Authors’ Note
1. I. Weinans and P. J. Prendergast, “Adaptation as a dynamical process far from equilibrium,” Bone 19, no. 2 (August 1996): 143–149.
Introduction
1. M. S. Garfinkel, H. R. Schumacher Jr., et al., “Evaluation of a yoga-based regimen for treatment of osteoarthritis of the hands,” Journal of Rheumatology 21, no. 12 (December 1994): 2341. I. Haslock, R. Monro, et al., “Measuring the effects of yoga in rheumatoid arthritis,”British Journal of Rheumatology 33, no. 8 (August 1994): 787–788. S. L. Kolasinski, A. G. Tsai, et al., “Iyengar yoga for treating symptoms of osteoarthritis of the knees: A pilot study,” Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine 11, no. 4 (August 2005): 689–693.
Chapter 1
1. National Osteoporosis Foundation (NOF), “Fast facts on osteoporosis,” www.nof.org/osteoporosis/diseasefacts.htm ( accessed July 2006).
2. C. Cooper, “The crippling consequences of fractures and their impact on quality of life,” American Journal of Medicine 103 (1997): 12S–17S, discussion 17S–19S.
3. M. M. Iqbal, “Osteoporosis: Epidemiology, diagnosis and treatment,” Southern Medical Journal 93, no. 1 (2000): 2–18.
4. D. Brixner, “Assessment of the prevalence and costs of osteoporosis treatment options in a real-world setting,” American Journal of Managed Care 12 (2006): S191–S198.
5. H. W. Minne, W. Pollähne, et al., “Weeks of pain, vertebral body fractures during sleep, invalidism: Save your osteoporosis patients from this fate,” MMW Fortschritte der Medizin 144, no. 44 (2002): 41–44.
6. S. Khosla and L. J. Melton III, “Osteopenia,“ New England Journal of Medicine 356, no. 22 (2007): 2293–3000.
7. D. M. Kado, T. Duong, et al., “Incident vertebral fractures and mortality in older women: A prospective study,” Osteoporosis International 14, no. 7 (2003): 589–594.
8. N. E. Lane, “Epidemiology, etiology and diagnosis of osteoporosis,” American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 194, no. 2 (February 2006): S3–S11.
9. Minne, Pollähne, et al., “Weeks of pain, vertebral body fractures during sleep, invalidism.”
10. Ibid.
11. Lane, “Epidemiology, etiology and diagnosis of osteoporosis.”
12. Kado, Duong, et al., “Incident vertebral fractures and mortality in older women.”
13. Cooper, “The crippling consequences of fractures and their impact on quality of life.”
14. Kado, Duong, et al., “Incident vertebral fractures and mortality in older women.”
15. S. L. Silverman, M. E. Minshall, et al., “The relationship of health-related quality of life to prevalent and incident vertebral fractures in postmenopausal women with osteoporosis: Results from the multiple outcomes of raloxifene evaluation study,” Arthritis and Rheumatism 44, no. 11 (2001): 2611–2619.
16. C. H. Whitehead, R. Wundke, and M. Crotty, “Attitudes to falls and injury prevention: What are the barriers to implementing falls prevention strategies?” Clinical Rehabilitation 20, no. 6 (June 2006): 536–542. Lane, “Epidemiology, etiology and diagnosis of osteoporosis.”
17. S. Boufous, C. Finch, et al., “The epidemiology of hospitalised wrist fractures in older people, New South Wales, Australia,” Bone 39, no. 5 (November 2006): 1144–1148.
18. Whitehead, Wundke, and Crotty, “Attitudes to falls and injury prevention.”
19. J. M. Morse, R. M. Morse, and S. J. Tylko, “Development of a scale to identify the fall-prone patient,” Canadian Journal on Aging 8, no. 4 (1989): 366–367.
20. L. W. Mui, L. B. Haramati, et al., “Evaluation of vertebral fractures on lateral chest radiographs of inner-city postmenopausal women,” Calcified Tissue International 73, no. 6 (2003): 550–554.
21. C. I. Rohr, J. M. Clements, and A. Sarkar, “Treatment and prevention practices in postmenopausal women after bone mineral density screening at a community-based osteoporosis project,” Journal of the American Osteopathic Association 106, no. 7 (July 2006): 396–401.
22. Whitehead, Wundke, and Crotty, “Attitudes to falls and injury prevention.”
23. NOF, “Fast facts on osteoporosis,” www.nof.org/osteoporosis/diseasefacts.htm.
24. O. Johnell, A. Kanis, et al., “Predictive value of BMD for hip and other fractures,” Journal of Bone and Mineral Research 20, no. 7 (July 2005): 1185–1194.
25. E. Barrett-Connor, E. S. Siris, et al., “Osteoporosis and fracture risk in women of different ethnic groups,” Journal of Bone and Mineral Research 20, no. 2 (February 2005): 185–194.
26. S. R. Cummings, D. Bates, and D. M. Black, “Clinical use of bone densitometry: Scientific review,” JAMA 288, no. 15 (October 2002): 1889–1897.
27. Ibid.
28. D. W. Bates, D. M. Black, and S. R. Cummings. “Clinical use of bone densitometry: Clinical applications.” JAMA 288, no. 15 (October 2002): 1898–1900.
29. S. Nayak, I. Olkin, et al., “ Meta-analysis: Accuracy of quantitative ultrasound for identifying patients with osteoporosis.” Annals of Internal Medicine 144, no. 11 (June 2006): 832–881.
30. Johnell, Kanis, et al., “Predictive value of BMD for hip and other fractures.”
31. Morse, Morse, and Tylko, “Development of a scale to identify the fall-prone patient.” I. Razmus, D. Wilson, et al., “Falls in hospitalized children,” Pediatric Nursing 32, no. 6 (November–December 2006): 568–572.
32. L. A. Ahmed, H. Schirmer, et al., “Validation of the Cummings’ risk score; How well does it identify women with high risk of hip fracture: The Tromso study,” European Journal of Epidemiology 21, no. 11 (2006): 815–822.
Chapter 2
1. G. H. Bell, O. Dunbar, et al., “Variations in strength of vertebrae with age and their relation to osteoporosis. Calcified Tissue Research 1 (1967): 75–86. S. K. Eswaran, A. Gupta, et al., “Cortical and trabecular load sharing in the human vertebral body,” Journal of Bone and Mineral Research 22 (January 2007): 149–157.
2. D. W. Nicholson, Finite Element Analysis: Thermomechanics of Solids (Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 2003), 180–181.
3. Silverman, Minshall, et al., “The relationship of health-related quality of life to prevalent and incident vertebral fractures in postmenopausal women with osteoporosis.” W. M. Drake et al., “An investigation of the predictors of bone mineral density and response to therapy with alendronate in osteoporotic men,” Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 88, no. 12 (December 2003): 5759–5765. Lane, “Epidemiology, etiology and diagnosis of osteoporosis.”
4. B. R. Gomberg, P. K. Saha, and F. W. Wehrli, “Method for cortical bone structural analysis from magnetic resonance images,” Academic Radiology 12 (2005): 1320–1332. F. W. Wehrli, “Structural and functional assessment of trabecular and cortical bone by micro magnetic resonance imaging,” Journal of Magnetic Resonance Imaging 25, no. 2 (February 2007): 390–409. C. L. Benhamou, S. Poupon, et al., “Fractal analysis of radiographic trabecular bone texture and bone mineral density: Two complementary parameters related to osteoporotic fractures,” Journal of Bone and Mineral Research 16, no. 4 (2001): 697–704. C. H. Chesnut III, S. Majumdar, et al., “Effects of salmon calcitonin on trabecular microarchitecture as determined by magnetic resonance imaging: Results from the QUEST study,” Journal of Bone and Mineral Research 20, no. 9 (2005): 1548–1561.
5. Z. Magyar and T. Fel, “Treatment of menopausal symptoms—review of the current literature,” Orvosi Hetilap 147, no. 19 (May 2006): 879–885.
6. R. M. Neer, C. D. Arnaud, et al., “Effect of parathyroid hormone (1-34) on fractures and bone mineral density in postmenopausal women with osteoporosis,” New England Journal of Medicine 344, no. 19 (2001): 1434–1441.
7. T. Hassenkam, H. L. Jørgensen, and J. B. Lauritzen, “Mapping the imprint of bone by atomic force microscopy,” Anatomical Record, Part A: Discoveries in Molecular, Cellular, and Evolutionary Biology 288, no. 10 (October 2006): 1087–1094.
Chapter 3
1. E. S. Siris, S. K. Brenneman, et al., “Predictive value of low BMD for 1-year fracture outcomes is similar for postmenopausal women ages 50–64 and 65 and older: Results from the National Osteoporosis Risk Assessment,” Journal of Bone and Mineral Research 19, no. 8 (2004): 1215–1220. Medscape Medical News, search results for “osteoporosis,” http://search.medscape.com/medscape-search?queryText=osteoporosis (accessed June 6, 2006).
2. Ibid.
3. M. Y. Ng, P. C. Sham, et al., “Effect of environmental factors and gender on the heritability of bone mineral density and bone size,” Annals of Human Genetics 70, part 4 (July 2006): 428–438.
4. G. Gong, G. Haynatzki, et al., “Bone mineral density of recent African immigrants in the United States,” Journal of the National Medical Association 98, no. 5 (May 2006): 746–752.
5. D. Seidlová-Wuttke, K. M. Stürmer, et al., “Contrasting effects of estradiol, testosterone and of a black cohosh extract on density, mechanical properties and expression of several genes in the metaphysis of the tibia and on fat tissue of orchidectomized rats,” Maturitas 55 (August 2006): S64–S74.
6. G. Zaman, H. L. Jessop, et al., “Osteocytes use estrogen receptor alpha to respond to strain but their ERalpha content is regulated by estrogen,” Journal of Bone and Mineral Research 21, no. 8 (August 2006): 1297–1306.
7. T. Pomerants, V. Tillmann, et al., “The influence of serum ghrelin, IGF axis and testosterone on bone mineral density in boys at different stages of sexual maturity,” Journal of Bone and Mineral Metabolism 25, no. 3 (2007): 193–197.
8. Ibid.
9. H. H. Malluche, N. Koszewski, et al., “Influence of the parathyroid glands on bone metabolism,” European Journal of Clinical Investigation 36, suppl. 2 (August 2006): 23–33.
10. Ibid.
11. Neer, Arnaud, et al., “Effect of parathyroid hormone (1-34) on fractures and bone mineral density in postmenopausal women with osteoporosis.”
12. L. Barclay and D. Lie, “Exercise program improves osteoporosis,” Medscape Medical News, May 25, 2004, http://cme.medscape.com/viewarticle/478726 (accessed July 31, 2008).
13. R. D. Jackson, A. Z. LaCroix, et al., “Calcium plus vitamin D supplementation and the risk of fractures,” New England Journal of Medicine 354, no. 7 (February 2006): 669–683.
14. M. J. Bolland, P. A. Barber, et al., “Vascular events in healthy older women receiving calcium supplementation: Randomised controlled trial,” BMJ 336 (February 2008): 262–266; available at www.bmj.com/.
15. J. Hsia, G. Heiss, et al., “Calcium/vitamin D supplements and cardiovascular events,” Circulation 115 (2007): 846–854. E. D. Michos and R. S. Blumenthal, “Vitamin D supplementation and cardiovascular disease risk,” Circulation 115 (2007): 827–828.
16. M. Norval, A. P. Cullen, et al., “The effects on human health from stratospheric ozone depletion and its interactions with climate change,” Photochemical and Photobiological Sciences 6, no. 3 (March 2007): 232–251.
17. L. Y. Matsuoka, L. Ide, et al., “Sunscreens suppress cutaneous vitamin D3 synthesis,” Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 64, no. 6 (June 1987): 1165–1168.
18. F. Bandeira, L. Griz, et al., “Vitamin D deficiency: A global perspective,” Arquivos Brasileiros de Endocrinologia and Metabologia 50, no. 4 (August 2006): 640–646.
19. J. Bakos and P. Mikó, “Vitamin D forming effectiveness of ultraviolet radiation from sunlight in different months in Budapest, Hungary,” Orvosi Hetilap 148, no. 7 (February 2007): 319–320.
20. A. Akesson, P. Bjellerup, et al., “Cadmium-induced effects on bone in a population-based study of women,” Environmental Health Perspectives 114, no. 6 (June 2006): 830–834.
21. M. R. Alam, S. M. Kim, et al., “Effects of safflower seed oil in osteoporosis induced-ovariectomized rats,” American Journal of Chinese Medicine 34, no. 4 (2006): 601–612.
22. M. Franklin, S. Y. Bu, et al., “Dried plum prevents bone loss in a male osteoporosis model via IGF and the RANK pathway,” Bone 39, no. 6 (August 2006): 1331–1342.
23. O. Barbier, G. Jacquillet, et al., “Acute study of interaction among cadmium, calcium, and zinc transport along the rat nephron in vivo,” American Journal of Physiology: Renal Physiology 287, no. 5 (November 2004): 1067–1075.
24. George Kessler, The Bone Density Program (New York: Ballantine Books, 2000), 75.
25. Ibid.
Chapter 4
1. M. C. Hochbert, D. E. Thompson, et al., “Effect of alendronate on the age-specific incidence of symptomatic osteoporotic fractures,” Journal of Bone and Mineral Research 20, no. 6 (2005): 971–976.
2. Drake et al., “An investigation of the predictors of bone mineral density and response to therapy with alendronate in osteoporotic men.”
3. R. Bartl, S. Götte, et al., “Adherence with daily and weekly administration of oral bisphosphonates for osteoporosis treatment,” Deutsche Medizinische Wochenschrift 131, no. 22 (June 2006): 1257–1262. K. J. Loud and C. M. Gordon, “Adolescent Bone Health,” Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine 160, no. 10 (October 2006).
4. Bartl, Götte, et al., “Adherence with daily and weekly administration of oral bisphosphonates for osteoporosis treatment.”
5. C. Roux, E. Seeman, et al., “Efficacy of risedronate on clinical vertebral fractures within six months,” Current Medical Research and Opinion 20, no. 4 (2004): 433–439.
6. D. M. Reid, J.-P. Devogelaer, et al., “A single infusion of zoledronic acid 5 mg is significantly more effective than daily oral risedronate 5 mg in increasing bone mineral density of the lumbar spine, hip, femoral neck and trochanter in patients with glucocorticoid-induced osteoporosis,” presented at the European Congress on Clinical and Economic Aspects of Osteoporosis and Osteoarthritis in Istanbul, Turkey, April 11, 2008. S. Silverman et al., “Effectiveness of bisphosphonates on nonvertebral and hip fractures in the first year of therapy: The risedronate and alendronate (REAL) cohort study,” Osteoporosis International 18, no. 1 (January 2007): 25–34. J. T. Harrington, L. G. Ste-Marie, et al., “Risedronate rapidly reduces the risk for non-vertebral fractures in women with postmenopausal osteoporosis,” Calcified Tissue International 74 (2004): 129–135.
7. Hoffmann–La Roche Inc., data on file (ref. #161-014), Nutley, NJ. N. B. Watts, P. Geusens, et al., “Relationship between changes in BMD and nonvertebral fracture incidence associated with risedronate: Reduction in risk of nonvertebral fracture is not related to change in BMD,” Journal of Bone and Mineral Research 20 (2005): 2097–2104. J. H. Ware, “The limitations of risk factors as prognostic tools,” New England Journal of Medicine 355, no. 25 (December 2006): 2615–2617.
8. M. R. McClung, E. M. Lewiecki, et al., “Denosumab in postmenopausal women with low bone mineral density,” New England Journal of Medicine 354, no. 8 (February 2006): 821–831. T. J. Beck, E. M. Lewiecki, et al., “Effects of denosumab on the geometry of the proximal femur in postmenopausal women in comparison with alendronate,” Journal of Clinical Densitometry 11, no. 3 (July–September 2008): 351–359.
9. H. H. Malluche, N. Koszewski, et al., “Influence of the parathyroid glands on bone metabolism,” European Journal of Clinical Investigation 36, suppl. 2 (August 2006): 23–33.
10. M. A. McTiernan, C. Kooperberg, et al., “Women’s health initiative cohort study,” JAMA 290 (2003): 1331–1336.
11. H. H. Malluche, N. Koszewski, et al., “Influence of the parathyroid glands on bone metabolism,” European Journal of Clinical Investigation 36, suppl. 2 (August 2006): 23–33.
12. Kessler, The Bone Density Program, 74, 75.
Chapter 5
1. P. Seale, B. Bjork, et al., “PRDM16 controls a brown fat/skeletal muscle switch,” Nature 454 (August 2008): 961–967.
2. O. B. Cimen, B. Ulba, et al., “Pulmonary function tests, respiratory muscle strength, and endurance of patients with osteoporosis,” Southern Medical Journal 96, no. 5 (2003): 423–426.
3. S. J. Stear, A. Prentice, et al., “Effect of a calcium and exercise intervention on the bone mineral status of 16–18-year-old adolescent girls,” American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 77 (2003): 985–992.
4. G. C. Gauchard, P. Gangloff, et al., “Influence of regular proprioceptive and bioenergetic physical activities on balance control in elderly women,” Journals of Gerontology Series A: Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences 58 (2003): M846–M850.
5. M. L. Irwin, Y. Yasui, et al., “Effect of exercise on total and intra-abdominal body fat in postmenopausal women: A randomized controlled trial,” JAMA 289 (2003): 323–330.
6. M. Sinaki, R. H. Brey, et al., “Significant reduction in risk of falls and back pain in osteoporotic-kyphotic women through a spinal proprioceptive extension exercise dynamic (SPEED) program,” Mayo Clinic Proceedings 80, no. 7 (2005): 849–855.
7. N. Miyakoshi, M. Hongo, et al., “Factors related to spinal mobility in patients with postmenopausal osteoporosis,” Osteoporos International 16, no. 12 (2005): 1871–1874. Sinaki, Brey, et al., “Significant reduction in risk of falls and back pain in osteoporotic-kyphotic women through a spinal proprioceptive extension exercise dynamic (SPEED) program.”
8. M. Sinaki, E. Itoi, et al., “Stronger back muscles reduce the incidence of vertebral fractures: A prospective 10 year follow-up of postmenopausal women,” Bone 30, no. 6 (2002): 836–841. M. Sinaki and B. A. Mikkelsen, “Postmenopausal spinal osteoporosis: Flexion versus extension exercises,” Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation 65, no. 10 (October 1984): 593–596. Knut Schmidt-Nielsen, Scaling: Why Is Animal Size So Important? (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1984).
Chapter 6
1. J. Wollf, The Law of Bone Transformation (Berlin: A. Hirschwald, 1892).
2. P. Forey and P. Janvier, “Evolution of the early vertebrates,” American Scientist 82 (1994): 554–565. J. D. Jovanovic´ and M. L. Jovanovic´, “Biomechanical model of vertebra based on bone remodeling,” Medicine and Biology 11, no. 1 (2004): 35–39.
3. C. T. Rubin, L. E. Lanyon, and G. Baust, “Modulation of bone loss during calcium insufficiency by controlled dynamic load,” Calcified Tissue International 38 (1986): 209–216.
4. M. J. Pead, R. Suswillo, et al., “Increased 3H-uridine levels in osteocytes following a single short period of dynamic bone loading in vivo,” Calcified Tissue International 43 (1988): 93–97.
5. C. T. Rubin and L. E. Lanyon, “Regulation of bone formation by applied dynamic loads,” Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery 66-A (1984): 397–402.
6. C. Kung, “A possible unifying principle for mechanosensation,” Nature 436, no. 7051 (August 2005): 647–654.
7. Rubin and Lanyon, “Regulation of bone formation by applied dynamic loads.”
Chapter 7
1. Y. Li, C. N. Devault, and S. Van Oteghen, “Effects of extended tai chi intervention on balance and selected motor functions of the elderly,” American Journal of Chinese Medicine 35, no. 3 (2007): 383–391. L. M. Fishman and E. Saltonstall, “Yoga for pain,” in Integrative Pain Medicine: The Science and Practice of Complementary and Alternative Medicine in Pain Management, ed. Joseph F. Audette and Allison Bailey (Totowa, NJ: Humana Press), 259–284.
2. T. Matsumoto, M. Kawakami, et al., “Cyclic mechanical stretch stress increases the growth rate and collagen synthesis of nucleus pulposus cells in vitro,” Spine 24, no. 4 (February 1999): 315–319.
3. Weinans and Prendergast, “Adaptation as a dynamical process far from equilibrium.”
4. See, for example, the following studies:
D. C. Cherkin, J. Erro, et al., “Comparing yoga, exercise, and a self-care book for chronic low back pain: A randomized trial,” Annals of Internal Medicine 143 (2005): 849–856.
S. Cooper, J. Oborne, et al., “Effect of two breathing exercises (Buteyko and pranayama) in asthma: a randomised controlled trial,” Thorax 58, no. 8 (August 2003): 674–679.
G. R. Deckro, K. M. Ballinger, et al., “The evaluation of a mind/body intervention to reduce psychological distress and perceived stress in college students,” Journal of American College Health 50, no. 6 (May 2002): 281–287.
M. DiBenedetto, K. E. Innes, et al., “Effect of a gentle Iyengar yoga program on gait in the elderly: An exploratory study,” Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation 86 (September 2005): 1830–1837.
L. M. Fishman and C. Konnoth, “Role of headstand in the management of rotator cuff syndrome,” American Journal of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation 83, no. 3 (March 2004): 228, abstract.
L. M. Fishman, C. Konnoth, and A. Polesin, “Headstand for rotator cuff tear: Sirsasana or surgery,” Journal of the International Association of Yoga Therapists 16 (October 2006): 39–46.
M. S. Garfinkel, H. R. Schumacher Jr., et al., “Evaluation of a yoga-based regimen for treatment of osteoarthritis of the hands,” Journal of Rheumatology 21, no. 12 (December 1994): 2341.
I. Haslock, R. Monro, et al., “Measuring the effects of yoga in rheumatoid arthritis,” British Journal of Rheumatology 33, no. 8 (August 1994): 787–788.
S. C. Jain, A. Uppal, et al., “A study of response pattern of non-insulin dependent diabetes to yoga therapy,” Diabetes Research and Clinical Practice 19 (1993): 69–74.
S. L. Kolasinski, A. G. Tsai, et al., “Iyengar yoga for treating symptoms of osteoarthritis of the knees: A pilot study,” Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine 11, no. 4 (August 2005): 689–693.
L. E. Lanyon, “Osteoporosis and exercise,” Topics in Geriatric Rehabilitation 4, no. 2 (March 1989): 12–24.
S. W. Lazar, C. E. Kerr, et al., “Meditation experience is associated with increased cortical thickness,” Neuroreport 16, no. 17 (November 2005): 1893–1897.
B. S. Oken, S. Kishiyama, et al., “Randomized controlled trial of yoga and exercise in multiple sclerosis,” Neurology 62, no. 11 (June 2004): 2058–2064.
C. Peng, I. C. Henry, et al., “Heart rate dynamics during three forms of meditation,” International Journal of Cardiology 95, no. 1 (May 2004): 19–27.
P. Raghuraj and S. Telles, “Effect of yoga-based and forced uninostril breathing on the autonomic nervous system,” Perceptual and Motor Skills 96, no. 1 (February 2003): 79–80.
S. Telles, B. H. Hanumanthaiah, et al., “Plasticity of motor control systems demonstrated by yoga training,” Indian Journal of Physiological Pharmacology 38, no. 2 (April 1994): 143–144.
K. A. Williams, J. Petronis, et al., “Effect of Iyengar yoga therapy for chronic low back pain,” Pain 115, nos. 1–2 (May 2005):107–117.
A. L. Williams, P. A. Selwyn, et al., “A randomized controlled trial of meditation and massage effects on quality of life in people with late-stage disease: A pilot study,” Journal of Palliative Medicine 8, no. 5 (October 2005): 939–952.
5. B. K. S. Iyengar, Light on Yoga (New York: Schocken Books, 1966), introduction.
Afterword
1. G. F. Anderson and E. Chu, “Expanding priorities: Confronting chronic disease in countries with low income,” New England Journal of Medicine 356, no. 3 (2006): 209–211.