowledge of Nature and the Light of Reason (London, 1659), 258; Richard Ward, The Life of the Learned and Pious Henry More (London, 1710), 229–30. The British Library copy of More’s Opera Omnia, the Theological Works of H. More, etc. (London, 1708), Preface General: ‘Temper of Body and Mind’, has MS notes by S. T. Coleridge. See also Virginia Smith, ‘Physical Puritanism and Sanitary Science: Material and Immaterial Beliefs in Popular Physiology, 1650–1840’, in W. F. Bynum and Roy Porter (eds.), Medical Fringe and Medical Orthodoxy, 1750–1850 (London: Croom Helm, 1987).
60. Thomas Tryon, A Treatise of Cleanness in Meats and Drinks… Good Airs… Clean Sweet Beds (London, 1682), 14. Tryon was later described as ‘one of the most extraordinary self-taught geniuses, and original writers, that ever existed in this country, particularly on the subjects of health and temperance, to which all his writings allude’: Sinclair, The Code of Health and Longevity, ii. 297, including a complete list of Tryon’s works ‘some of which are very scarce’, notably T. Tryon, A Discourse of Waters, shewing the particular virtues, wonderful operations, and various uses, both in food and physic, the all-wise Creator hath endued this cleansing element with (n.d.). See also Ginnie Smith, ‘Thomas Tryon’s Regimen for Women: Sectarian Health in the Seventeenth Century’, in London Feminist History Group (ed.), The Sexual Dynamics of History: Men’s Power, Women’s Resistance (London: Pluto, 1983), 56; Stuart, The Bloodless Revolution, 60–77.
61. T. Tryon, Wisdom’s Dictates, or, Aphorisms and Rules for Preserving Health of Body, and Peace of Mind (London, 1696), 67, 71–3.
62. T. Tryon, Pythagoras his Mystick Philosophy Reviv’d; or, The Mystery of Dreams Unfolded (London, 1691), 243, 246–7.
63. Aphra Behn’s poem on Tryonism, handwritten on a flyleaf of Thomas Tryon’s The Way to Health, Long Life, and Happiness (London, 1683), was published in Miscellany, Being a Collection of Poems by Several Hands. Together with Reflections on Morality (London, 1685); see Maureen Duffy, The Passionate Shepherdess (London, 1977). Hill, The World Turned Upside Down, 411, notes G. Woodcock, The Incomparable Aphra (New York: T. V. Boardman, 1948), aligning her with the Quakers and Diggers. Biographical details in T. Tryon, Knowledge of a Man’s Self, or, The Surest Guide to the True Worship of God, and Good Government of Mind and Body, or the second part of the way to long life, health and happiness, with portrait (London, 1704), 131; see also Smith, ‘Thomas Tryon’s Regimen for Women: Sectarian Health in the Seventeenth Century’, passim.
64. William Vaughan, Approved Directions for Health (1600; London, 1612), 3–4; Thomas Willis, A Plaine and Easie Method for Preserving those that are Well from the Infection of the Plague, or any Contagious Distemper in City, Camp, Fleet, etc…. written in the year 1666 (London, 1692), no page numbers. See also J.E. Esq [John Evelyn], Fumifugium: or, The Inconvenience of the Aer and Smoak of London Dissipated. Together with Some Remedies Humbly Proposed (London, 1661), preface and passim.
65. The Whole Works of that Excellent Practical Physician, Dr Thomas Sydenham, ed. John Pechey (London, 1696), 183–4; first pub. as Observationes Medicae (London, 1676), with emendations by John Locke; see G. G. Meynell, ‘John Locke and the Preface to Thomas Sydenham’s Observationes Medicae’, Medical History, 1/50 (1 Jan. 2006), 93–110.
66. The Whole Works of Sydenham, 174, 180–1.
67. Tryon, A Treatise of Cleanness in Meats and Drinks, 1–16.
68. John Hancocke, Febrifugium Magnum (London, 1723–4), 5.
69. Sir John Floyer, The History of Cold Bathing: Both Ancient and Modern (London, 1706), A5, 133–4.
70. Royal Commission on the Historical Monuments of England, An Inventory of the Historical Monuments of the City of Cambridge, pt. 1 (London: HMSO, 1959), 37, 71; I am indebted to Rodney Smith for this reference. On the (unexcavated) Moor Barns Bath next to Aristotle’s Well, see Roger Deakin, Waterlog: A Swimmer’s Journey through Britain (London, 1999), 48–52.
71. Floyer, An Enquiry into the Right Use and Abuse of Hot, Cold, and Temperate Baths in England, 54–5; see also Joseph Brown, An Account of the Wonderful Cures Performed by Cold Baths. With Advice to Water Drinkers at Tunbridge, Hampstead, Astrope, Nasborough and All Other Chalibeate Spaws…To which is prefixed a letter from Sir John Floyer (London, 1707).
72. Richard Mead, A Short Discourse concerning Pestilential Contagion, 5th edn. (London, 1720), 46–8, 38.
73. John Locke, Some Thoughts concerning Education (1693; London, 1800), 13–14.
74. John Locke, An Enquiry concerning Human Understanding (1706), ed. John W. Yolton (London: Dent, 1977), 175 n. 176, and introd., pp. xii–xv; The Educational Writings of John Locke, ed. James L. Axtell (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1968), 341, letter to Edward Clark, 1684; see also Locke, Some Thoughts concerning Education, 7.
75. Locke, Some Thoughts concerning Education, 9, 14, 20, 30.
76. Ibid. 31.
77. Ibid., pp. iv, 8–9, 14–16.
78. Ibid. 10–11, 14.
79. Communication from Mr Duncan Smith, at the age of 94, on seabathing at Holt School, Norfolk, in the 1920s, attributing his own longevity in part to this rigorous regime.
1. Adam Dickson, Essay on the Causes of the Present High Prices of Commodities (London, 1773), 22–4, written three years before Adam Smith’s An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations (London, 1776).
2. E. L. Jones and M. E. Falkus, ‘Urban Improvement and the English Economy in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries’, in Peter Borsay (ed.), The Eighteenth Century Town, 1688–1820: A Reader in English Urban History (London: Longman, 1990), table 1: ‘New Bodies of Improvement Commissioners, 1725–1799’, 139, and passim; Norman Davies, The Isles: A History (London: Macmillan, 2000), 646 and passim. A 1718–29 survey of Dissenters showed they made up 6.2 per cent of the population; see Michael Watts, The Dissenters: From the Reformation to the French Revolution (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1985), 263–70.
3. See Fernand Braudel, Civilisation and Capitalism, 15th–18th Century, i: The Structures of Everyday Life, trans. Sian Reynolds (London: Collins, 1981), 311–25 and passim.
4. Sir John Sinclair, Essay on Health and Longevity (London, 1802), 10–11.
5. Sir John Sinclair, The Code of Health and Longevity; or, A Concise View of the Principles Calculated for the Preservation of Health and Attainment of Long Life, 4 vols. (Edinburgh, 1807–8), i. 20–4.
6. H. Morley (ed.), The Spectator (London: Routledge, 1887), Essay 631 (1714), 878–9; (1711), 182, 312.
7. John Wesley, ‘On Dress’, in The Works of John Wesley, ed. Albert C. Outler (Nashville, Tenn.: Abingdon, 1986), 249; A. W. Hill, John Wesley amongst the Physicians (London: Epworth Press, 1958), Letters, v. 133, 118–19. For a discussion of Wesley’s fastidiousness, see Keith Thomas, ‘Cleanliness and Godliness in Early Modern England’, in Anthony Fletcher and Peter Roberts (eds.), Religion, Culture and Society in Early Modern Britain: Essays in Honour of Patrick Collinson (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), 65–6. Cleanliness was, fifthly, also a preserver against ‘several Vices destructive of both mind and body [that] are inconsistent with the habit of it’. This must be a reference to sexual uncleanness, probably the pox—or possibly ‘onanism’ or masturbation, a new ‘vice’ discovered by the anonymous English clergyman who wrote Onania, or, The Heinous Sin of Self-Pollution, and All its Frightful Consequences, in Both Sexes, Considered (1710); later rewritten by Samuel Auguste Tissot as De l’onanisme (1758), and much used by 19th-century purity crusaders. The story is told in Peter Gay, The Bourgeois Experience: Victoria to Freud, 5 vols. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1984–98), ii: The Tender Passion, 296 and passim.
8. Philip Dormer Stanhope, 4th Earl of Chesterfield, Letters to his Son, ed. Charles Sayle (London: Camelot, 1919), Letter LVII, 12 Nov. 1750, pp. 182–5.
9. Ibid. 184; see also his letter of 6 July 1749.
10. See Norbert Elias, The Court Society, trans. Edmund Jephcott (1st German edn., 1969; Oxford: Blackwell, 1983), passim; on boudoir intimacy, see Mark Girouard, Life in the French Country House (London: Cassell, 2000), 111–28, 147–62; on baths and bathing places, pp. 221–35; for illustrations crossing all periods, see the excellent Françoise de Bonneville, The Book of the Bath, trans. Jane Brenton (London: Thames & Hudson, 1998).
11. Alexander Pope, The Rape of the Lock (1712); see Neville Williams, Powder and Paint: A History of the Englishwoman’s Toilet, Elizabeth I-Elizabeth II (London: Longmans, Green, 1957), 35–6 and passim.
12. De Bonneville, The Book of the Bath, 93–6.
13. Colin Jones, ‘Dentistry and the Smile Tradition in Eighteenth-Century Paris’, seminar, European Association for the History of Medicine and Health Conference, Paris, 2005. The surgical work of Pierre Fouchard (1678–1761) had revolutionized dentistry; see Roy Porter, The Greatest Benefit to Mankind: A Medical History of Humanity from Antiquity to the Present (London: HarperCollins, 1997), 384.
14. John Hunter, The Natural History of the Human Teeth; Explaining their Structure, Use, Formation, Growth, and Diseases (London, 1771); see also C. G. Crowley, Dental Bibliography: A Standard Reference List of Books on Dentistry Published throughout the World from 1526–1885 (1885; Amsterdam: Liberac, 1968); Roy Porter and Dorothy Porter, In Sickness and in Health: The British Experience 1650–1850 (London: Fourth Estate, 1988), 36 and n. 89, 41.
15. See Sharra L. Vostral, ‘Masking Menstruation: The Emergence of Menstrual Hygiene Products in the United States’, in Andrew Shail and Gillian Howie (eds.), Menstruation: A Cultural History (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005), 243, 250.
16. B. R. Mitchell and Phyllis Deane, Abstract of British Historical Statistics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1962), 177–8; see also Beverley Lemire, Fashion’s Favourite: The Cotton Trade and the Consumer in Britain 1660–1800 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992). Muslin cloth is an extraordinary fifty threads per centimetre instead of twenty-five or less. Information courtesy of Dr Philip Sykas; I am indebted to Dr Clare Brown and Dr Sykas for information on English textiles.
17. See the story of the overnight sensation of the chemise à la reine in Amanda Foreman, Georgiana, Duchess of Devonshire (London: HarperCollins, 1998), 176. The artist Vigee Le Brun’s painting Self Portrait in a Straw Hat (c.1782), which started the craze, is in the National Gallery, London.
18. On English servants, see Theresa McBride, The Domestic Revolution: The Modernisation of Household Service in England and France 1820–1920 (London: Croom Helm, 1976), 120–2, 14. See also Pamela A. Sambrook, The Country House Servant (Stroud: Sutton Publishing/National Trust, 1999).
19. Raffaella Sarti, Europe at Home: Family and Material Culture 1500–1800 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2002), 141–2 and passim; Mark Girouard, Life in the English Country House: A Social and Architectural History (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1978), 138–42 and passim.
20. John Brewer and Roy Porter (eds.), Consumption and the World of Goods (London: Routledge, 1993); John Brewer, The Pleasures of the Imagination: English Culture in the Eighteenth Century (London: HarperCollins, 1997); Maxine Berg, Luxury and Pleasure in Eighteenth-Century Britain (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005).
21. William Buchan, Domestic Medicine: or, A Treatise on the Prevention and Cure of Diseases by Regimen and Simple Medicines (1769; London, 1803), 484–93. See also Several Letters between Two Ladies, Wherein the Lawfulness and Unlawfulness of Artificial Beauty in Point of Conscience Are Nicely Debated (1701), a pro-cosmetics essay which Neville Williams regarded as a ‘milestone in the history of the Englishwomen’s toilette’; quoted in Williams, Powder and Paint, 50–1.
22. There are no references to bathing-dresses in Queen Caroline’s accounts, suggesting that she may have bathed naked. I am indebted for these references to Dr Joanna Marschner; see also Marschner, ‘Baths and Bathing in the Early Georgian Court’, Furniture History, 31 1995), 23–8. Emily J. Climenson, Elizabeth Montagu, the Queen of Blue Stockings: Her Correspondence from 1720 to 1761, 2 vols. (London: John Murray, 1906), 88–9.
23. Girouard, Life in the English Country House, 252–6, 265; id., Life in the French Country House, 232–9.
24. i.e. the strip wash carefully described by the medical author and sailor Peter Crosthwaite, The Ensign of Peace: By a Friendly Traveller (London, 1775), 136–8. Lizzie Collingham suggested that the Indian experience helped change British attitudes towards washing and cleanliness, in Collingham, ‘Shower-Baths and Underwear’, seminar, Emmanuel College, Cambridge, Feb. 1998; see also E. M. Collingham, The Physical Experience of the Raj, c.1800–1947 (Cambridge: Polity Press, 2001).
25. See Quentin Bell, On Human Finery (1947; London: Hogarth Press, 1976), 125 and passim, esp. the portrait of Brooke Boothby by Joseph Wright: ‘by his side a running brook; beneath his hand a MS copy of La Nouvelle Héloïse. He wears the mildly amenable look of a virtuous philosopher; he also wears a suit cut by a first-rate tailor. It is a suit carefully designed for a Natural Man who is also the eldest son of a baronet…’.
26. On powder, see Williams, Powder and Paint, 86–7.
27. James Graham, The Guardian Goddess of Health; or, The Whole Art of Preserving and Curing Diseases and of Enjoying Peace and Happiness of Body and Mind … Precepts for the Preservation and Exaltation of Personal Beauty and Loveliness (London, [1780?]), 4; de Bonneville, The Book of the Bath, 93–4.
28. Foreman, Georgiana, 50–1; Allen Guttmann, ‘Cricketers on the Green and Viragos in the Ring’, in Guttmann, Women’s Sports: A History (New York: Columbia University Press, 1991). See also Paul Langford, Englishness Identified: Manners and Character 1650–1850 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000).
29. The period is discussed more fully in Virginia Smith, ‘Cleanliness: The Development of Idea and Practice in Britain, 1770–1850’, Ph.D. thesis, University of London, 1985; see also Ginnie Smith, ‘Prescribing the Rules of Health: Self-Help and Advice in the Late Eighteenth Century’, in Roy Porter (ed.), Patients and Practitioners: Lay Perceptions of Medicine in Pre-Industrial Society (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985).
30. George Cheyney, Essay on Regimen (London, 1724); see also Henry R. Viets, ‘George Cheyney 1673–1743’, Bulletin for the History of Medicine, 23/5 (Sept.–Oct. 1949), 435–52; Lucia Dokome, ‘Weight-Watching’, seminar given at ‘The History of Self-Experimentation’, Wellcome Institute for the History of Medicine, London, Nov. 2000. His influential patients included Samuel Johnson, John Wesley, the Countess of Huntingdon (founder member of the Methodist Friends’ Society), Alexander Pope, David Hume, and the Earl of Chesterfield.
31. As in the best-known European university textbooks of rational medicine in the early century: Hermann Boerhaave’s Institutiones Medicae, 6 vols. (1708) (the last volume being on hygiene and prophylaxis and its history), and Friedrich Hoffman’s A Systematic Rational Medicine (1718).
32. Francis Fuller, Medicina Gymnastica: or, A Treatise concerning the Power of Exercise, with respect to the Animal Economy (London, 1705), pp. xxi–xxii, 68, 77. See also Jeremiah Wainewright, A Mechanical Account of the Non-Naturals: Being a Brief Explication of the Changes Made in Humane Bodies, by Air, Diet, etc…. To which is prefixed, The Doctrine of Animal Secretion (London, 1707); C. F. Mullett, Public Baths and Health in England, 16th–18th Century (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1946), 57 and passim: ‘Whereas in the sixteenth century printings were normally in the hundreds, by the mid-eighteenth century they were in their thousands.’
33. John Armstrong, The Art of Preserving Health (1744; Hawick, 1811), 59–61. See generally Smith, ‘Prescribing the Rules of Health’, 262–72; Roy Porter and Dorothy Porter, ‘Keeping Well’, in Porter and Porter, In Sickness and in Health: The British Experience 1650–1850 (London: Fourth Estate, 1988); also Roy Porter, Health for Sale: Quackery in England 1660–1850 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1989); Porter, ‘Lay Medical Knowledge in the Eighteenth Century: The Case of the Gentleman’s Magazine’, Medical History, 29 (1985), 138–68.
34. See the diarists Samuel Johnson, Ralph Verney, Thomas Turner, James Woodforde, Joseph Farington, etc., using the 17th-century Protestant genre of confessional diaries which recorded daily activities (and temptations) in Porter and Porter, In Sickness and in Health, 122–3 and passim; on the sickness role or invalidism deplored by Jane Austen and others, pp. 192–3.
35. Horace Walpole, Selected Letters, ed. W. Hadley (London: Dent, 1926), 325–6. Spartanism has a ‘shadowy’ history in 18th-century Britain, though with more interest towards the end of the century; it was considered rather extreme. See Elizabeth Rawson, The Spartan Tradition in European Thought (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1969), 356–8.
36. John Wesley, Primitive Physic: or, An Easy and Natural Method of Curing Most Diseases (London, 1747), 36–7, 8–9, vi–vii.
37. Buchan, Domestic Medicine, 27–8.
38. There are many pools (not all of which are excavated or recorded) and bathhouses on National Trust property in Britain; but see especially the double-storey, octagonal, stucco-and-shell BathHouse built by Sir Charles Mordaunt in 1748 in the park at Walton Hall, near Stratford upon Avon. On the many upper-class baths and bathhouses in North America, see Harold Donaldson Eberlin, ‘When Society First Took a Bath’, in J. Walzer Leavitt and Ronald L. Numbers (eds.), Sickness and Health in America: Readings in the History of Medicine and Public Health (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1978). On the use of waterfalls, see Tobias Smollett, An Essay on the External Use of Water (London, 1752).
39. John King, An Essay on Hot and Cold Bathing (London, 1737), with an illustration of Bungay Baths. Eighteenth-century hospital baths have scarcely been researched, but see W. B. Howie, ‘Finance and Supply in an 18th Century Hospital, 1747–1830’, Medical History, l7 (1963), 126–46. See also Rhodomonte Dominiceti, A Dissertation on the Artificial Medical Water Baths… together with a Description of the Apparatus, Erected in Panton-Square, Haymarket (London, 1782); id., A Dissertation on the Effects of Artificial Medicated Water, Vaporous or Dry-Baths etc. (London, 1794); Arthur Clarke, An Essay on Warm, Cold, and Vapour Bathing, with Practical Observations on Sea-Bathing (London, 1819), pp. iv–v; R. Metcalfe, The Rise and Progress of Hydrotherapy in England and Scotland (London, 1906), 21–4.
40. Eberlin, ‘When Society First Took a Bath’, 331–41. ‘Cleaver in 18th-century language meant brisk, alert, revived. It was not that Elizabeth Drinker or Mrs Tucker did not wash; see Richard L. Bushman and Claudia L. Bushman, ‘The Early History of Cleanliness in America’, Journal of American History, 74 (1988), 1215.
41. Roger Hudson (ed.), Coleridge among the Lakes and Mountains (London: Folio Society, 1991), 19–21.
42. J. K. Walton, The English Seaside Resort: A Social History 1750–1914 (Leicester: Leicester University Press; New York: St Martin’s Press, 1983), 10–13. See also Phyllis Hembry, The English Spa, 1560–1815: A Social History (London: Athlone Press; Rutherford, NJ: Fairleigh Dickinson University, 1990), 360 and passim, giving details of 173 spa foundations between 1558 and 1815, 113 of them after 1700.
43. A. F. M. Willich, Lectures on Diet and Regimen (London, 1801), 228; Eberlin, ‘When Society Took a Bath’, 334–5; Gore’s Liverpool General Advertiser, 18 Aug. 1791. See also Alain Corbin, The Lure of the Sea: The Discovery of the Seaside in the Western World, 1750–1840, trans. Jocelyn Phelps (London: Penguin, 1995); Walton, The English Seaside Resort; Jim Ring, How the English Made the Alps (London: John Murray, 2000).
44. Jane Austen, Sanditon [written 1817] (1925; London: P. Davies, 1975), 5, 9–10, 23–4.
45. Smith, ‘Cleanliness’, 44–8, fig. 1; Bushman and Bushman, ‘The Early History of Cleanliness in America’, 1222–4. There were American editions of (for example) Floyer, Cheyne, Chesterfield, Wesley, Buchan, Tissot, and A. F. M. Willich.
46. James C. Riley, The Eighteenth-Century Campaign to Avoid Disease (London: Macmillan, 1987), 9–19 and passim.
47. Mark Harrison, ‘Disease, Empire, and the Rise of Global Commerce: The Origins of International Sanitary Regulation in the Nineteenth Century’, seminar, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Mar. 2006; see also Peter Baldwin, Contagion and the State in Europe 1830–1930 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999).
48. D. McBride, Experimental Essays (London, 1764), 111. Sir John Pringle, Observations on the Diseases of the Army (London, 1752), p. vii, said he followed no theory, but ‘enquired into the most general or remote causes of [diseases]—such as depend on the air, diet, and other causes usually comprehended under the head of Non-Naturals … And here I have ventured to assign some sources of diseases very different from sentiments of most writers upon this subject.’
49. James Lind, An Essay on the Most Effective Means of Preserving the Health of Seamen in the Royal Navy (London, 1757); John Haygarth, Letter to Dr Percival on the Prevention of Infectious Fevers (London, 1801); C. Booth, John Haygarth FRS (1740–1827): A Physician of the Enlightenment (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 2005).
50. Albrecht von Haller, De Partibus Corporis Humani Sensibilibus et Irritabilibus [‘On the Sensible and Irritable Parts of the Human Body’] (1752); Porter, The Greatest Benefit to Mankind, 246–53; Christopher Lawrence, ‘The Nervous System and Society in the Scottish Enlightenment’, in Barry Barnes and Steven Shapin (eds.), Natural Order: Historical Studies of Scientific Culture (Beverly Hills: Sage, 1979), 25–8; Christopher Lawrence, ‘Making the Nervous System’, Social Studies of Science, 14/1 (1984), 153–8.
51. Ebenezer Sibley, A Key to Physic and the Occult Sciences (London, 1794); Allen G. Debus, ‘Scientific Truth and Occult Tradition: The Medical World of Ebenezer Sibley (1751–1799)’, Medical History, 26 (1982), 259–78; James Graham, The Guardian of Health, Long Life and Happiness: or, Dr Graham’s General Directions as to Regimen, etc. (Newcastle upon Tyne, 1790); Smith, ‘Prescribing the Rules of Health’, 268–71; Roy Porter, ‘Sex and the Singular Man: The Seminal Ideas of James Graham’, Studies on Voltaire and the Eighteenth Century, 228 (1984), 1–24; C. J. S. Thompson, ‘Beauty Specialists’, in Thompson, The Quacks of Old London (London: Brentano’s, 1928), 201–17, 327–35.
52. Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Émile, or, Education, trans. Barbara Foxley (London: Dent, 1911), 5–6, 218.
53. Hugh Downman, Infancy, or, The Management of Children (London, 1775–7), no page numbers.
54. Emily, Duchess of Leinster, in Ireland, was so impressed by Émile that she set up separate house for her children at Black Rock, on the coast south of Dublin, à la Rousseau, in 1766. (She even asked Rousseau, then exiled in England after the publication of The Social Contract, to be their tutor. He refused.) See Stella Tillyard, Aristocrats: Caroline, Emily, Louisa and Sarah Lennox, 1740–1832 (London: Fontana/Collins, 1994), 243–51; and on late 18th-century feminism, Barbara Taylor, Eve and the New Jerusalem: Socialism and Feminism in the Nineteenth Century (London: Virago, 1983).
55. Kerry Walters and Lisa Portness, Ethical Vegetarianism: From Pythagoras to Peter Singer (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1999), 78.
56. Ibid. 10.
57. Colin Spencer, The Heretic’s Feast: A History of Vegetarianism (London: Fourth Estate, 1993), 237–9, 245–51.
58. Buchan, Domestic Medicine, pt. i, pp. 1, 484–93.
59. Ibid. 95–101, xxx, 100.
60. Dorothy Porter, Health, Civilisation and the State: A History of Public Health from Ancient to Modern Times (London: Routledge, 1999), 57–8; George Rosen, ‘The Philosophy of Ideology and the Emergence of Modern Medicine in France’, Bulletin of the History of Medicine, 20 (1946), 328–9; id., ‘Romantic Medicine: A Problem in Historical Periodization’, Bulletin of the History of Medicine, 25 (1951), 148–58. There was no British university training in ‘state medicine’ until 1854, although a course on ‘medical police’ briefly appeared on the Edinburgh curriculum in 1809 (John Roberton, Treatise on Medical Police, and on Diet, Regimen, etc. (London, 1809)).
61. Timothy Lenoir, ‘The GÖttingen School and the Development of Transcendental Naturphilosophie in the Romantic Era’, in W. Coleman and C. Limoges (eds.), Studies in the History of Biology (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1981), 113–14; id., The Strategy of Life: Teleology and Mechanics in Nineteenth Century German Biology (Dordrecht: Reidel, 1982).
62. A. F. M. Willich, Lectures on Diet and Regimen (London, 1801), 28–9; Alexander von Humboldt, Kosmos. Entwurf einer physischen Welt-beschreibung (‘Cosmos: Sketch of the Physical Description of the Universe’), ed. Ottmar Ette and Oliver Lübrich (Frankfurt: Eichborn, 2005); Daniel Johnson, ‘From a Lost World’, Times Literary Supplement, 22 July 2005, 3–4.
63. Naturphilosophie was called ‘one of the most bizarre episodes in the history of physiology’ by the classic historian of physiology Karl Rothschuh (History of Physiology, ed. and trans. Guenter B. Risse (Huntington, NY: Re. E. Krieger, 1973), 155); see also Christopher Lawrence and George Weisz (eds.), Greater than the Parts: Holism and Biomedicine, 1920–1950 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998).
64. Thus the term ‘macrobiotic’ held little meaning for English-speakers until the early 20th century, when it was reimported as something vaguely German, to do with eating health foods.
65. C. W. Hufeland, The Art of Prolonging Life, ed. E. Wilson (London, 1852), preface, p. xixv.
66. Willich, Lectures on Diet and Regimen, 10; C. A. Struve, Asthenology, or, The Art of Preserving Life (London, 1801), ch. VII: ‘National Debility’, 158–71; Introductory Lecture… to A Familiar Treatise on the Physical Education of Children by C. A. Struve, trans. A. F. M. Willich (London, 1801), 49–50.
67. The key works in dermatology were the systematic classifications of Joseph Plenck in 1776 and Antoine Lorry in 1777; Lorry in particular was an enthusiastic hygienist. A London group emerged at the end of the century centred on the medical studies of Dr Thomas Willan, summarized in his Report on the Diseases of London (1801). Dermatology is relatively under-researched; but see F. H. Garrison, ‘The Skin as a Functional Organ of the Body’, Bulletin of the New York Academy of Medicine, 9 (1933), 303–18.
68. Hufeland, The Art of Prolonging Life, 225–9. Willich, Lectures on Diet and Regimen, 61–6, 224–6: ‘The most ignorant person is convinced that proper care of the skin is indispensably necessary for the existence and well-being of horses and various animals … Such a simple idea, however, never occurs to him in respect to his child. Since we show so much prudence and intelligence in regard to animals, why not in regard to men?’
69. Willich, Lectures on Diet and Regimen, 233, 249–50.
70. Arthur Young, Travels in France (18 Jan. 1790), quoted in a classic text on 18th-century health philanthropy, M. C. Buer, Health, Wealth and Population in the Early Days of the Industrial Revolution (London: Routledge, 1926), 196.
71. Eberlin, ‘When Society Took a Bath’, 335–8; Bushman, ‘The Early History of Cleanliness in America’, 1214–15.
72. Thomas Beddoes, Hygëia: or, Essays Moral and Medical (London, 1802), 26–7.
1. Norman Davies, Europe: A History (London: Pimlico, 1997), 1294; Peter N. Stearns (ed.), Encyclopedia of European Social History from 1350 to 2000 (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 2001), ii: The Population of Europe, table 1, p. 160; on the UK, see M. C. Buer, Health, Wealth and Population in the Early Days of the Industrial Revolution (London: Routledge, 1926), 122; B. R. Mitchell and Phyllis Deane, Abstract of British Historical Statistics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1962), 24–6; Norman Davies, The Isles: A History (London: Macmillan, 2000), 646–9.
2. The Society for the Suppressing of Vice (1802), described caustically by Sydney Smith as ‘The Society for suppressing the Vices of Persons whose income does not exceed £500 per annum’, replaced the equally disliked late 17th-century Society for the Reformation of Manners; Roy Porter, English Society in the Eighteenth Century (London: Penguin, 1982), 312; Richard Johnson, ‘Educational Policy and Social Control in Early Victorian England’, Past and Present, 49 (1970), 96–119: 96 and passim. The SBCICP itself had a powerful subcommittee—the Ladies Society for the Education and Employment of the Female Poor. The Society for Distributing Religious Tracts among the Poor (1782) was followed (among others) by the National Society for Promoting the Education of the Poor (1811), the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge (1825), and the Ladies’ National Association for the Diffusion of Sanitary Knowledge of 1857 (also called the Ladies’ Sanitary Association).
3. The Metropolitan Charities, Being an Account of the Charitable, Benevolent, and Religious Societies …in London and its Immediate Vicinity (London, 1844); A. F. C. Bourdillon (ed.), Voluntary Social Services: Their Place in the Modern State (London: Methuen, 1945), including G. D. H. Cole, ‘Retrospect of the History of the Voluntary Social Services’; see also Colin Jones, ‘Charity before c.1850’, in W. F. Bynum and Roy Porter (eds.), Companion Encyclopedia of the History of Medicine, 2 vols. (London: Routledge, 1993). The wide-scale closure of public toilets in the United Kingdom in the late 20th century is due to the fact that town planners discovered there was no formal legislation that actually covered their provision.
4. C. Stanger, Remarks on the Necessity and Means of Suppressing Contagious Fever in the Metropolis (London, 1802), 25–9.
5. E. P. Thompson, The Making of the English Working Class (London: Penguin, 1968), 865–71. See also J. F. C. Harrison, Robert Owen and the Owenites in Britain and America (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1969).
6. Roger Cooter, The Cultural Meaning of Popular Science: Phrenology and the Organisation of Consent in Nineteenth-Century Britain (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984), 358 n. 108.
7. [Samuel Brown], ‘Physical Puritanism’, Westminster Review, 2 (1852), 409. I am indebted to Roger Cooter (and J. F. C. Harrison) for the reference, and for identifying Samuel Brown as the anonymous author; see also Cooter, The Cultural Meaning of Popular Science, 177–9 n. 34.
8. Logie Barrow, Independent Spirits: Spiritualism and English Plebeians, 1850–1910 (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1986), 93. On Bacon, see Charles Webster, ‘The Nineteenth-Century Afterlife of Paracelsus’, in Roger Cooter (ed.), Studies in the History of Alternative Medicine (London: Macmillan, 1988), 83. On the cultural role of unorthodox science, see Cooter, The Cultural Meaning of Popular Science, 64 and passim.
9. As in the career of the pioneer osteopath Andrew Taylor Still; see Norman Gevitz, ‘Andrew Taylor Still and the Social Origins of Osteopathy’, in Cooter (ed.), Studies in the History of Alternative Medicine. There is no general history of massage: but see F. C. Ireland, Good Health, or, The Physiology of Dietetics and Massage (Liverpool, 1827); Edward Williams, Magnetic Masseur: The Revived Ancient Art of Massage (London, 1887); Douglas Graham, A Treatise on Massage, 2nd edn. (New York, 1890); John Harvey Kellog, The Art of Massage: Its Physiological Effects and Therapeutic Applications (Battle Creek, Mich., 1895).
10. In 1833 the American Temperance Society reputedly had over 2 million members, and the British Temperance Society ‘upwards of 30,000’ (Joel Pinney, The Alternative: Disease and Premature Death, or, Health and Long Life: Being an Exposure of the Prevailing Misconception of their Respective Sources (London, 1838), 21–33). See also W. R. Lefanu, British Periodicals of Medicine 1640–1899, Research Publications, 6 (Oxford: Wellcome Institute for the History of Medicine, 1984), 8–37.
11. Colin Spencer, The Heretic’s Feast: A History of Vegetarianism (London: Fourth Estate, 1993), 257–8; [Brown], ‘Physical Puritanism’, 408–9.
12. Glynis Rankin, ‘Professional Organisation and the Development of Medical Knowledge: Two Interpretations of Homeopathy’, in Cooter (ed.), Studies in the History of Alternative Medicine. The British royal family had a long connection with homeopathy, which puts Prince Charles’s well-known health beliefs into perspective.
13. Barbara Griggs, Green Pharmacy (London: Robert Hale, 1981), 172–86 and passim; Samuel Thomson, A Narrative of the Life and Medical Discoveries of Samuel Thomson, containing an Account of his System of Practise, and the Manner of Curing Diseases with Vegetable Medicine upon a Plan Entirely New; to which is added an Introduction to his New Guide to Health, or Botanic Family Physician (Boston, Mass., 1822).
14. Ursula Miley and John V. Pickstone, ‘Medical Botany around 1850: American Medicine in Industrial Britain’, in Cooter (ed.), Studies in the History of Alternative Medicine, 146–9, 151–2. National organizations such as the People’s Medico-Botanic Association, the Friendly United Medico-Botanic Sick and Burial Society, the Society of United Medical Herbalists, and finally the National Association of Medical Herbalists, carried them through into the 20th century.
15. James Pierrepont Greaves, ‘The Conditional Law’ (c.1840), in A. Campbell (ed.), Letters and Extracts from the M.S. Writings of James Pierrepont Greaves, 2 vols. (London, 1845), ii. 81; Spencer, The Heretic’s Feast, 260; Harrison, Robert Owen and the Owenites in Britain and America, passim. The connection with the later ideology of William Morris is evident.
16. James C. Whorton, ‘ “Tempest in a Flesh-Pot” : The Formulation of a Physiological Rationale for Vegetarianism’, Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences, 32 (1977), 115–39, 315. See also id., Crusaders for Fitness: The History of American Health Reform (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1982); id., Nature Cures: The History of Alternative Medicine in America (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002); Spencer, The Heretic’s Feast, 260. There was also a strong Jeffersonian tradition of political libertarianism in North America, with links to Tom Paine and William Godwin (and later claimed as anarchist forerunners; see Peter Marshall, Demanding the Impossible: A History of Anarchism (London: Fontana, 1993), 130–9, 182–3, 190–219); Spencer, The Heretic’s Feast, 260.
17. Margaret Pelling, Cholera, Fever and English Medicine, 1825–1865 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1978); see also Andrew Combe, The Principles of Physiology Applied to the Preservation of Health, and the Improvement of Physical and Mental Education (1833; London, 1837), 4–5, 24, 391–2.
18. Roy Porter, The Greatest Benefit to Mankind: A Medical History of Humanity from Antiquity to the Present (London: HarperCollins, 1997), 313–14; R.J. Morris, Cholera 1832: The Social Response to an Epidemic (London: Croom Helm, 1976), 163, 176–84, 205. The body literally evacuated itself onto the floor with the watery juices or plasma going first. The body turned blue as the blood dehydrated, and the victim died convulsively.
19. William Wadd, Comments on Corpulency, Lineaments of Leanness (London, 1829), 2–8, 133–4; A. Carlisle, Practical Observations on the Preservation of Health, and the Prevention of Disease (London, 1838), pp. xlii–iii. On alkaloid pharmacology, see Porter, The Greatest Benefit to Mankind, 334. See also R. Shryock, ‘Public Relations of the Medical Profession in Great Britain and the United States, 1600–1870’, Annals of Medical History, ns 2 (1930), 308–39; John Harley Warner, The Therapeutic Perspective: Medical Practise, Knowledge and Identity in America 1820–1885 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1986).
20. William Dale, The State of the Medical Profession in Great Britain and Ireland (Dublin, 1873), with a cartoon etching of The Upas Tree of the Medical Profession. On the social fluidity of professional medicine at this time, see Ian Inkster, ‘Marginal Men: Aspects of the Social Role of the Medical Community in Sheffield 1790–1850’, in J. Woodward and D. Richards (eds.), Health Care and Popular Medicine in Nineteenth Century England (London: Croom Helm, 1977).
21. A. Kilgour, Lectures on the Ordinary Agents of Life, as Applicable to Therapeutics and Hygiene; or, The Uses of the Atmosphere, Habitations, Baths, Clothing, Climates, Exercise, Foods, Drinks, etc. in the Treatment and Prevention of Disease (Edinburgh, 1834), pp. xviii–xix, 6–7.
22. The use of magazines for health advice started in the 18th century, for example in the Ladies’ Magazine. See also William Turnbull, The Medical Works of the Late Mr William Turnbull, i: A Popular Treatise on Health (London, 1805), p. xi: ‘this practice was followed at this period [1770–80] by several physicians… and they may be considered as the first attempt at popular medicine’.
23. The Family Oracle of Health; Economy, Medicine, and Good Living; Adapted to All Ranks of Society, from the Palace to the Cottage; by A. F. Crell MD and W. Wallace Esq. Assisted by a Committee of Scientific Gentlemen (London, 1824), frontispiece and title page.
24. Thomas Bull, The Maternal Management of Children (London, 1848), no page numbers.
25. J. S. Forsyth, A Practical Treatise on Diet, Regimen, and Indigestion; Consisting of Rules for Eating and Drinking (London, 1829), p. vi; Cooter, The Cultural Meaning of Popular Science; Porter, The Greatest Benefit to Mankind, 498–500.
26. Sarah Bakewell, ‘Medical Gymnastics in the Library’, Friends of the Wellcome Institute Newsletter, 12 (Spring 1997), 490. Both Ling and Jahn were ‘primitivists’ and strong Nordic nationalists; Jahn was prosecuted for his political activities in the ‘turning’ academies. German gymnasiums were the first sporting organizations to ban Jewish members during the Nazi regime. See also Guttmann, Women’s Sports, 90–1; Catherine Beecher, A Course of Calisthenics for Young Ladies (1832); Donald Walker, Exercises for Young Ladies (1836).
27. The Revd Edward Barry MD, The Aesculapian Monitor (London, 1811), pp. xvi, 146–54, was an early precursor of enlightened physiological reform, insisting on ‘minute cleanliness’ in every part of the school. Sporting curricula were pursued at Marlborough, Uppingham, Harrow, and Loreto in particular (J. A. Mangan, Athleticism in the Victorian and Edwardian Public School: The Emergence and Consolidation of an Educational Ideology (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981)). Oliver Wendell Holmes quoted in John Rickards Betts, ‘American Medical Thought on Exercise as the Road to Health, 1820–1860’, Bulletin of the History of Medicine, 45 (1971), 150; see also Allen Guttmann, A Whole New Ball Game: An Interpretation of American Sports (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1988), 72–4, 101–5.
28. See generally Jean-Pierre Goubert, The Conquest of Water: The Advent of Health in the Industrial Age (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1989); Anthony S. Wohl, Endangered Lives: Public Health in Victorian Britain (London: Methuen, 1983), 234 and passim on river pollution. See also John Simon, English Sanitary Institutions (London, 1890); id., Public Health Reports, 2 vols. (London, 1887).
29. [Brown], ‘Physical Puritanism’, 439–40; he also refers to Britain’s military requirements. Robert Willan, Reports on the Diseases of London (London, 1801), 303–5.
30. Kilgour, Lectures on the Ordinary Agents of Life, 103; Houses of Parliament, General Index to Bills, 1801–1852, 6 Will. IV, Sess. 1835, 16 July; 6 Will. IV, Sess. 1837, 2 Mar. The mover was James Silk Buckingham, MP for Sheffield, noted for his ‘steady and strenuous promotion of Temperance societies’, later author of Natural Evils and Practical Remedies (London, 1849). The 1844 Inquiry into the Health of Large Towns etc. made special inquiry into the extent of provision of commercial baths. Libraries and museums got their Act in 1850; public grounds and playgrounds (parks) in 1857–9.
31. R. Metcalfe, The Rise and Progress of Hydrotherapy in England and Scotland (London, 1906), 5–8 and passim. See also Virginia Smith, ‘The Movement for the 1846 Act’ and ‘The London Parish of Poplar’, in ‘Cleanliness: The Development of Idea and Practice in Britain, 1770–1850’, Ph.D. thesis, University of London, 1985; Sally Sheard, ‘Profit is a Dirty Word: The Development of Public Baths and Washhouses in Britain 1842–1915’, Social History of Medicine, 13/1 (Apr. 2000), 63–85. Goulston Square Washhouse is now the new home of the Fawcett Women’s Library.
32. Wohl, Endangered Lives, 168–72, 142.
33. James Simpson, Lectures on the Means of Improving the Character and Condition of the Working Classes, National Library of Scotland Bound Pamphlets (Edinburgh, 1843).
34. Baths and Wash-houses for the Million ([1845?]), Wellcome Collection, Wellcome Institute for the History of Medicine, London.
35. Sanitary Commissioner Dr Southwood Smith, quoted in R. Metcalfe, The Rise and Progress of Hydrotherapy in England and Scotland (London, 1906), p. xvi; Cleanliness ([mid-19th century]), Wellcome Collection, Wellcome Institute for the History of Medicine, London. See also Dorothy Porter, Health, Civilisation and the State: A History of Public Health from Ancient to Modern Times (London: Routledge, 1999), 76–8; Lawrence Goldman, Science, Reform and Politics in Victorian Britain: The Social Science Association, 1857–1886 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002).
36. Edwy Godwin Clayton, Arthur Hill Hassall, Physician and Sanitary Reformer: A Short History of his Work in Public Hygiene, and of the Movement against the Adulteration of Food and Drugs (London, 1908), 22 and passim; he opened an open-air seafront consumption hospital on the Isle of Wight in 1869, and retired to the Riviera. Stephen Halliday, The Great Stink of London: Sir Joseph Balzalgette and the Cleansing of the Victorian Capital (Stroud: Sutton, 1999); Brian Abel-Smith, A History of the Nursing Profession (London: Heinemann, 1975), 24 and passim; Porter, The Greatest Benefit to Mankind, 377–8.
37. Wohl, Endangered Lives, 173–5. On monumentality, see Tristram Hunt, Building Jerusalem: The Rise and Fall of the Victorian City (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2004); Hazel Conway, People’s Parks: The Design and Development of Victorian Parks in Britain (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991).
38. Jean-Pierre Goubert, Du Luxe au confort (Paris: Belin, 1988), 23–6.
39. J. S. Forsyth, Practical Treatise on Diet and Regimen, and Indigestion (London 1829), pp. xxii–xxiii. In one English country house a portable shower-bath was still in use up to 1973.
40. Sigfried Giedon, Mechanisation Takes Command: A Contribution to Anonymous History (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1948), passim; Lawrence Wright, Clean and Decent: The History of the Bath and Loo (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1980), 119, 152–4, and passim.
41. Wallace Reyburn, Flushed with Pride: The Story of Thomas Crapper (London: Pavilion Books, 1989); Wright, Clean and Decent, 132–4, 138–40, 152–9.
42. Neville Williams, Powder and Paint: A History of the Englishwoman’s Toilet, Elizabeth I-Elizabeth II (London: Longmans, Green, 1957), 97, 101–2, and passim; see also A.J. Cooley, The Toilet and Cosmetic Arts in Ancient and Modern Times; with a Review of the Different Theories of Beauty, and Copious Allied Information, Social, Hygienic, and Medical… and a Comprehensive Collection of Formulae and Directories (London, 1866).
43. J. K. Walton, The English Seaside Resort: A Social History 1750–1914 (Leicester: Leicester University Press; New York: St Martin’s Press, 1983), 48–66 and passim.
44. James Wilson, The Water Cure (London, 1842).
45. Recollections of the Late Dr Barter (Dublin, 1873); James Wilson, The Principles and Practice of the Water Cure and Domestic Medical Science (London, 1854); Kelvin Rees, ‘Water as a Commodity: Hydropathy at Matlock’, in Cooter (ed.), Studies in the History of Alternative Medicine.
46. Marshall Scott Legan, ‘Hydropathy in America: A Nineteenth Century Panacea’, Bulletin of the History of Medicine, 45 (1971), 267–80: 274–6 and passim.
47. William James, The Varieties of Religious Experience, ed. Martin E. Marty (London: Penguin, 1985), 92–3.
48. Ian Buruma, Voltaire’s Coconuts: or, Anglomania in Europe (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1999), 174–5.
49. This overstatement of scientific opposition may have contributed to their later political decline; see Logie Barrow, ‘An Imponderable Liberator: J. J. Garth Wilkinson’, in Cooter (ed.), Studies in the History of Alternative Medicine, 92.
50. William Tibbles, ‘Vegetarianism’, Journal of State Medicine, 12/6 (1904), 343–5. See also James C. Whorton, ‘Purgation’, unpub., Nov. 1986, 7, 16; id., Inner Hygiene: Constipation and the Pursuit of Health in Modern Society (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000).
51. See generally, on the culture of germs, Nancy Tomes, The Gospel of Germs: Men, Women and the Microbe in American Life (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1998). See also ead., ‘The Private Side of Public Health: Sanitary Science, Domestic Hygiene, and the Germ Theory, 1870–1900’, Bulletin of the History of Medicine, 64/2 (Winter 1990), 509–39.
52. Lloyd G. Stevenson, ‘Science down the Drain: On the Hostility of Certain Sanitarians to Animal Experimentation, Bacteriology, and Immunology’, Bulletin of the History of Medicine, 29/1 (1955), 2–3, 7–13; see also Ward Richardson, Diseases of Modern Life (1875); and Biological Experimentation (1896), an exploration of ways of avoiding animal experiments and reducing them to a minimum.
53. W. F. Bynum, ‘Medical Philanthropy after 1850’, in Bynum and Porter (eds.), Companion Encyclopaedia of the History of Medicine, ii. 1488–9. See generally James C. Whorton, ‘The Hippocratic Heresy: Alternative Medicine’s Worldview’, in Whorton, Nature Cures: The History of Alternative Medicine in America (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002). See also Margaret Pelling, ‘Contagion/Germ Theory/Specificity’, in Bynum and Porter (eds.), Companion Encyclopaedia of the History of Medicine, 316, 329.
54. For a detailed description of the US campaign, see Suellen Hoy, Chasing Dirt: The American Pursuit of Cleanliness (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995); John Clark, ‘Flies in the Face of History: Babies, Troops, and Flies in Early Twentieth Century Britain’, seminar, Wellcome Institute for the History for Medicine, Nov. 1999.
55. Whorton, Crusaders for Fitness; Hoy, Chasing Dirt, passim.
56. See Howard Williams, The Pioneers of Humanity (London: Humanitarian League, 1907).
57. E. S. Turner, Taking the Cure (London: Michael Joseph, 1967), 262–4.
58. Friedhelm Kirchfield and Wade Boyle, Nature Doctors: Pioneers in Naturopathic Medicine (Portland, Oreg.: Medicina Biologica/Buckeye Naturopathic Press, 1994). The ‘Father’ of naturopathy in the United States was Benedict Lust (1872–1945); in Britain, Stanley Lief (1892–1963); and in Scotland, James L. Thompson (1887–1963). The archives of the Eden Foundation at Bad Solen, catalogued by Karl Rothschuh, house the best European collection of nature cure literature; a continuing interest in Naturheil was carried on in exile in the United States by the German medical historian of hygiene Henry Sigerist.
59. Turner, Taking the Cure, 266. His first Jaeger suit, purchased in 1885, gave the young George Bernard Shaw a new social identity; see Michael Holroyd, Bernard Shaw, i: The Search for Love (London: Chatto & Windus, 1988). See also E. T. Renbourne, Materials and Clothing in Health and Disease: History, Physiology and Hygiene, Medical and Psychological Aspects: With the Biophysics of Clothing Materials (London: W. H. Rees, 1972); Wilhelm Paul Gerhard, Modern Baths and Bathhouses (New York: Wiley, 1908), 219–33.
60. Gerhard, Modern Baths and Bathhouses, 232–3.
61. A.J. Carter, ‘A Breath of Fresh Air’, Proceedings of the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh, 24/3 (1994), 397–405.
62. Whorton, Nature Cures, 196.
63. On Nietzsche’s hardiness, see Lesley Chamberlain, Nietzsche in Turin: The End of the Future (London: Quartet Books, 1996), 95–101. See also the excellent swimming history by Charles Sprawson, Haunts of the Black Masseur: The Swimmer as Hero (London: Jonathan Cape, 1992), passim; Paul Delany, The Neo-Pagans (London: Macmillan, 1988), passim.
64. Turner, Taking the Cure, 257, 262–74; Sprawson, Haunts of the Black Masseur, 184–7 and passim; Delany, The Neo-Pagans. Lord Lever-hulme’s private habits were exposed to public view when Thornton Manor went to auction in June 2001; see Rebecca Allinson, ‘Cleaning Up’, The Guardian, 23 June 2001, 12.
65. The Revd S. A. Barnett, The Duties of the Rich to the Poor (1889), quoted in Wohl, Endangered Lives, 340–1. The same was also true in other parts of Europe; as, for example, in Nivernais, France, where washing practices were partial to non-existent, sanitation poor, and mortality high; see Guy Thuillier, ‘Pour une histoire de l’hygiène corporelle. Un example regional: Le Nivernais 1860–1880’, Revue d’Histoire Économique et Social, 46 (1968), 232–53; and on laundering, ‘Pour une histoire de la lessive en Nivernais au XIX siècle’, Bulletin 18, Vie Materièlle et Compartements Biologiques, Annales, 24/1 (1969).
1. Milton I. Roemer, ‘Internationalism in Medicine and Public Health’, in W. F. Bynum and Roy Porter (eds.), Companion Encyclopedia of the History of Medicine, 2 vols. (London: Routledge, 1993), ii. 1417–35; W. F. Bynum, ‘Medical Philanthropy after 1850’, ibid. ii. 1480–94. See also the classic work by Pyotr Kropotkin that influenced early 20th-century socialists, communists, and anarchists, Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution (London: William Heinemann, 1902).
2. M. Gorsky, J. Mohan, and T. Willis, Mutualism and Health Care: British Hospital Contributory Schemes in the Twentieth Century (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2006).
3. C. E. A. Winslow, The Evolution and Significance of the Modern Public Health Campaign (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1923), 30. Winslow was a forceful US campaigner; Arthur Newsholme was a key figure in the United Kingdom; see John M. Eyler, Sir Arthur Newsholme and State Medicine, 1885–1935 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997); Newsholme, Evolution of Preventive Medicine (London: Balière, 1927). On public health nursing, see Christopher Maggs, ‘A General History of Nursing: 1800–1900’, in Bynum and Porter (eds.), Companion Encyclopedia of the History of Medicine, ii; and Maggs (ed.), Nursing History: The State of the Art (London: Croom Helm, 1987). On hygiene advertising and industry-led hygiene initiatives, see Nancy Tomes, The Gospel of Germs: Men, Women and the Microbe in American Life (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1998), 117–23, 247–52, and Juliann Sivulka, Stronger than Dirt: A Cultural History of Advertising Personal Hygiene in North America (Amherst, NY: Humanity Books, 2001). The Cleanliness Institute is still maintained by the Association of American Soap and Glycerine Producers.
4. Figures from Anthony S. Wohl, Endangered Lives: Public Health in Victorian Britain (London: Methuen, 1983), 332–3 and passim.
5. Havelock Ellis, The Task of Social Hygiene (London, 1912), p. vi. See also Greta Jones, Social Hygiene in Twentieth Century Britain (London: Croom Helm, 1986), 26 and passim.
6. ‘Housing’, in The Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th edn. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1911), 821–2. This excellent survey article also included a statistical housing review of ‘other countries’—Austria, Belgium, France, Germany, the Netherlands, Italy, and the United States.
7. Roy Porter, The Greatest Benefit to Mankind: A Medical History of Humanity from Antiquity to the Present (London: HarperCollins, 1997), 510–13; Michael Burleigh, The Third Reich: A New History (London: Pan Macmillan, 2001), 345–8; Jones, Social Hygiene in Twentieth Century Britain, 28–9.
8. Agnes Campbell, Report on Public Baths and Washhouses in the United Kingdom (Edinburgh: Carnegie UK Trust, 1918), 10, 21–2, 28, 37; Irene Leigh, personal communication: her grandmother Eleanor Watson used the wash-boiler to clean the children after doing the laundry.
9. The Hygiene Committee of the Women’s Group on Public Welfare, Our Towns: A Close-Up (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1943), pp. xiii, 4, 81–7; see also Richard Titmuss, Poverty and Population: A Factual Study of Contemporary Social Waste (London: Macmillan, 1938); John Stevenson, Social Conditions in Britain between the Wars (London: Penguin, 1977); Campbell, Report on Public Baths and Washhouses in the United Kingdom, 7.
10. See Alexander Kira, The Bathroom (London: Penguin; New York: Viking, 1976). Oral quotations from The Rise and Spread of the Middle Classes, pt. i, Channel Four TV, 12 Mar. 2001; there is much testimony on the novelty of bathrooms. In the 1930s George Orwell found even relatively well-off working-class neighbours almost too much for his fastidious nose and eyes to bear. This acute sense of cleanness did not, however, stop him hating the hygienic bourgeois life of the aspiring suburbs; see William Ian Miller, The Anatomy of Disgust (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1997), 240–3.
11. See Caroline Davidson, A Woman’s Work Is Never Done: A History of Housework in the British Isles 1650–1950 (London: Chatto & Windus, 1986), 191–2; Ann Oakley, ‘Four Housewives’, in Oakley, Housewife (London: Penguin, 1974), 105–13, 127–41; Margaret Horsfield, Biting the Dust: The Joys of Housework (London: Fourth Estate, 1998), 123–39; on cellophane, see Tomes, The Gospel of Germs, 249–50.
12. Adrian Forty, Objects of Desire: Design and Society 1750–1980 (London: Thames & Hudson, 1986), 156–81 and passim; and on the vacuum cleaner, pp. 175–81.
13. Bill Luckin, Questions of Power: Electricity and Environment in Inter-War Britain (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1990), 29–30, 13, 53. Catherine Mills (‘Clean Air, Coal and the Regulation of the Domestic Hearth’, seminar, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Mar. 2006) described the dramatic environmental impact of the 1956 Clean Air Act ‘smoke abatement zones’ (on the town of Sheffield). See also Peter Thorsheim, Inventing Pollution: Coal, Smoke, and Culture in Britain since 1800 (Cleveland: Ohio University Press, 2006).
14. Kate de Castelbajac, The Face of the Century: 100 Years of Makeup and Style, ed. Nan Richardson and Catherine Chermayeff (London: Thames & Hudson, 1995).
15. Tomes, The Gospel of Germs, 250–1; Sharra L. Vostral, ‘Masking Menstruation: The Emergence of Menstrual Hygiene Products in the United States’, in Andrew Shail and Gillian Howie (eds.), Menstruation: A Cultural History (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005).
16. Joan Nunn, Fashion in Costume, 1200–2000 (London: Herbert, 2000), 182–4; John Peacock, 20th Century Fashion: The Complete Sourcebook (London: Thames & Hudson, 1993); Irina Lindsay, Dressing and Undressing for the Beach (Hornchurch: Ian Henry, 1983).
17. Like the childhood recalled by Doris Lessing, Under My Skin, vol. i of My Autobiography (London: HarperCollins, 1994); the comedian John Cleese has said that his mother did not like him to kiss her because ‘she thought it would spread germs’ (speaking on Parkinson, BBC TV, 10 Mar. 2001).
18. J. Menzies Campbell, Dentistry Then and Now, 3rd edn. (London: privately printed, 1981), 382–4. But preventive dentistry is still a low-status Cinderella—trained dental hygienists are not allowed to operate their own practices without the supervision of a dentist, or even put up a plaque advertising their services.
19. See Maria Montessori, The Montessori Method, trans. Anne E. George (London: Heinemann, 1912); Margaret McMillan, The Nursery School (London: Dent, 1930), with plates; also photographically illustrated in Leicester by E. Winifred Miller, Room to Grow! The Development of the Nursery and Infant School (London: George Harrap, 1944).
20. John Gale, Clean Young Englishman (London: Hogarth, 1988), 123–4.
21. Angela Rodaway, A London Childhood (London: Virago, 1985), 129; Roger Deakin, Waterlog: A Swimmer’s Journey through Britain (London, 1999), 140–4. Stroud District Council’s Jubilee Leisure Park with open-air pool, sports grounds, and nursery was a typical local authority response.
22. John K. Walton, The British Seaside: Holidays and Resorts in the Twentieth Century (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2000), 73–93, 122–42; see also W. W. F. Kemsley and David Ginsberg, The Social Survey: Holidays and Holiday Expenditure (London: Central Statistical Office, 1949), p. 13, table 10.
23. See e.g. C. E. M. Joad (ed.), Manifesto: The Book of the Federation of Progressive Societies and Individuals (London: Allen & Unwin, 1932). See also Joad’s highly popular Guide to Modern Thought (London: Faber & Faber, 1933).
24. See generally Brian Inglis, ‘Between the Wars’, in Inglis, Natural Medicine (London: Fontana/Collins, 1980); id., Fringe Medicine (London: Faber & Faber, 1964); James C. Whorton, Nature Cures: The History of Alternative Medicine in America (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002), 131–218.
25. Phyllis Hembry, The English Spa, 1560–1815: A Social History (London: Athlone Press; Rutherford, NJ: Fairleigh Dickinson University, 1990); see also ‘The Merits and Defects of British Health Resorts’, Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine, 13, pts. I and II (1920), 1–48; and David Cantor, ‘The Contradictions of Specialization: Rheumatism and the Decline of the Spa in Inter-War Britain’, in Roy Porter (ed.), The Medical History of Waters and Spas, Medical History Supplement 10 (London: Wellcome Institute for the History of Medicine, 1990).
26. Ruth Kunz-Bircher, The Bircher-Benner Guide, trans. Rosemary Steed (London: Unwin, 1981), 14–17, 26, and passim. On vitamin science, see Porter, The Greatest Benefit to Mankind, 554–9.
27. Werner Zimmermann, editor of Tao: A Monthly Magazine of Inner Consciousness and Self-Determination (1921–4), quoted in Michael Graffenried, Harald Szeeman, and A. D. Coleman, Naked in Paradise (Stockport: Dewi Lewis, 1997), no page number.
28. Adam Clapham and Robin Constable, As Nature Intended (London: Heinemann, 1982), 8–30 and passim; Paul Abelman, The Banished Body (London: Sphere, 1982).
29. George Ryley Scott, The Common Sense of Nudism: Including a Survey of Sun-Bathing and ‘Light Treatments’ (London: T. W. Laurie, 1934), 33 and passim.
30. Dorothy Porter, Health, Civilisation and the State: A History of Public Health from Ancient to Modern Times (London: Routledge, 1999), 306–8; Whorton, Nature Cures, 205. Macfadden’s long-running magazine Physical Culture (1899– ) had over 100,000 subscribers in its first year. See also Julius A. Roth, Health Purifiers and their Enemies: A Study of the Natural Health Movement in the United States with a Comparison to its Counterpart in Germany (London: Croom Helm, 1976); John Dinan, Sports in the Pulp Magazines (Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 1998).
31. Kathy Watson, The Crossing: The Curious Story of the First Man to Swim the English Channel (London: Headline, 2000); Deakin, Waterlog, 206–8 and passim; Charles Sprawson, Haunts of the Black Masseur: The Swimmer as Hero (New York: Pantheon Books, 1992), 133–93 and passim, photographs, 84–5.
32. Some of my earliest personal memories are of Progressive League summer schools with barefoot dancing outside on the lawn before breakfast; and of inexplicably not being allowed into the high-hedged open-air swimming pool until the afternoon, i.e. after the morning nude sessions. See also Jack D. Douglas, Paul K. Rasmussen, and Carol Ann Flanagan, The Nude Beach (Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage, 1977) on the nudism of ‘bare-ass beaches’ down the coast of California. Probably the only place in the world where nude bathing is actually obligatory by law is at the Tecopa hot springs in Death Valley, California, where nude bathing started in the 1930s and was legalized in the 1970s. There are hot springs in at least sixteen US states; see Marjorie Gersh-Young, The Definitive Guide to Hot Springs and Hot Pools of the North-West (Santa Cruz, Calif.: Aqua Thermal Access, 2003); ead., Definitive Guide to Hot Springs and Pools of the South-West (Santa Cruz, Calif.: Aqua Thermal Access, 2004).
33. The Hutterian Brethren (the Bruderhof) settled first in Britain, then Paraguay, and finally the United States. An attempt to refound the group in West Germany in the 1990s was foiled by local opposition, mobilized by a right-wing citizen’s group (Yaacov Oved, The Witness of the Brothers (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction, 1996), 30).
34. See e.g. Paul Weindling, Health, Race and German Politics between Unification and Nazism, 1870–1945 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989); Robert N. Proctor, The Nazi War on Cancer (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1999), 22–57. On Nazism as a millenarian religious cult, see Burleigh, The Third Reich, 3–9, 193–5, 253.
35. See Horsfield, Biting the Dust, 153–5, 201, 257–8; David White, ‘Keeping it Clean: Guilt about Dirt Remains the Adman’s Great Opportunity’, New Society, 16 Feb. 1984, 243–5; and the satiric comedy The Thrill of It All (1963; dir. Norman Jewison), featuring a suburban housewife, Doris Day, and her husband, Rock Hudson, caught up in the TV marketing of ‘Happy Smell’ soap. For a recent view on the long-term chemical effects of cleansing products, see Pat Thomas, Cleaning Yourself to Death: How Safe Is Your Home? (Dublin: Newleaf, 2001).
36. Jim Obelkevich, ‘Men’s Toiletries and Men’s Bodies in Britain 1950–80’, unpub., University of Warwick, Jan. 1993; White, ‘Keeping it Clean’, 244.
37. Rachel Carson, Silent Spring (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1962), 189–94; J. E. Lovelock, Gaia: A New Look at Life on Earth (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1979); id., Homage to Gaia: The Life of an Independent Scientist (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000); see also the guru E. F. Schumacher’s Small Is Beautiful: A Study of Economics as if People Mattered (London: Sphere Books, 1974).
38. See Elizabeth David, Mediterranean Food (1950), Italian Food (1954), French Country Cooking (1956); Sharon Cadwaller and Judi Ohr, Whole Earth Cookbook (1973); Gilly McKay, The Body Shop: Franchising a Philosophy (London: Pan, 1986).
39. As in many oral testimonies from the Bradford Heritage Recording Unit, Bradford; I am grateful to Dr Jill Liddington for this reference.
40. On nursing and ancillary services, see Brian Abel-Smith, A History of the Nursing Profession (London: Heinemann, 1960); Gerald Larkin, ‘The Emergence of the Para-Medical Professions’, in Bynum and Porter (eds.), Companion Encyclopedia of the History of Medicine, ii; Margaret Stacey, The Sociology of Health and Healing: A Textbook (London: Unwin Hyman, 1988), 182–4.
41. Boston Women’s Health Book Collective, Our Bodies Ourselves: A Health Book by and for Women (Boston: New England Free Press, 1971), ed. Angela Phillips and Jill Rakusen (London: Penguin, 1978); Janet Balaskas and Yehudi Gordon, Water Birth (London: Unwin Paperbacks, 1990).
42. Ivan Illich, Medical Nemesis: The Expropriation of Health (London: Calder & Boyars, 1975); Gladys T. McGarey, ‘The Growth of the American Holistic Medical Association’, British Journal of Holistic Medicine, 1 (Apr. 1984), 50–1; John Horder, ‘Summing Up’, ibid. 93–5; Andrew Veitch, ‘BMA Look at Alternative Remedies’, The Guardian, 17 Aug. 1983, 5; British Medical Association, Alternative Therapy (London: BMA, 1986).
43. See e.g. S. Levin, A. Katz, and E. Holst, Self-Care: Lay Initiatives in Health (London: Croom Helm, 1977), 5; Margaret Stacey, ‘Unpaid Workers in the Division of Health Labour’, in Stacey, The Sociology of Health and Healing; Diane L. Pancoast, Paul Parker, and Charles Froland (eds.), Rediscovering Self Help: Its Role in Social Care (Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage, 1983); David Haber, Health Care for an Aging Society: Cost Conscious Community Care and Self-Care Approaches (New York: Hemisphere, 1989); Mildred Baxter, Health and Lifestyles (London: Tavistock; New York: Routledge, 1990).
44. NHS Direct, <http://www.nhs.uk>, 1.
45. Diane Hales, An Invitation to Health (Pacific Grove, Calif.: Brookes/Cole, 1999), introd.
46. Biopsychosocial medicine was proposed by George L. Engel, ‘The Need for a New Medical Model: A Challenge for Biomedicine’, Science, 196 (1977), 129–36, repr. as a Classic Paper, British Journal of Holistic Medicine, 4 (1989), 37–53; see also Richard Frankel, Timothy Quill, and Susan McDaniel (eds.), The Biopsychosocial Approach: Past, Present, Future (Rochester, NY: Woodbridge, University of Rochester Press, 2003).
47. See e.g. Michio Kushi with Phillip Jannetta, Macrobiotics and Oriental Medicine: An Introduction to Holistic Health (Tokyo: Japan Publications, 1991).
48. Waldemar Janusczak, ‘Virtual Japan’, Channel Four TV, 2 Jan. 2001. Cornaro and Sanctorius would have been astonished.
49. Leon Chaitow, Body Tonic (London: Gaia Books, 1995), 1.
50. Lisa Armstrong, ‘The Clean Team’, Vogue (June 1997), 30–3. See also Diane Hales, An Invitation to Health (Pacific Grove, Calif.: Brookes/Cole, 1999); [Anita Roddick], The Body Shop Book of Well-Being: Mind, Body, Soul (London: Ebury Press, 1998); Amelia Hill and John Arlidge, ‘Thin End of a Big Fat Juicy Scam’, The Observer, 6 Jan. 2002, 11.
51. W. F. F. Kemsley and David Ginsberg, Expenditure on Hairdressing, Cosmetics and Toilet Necessities, The Social Survey: Consumer Expenditure Series (London: Central Office of Information, 1949), 6. UK figures from MINTEL, Teenage Grooming Habits, in Teenage Leisure (London: Mintel International Group, 2002).
52. The economic indices of alternative medicine and the ‘well-being’ sector require more research than can be given here. On spa travelling, see Alexia Brue, Cathedrals of the Flesh: My Search for the Perfect Bath (London: Bloomsbury, 2003); David Meilton and Fabienne Francie, ‘Bright-Eyed before Breakfast’, The European, 29 Apr.-2 May 1993, 19.
53. Global figures, consumer lifestyles, and future trends from Euromonitor, The World Market for Cosmetics and Toiletries, Oct. 2005, <http://www.euromonitor.com>.
54. Sander L. Gilman, Making the Body Beautiful: A Cultural History of Aesthetic Surgery (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1999).
55. Obelkevich, ‘Men’s Toiletries and Men’s Bodies in Britain’; Schools Health Educational Unit, Young People into the Nineties, book 2: Health (Exeter: Schools Health Education Unit, 1993); reviewed in Esther Oxford, ‘Young “Take More Care of Hygiene”’, The Independent, 25 Jan. 1993, 3; Arrid Extra Dry deodorant survey of 1,000 adults throughout Britain, quoted in John Mullin, ‘Summertime and the Living Is Queasy’, The Guardian, 14 July 1994, 3.
56. Mullin, ‘Summertime and the Living Is Queasy’.
57. Euromonitor, ‘Consumer Lifestyles in India’ and ‘Consumer Lifestyles in Turkmenistan’, in Global Markets, <http://www.euro monitor.com>; Kemsley and Ginsberg, Expenditure on Hairdressing, Cosmetics and Toilet Necessities, 1, 5 (table 5), 6.
58. See the classic text by Anthony Giddens, Modernity and Self-Identity: Self and Society in the Late Modern Age (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1991). A global survey by the cosmetic surgeon Steven Marquand tested a ‘symmetry ratio’ of beauty with a 100 per cent identical global response, in The Human Face, pt. III, Channel Four TV, 23 Mar. 2001.
59. The Guardian, 16 Mar. 2001, The Editor section, 5. Other remedies, notably vaccination and improved animal welfare, are now being sought.
60. The Hygiene Hypothesis, a film featuring Dr Erika von Mutius and her East-West Germany study in 1999, from the series Evolution: The Evolutionary Arms Race (WGBH Educational Foundation and Clear Blue Sky Productions, 2001); Richard Merritt, Wild vs. Lab Rodent Comparison Supports Hygiene Hypothesis, Duke University Medical Center Public Release 919–684–4148 (16 June 2006).
61. UK National Statistics Office (2004): Saving Lives programme of the Health Protection Agency, Communicable Disease Surveillance Centre for the Department of Health, <http://www.dh.gov.uk/PublicationsAndStatistics>. Even before the NHS privatization of hospital cleaners, NHS cleaners were a forgotten workforce; see Duncan Smith, A Forgotten Sector: The Training of Ancillary Staff in Hospitals (Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1969), 60–82.
62. See Michael Griffin, ‘Mission to Cleanse’, in Griffin, Reaping the Whirlwind: Afghanistan, Al-Qu’ida, and the Holy War (London: Pluto Press, 2003). Strict fundamentalist ascetic Islamic political regimes (such as the Taliban) reject music, dance, sports, television, and all books except the Qu’r-ān, the baring of any flesh, and the cutting of any hair, and promote the segregation of men from women, and of all women from public life.
63. Bruno Latour, We Have Never Been Modern, trans. Catherine Porter (New York: Harvester/Wheatsheaf, 1993).
64. Lieutenant-Colonel Mervin Willett Gonin, quoted in ‘Gagged For It’, Index on Censorship, vol. 27, pt. 3 (June 1998); repr. in The Guardian, The Editor section, 13 June 1998, 12–13.
65. See Richard Wilkinson, Mind the Gap: Hierarchies, Health and Human Evolution (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2000), 3, 11, and passim; id., Unhealthy Societies: The Afflictions of Inequality (London: Routledge, 1996). Mental health and ‘happiness’ studies are on the increase. On ‘social iatrogenesis’, see Illich, Medical Nemesis, 25–7. On the iatrogenesis of stress and speed, see id., Hygienic Nemesis: First Draft (Cuernavaca: Cidoc Cuaderno, 1974), 8; Carl Honoré, In Praise of Slow: How a Worldwide Movement Is Challenging the Cult of Speed (London: Orion, 2004); Paul Glennie and Nigel Thrift, ‘Reworking E. P. Thompson’s Time, Work-Discipline and Industrial Capitalism’, Time and Society, 5/3 (1996), 275–99. See also Barbara Adam, Timewatch: The Social Analysis of Time (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1995); Ronald Frankenberg (ed.), Time, Health and Medicine (London: Sage, 1992). An earlier hygiene debate on social or ‘free’ time took place in during the late 19th century, with legislation that was eroded in the 1970s–1980s by the expanding international economy, and free-trade policies such as the ‘relaxation’ of Sunday opening hours (now being fiercely contested in France; see Kim Willsher, ‘Selling Out Sunday: The Struggle for the Soul of the French Day of Rest’, The Guardian, Work section, 8 July 2006, 3).