NOTES

Introduction

1. Gordon Harrison, United States Army in World War II: Cross–Channel Attack (Washington, D.C.: Office of the Chief of Military History, 1951), 4n.

2. For example, when General Sir Hastings Ismay was reading an early draft of the third volume of Winston Churchill’s memoirs, he was astounded to find that Churchill’s account of the ARCADIA Conference, which began in December 1941 and extended into January 1942, did not include any description of the establishment of the Combined Chiefs of Staff. Apparently it was only due to Ismay’s protest against this oversight that the published version of Churchill’s memoirs does, in fact, mention the creation of the CCS. (Ismay to Churchill, October 31, 1946, Ismay Papers, 2/3/10, Liddell Hart Centre for Military Archives, King’s College, London [hereinafter LHC]. For comparison, see Winston S. Churchill, The Second World War, vol. 3, The Grand Alliance [Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1950], 686–88.) Ismay referred to that aspect of the ARCADIA discussions as “one of the really decisive decisions of the war.” (Ismay to Churchill, October 31, 1946, Ismay Papers, 2/3/10, LHC.) Indeed it was.

3. Sally Lister Parker, Attendant Lords: A Study of the British Joint Staff Mission in Washington, 1941–1944 (PhD dissertation, University of Maryland, College Park, 1984), 187; William D. Leahy, I Was There (New York: Whittlesey House / McGraw–Hill, 1950), 97. Sally Parker’s dissertation (which, sadly, has never been published) provides a great deal of information in regard to the vital nature of the British Joint Staff Mission, and of Field Marshal Dill as its leader, to the Combined Chiefs of Staff organization.

4. Albert C. Wedemeyer, Wedemeyer Reports! (New York: Henry Holt, 1958), 3–6, 163–67; Forrest C. Pogue, George C. Marshall, vol. 2, Ordeal and Hope (New York: Viking, 1966), 140–41. See also, Andrew Roberts, Masters and Commanders: How Four Titans Won the War in the West, 1941–1945 (New York: HarperCollins, 2009), 223–24.

5. Alex Danchev, Very Special Relationship: Field Marshal Sir John Dill and the Anglo-American Alliance, 1941–1944 (London: Brassey’s Defence, 1986), 32–56. See also, Hastings Ismay to Churchill, “The Combined Chiefs of Staff Organization,” Ismay Papers, 2/3/10/2A/1, LHC.

6. Omer Bartov, Hitler’s Army: Soldiers, Nazis, and War in the Third Reich (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992), 29. For more on German casualties in Russia, see Bartov, p. 45, and Alex Danchev, “God Knows: Civil–Military Relations with Allies,” in On Specialness: Essays in Anglo-American Relations (New York: St. Martin’s, 1998), 65.

7. U.S. Joint Chiefs of Staff, CCS 228/11, June 27, 1944, CAB 88/11/1–2, The National Archives of the UK [hereinafter TNA].

8. Thomas M. Coffey. HAP: The Story of the U.S. Air Force and the Man Who Built It, General Henry H. “Hap” Arnold (New York: Viking, 1982), 262.

9. Forrest C. Pogue, George C. Marshall, vol. 3, Organizer of Victory (New York: Viking, 1973), 336.

10. Danchev, Very Special Relationship, 23, 32–33. As Dill’s biographer, Danchev deftly examines the personal, off-the-record diplomacy that helped an alliance to work.

11. Parker, Attendant Lords, 154–156; Danchev, “God Knows,” 57, 64; Roberts, Masters and Commanders, 106.

12. Hastings Ismay to Churchill, “The Combined Chiefs of Staff Organization,” Ismay Papers, 2/3/10/2A/1, LHC.

Chapter 1. The Combined Chiefs of Staff

1. Mark A. Stoler, Allies in War: Britain and America against the Axis Powers, 1940–1945 (London: Hodder Arnold, 2005), 43–45; Andrew Roberts, Masters and Commanders: How Four Titans Won the War in the West, 1941–1945 (New York: HarperCollins, 2009), 103, 110.

2. Forrest C. Pogue, George C. Marshall, vol. 2, Ordeal and Hope (New York: Viking, 1966), 283.

3. Larry I. Bland, ed., Sharon Ritenour Stevens, assoc. ed., The Papers of George Catlett Marshall, vol. 3, “The Right Man for the Job:” December 7, 1941–May 31, 1943 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991), 590.

4. Henry H. Arnold, Global Mission (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1949), 15–20, 26–27.

5. Obituary, New York Times, January 16, 1950, 25.

6. Thomas M. Coffey, HAP: The Story of the U.S. Air Force and the Man Who Built It, General Henry H. “Hap” Arnold (New York: Viking, 1982), 344, 343–44, 382.

7. Ibid., 304–7, 312–13, 343–45, 358–62, 376.

8. Arnold, Global Mission, 500–2, 606–7; Coffey, HAP, 1, 312, 358–61; Alex Danchev and Daniel Todman, eds., War Diaries 1939–1945: Field Marshal Lord Alanbrooke (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001), xlvii.

9. Sally Van Wagenen Keil, Those Wonderful Women in Their Flying Machines: The Unknown Heroines of World War II (New York: Rawson, Wade, 1979), 253–54, 226–27; Molly Merryman, Clipped Wings: The Rise and Fall of the Women Airforce Service Pilots (WASPs) of World War II (New York: New York University Press, 1998), 6–7, 77–80, 124–26, 129.

10. King interview, August 26, 1950, King Collection, 37/7/31/2–3, Naval War College.

11. Forrest C. Pogue, George C. Marshall, vol. 3, Organizer of Victory (New York: Viking, 1973), 7. The same volume contains numerous references to the friendship between the two men.

12. Marshall to Arnold, December 23, 1942, Marshall Papers, 56/41, George C. Marshall Research Library, Lexington, Virginia.

13. Thomas B. Buell, Master of Sea Power: A Biography of Fleet Admiral Ernest J. King. (Boston: Little, Brown, 1980), 72–76; Coffey, HAP, 260.

14. Coffey, HAP, 197, 319, 334–36, 342–43. For Arnold thinking ahead, see Douglas quote therein on 113; King interview, August 26, 1950, p. 2, 4.

15. Coffey, HAP, 346.

16. Arnold as quoted in Bland and Stevens, eds., Papers of George Catlett Marshall, vol. 3, 687.

17. For the quotation, Coffey, HAP, 2.

18. Ibid., 61–64, 71–73, 77–78, 84–87.

19. Ibid., 84–87.

20. Bland and Stevens, eds., Papers of George Catlett Marshall, vol. 3, 589–90.

21. Arnold, as quoted in Coffey, HAP, 346.

22. Arnold to King. September 7, 1944, King Papers, Man. Div., box 9, Arnold file, LC; King interview, July 30–31, 1949, King Collection, 37/7/25/1–2, Naval War College; King interview, July 4, 1950, King Collection, 37/7/2, Naval War College.

23. King to Rear Admiral J. W. Greenslade, February 19, 1942, King Collection, 37/5/12/1–2, Naval War College.

24. King to Rear Admiral C. S. Freeman, March 27, 1942, 37/5/12/1, ibid.

25. Grace Person Hayes, The Joint Chiefs of Staff in World War II: The War against Japan (Annapolis, Md.: Naval Institute Press, 1982), 590–96, 660–62.

26. Obituary, New York Times, January 16, 1950, p. 25.

27. Sir James Grigg, interview with M. C. Long, Alanbrooke Papers, 12/11/1/4/1–2, LHC; Sir David Fraser, Alanbrooke (New York: Atheneum, 1982), 246.

28. Alex Danchev, Very Special Relationship: Field Marshal Sir John Dill and the Anglo-American Alliance, 1941–1944 (Washington, D.C.: Brassey’s Defence, 1986), passim.

29. Sally Lister Parker, Attendant Lords: A Study of the British Joint Staff Mission in Washington, 1941–1944 (PhD dissertation, University of Maryland, College Park, 1984), 155.

30. Brooke (an undated, late 1950s) reply to letters from Butler and Howard, Alan-brooke Papers, 10/3/12/1, LHC.

31. Fraser, Alanbrooke, 14–15, 37, 38–40.

32. Alex Danchev, “Great Britain: The Indirect Strategy,” in Allies at War: The Soviet, American, and British Experience, 1939–1945, ed. David Reynolds, Warren F. Kimball, and A. O. Chubarian (New York: St. Martin’s, 1994), 3–4.

33. Ibid., 3.

34. Brooke diary entry, March 31, 1942, Alanbrooke Papers, 5/5/87, LHC.

35. Ibid.

36. Fraser, Alanbrooke, 315.

37. Ibid., 325.

38. Roberts, Masters and Commanders, 20–22.

39. Brooke diary entry, September 10, 1944, reprinted in Fraser, Alanbrooke, 442.

40. See Lord Moran comment quoted in Brian Bond, “Alanbrooke and Britain’s Mediterranean Strategy, 1942–1944,” in War, Strategy, and International Politics: Essays in Honour of Sir Michael Howard, ed. Lawrence Freedman, Paul Hayes, and Robert O’Neill (Oxford, UK: Clarendon, 1992), 192–93.

41. Grigg, interview; Col. P. Earle, interview with M. C. Long, Alanbrooke Papers, 12/11/2/17/2, LHC.

42. Grigg, interview.

43. Lord Louis Mountbatten, interview with M. C. Long, 1952, Alanbrooke Papers, 12/11/1/2/1, LHC.

44. Earle, interview.

45. Portal, interview with M. C. Long, Alanbrooke Papers, 12/11/1/1/1–2, LHC.

46. Ibid., p. 2.

47. Ibid.

48. Ibid.

49. Stilwell diary entry, as quoted in Alex Danchev, “Being Friends: The Combined Chiefs of Staff and the Making of Allied Strategy in the Second World War,” in Lawrence Freed-man, Paul Hayes, and Robert O’Neill, eds., War, Strategy, and International Politics: Essays in Honour of Sir Michael Howard. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992), 208.

50. Brooke diary entry, June 26, 1942, Alanbrooke Papers, 5/5/137, LHC.

51. Ibid., p. 138.

52. Michael Simpson, A Life of Admiral of the Fleet Andrew Cunningham (London: Frank Cass, 2004), 174, 179–80.

53. Ibid., 2.

54. Stephen Fox, Transatlantic: Samuel Cunard, Isambard Brunel, and the Great Atlantic Steamships (New York: HarperCollins, 2003), 398–400.

55. Simpson, Life of Admiral of the Fleet Andrew Cunningham, 3.

56. Robert K. Massie, Castles of Steel: Britain, Germany, and the Winning of the Great War at Sea (New York: Random House, 2003), 636–37, 642–46.

57. Simpson, Life of Admiral of the Fleet Andrew Cunningham, 3.

58. Obituary, Times of London, June 13, 1963, 17; Simpson, Life of Admiral of the Fleet Andrew Cunningham, 2, 5–14, 25–26, 90, 175.

59. Roberts, Masters and Commanders, 419–20; Winston S. Churchill, The Second World War, vol. 3, The Grand Alliance (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1950), 265–66; Simpson, Life of Admiral of the Fleet Andrew Cunningham, 73–74, 89–94; Barrie Pitt, ed., The Military History of World War II (New York: Military, 1986), 43.

60. Simpson, Life of Admiral of the Fleet Andrew Cunningham, 127–32.

61. Pogue, Organizer of Victory, 258.

62. For Churchill’s desire to recapture Singapore and Hong Kong, see Roberts, Masters and Commanders, 313. See also, Warren F. Kimball, Forged in War: Roosevelt, Churchill, and the Second World War (New York: William Morrow, 1997), 133.

63. Alex Danchev, “Field Marshal Sir John Dill,” in Churchill’s Generals, ed. John Keegan (New York: Grove Weidenfeld, 1991), 51–52, 59.

64. Ibid., 59.

65. Ibid., 52–53, 63.

66. Roberts, Masters and Commanders, 76–78.

67. Alex Danchev, “Good Boy: Field Marshal Sir John Dill,” in On Specialness: Essays in Anglo-American Relations (New York: St. Martin’s, 1998), 81–82, 181n.

68. Danchev, “Field Marshal Sir John Dill,” in Churchill’s Generals, ed. John Keegan (New York: William Morrow, 1992), 66.

69. Danchev, Very Special Relationship, passim; and Parker, Attendant Lords, passim.

70. Nancy Dill to Marshall, December 22, 1944, Dill Papers, 5/2, LHC.

71. Marshall address, Yale University, February 16, 1944, 5/2/4, ibid.

72. Parker, Attendant Lords, 155–56, 189; Sir John Dill to E. J. King, December 13, 1943, King Papers, Man. Div., box 10, Dill file, LC; Nancy Dill to E. J. King, November 13, 1944, King Papers, Man. Div., box 10, Dill file. LC.

73. JSM to COS October 12, 1942, “Personal from Field Marshal Dill,” JSM 423, CAB 122/31/1, TNA.

74. Gordon Harrison, United States Army in World War II: Cross-Channel Attack (Washington, D.C.: Office of the Chief of Military History, 1951), 4n; Danchev, “Being Friends,” 200; Danchev, “Good Boy,” 86.

75. FDR to Churchill, January 10, 1945, Dill Papers, 5/2, LHC.

76. See Robert Albion quote in Buell, Master of Sea Power, 234. See also, Simpson, Life of Admiral of the Fleet Andrew Cunningham, 130.

77. Robert W. Love Jr., “Ernest Joseph King,” in The Chiefs of Naval Operations (Annapolis, Md.: Naval Institute Press, 1980), 140; Buell, Master of Sea Power, 41–42, 88–89.

78. Buell, Master of Sea Power, 17–24, 89.

79. Ibid., 17–24, 261; Love, “Ernest Joseph King,” 160; Ernest J. King and Walter Muir Whitehill, Fleet Admiral King: A Naval Record (New York: W. W. Norton, 1952), afterword by Whitehill, 651–52.

80. King and Whitehill, Fleet Admiral King, 306, 413 (for the blowtorch quote); Buell, Master of Sea Power, 222–23. For additional proof that King did indeed have a sense of humor, see Love, “Ernest Joseph King,” 161.

81. Buell, Master of Sea Power, 17–24, 43–44, 47–53, 58–64, 67–70, 76–78, 80–81, 199–202; Samuel Eliot Morison, History of United States Naval Operations in World War II, vol. 4, Coral Sea, Midway and Submarine Actions: May 1942–August 1942 (Boston: Little, Brown, 1949), 44–45n, 54–55, 59, 60n, 79–82; John B. Lundstrom, Black Shoe Carrier Admiral: Frank Jack Fletcher at Coral Sea, Midway, and Guadalcanal (Annapolis, Md.: Naval Institute Press, 2006), 208–09, 501–02; E. B. Potter, Nimitz (Annapolis, Md.: Naval Institute Press, 1975), 77, 86, 185, 241; Love, “Ernest Joseph King,” 156–57.

82. Vice Admiral Harry Sanders, USN (Ret.) to Thomas Buell, November 16, 1974, “Assorted Notes re FADM King,” King Collection, 37/2/1, Naval War College.

83. Buell, Master of Sea Power, 232.

84. Buell, Master of Sea Power, 155. For more on Edwards’ personality, see Love, “Ernest Joseph King,” 147.

85. Buell, Master of Sea Power, 232.

86. For King as gentleman, Buell, Master of Sea Power, 260.

87. King interview, July 30–31, 1949.

88. Spruance to King, January 22, 1947, King Papers, Man. Div., box 18, Spruance file, LC.

89. Ibid.

90. King interview, August 26, 1950, 2, 4.

91. King and Whitehill, Fleet Admiral King, 493n.

92. King interview, August 26, 1950, 2, 4.

93. Ibid.

94. John Major, “William Daniel Leahy: 2 January 1937–1 August 1939,” in Love, Chiefs of Naval Operations, 101–2.

95. Ibid., 101. See also William D. Leahy, I Was There (New York: Whittlesey House / McGraw-Hill, 1950), 87–93; obituary, New York Times, July 21, 1959, 29.

96. Major, “William Daniel Leahy,” 116; Pogue, Ordeal and Hope, 298–300; Roberts, Masters and Commanders, 96–97.

97. Love, “Ernest Joseph King,” 147; Roberts, Masters and Commanders, 96–97.

98. Pogue, Ordeal and Hope, 298–300; Major, “William Daniel Leahy,” 116; Buell, Master of Sea Power, 243.

99. Buell, Master of Sea Power, 227.

100. Ibid., 242–43.

101. Steven T. Ross, “Chester William Nimitz: 15 December 1945–15 December 1947,” in Love, Chiefs of Naval Operations, 181.

102. Buell, Master of Sea Power, 209.

103. Major, “William Daniel Leahy,” 102–3, 107; Ian Sturton, ed. Conway’s All the World’s Battleships: 1906 to the Present (Annapolis, Md.: Naval Institute Press, 1987), 178, 181. Information on American battleships therein is by Norman Friedman.

104. Ibid.

105. Buell, Master of Sea Power, 332–33, 471.

106. John Kennedy Ohl, Supplying the Troops: General Somervell and American Logistics in WWII (DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 1994), 105.

107. Forrest C. Pogue, George C. Marshall, vol. 1, Education of a General (New York: Viking, 1963), 164, 323; Pogue, Ordeal and Hope, 23; Roberts, Masters and Commanders, 27; Sir Hastings Ismay, The Memoirs of General Lord Ismay (New York: Viking, 1960), 251; Mark A. Stoler, George C. Marshall: Soldier Statesman of the American Century (Boston: Twayne, 1989), 121.

108. Ismay, Memoirs of General Lord Ismay, 251.

109. Obituary, New York Times, October 17, 1959, 12; Pogue, Education of a General, 327, 342. See also, Roberts, Masters and Commanders, 27–28.

110. Buell, Master of Sea Power, 187.

111. Pogue, Education of a General, 284–85, 292–99.

112. Larry I. Bland, ed., and Sharon Ritenour Stevens, assoc. ed., The Papers of George Catlett Marshall, vol. 4, “Aggressive and Determined Leadership:” June 1, 1943–December 31, 1944 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996), 345–46, text and notes.

113. Ibid., 345.

114. Bland and Stevens, eds., Papers of George Catlett Marshall, vol. 3, 668n.

115. Ibid (text of letter).

116. Pogue, Education of a General, 55–57, 67–69, 97, 126, 151–54, 226, 236, 245–46, 262–63; Roberts, Masters and Commanders, 11–12, 23–24.

117. Bland and Stevens, eds., Papers of George Catlett Marshall, vol. 4, pp. 9, 17; Pogue, Organizer of Victory, 44–47.

118. Bland and Ritenour Stevens, eds., Papers of George Catlett Marshall, vol. 4, 9; Pogue, Organizer of Victory, 221.

119. Bland and Ritenour Stevens, eds., Papers of George Catlett Marshall, vol. 4, 9.

120. Pogue, Organizer of Victory, 44.

121. Pogue, Ordeal and Hope, 12, 24 (quote); Pogue, Education of a General, 35, 302; Pogue, Organizer of Victory, 43, 53–54.

122. Pogue, Organizer of Victory, 53.

123. Ibid., 46–52.

124. Bland and Ritenour Stevens, Papers of George Catlett Marshall, vol. 4, 473–74.

125. Ibid., 474.

126. Ibid., 474n, 473.

127. Denis Richards, Portal of Hungerford (London: Heinemann, 1977), 4–5.

128. Ibid., 5.

129. Obituary, Times of London, April 24, 1971, 14.

130. Parker, Attendant Lords, 154–55.

131. Richards, Portal of Hungerford, 183, 214–15.

132. Portal, as quoted in Richards, Portal of Hungerford, 207–8.

133. Ibid., 595–596. For more information on both of the Canadian fishing trips, see Richards, Portal of Hungerford, 207–9.

134. Danchev and Todman, eds., War Diaries, 596.

135. Ibid., 596.

136. Richards, Portal of Hungerford, 199.

137. Portal to Harris, October 10, 1942, Portal Papers, 9/63/1, Christ Church, Oxford.

138. Parker, Attendant Lords, 184.

139. Portal, interview with M. C. Long.

140. Ibid.

141. Richards, Portal of Hungerford, 261, 265; Brian Bond, “Alanbrooke and Britain’s Mediterranean Strategy, 1942–1944,” in Freedman et al., War, Strategy, and International Politics, 184.

142. Danchev, “Great Britain,” 7–8; Roberts, Masters and Commanders, 102–3.

143. Brooke diary entry, April 2, 1942, Alanbrooke Papers, 5/5/89, LHC.

144. Robin Brodhurst, Churchill’s Anchor: Admiral of the Fleet Sir Dudley Pound, OM, GCB, GCVM (Barnsley, South Yorkshire, UK: Leo Cooper, 2000), 17.

145. Peter Kemp. “Admiral of the Fleet: Sir Dudley Pound,” in Men of War: Great Naval Leaders of World War II, ed. Stephen Howarth (New York: St. Martin’s, 1992), 25, 40.

146. Roberts, Masters and Commanders, 44, 419.

147. Danchev, “Great Britain,” 7.

148. King interview, July 30–31, 1949.

149. See, for example, King to Pound, March 28, 1943 and June 4, 1943, King Papers, Man. Div., box 14, Pound file, LC.

150. King-Pound correspondence, passim, King Papers, Man. Div., box 14, Pound file, LC.

151. Robin Brodhurst, “Admiral Sir Dudley Pound (1939–1943),” in The First Sea Lords: From Fisher to Mountbatten, ed. Malcolm Murfrett (Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 1995), 192–94.

152. Brodhurst, Churchill’s Anchor, 95–96, 218.

153. Ibid., 120.

154. Ibid.

155. Kemp, “Admiral of the Fleet Sir Dudley Pound,” 20.

156. Ibid., 20–24. See also, Brodhurst, Churchill’s Anchor, 116–17, 210–13.

157. Brodhurst, Churchill’s Anchor, 37, 58, 105 (on delegation in general), 248–49 (on PQ-17).

158. Parker, Attendant Lords, 160, 187.

159. Pogue, Ordeal and Hope, 310–12; Winston S. Churchill, The Second World War, vol. 5, Closing the Ring (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1951), 69–70.

160. Roberts, Masters and Commanders, 103.

161. Pogue, Ordeal and Hope, 311.

162. Stoler, Allies in War, 124–25; Churchill, Closing the Ring, 81.

163. For a good description of this incident, see Roberts, Masters and Commanders, 405–6. For the details of the design, see Susan B. M. Langley, “Habbakuk,” in Encyclopedia of Underwater and Maritime Archaeology, ed. James P. Delgado (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1997), 186.

164. Langley, “Habbakuk,” 186.

165. Bland and Stevens, eds., Papers of George Catlett Marshall, vol. 3, 225–26, text and notes.

166. Ibid., 226.

167. Ismay, Memoirs of General Lord Ismay, 169.

168. Pogue, Organizer of Victory, 6; Roberts, Masters and Commanders, 110–11; Ismay, Memoirs of General Lord Ismay, 355–56.

169. Ismay, Memoirs of General Lord Ismay, 168.

170. Ibid., 168–69, 317–18.

171. Ibid., 171–72.

172. Parker, Attendant Lords, 175–94.

173. Ibid., 175.

174. Love, “Ernest Joseph King,” 143.

175. Pogue, Ordeal and Hope, 261.

Chapter 2. Organization, Anatomy of a Summit Conference, and Home Base

1. Sally Lister Parker, Attendant Lords: A Study of the British Joint Staff Mission in Washington, 1941–1945 (PhD dissertation, University of Maryland, College Park, 1984), 104–15.

2. Ibid., pp. 17–21, 104–26.

3. Arnold to Marshall, March 20, 1943, WA138 27, Marshall Papers, 56/41, George C. Marshall Research Library; Lexington, Virginia; Forrest C. Pogue, George C. Marshall, vol. 2, Ordeal and Hope (New York: Viking, 1966), 283; see also, Pogue, George C. Marshall, vol. 3, Organizer of Victory (New York: Viking, 1973), passim.

4. Thomas B. Buell, Master of Sea Power: A Biography of Admiral Ernest J. King (Boston: Little, Brown, 1980), 363–66; E. B. Potter, Nimitz (Annapolis, Md.: Naval Institute Press, 1975), 187; “Mitscher, Marc Andrew,” in Alan Axelrod, Profiles in Leadership (New York: Prentice Hall, 2003), 366–68.

5. Ibid.

6. Parker, Attendant Lords, 24–34, 42–57, 118–21.

7. Alex Danchev, Very Special Relationship: Field Marshal Sir John Dill and the Anglo-American Alliance, 1941–1944 (Washington, D.C.: Brassey’s Defence, 1986), 23–32.

8. Hastings Ismay, “The Combined Chiefs of Staff Organization,” Ismay Papers, 2/3/10/2A/1, LHC.

9. CCS 228/12, of July 4, 1944, is one of many CCS memoranda that has as a byline: “The Representatives of the British Chiefs of Staff.” CAB 88/11/1, TNA [italics mine]. See also, Alex Danchev, “Being Friends: The Combined Chiefs of Staff and the Making of Allied Strategy in the Second World War,” in War, Strategy, and International Politics: Essays in Honour of Sir Michael Howard, ed. Lawrence Freedman, Paul Hayes, and Robert O’Neill (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992), 199–200.

10. A. J. P. Taylor, The First World War: An Illustrated History (New York: Perigree Books/G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1980), 219–20.

11. For more on such combined command structures, see General Sir William Jackson and Field Marshal Lord Bramall, The Chiefs: The Story of the United Kingdom Chiefs of Staff (London: Brassey’s, 1992), 245.

12. For additional information on such alliances, see Jackson and Bramall, Chiefs, 258–59; On Arnold retaining command of the B–29s, see Henry H. Arnold, Global Mission (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1949), 550.

13. King to Hopkins, September 17, 1942, King Collection, 37/5/12/1, Naval War College.

14. Wesley Frank Craven and James Lea Cate, eds. The Army Air Forces in World War II, vol. 6, Men and Planes (Washington, D.C.: Office of Air Force History, repr. 1983), 352; see also Craven and Cate, eds., The Army Air Forces in World War II, vol. 7, Services around the World (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1958), 24–29.

15. Grace Person Hayes, The Joint Chiefs of Staff in World War II: The War against Japan (Annapolis, Md.: Naval Institute Press, 1982), 4, 105.

16. John Kennedy Ohl, Supplying the Troops: General Somervell and American Logistics in WWII (DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 1994), 98–116; Letter from Kevin Smith to me, January 6, 1999.

17. C. B. A. (Betty) Behrens, Merchant Shipping and the Demands of War (London: Her Majesty’s Stationery Office and Longman’s, Green, 1955), 442; Ohl, Supplying the Troops, 100; Ronald Hope, A New History of British Shipping (London: John Murray, 1990), 386, 387; Letter to me from Kevin Smith, January 6, 1999.

18. Hope, New History of British Shipping, 387; Behrens, Merchant Shipping and the Demands of War, 272.

19. Pogue, Ordeal and Hope, 296; John D. Millett, The United States Army in World War II: The Organization and Role of the Army Service Forces (Washington, D.C.: Office of the Chief of Military History, 1954), 62.

20. Parker, Attendant Lords, 1–11.

21. Ibid., 155–56, 175–94; Oliver Warner, Admiral of the Fleet: Cunningham of Hyndhope—the Battle for the Mediterranean (Athens: Ohio University Press, 1967), 177–79.

22. Warner, Cunningham of Hyndhope, 178.

23. King interview, July 30–31, 1949, King Collection, 37/7/25/1–2, Naval War College.

24. Parker, Attendant Lords, 175–94.

25. Dill to Churchill, July 15, 1942, as reprinted in Winston S. Churchill, The Second World War, vol. 4, The Hinge of Fate (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1948–1953), 396.

26. Parker, Attendant Lords, 175–94.

27. Ibid., 1–11, 180.

28. Joint Staff Mission to Hollis, November 21, 1942, LETOD 435, CAB 122/177/1–2, TNA.

29. Combined Staff planners, CCS 251/1. May 25, 1943, “Proposals for Improving Combined Planning,” CAB 88/12/3, TNA.

30. Parker, Attendant Lords, 162–65; Danchev, Very Special Relationship, 50–65.

31. Combined Staff planners, “Proposals for Improving Combined Planning,” 88/12/3–4.

32. See for example, Pogue, Organizer of Victory, passim; and Andrew Roberts, Masters and Commanders: How Four Titans Won the War in the West, 1941–1945 (New York: HarperCollins, 2009), passim.

33. Roberts, Masters and Commanders, 76; Alex Danchev, “In the Back Room: Defence Co–operation,” in On Specialness: Essays in Anglo-American Relations (New York: St. Martin’s, 1998), 95; Pogue, Organizer of Victory, 70.

34. Danchev, Very Special Relationship, 133.

35. Danchev, “Being Friends,” 202.

36. Ibid.; Roberts, Masters and Commanders, 31, 76–77; Buell, Master of Sea Power, 242.

37. Albert C. Wedemeyer, Wedemeyer Reports! (New York: Henry Holt, 1958), 165–67, 187–88; Danchev, “Being Friends,” 200–201.

38. Pogue, Organizer of Victory, 32–35.

39. Foreign Relations of the United States [hereafter FRUS]: The Conferences at Washington, 1941–1942 and Casablanca, 1943 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1968), 500–22, 613–47; Minutes CCS 101st Meeting, July 9, 1943, Records of the JCS Part 1, 1942–45: Meetings, Microfilm (Frederick, Maryland: University Publications of America), reel 4, frame 0027, 1; minutes JCS 172nd Meeting, September 5, 1944, Records of the JCS—Meetings, reel 2, frame 0810; see also, Pogue, Organizer of Victory, 17.

40. Parker, Attendant Lords, 160.

41. Combined Chiefs of Staff, CCS 116/1, CAB 88/8/passim, TNA. See also, FRUS: The Conferences at Washington, 1941–1942, and Casablanca, 1943, 613–47.

42. Roberts, Masters and Commanders, 68–72, 339; Wedemeyer, Wedemeyer Reports!, 174, 179–80, 188, 191–92; Buell, Master of Sea Power, 267, 270.

43. Samuel Eliot Morison, The Two–Ocean War: A Short History of the United States Navy in the Second World War (Boston: Little, Brown, 1962), 238.

44. Pogue, Organizer of Victory, 27–30.

45. Buell, Master of Sea Power, 267, 279.

46. Pogue, Organizer of Victory, 30–31; Buell, Master of Sea Power, 279–80.

47. Pogue, Organizer of Victory, 31.

48. Wedemeyer, Wedemeyer Reports!, 192.

49. Kevin Smith, Conflict over Convoys: Anglo–American Logistics Diplomacy in the Second World War (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 1–2.

50. Ibid., 3–4. See also, Robert W. Love Jr., History of the U.S. Navy, vol. 2, 1942–1991 (Harrisburg, Pa.: Stackpole Books, 1992), 119; Roberts, Masters and Commanders, 428.

51. Pogue, Organizer of Victory, 39; Millett, United States Army in World War II, 174; FRUS: The Conferences at Washington, 1941–1942, and Casablanca, 1943, 536, text and note.

52. Joint Staff Mission, “Extract of Minutes of M.M. (42) 1st Meeting,” February 12, 1942, CAB 122/011/1, TNA; Joint Staff Mission, “Scale of British Effort in the Pacific after the Defeat of Germany,” attached note, September 26, 1944, CAB 122/1095/passim, TNA. See invitation card dated January 12, 1944, CAB 122/941/1, TNA.

53. Pound to Churchill and COS Committee, February 10, 1943, First Sea Lord’s Records, 1943–Part 1, ADM 205/27/1, TNA.

54. Pogue, Organizer of Victory, 38–39.

55. Noble to Cunningham, January 30, 1944, Cunningham Papers, ADD 52571, British Library [hereinafter BL]. See letterhead.

56. Joint Staff Mission, “Extract of Minutes of M.M. (42) 1st Meeting”; Joint Staff Mission, “Scale of British Effort in the Pacific after the Defeat of Germany.”

57. “Office Accommodation in Washington,” undated British Joint Staff Mission document, CAB 122/011/1, TNA.

58. Joint Staff Mission, “Extract of Minutes of M.M. (42) 1st Meeting”; Joint Staff Mission, “Scale of British Effort in the Pacific after the Defeat of Germany.”

59. Danchev, Very Special Relationship, 23–32; Knox to King, March 10, 1944, “Navy Department Office Space in Washington, D.C.,” King Papers, Man. Div., box 12, Knox file, LC.

60. Redman to Deane, June 8, 1943, CAB 122/011/1, TNA.

61. FRUS: The Conferences at Washington, 1941–1942, and Casablanca, 1943, 522.

62. FRUS: The Conferences at Washington and Quebec, 1943. (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1970), vi–vii, 52–111, 152.

63. Dill to son John, September 14, 1944, Dill Papers, 5/6, LHC.

64. FRUS: The Conferences at Washington and Quebec, 1943, viii–ix, 870–81, 889–904.

65. Pogue, Organizer of Victory, 519.

66. Roberts, Masters and Commanders, 546; Pogue, Organizer of Victory, 520–22; Buell, Master of Sea Power, 484–85.

67. Pogue, Organizer of Victory, 520–21; Roberts, Masters and Commanders, 545–47.

68. Laurence Kuter, as quoted in Pogue, Organizer of Victory, 520.

Chapter 3. The Combined Chiefs of Staff and the War in the Pacific

1. Forrest C. Pogue, George C. Marshall, vol. 2, Ordeal and Hope (New York: Viking, 1966), 28.

2. Christopher Thorne, Allies of a Kind: The United States, Britain and the War against Japan (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1978), 134; Grace Person Hayes, The Joint Chiefs of Staff in World War II: The War against Japan (Annapolis, Md.: Naval Institute Press, 1982), 8–11. Hayes in particular provides a detailed account of the ABC talks.

3. British Joint Staff Mission, CCS 308/6, “Reorganization of Command in India and Southeast Asia,” November 8, 1943, CAB 88/15/2, TNA.

4. Samuel Eliot Morison, History of United States Naval Operations in World War II, vol. 3, The Rising Sun in the Pacific 1931–April 1942 (Boston: Little, Brown, 1955), 255–57.

5. Ibid., 256.

6. Mark A. Stoler, Allies in War: Britain and America against the Axis Powers 1940–1945 (London: Hodder Arnold, 2005), 63–66; E. B. Potter, Nimitz (Annapolis, Md.: Naval Institute Press, 1975), 76–86; Robert William Love Jr., “Ernest Joseph King,” in The Chiefs of Naval Operations (Annapolis, Md.: Naval Institute Press, 1980), 150; Samuel Eliot Morison, History of United States Naval Operations in World War II, vol. 4, Coral Sea, Midway and Submarine Actions: May 1942–August 1942 (Boston: Little, Brown, 1949), 44–45n, 54–55, 59–60n, 79–82; John B. Lundstrom, Black Shoe Carrier Admiral: Frank Jack Fletcher at Coral Sea, Midway, and Guadalcanal (Annapolis, Md.: Naval Institute Press, 2006), 209–12, 215–16; Thomas B. Buell, Master of Sea Power: A Biography of Admiral Ernest J. King (Boston: Little, Brown, 1980), 199–202.

7. Stoler, Allies in War, 161–63; Potter, Nimitz, 264–66.

8. Thorne, Allies of a Kind, 144–47, 155–57, 163.

9. Ibid., 135–41, 163. See also, B. H. Liddell Hart, History of the Second World War (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1970), 298, 317, 365.

10. See General Sir William Jackson and Field Marshal Lord Bramall, The Chiefs: The Story of the United Kingdom Chiefs of Staff (London: Brassey’s, 1992), 240; Andrew Roberts, Masters and Commanders: How Four Titans Won the War in the West, 1941–1945 (New York: HarperCollins, 2009), 312.

11. COS Committee to Churchill, COS (44) 123 (0), “Plans for the Defeat of Japan,” February 5, 1944, CAB 122/1072/1, TNA; Combined Chiefs of Staff, CCS 319/5, “Quadrant: Report to the President and Prime Minister of the Final Agreed Summary of Conclusions Reached by the Combined Chiefs of Staff,” August 24, 1943, in FRUS: The Conferences at Washington and Quebec, 1943 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1968), 1126–27.

12. For more on this, see Jackson and Bramall, Chiefs, 240.

13. Thorne, Allies of a Kind, 261–90; Samuel Eliot Morison, The Two Ocean War: A Short History of the United States Navy in the Second World War (Boston: Little, Brown, 1962), 305, 421.

14. Forrest C. Pogue, George C. Marshall. vol. 3, Organizer of Victory (New York: Viking, 1973), 21–32. See also, Ernest J. King and Walter Muir Whitehill, Fleet Admiral King: A Naval Record (New York: W. W. Norton, 1952), 424; Roberts, Masters and Commanders, 312.

15. JPS London to JPS Washington, Blue No. 59, December 23, 1942, Joint Staff Mission Papers, CAB 122/31/2, TNA.

16. U.S. Joint Chiefs of Staff, CCS 301, August 9, 1943, CAB 88/15/4, TNA.

17. King and Whitehill, Fleet Admiral King, 415–23. See also, Casablanca minutes, as reprinted in FRUS: The Conferences at Washington, 1941–1942, and Casablanca, 1943, 536.

18. Marshall to CCS, from Casablanca minutes, in FRUS: The Conferences at Washington, 1941–1942, and Casablanca, 1943, 620.

19. Ibid.

20. Ibid., 603.

21. For more on Brooke’s tenacity, see Jackson and Bramall, Chiefs, 240.

22. Brooke to CCS, from Casablanca minutes, in FRUS: The Conferences at Washington, 1941–1942, and Casablanca, 1943, 619.

23. Alex Danchev, Very Special Relationship: Field Marshal Sir John Dill and the Anglo-American Alliance, 1941–1944 (Washington, D.C.: Brassey’s Defence, 1986), 124; Pogue, Organizer of Victory, 336.

24. Pogue, Organizer of Victory, 21–32; Sally Lister Parker, Attendant Lords: A Study of the British Joint Staff Mission in Washington, 1941–1945 (PhD dissertation, University of Maryland, College Park, 1984), 160–62.

25. Combined Chiefs of Staff, CCS 94, “Operations in 1942/43, July 24, 1942, CAB 88/6/2, TNA. See also, Sir Michael Howard, Grand Strategy, vol. 4, August, 1942–September, 1943 (London: Her Majesty’s Stationery Office, 1972), 192.

26. Sir David Fraser, Alanbrooke (New York: Atheneum, 1982), 261–63; Kevin Smith, Conflict over Convoys: Anglo–American Logistics Diplomacy in the Second World War (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 77–78; Alex Danchev and Daniel Todman, eds., War Diaries 1939–1945: Field Marshal Lord Alanbrooke (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001), 267–68, 315. In particular, see Brooke’s entries for June 20 and August 29, 1942.

27. British COS Committee, CCS 135/2, “American-British Strategy in 1943,” January 3, 1943, CAB 88/8/2, TNA; Roberts, Masters and Commanders, 320.

28. Howard, Grand Strategy, vol. 4, 91.

29. Combined Chiefs of Staff, CCS 242/6—Enclosure, “Trident: Report to the President and Prime Minister of the Final Agreed Summary of Conclusions Reached by the Combined Chiefs of Staff,” May 25, 1943, reprinted in FRUS: The Conferences at Washington and Quebec: 1943, 369; Combined Chiefs of Staff, CCS 308/6, “Report to the President and the Prime Minister,” November 8, 1943 (Annex 1), CAB 88/15/7–8, TNA.

30. Howard, Grand Strategy, vol. 4, 450.

31. Winston S. Churchill, The Second World War, vol. 5, Closing the Ring (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1951), 274–76. See also Churchill, ibid., vol. 6, Triumph and Tragedy (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1953), 770.

32. Bernard C. Nalty, “The Gilberts and the Marshalls,” in Pearl Harbor and the War in the Pacific (New York: Smithmark, 1991), 134.

33. Combined Chiefs of Staff, “Report to the President and the Prime Minister.”

34. Joint Staff Mission to COS Committee, JSM 427 BIGOT, October 16, 1942, CAB 122/177/3, TNA.

35. Thomas Buell, The Quiet Warrior: A Biography of Admiral Raymond A. Spruance (Annapolis, Md.: Naval Institute Press, 1987), 240–44; Ronald H. Spector, Eagle against the Sun: The American War with Japan (New York: Free Press, 1985), 257; Nalty, “Gilberts and Marshalls,” 139; Potter, Nimitz, 276. See also, King and Whitehill, Fleet Admiral King, 520–29.

36. Nalty, “Gilberts and Marshalls,” 130–34; Hayes, Joint Chiefs of Staff in World War II, 3–6.

37. King and Whitehill, Fleet Admiral King, 387–88, 432–41.

38. Ibid., 441.

39. Ibid.

40. Hayes, Joint Chiefs of Staff in World War II, 310.

41. Ibid.

42. Thorne, Allies of a Kind, 295–96.

43. Spector, Eagle against the Sun, xiv, 257–71. See also, Nalty, “Gilberts and the Marshalls,” 138.

44. Thorne, Allies of a Kind, 296.

45. Ibid., 296–97.

46. Hayes, Joint Chiefs of Staff in World War II, 145–47, 311–12; Potter, Nimitz, 211–12, 276–96; Barrie Pitt, ed., The Military History of World War II (New York: Military, 1986), 165.

47. U.S. Joint Chiefs of Staff, CCS 417/8, September 9, 1944, CAB 122/1072/1, TNA.

48. U.S. Joint Chiefs, CCS 417/5, “Overall Objective in the War against Japan,” August 4, 1944, CAB 122/1072/1, TNA.

49. U.S. Joint Chiefs of Staff, CCS 219, “Conduct of the War in 1943–44,” May 14, 1943, CAB 88/11/1–2, TNA. See also Howard, Grand Strategy, vol. 4, 561–70.

50. COS Committee to Churchill, “Plans for the Defeat of Japan.”

51. Ibid. See also Fraser, Alanbrooke, 413–14.

52. Spector, Eagle against the Sun, xiii; MacArthur to Marshall, June 24, 1942, Marshall Papers, 73/12/1, George C. Marshall Research Library, Lexington, Va.; Potter, Nimitz, 212; John Toland, The Rising Sun: The Decline and Fall of the Japanese Empire (New York: Bantam, 1970), 530–36.

53. Hayes, Joint Chiefs of Staff in World War II, 122.

54. Ibid., 310.

55. Combined Chiefs of Staff, “Quadrant: Report to the President and Prime Minister.”

56. Buell, Master of Sea Power, 358.

57. Potter, Nimitz, 276–96.

58. COS Committee, CCS (44) 396 (0), “War against Japan—Summary of Various Courses,” May 4, 1944, CAB 122/1072/1, TNA.

59. Ibid.

60. COS Committee, “War against Japan—Summary of Various Courses,” 122/1072/1 and passim.

61. P. Noble to A. B. Cunningham, April 2, 1944, Cunningham Papers, ADD 52571/1,BL. See also JSM to COS Committee, JSM 110, August 3, 1942, AIR 8/1050/1–2, TNA.

62. Cunningham, interview with M. C. Long, Alanbrooke Papers, 12/11/1/5/2–3, LHC.

63. Thorne, Allies of a Kind, 592.

64. Danchev, Very Special Relationship, 73.

65. H. L. Moore to Churchill, April 24, 1943, ADM 205/27/1, TNA.

66. Cunningham, interview, 12/11/1/5/2.

67. Ibid. See also, Churchill, Triumph and Tragedy, 152.

68. Ibid.; Cunningham, interview, 12/11/1/5/2.

69. Ibid.

70. Churchill, Triumph and Tragedy; 152–53; Sir Hastings Ismay, The Memoirs of General Lord Ismay (New York: Viking, 1960), 399–401; Michael Simpson, A Life of Admiral of the Fleet Andrew Cunningham: A Twentieth Century Naval Leader (London: Frank Cass, 2004), 199–200. See also, Fraser, Alanbrooke, 416–17.

71. Cunningham diary entry, July 14, 1944, Cunningham Collection, ADD 52577, 46, BL.

72. Ibid.

73. Thorne, Allies of a Kind, 592.

74. Cunningham diary entry, July 14, 1944; COS Committee, “War against Japan—Summary of Various Courses,” 122/1072/4–5. See also, Fraser, Alanbrooke, 414.

75. See, for example, Fraser, Alanbrooke, 416.

76. Cunningham diary entry, August 10, 1944.

77. Ibid.

78. COS Committee to Churchill, “Plans for the Defeat of Japan”; Lambe to Cunningham, February 5, 1944, Cunningham Papers, ADD 52571, 2, BL.

79. Fraser, Alanbrooke, 420.

80. Ibid.

81. Potter, Nimitz, 347–49.

82. Hayes, Joint Chiefs of Staff in World War II, 433.

83. A. Doyle to R. Smeeton, undated, 1, attached to Noble to Cunningham, January 30, 1944, Cunningham Papers, ADD 52571, BL. See also, British Joint Planning Staff, JP (42) 1005, “Future Strategy,” January 10, 1943, CAB 84/51/1, TNA.

84. Lambe to Cunningham, February 5, 1944.

85. Ibid.

86. Ibid. [italics mine].

87. Ibid., 2.

88. Clark G. Reynolds, The Fast Carriers: The Forging of an Air Navy (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1968), 310–39; Simpson, Life of Admiral of the Fleet Andrew Cunningham, 203.

89. Noble to Cunningham, January 30, 1944.

90. The best example is Thorne, Allies of a Kind, passim.

91. Ibid., 335.

92. See Fraser, Alanbrooke, 420. See also, Pogue, Organizer of Victory, 24–25.

93. Smeeton to Pott, January 10, 1944, 2, attached to Noble to Cunningham, January 30, 1944.

94. See Reynolds, Fast Carriers, 246–47, 334, 337.

95. Noble to Cunningham. January 30, 1944; Doyle to Smeeton, undated, 1–2.

96. Doyle to Smeeton, undated, 1–2.

97. COS Committee, “War against Japan—Summary of Various Courses,” 122/1072/1.

98. Ibid., 122/1072 and passim.

Chapter 4. Related Advantages

1. Samuel E. Morison, History of United States Naval Operations in World War II, vol. 10, The Atlantic Battle Won (Boston: Little, Brown, 1956), 303; Karl Doenitz, Memoirs: Ten Years and Twenty Days, trans. R. H. Stevens and David Woodward (New York: World, 1959), 416–17.

2. Doenitz, Ten Years and Twenty Days, 416–17; Morison, Atlantic Battle Won, 275.

3. Erling Hunt, America Organizes to Win the War (New York: Harcourt Brace, 1942), 126, 364–65.

4. Ibid., 365.

5. Sally Lister Parker, Attendant Lords: A Study of the British Joint Staff Mission in Washington, 1941–1945 (PhD dissertation, University of Maryland, College Park, 1984), 108–10.

6. Jeremy Noakes and Geoffrey Pridham, eds., Nazism, 1919–1945: A History in Documents and Eyewitness Accounts, vol. 2, Foreign Policy, War and Racial Extermination (New York: Schocken Books, 1988, 1990), 126–27.

7. Akira Iriye, Power and Culture: The Japanese-American War, 1941–1945 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1981), 8, 11; Bernard C. Nalty, “Sources of Victory,” in Pearl Harbor and the War in the Pacific (New York: Smithmark, 1991), 285.

8. Omer Bartov, Hitler’s Army: Soldiers, Nazis, and War in the Third Reich (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992), 35, 127.

9. Leon Wolff, In Flanders Fields: The 1917 Campaign (New York: Viking, 1958), 53–55, 63–65.

10. A. J. P. Taylor, The First World War: An Illustrated History (New York: Perigree Books / G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1980), 195–96.

11. Wolff, In Flanders Fields, 241.

12. Newton D. Baker, as quoted in “Baker Sees Italy Now on Joint Front,” New York Times, November 5, 1917, 10.

13. Hastings Ismay to Churchill, “The Combined Chiefs of Staff Organization,” Ismay Papers, 2/3/10/2A/1–2, LHC.

14. Alan F. Wilt, War from the Top: German and British Military Decision Making during World War II (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1990), 218, 224.

15. Sir Michael Howard, Grand Strategy, vol. 4, August, 1942–September, 1943 (London: Her Majesty’s Stationery Office, 1972), 310. See table in Winston S. Churchill, The Second World War, vol. 5, Closing the Ring (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1951), 10. See also Robin Brodhurst, Churchill’s Anchor: Admiral of the Fleet Sir Dudley Pound, OM, GCB, GCVO (Barnsley, South Yorkshire, UK: Leo Cooper, 2000), 275.

16. Churchill, Closing the Ring, 10.

17. Noakes and Pridham, Nazism, vol. 2, 837.

18. Ibid., 837–38.

19. Akira Iriye, Origins of the Second World War in Asia and the Pacific (New York: Longman, 1987), 140–41; John Lewis Gaddis, Strategies of Containment: A Critical Appraisal of American Postwar National Security Policy (New York: Oxford University Press, 1982), 7–8.

20. Gordon A. Craig, Germany: 1866–1945 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1978), 725–26.

21. Mussolini to Ciano, October 12, 1940, as quoted in Noakes and Pridham, Nazism, vol. 2, 813.

22. Iriye, Power and Culture, 27; Noakes and Pridham, Nazism, vol. 2., 797, 830–31; Eric Larrabee, Commander in Chief: Franklin Delano Roosevelt, His Lieutenants, and Their War (New York: Harper and Row, 1987), 83.

23. Alex Danchev, “Great Britain: The Indirect Strategy,” in Allies at War: the Soviet, American, and British Experience, 1939–1945, eds. David Reynolds, Warren F. Kimball, and A.O. Chubarian. (New York: St. Martin’s, 1994): 6.

24. Wesley Frank Craven and James Lea Cate, eds., The Army Air Forces in World War II, vol. 6, Men and Planes (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1955), 302–4.

25. Paul Kennedy, The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers: Economic Change and Military Conflict from 1500 to 2000 (New York: Vintage Books, 1987, 1989), 354; Julius Augustus Furer, The Administration of the Navy Department in World War II (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1959), 855–57; Irving Brinton Holley Jr., The United States Army in World War II: Buying Aircraft—Matériel Procurement for the Army Air Forces (Washington, D.C.: Office of the Chief of Military History, 1954), 309, 518–29; Donald M. Nelson, Arsenal of Democracy: The Story of American War Production (New York: Harcourt Brace, 1946), 65; Craven and Cate, Men and Planes, 308.

26. Craven and Cate, Men and Planes, 308.

27. Ibid., 313; Holley, Buying Aircraft, 540–46; R. Elberton Smith, The United States Army in World War II: The Army and Economic Mobilization (Washington, D.C.: Office of the Chief of Military History, 1959), 480–82.

28. Kennedy, Rise and Fall of the Great Powers, 354; Furer, Administration of the Navy Department in World War II, 855–57; Holley, Buying Aircraft, 309, 518–29; Nelson, Arsenal of Democracy, 65. See David Rigby, “The Mobilization of the American Economy during the Second World War” (unpublished paper, December 1991), 22.

29. Craig, Germany, 627.

30. Richard Overy, Why the Allies Won (New York and London: W. W. Norton, 1995), 199–204.

31. Craig, Germany, 732.

32. Ibid., 732–33, 737.

33. Ibid., 733.

34. Overy, Why the Allies Won, 206.

35. Danchev, “Great Britain,” 6; Kennedy, Rise and Fall of the Great Powers, 354. See also, United States Strategic Bombing Survey, “Over-All Report” (European Report 2), in United States Strategic Bombing Survey (New York: Garland, 1976), vol. 1, 14, 31; Bartov, Hitler’s Army, 13, 15; Max Hastings, Bomber Command (New York: Dial / James Wade, 1979), 225; David Rigby, “The Effects of Strategic Bombardment on Germany During the Second World War” (unpublished paper, February 1992), 22, 37.

36. Overy, Why the Allies Won, 217–18.

37. Noakes and Pridham, Nazism, vol. 2., 730–31, 830; Craig, Germany, 733.

38. Samuel Eliot Morison, History of United States Naval Operations in World War II, vol. 15, Supplement and General Index (Boston: Little, Brown, 1962), 30–31; The Aircraft Carrier (Secaucus, N.J.: Chartwell Books, 1984), 29, 41, 49–55, 67, 80; Furer, Administration of the Navy Department in World War II, 879–80; Barrie Pitt, ed., The Military History of World War II (New York: Military, 1986), 202.

39. Parker, Attendant Lords, 1–10, 234–35.

40. New York World-Telegram, May 8, 1945, reprinted in USA Today, May 5, 1995, 6A, photo.

41. Winston S. Churchill, The Second World War, vol. 6, Triumph and Tragedy (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1953), 540; Maurice Matloff, Strategic Planning for Coalition Warfare 1943–1944 (Washington, D.C.: Office of the Chief of Military History, 1959), vol. 2, 280.

42. John R. Deane, “Memorandum for the United States Chiefs of Staff: Present Relations between the United States Military Mission, Moscow and the Soviet Military Authorities,” January 22, 1945, Records of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, part 1, 1942–1945: European Theater (Frederick/Bethesda, Md.: University Publications of America, 1982), reel 2, frame 0186, 4.

43. Matloff, Strategic Planning for Coalition Warfare 1943–1944, vol. 2, 290.

44. British ambassador (Moscow) to Eden, November 9, 1943, CAB 122/941/1, TNA; Joint Staff Mission to War Cabinet, September 30, 1943, LETOD 1423, CAB 122/941/1, TNA; John R. Deane, The Strange Alliance: The Story of Our Efforts at Wartime Co-operation with Russia (New York: Viking, 1947), 6, 9, 11. See also, Keith Eubank, Summit at Teheran (New York: William Morrow, 1985), 67.

45. Matloff, Strategic Planning for Coalition Warfare, vol. 2, 289.

46. Ibid., 285.

47. John Lewis Gaddis, The United States and the Origins of the Cold War 1941–1947 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1972), 73.

48. Deane, “Present Relations between the United States Military Mission, Moscow and the Soviet Military Authorities,” 6.

49. Ibid., frame 0189, 7.

50. U.S. Chiefs of Staff, CCS 732, “Alleged Attacks by U.S. Lightning Planes on Soviet Troops,” Records of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, part 1, 1942–1945: The Soviet Union (Frederick/Bethesda, Md.: University Publications of America, 1981), reel 2, frame 0106, 2.

51. U.S. Chiefs of Staff, JCS Memo 260, “Coordination of Allied Air Operations with Soviet Authorities,” Records of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, part 1, 1942–1945: The Soviet Union, reel 2, frames 0030–0031.

52. U.S. Chiefs of Staff, CCS 732, “Alleged Attacks by U.S. Lightning Planes on Soviet Troops.” Records of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, part 1, 1942–1945: The Soviet Union, frame 0106, 2.

53. Ibid., frames 0109–0110, 5–6.

54. Winston S. Churchill, The Second World War, vol. 2, The Grand Alliance (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1950), 388. See also, Churchill, Closing the Ring, 264–66.

55. COS ad hoc committee, COS (42) 140, “Anglo–Russian Cooperation,” February 26, 1942, AIR 8/617/1, TNA; Martel to COS Committee, COS (43) 204, “The Northern Ports in Russia,” July 21, 1943, CAB 122/103/1, 3, 6–8, TNA. See also, No. 30 Mission to Air Ministry (rptd Embassy, Kuibyshev), WX.3129, “Liaison with U.S.S.R.,” March 15, 1942, AIR 8/617/1, TNA.

56. Martel to COS Committee, “Northern Ports in Russia,” 7.

57. Ibid., 2.

58. McFarlane to War Office (Chiefs of Staff Committee), WX.1273, February 4, 1942, AIR 8/617/1, TNA.

59. No. 30 Mission to Air Ministry, “Liaison with U.S.S.R.”

60. Martel to COS Committee, “Northern Ports in Russia,” 1–2.

61. Ibid., 1–2.

62. Ibid., 2.

63. Ibid., 5.

64. Baggallay to Foreign Office, with copies to Portal and to War Cabinet, February 11, 12, 13, 1942, AIR 8/617/1, TNA.

65. Gaddis, Strategies of Containment, 13–16.

66. Churchill, Triumph and Tragedy, 544, 546; Deane, Strange Alliance, 205–15.

67. Pitt, Military History of World War II, 244. See also, Nicholas V. Raisanovsky, A History of Russia, 4th ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1984), 525; Kennedy, Rise and Fall of the Great Powers, 353.

68. Pitt, Military History of World War II, 75, 289.

69. See, for example, Deane, Strange Alliance, 107–25.

70. U.S. Chiefs of Staff, JCS 527/5, “Procedure for the Release of Technical Information to the U.S.S.R.,” Records of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, part 1, 1942–1945: The Soviet Union, reel 1, frames 0730–0731, 24–25.

71. Combined Intelligence Committee, CIC 23/D, “Disclosure of Technical Information to the U.S.S.R.” CAB 122/104/3, 6, 10, TNA; Representatives of the British Chiefs of Staff (JSM), CCS 187/12, July 11, 1944, CCS Papers, CAB 88/10/5–7, TNA.

72. Winston S. Churchill, The Second World War, vol. 4, The Hinge of Fate (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1950), 377–81.

73. Deane, Strange Alliance, 3, 7–8; Matloff, Strategic Planning for Coalition Warfare, vol. 2, 291.

74. Deane, Strange Alliance, 8.

75. Matloff, Strategic Planning for Coalition Warfare, vol. 2, 299–300.

76. Ibid., 301.

Chapter 5. The Combined Chiefs of Staff and Overlord

1. Alex Danchev, “Biffing: The Saga of the Second Front,” in Danchev, On Specialness: Essays in Anglo-American Relations (New York: St. Martin’s, 1998), 32–33.

2. Leonard Mosley, Marshall: Hero for Our Times (New York: Hearst Books, 1982), 505–7.

3. Forrest C. Pogue, George C. Marshall, vol. 2, Ordeal and Hope (New York: Viking, 1966), 162–63; Mark A. Stoler, Allies in War, Britain and America against the Axis Powers 1940–1945 (London: Hodder Arnold, 2005), 75–76.

4. Forrest C. Pogue, George C. Marshall, vol. 3, Organizer of Victory (New York: Viking, 1973), 227, 272–73.

5. Forrest C. Pogue, U.S. Army in World War II: The Supreme Command (Washington, D.C.: Office of the Chief of Military History, 1954), 25–27.

6. Winston S. Churchill, The Second World War, vol. 5, Closing the Ring (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1951), 418.

7. Suggested by a reviewer who kindly provided feedback on this manuscript.

8. Churchill, Closing the Ring, 85, 418.

9. Andrew Roberts, Masters and Commanders: How Four Titans Won the War in the West, 1941–1945 (New York: HarperCollins, 2009), 395–98.

10. Danchev, “Biffing,” 33.

11. Stimson to FDR, as quoted in Roberts, Masters and Commanders, 394.

12. Pogue, Organizer of Victory, 273–74.

13. Dill to British Chiefs of Staff, JSM 814, March 16, 1943, CAB 122/1072, TNA; Pogue, Organizer of Victory, 117; British Joint Planning Staff, JP (43) 135 (Final), March 31, 1943, “Amphibious Operations in 1943 From United Kingdom--Revised Directive,” CAB 84/53/1–3, TNA; Larry I. Bland, ed., Sharon Ritenour Stevens, assoc. ed., The Papers of George Catlett Marshall, vol. 3, “The Right Man for the Job:” December 7, 1941–May 31, 1943 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991), 678.

14. Barrie Pitt, ed., The Military History of World War II (New York: Military, 1986), 244–47; Omer Bartov, Hitler’s Army: Soldiers, Nazis, and War in the Third Reich (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992), 45.

15. Bartov, Hitler’s Army, 29, 45.

16. Kevin Smith, Conflict over Convoys: Anglo-American Logistics Diplomacy in the Second World War (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 1–4; Robert W. Love Jr., History of the U.S. Navy, vol. 2. 1942–1991 (Harrisburg, Pa.: Stackpole Books, 1992), 119.

17. Warren F. Kimball, Forged in War: Roosevelt, Churchill, and the Second World War (New York: William Morrow, 1997), 145.

18. John Colville, The Fringes of Power: 10 Downing Street Diaries: 1939–1955 (New York: W. W. Norton, 1985), 583.

19. See Macmillan quote in Alex Danchev, “On Specialness: Anglo-American Apocrypha,” in Danchev, On Specialness, 3–4.

20. For the quote, see Danchev, “On Specialness: Anglo-American Apocrypha,” 5–6. See also, Kimball, Forged in War, 243–45.

21. Danchev, “Great Britain: The Indirect Strategy,” in D. Reynolds, Warren Kimball, and A. O. Chubarian, eds., Allies at War (New York: St. Martin’s, 1994), 4.

22. See Portal quote in Danchev, “Biffing,” 42.

23. Maurice Matloff, Strategic Planning for Coalition Warfare 1943–1944 (Washington, D.C.: Office of the Chief of Military History, 1959), vol. 2, 168. See also, Pogue, Organizer of Victory, 201–2.

24. U.S. Joint Staff planners, CCS 235, May 18, 1943, “Defeat of the Axis Powers in Europe,” in Records of the JCS, part 1, 1942–45: European Theater, Microfilm (Bethesda/Frederick, Md.: University Publications of America), reel 1, frame 0211, 6; Roberts, Masters and Commanders, 425.

25. Sir David Fraser, Alanbrooke (New York: Atheneum, 1982), 268. For more on Brooke’s views about the cross-channel attack, see Maurice Matloff, “Wilmot Revisited: Myth and Reality in Anglo-American Strategy for the Second Front,” in D–Day 1944, ed. Theodore A. Wilson (Abilene: Eisenhower Foundation and University Press of Kansas, 1971, 1994), 5.

26. Marshall to JCS, Minutes JCS 100th Meeting, August 6, 1943, Records of the JCS, part 1, 1942–45: Meetings (Bethesda/Frederick, Md.: University Publications of America), reel 1, frame 1115, 8.

27. Joint Intelligence Committee, Memorandum for Information No. 134 (476-4), October 25, 1943, “Probabilities of a German Collapse,” Records of the JCS—European Theater, reel 10, frames 0653–0655, 1–3.

28. Fraser, Alanbrooke, 270.

29. Brooke’s undated late-1950s reply to letters from Butler and Howard, Alan-brooke Papers, 10/3/12: 1, LHC.

30. Paul Kennedy, The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers: Economic Change and Military Conflict from 1500 to 2000 (New York: Vintage Books, 1987, 1989), 274.

31. Brooke’s undated late-1950s reply to letters from Butler and Howard.

32. See Danchev, “Great Britain: The Indirect Strategy,” in Reynolds, Kimball, and Chubarian, eds., Allies at War, 17–18.

33. Alex Danchev, “Being Friends: The Combined Chiefs of Staff and the Making of Allied Strategy in the Second World War,” in War, Strategy, and International Politics: Essays in Honour of Sir Michael Howard, ed. Lawrence Freedman, Paul Hayes, and Robert O’Neill (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992), 196, 204.

34. Roberts, Masters and Commanders, 252.

35. Matloff, Strategic Planning for Coalition Warfare, vol. 2, 168.

36. Minutes of COS Committee Meeting—COS (43) 83rd Meeting (0), April 22, 1943, CAB 79/60/1–3, TNA; Combined Staff planners, CCS 250/1, May 25, 1943, “Implementation of Decisions Reached at the Trident Conference,” CAB 88/12/6, TNA.

37. Pogue, Organizer of Victory, 242.

38. Matloff, Strategic Planning for Coalition Warfare, vol. 2, 167–70.

39. Combined Staff planners, “Implementation of Decisions Reached at the Trident Conference.”

40. Matloff, Strategic Planning for Coalition Warfare, vol. 2, 168–69.

41. Ibid., 169.

42. Mark A. Stoler, Allies and Adversaries: The Joint Chiefs of Staff, the Grand Alliance, and U.S. Strategy in World War II (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2000), 171; Danchev, “Biffing,” 38–39; R. J. Overy, Why the Allies Won (New York: W. W. Norton, 1995), 145–46.

43. Brooke Diary, April 9, 1942, Alanbrooke Papers, 5/5/92–93, LHC.

44. Ibid.

45. Combined Staff planners, CCS 72, May 16, 1942, “Bolero,” CAB 88/6/2–3, TNA.

46. Brooke diary entry, April 14, 1942.

47. Fraser, Alanbrooke, 248–49.

48. Ibid., 248.

49. Brooke’s undated late-1950s reply to letters from Butler and Howard. For more on the British view, see General Sir William Jackson and Field Marshal Lord Bramall, The Chiefs: The Story of the United Kingdom Chiefs of Staff (London: Brassey’s, 1992), 222.

50. Brian Bond, “Alanbrooke and Britain’s Mediterranean Strategy, 1942–1944,” in Freedman et al., War, Strategy, and International Politics, 184; Denis Richards, Portal of Hungerford (London: Heinemann, 1977), 261, 265.

51. Stoler, Allies in War, 144.

52. Leahy to FDR, November 17, 1943, “Memorandum on Command,” RG 218/127/20, NA; Pogue, Organizer of Victory, 318.

53. Leahy to FDR, “Memorandum on Command.”

54. Roberts, Masters and Commanders, 14. See also Ian Jacob quote therein, ibid., 324.

55. Pogue, Organizer of Victory, 318–22; Sir Hastings Ismay, The Memoirs of General Lord Ismay (New York: Viking, 1960), 312.

56. Combined Staff planners, “Implementation of Decisions Reached at the Trident Conference.”

57. Ibid., 3–4.

58. Roberts, Masters and Commanders, 369–70. See also, Stoler, Allies in War, 120.

59. Maurice Matloff and Edwin M. Snell, Strategic Planning for Coalition Warfare 1941–1942 (Washington, D.C.: Office of the Chief of Military History, 1953), vol. 1, 294, 306.

60. Pogue, Ordeal and Hope, 344, 402; Stoler, Allies and Adversaries, 85; Roberts, Masters and Commanders, 233; Fraser. Alanbrooke, 259.

61. Matloff, “Wilmot Revisited,” in Wilson, ed, D–Day 1944, 7.

62. Stoler, Allies and Adversaries, 86.

63. Matloff and Snell, Strategic Planning for Coalition Warfare, vol. 1, 294–95.

64. Smith, Conflict over Convoys, 77–78.

65. Alex Danchev and Daniel Todman, eds., War Diaries 1939–1945: Field Marshal Lord Alanbrooke (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001), 267–68, 315. In particular, see Brooke’s entries for June 20 and August 29, 1942.

66. Matloff and Snell, Strategic Planning for Coalition Warfare, vol. 1, 297.

67. Marshall to FDR, October 7, 1943, RG 218/127/20/73/1–2, NA.

68. Ibid.

69. Oliver Warner, Admiral of the Fleet: Cunningham of Hyndhope—the Battle for the Mediterranean (Athens: Ohio University Press, 1967), 181. For more on resources affecting Overlord planning, see Jackson and Bramall, Chiefs, 225–26.

70. Portal to AMSO, May 4, 1942, AIR 8/642, TNA.

71. Minutes of Monthly Meeting between Portal and his Commanders in Chief, June 9, 1942, AIR 8/620/2, TNA.

72. Portal Memorandum for COS Committee, COS (42) 351, July 21, 1942, “Continental Operations 1943: Operational Organisation and System of Command of the RAF,” CAB 80/37/1, TNA.

73. Richards, Portal of Hungerford, 207, 261.

74. Matloff and Snell, Strategic Planning for Coalition Warfare, vol. 1, 280.

75. Joint Staff Mission, CCS 75, June 5, 1942, “System of Command for Continental Operations in 1943,” annex 2 of COS (42) 439, October 26, 1942, CAB 80/38, TNA.

76. Matloff and Snell, Strategic Planning for Coalition Warfare, vol. 1, 212–15.

77. Pitt, Military History of World War II, 143, 240.

78. Roberts, Masters and Commanders, 215.

79. Alex Danchev, “God Knows: Civil-Military Relations with Allies,” in Danchev, On Specialness: Essays in Anglo-American Relations. (New York: St. Martin’s, 1998), 65; Bartov, Hitler’s Army, 45.

80. Danchev, “God Knows: Civil-Military Relations with Allies,” 65.

81. R. J. Overy, The Air War: 1939–1945 (New York: Stein and Day, 1980), 57.

82. Pitt, Military History of World War II, 240, 246–47.

83. Omer Bartov, The Eastern Front, 1941–1945: German Troops and the Barbarisation of Warfare (New York: St. Martin’s, 1986), 124–25; Bartov, Hitler’s Army, passim.

84. Antony Beevor, Stalingrad (New York: Penguin, 1998), 56; Williamson Murray and Allan R. Millett, A War to Be Won: Fighting the Second World War (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2000), 141.

85. Jeremy Noakes and Geoffrey Pridham, eds., Nazism, 1919–1945: A History in Documents and Eyewitness Accounts, vol. 2, Foreign Policy, War and Racial Extermination (New York: Schocken Books, 1988, 1990), 1096.

86. Richard J. Evans, The Third Reich at War (New York: Penguin, 2009), 194–95, 490–92; Bartov, Eastern Front, 1941–1945, 107.

87. Bartov, Hitler’s Army, 6; Andreas Hillgruber, Germany and the Two World Wars, trans. William C. Kirby (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1981), 85–88, 92–93, 97; Hannes Heer, “How Amorality Became Normality: Reflections on the Mentality of German Soldiers on the Eastern Front,” in Hannes Heer and Klaus Naumann, eds., War of Extermination: The German Military in World War II, 1941–1944 (New York: Beghahn Books, 2000), 334.

88. Richard Rhodes, Masters of Death: The SS-Einsatzgruppen and the Invention of the Holocaust (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2002), 114.

89. Bartov, Hitler’s Army, 183–85. Quotes from pages 185 and 183.

90. Danchev, “Biffing,” 37; Eisenhower to Combined Chiefs of Staff, CCS 103, August 25, 1942, “Operation Torch,” CAB 88/7/3, TNA.

91. King, as quoted in Thomas B. Buell, Master of Sea Power: A Biography of Admiral Ernest J. King (Boston: Little, Brown, 1980), 193 (and 265 for more on King’s boxing analogy); King memo to FDR (page 2), King Papers, Ms. Collection 37, box 4, folder number 3, Naval War College.

92. Fraser, Alanbrooke, 269.

93. Joint Chiefs of Staff, CCS 215, May 13, 1943, “Invasion of the European Continent from the United Kingdom in 1943–44,” CAB 88/11, TNA.

94. British Joint Planning Staff, CCS 167, January 22, 1943, “Continental Operations in 1943,” CAB 88/9/1–6, TNA.

95. Winston S. Churchill, The Second World War, vol. 6, Triumph and Tragedy (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1953), 17, 24, 189, 193, 194. See also Churchill, Closing the Ring, 85.

96. British Joint Planning Staff, JP (43) 103 (Final), March 4, 1943, “Operations against the Continent,” CAB 84/53, TNA.

97. Richards, Portal of Hungerford, 266; British Chiefs of Staff, CCS 304, August 10, 1943, “Operation ‘Overlord’—Outline Plan,” CAB 88/15/1–2, TNA; Joint Chiefs of Staff, CCS 423/1, December 4, 1943, CAB 122/1224/1, TNA.

98. Stoler, Allies and Adversaries, 166–70; Roberts, Masters and Commanders, 398, 432, 458; Michael Simpson, A Life of Admiral of the Fleet Andrew Cunningham: A Twentieth Century Naval Leader (London: Frank Cass, 2004), 176.

99. Eisenhower to Combined Chiefs of Staff, “Operation Torch.”

100. Joint Staff Mission to British Chiefs of Staff, JSM 501, November 27, 1942, CAB 122/31/1, TNA.

101. Joint Chiefs of Staff, JCS 611, November 26, 1943, “‘Overlord’ and the Mediterranean,” in Records of the JCS—Meetings, reel 1, frame 0292, appendix B, 4.

102. British Chiefs of Staff, CCS 409, “‘Overlord’ and the Mediterranean,” November 25, 1943, Records of the JCS—European Theater, reel 1, frames 0285–0286, 1–2.

103. Joint Chiefs of Staff, “‘Overlord’ and the Mediterranean,” 1.

104. British Chiefs of Staff, “‘Overlord’ and the Mediterranean,” 1.

105. Ibid.

106. Roberts, Masters and Commanders, 369–70, 390, 395, 402.

107. British Chiefs of Staff, “‘Overlord’ and the Mediterranean,” 1–2.

108. U.S. Joint Chiefs of Staff, “‘Overlord’ and the Mediterranean,” 1–2.

109. Ibid., frame 0291, appendix A, 2.

110. Matloff, Strategic Planning for Coalition Warfare, vol. 2, 127–28; Roberts, Masters and Commanders, 579.

111. Churchill to FDR, Number 717, June 28, 1944, RG 218/4/16/Enclosure “A,” NA.

112. FDR to Churchill, Number 573, June 28, 1944, RG 218/4/16/Enclosure “B,” NA.

113. Ibid.

114. Joint Staff Mission, CCS 603/15, August 5, 1944, “Operations to Assist ‘Overlord,’” in Records of the JCS—European Theater, reel 7, frame 1029, 1.

115. Joint Chiefs of Staff, CCS 603/16, August 5, 1944, “Operations to Assist ‘Overlord,’” Records of the JCS—European Theater, reel 7, frame 1031, 1.

Chapter 6. Keeping the Armchair Strategists at Bay

1. Anonymous December 1941 letter, King Papers, Naval War College, Collection 37, box 6, folder 4.

2. King response to anonymous letter, ibid.

3. Samuel Eliot Morison, The Two Ocean War: A Short History of the United States Navy in the Second World War (Boston: Little, Brown, 1962), 109–10.

4. Ibid., 110–21, “happy time” quote as reprinted therein on page 110; Thomas B. Buell, Master of Sea Power: A Biography of Admiral Ernest J. King (Boston: Little, Brown, 1980), 282–90.

5. Michael Gannon, Operation Drumbeat: The Dramatic True Story of Germany’s First U–Boat Attacks along the American Coast in World War II (New York: Harper and Row, 1990), 240, 412–15.

6. FDR to King, July 7, 1942, King Papers, Manuscript Division, box 14, “Franklin D. Roosevelt” file, LC.

7. Gannon, Operation Drumbeat, 391–95.

8. Brooke diary entry, September 10, 1944, as reprinted in Sir David Fraser, Alanbrooke (New York: Atheneum, 1982), 442.

9. Alex Danchev, Very Special Relationship: Field Marshal Sir John Dill and the Anglo-American Alliance, 1941–1944 (Washington, D.C.: Brassey’s Defence, 1986), 130.

10. Winston S. Churchill, The Second World War, vol. 5, Closing the Ring (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1951), vi.

11. Portal to Churchill, March 16, 1943, Portal Papers, 4/25, Christ Church, Oxford.

12. Denis Richards, as quoted in John Terraine, The Right of the Line: The Royal Air Force in the European War 1939–1945 (London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1985), 254.

13. Churchill to Ismay and Bridges, COS (42) 443, October 31, 1942, CAB 80/38, TNA.

14. Brooke Diary, October 22, 1942, Alanbrooke Papers, 5/6A/59, LHC.

15. Ibid.

16. Brooke diary entry, June 26, 1942, 5/5/137.

17. Alex Danchev and Daniel Todman, eds., War Diaries 1939–1945: Field Marshal Lord Alanbrooke (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001), 267–68. See particularly Brooke’s entry for June 20, 1942.

18. Brooke diary entry, March 31, 1942, 5/5/87.

19. Col. Peter Earle, interview with M. C. Long, Alanbrooke Papers, 12/11/2/17/3, LHC.

20. Ibid.

21. Churchill to Lord Portal, Minister of Works, March 7, 1944, reprinted in Churchill, Closing the Ring, 697.

22. Winston S. Churchill, The Second World War, vol. 4, The Hinge of Fate (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1950), 865. See also, Churchill, Closing the Ring, 700.

23. P. J. Grigg, interview with M. C. Long, Alanbrooke Papers, 12/11/2/16/2, LHC.

24. Ibid.

25. Ibid.

26. Brooke diary entry, March 31, 1942, 5/5/87.

27. Grigg interview, 12/11/2/16/1–2.

28. Portal, interview with M. C. Long, 1952, Alanbrooke Papers, 12/11/1/1/3, LHC.

29. Ibid.

30. Ibid., 12/11/1/1/3–4.

31. Churchill to Portal, June 15, 1942, Portal Papers, 3/46, Christ Church, Oxford; Ismay, interview by Joan Bright Astley, Alanbrooke Papers, LHC, 12/XI/2/8, 1, King’s College.

32. Portal to Churchill, July 31, 1942, AIR 8/451/1–2, TNA.

33. Portal to Sir Archibald Sinclair (Secretary of State for Air), July 7, 1942, AIR 8/451/1–5, TNA; Portal to Air Chief Marshal Sir Wilfrid Freeman, January 6, 1943, AIR 8/451/passim, TNA.

34. Stephen Roskill, Churchill and the Admirals (New York: William Morrow, 1978), 83, 95. Morton received a commission as an army major during the war.

35. Ibid., 83.

36. A. J. P. Taylor, Beaverbrook (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1972), 414–15.

37. Denis Richards, Portal of Hungerford (London: Heinemann, 1977), 194–95.

38. Earl of Birkenhead, The Professor and the Prime Minister (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1962), 220; R. F. Harrod, The Prof: A Personal Memoir of Lord Cherwell (London: Macmillan, 1959), 226–28.

39. Birkenhead, Professor and the Prime Minister, 230–31.

40. Ibid., 237–38.

41. Ibid.

42. C. P. Snow, Science and Government (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1961), 67.

43. Birkenhead, Professor and the Prime Minister, 238.

44. Portal to Churchill, June 24, 1943, Portal Papers, 4/52B, Christ Church, Oxford.

45. Portal to Churchill, May 19, 1942, AIR 8/330/1–2, TNA.

46. Ibid., AIR 8/330/1.

47. Lindemann to Churchill, May 14, 1942, AIR 8/330, TNA.

48. Portal to Churchill, August 12, 1942, AIR 8/330/1–2, TNA.

49. Lindemann to Churchill, July 25, 1942, AIR 8/451, TNA.

50. Ibid.

51. Portal to Churchill. July 31, 1942, AIR 8/451/1–2.

52. Ibid., AIR 8/451/1.

53. Ibid.

54. Chaz Bowyer, The Encyclopedia of British Military Aircraft (New York: Bison, 1982), 138.

55. Ibid., 126.

56. Portal to Churchill, July 31, 1942, AIR 8/451/1.

57. Ibid., AIR 8/451/1–2.

58. Ibid., AIR 8/451/1.

59. Lindemann to Churchill, March 30, 1942, AIR 8/440, TNA.

60. Churchill, Closing the Ring, 518; Arthur Harris, Bomber Offensive (New York: Macmillan, 1947), 101, 134, 191, 201. See David Rigby. “The Effects of Strategic Bombardment on Germany during the Second World War” (unpublished paper, February 1992), 9–10; and Rigby, “American Strategy in the Second World War with Special Emphasis on the Pacific Theater of Operations” (unpublished paper, December 1990), 16.

61. United States Strategic Bombing Survey [hereafter USSBS], “Over-All Report” (European Report 2), in United States Strategic Bombing Survey (New York: Garland, 1976), vol. 1, 51, 58. See Rigby, “Effects of Strategic Bombardment on Germany during the Second World War,” passim.

62. USSBS, “The Defeat of the German Air Force” (European Report 59), in United States Strategic Bombing Survey (New York: Garland, 1976), vol. 3, 9. See also, Barrie Pitt, ed., The Military History of World War II (New York: Military, 1986), 218–20; and Rigby, “Effects of Strategic Bombardment on Germany during the Second World War,” passim.

63. Wesley Frank Craven and James Lea Cate, The Army Air Forces in World War II, vol. 3, January 1944 to May 1945 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1951), 62; USSBS, “Defeat of the German Air Force,” 42. See also USSBS, “Over-All Report,” 49; and Rigby, “Effects of Strategic Bombardment on Germany during the Second World War,” 24–25.

64. USSBS, “Over-All Report,” 10.

65. Harris, Bomber Offensive, 147, 194. See Hans Rumpf, The Bombing of Germany, trans. Edward Fitzgerald (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1963), 130; also Rigby, “Effects of Strategic Bombardment on Germany during the Second World War,” passim.

66. Pitt, Military History of World War II, 210. See Rigby, “Effects of Strategic Bombardment on Germany during the Second World War,” passim.

67. Richards, Portal of Hungerford, 258–59, 314–15.

68. Churchill to Portal, October 7, 1941, AIR 8/440/1–2, TNA.

69. Ibid., AIR 8/440/2.

70. Combined Chiefs of Staff, CCS 166/1/D, in Foreign Relations of the United States: The Conferences at Washington, 1941–1942 and Casablanca, 1943 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1968), 782.

71. Ibid., 781 [italics mine].

72. USSBS, “Over-All Report,” 16; USSBS, “The German Anti-Friction Bearings Industry” (European Report 53), in United States Strategic Bombing Survey (New York: Garland, 1976), vol. 3, 1–2; USSBS, “Aircraft Division Industry Report” (European Report 4), in ibid., vol. 2, 7. See Rigby, “Effects of Strategic Bombardment on Germany during the Second World War,” passim.

73. Forrest C. Pogue, George C. Marshall, vol. 3, Organizer of Victory (New York: Viking, 1973), passim; Knox to King, November 20, 1942, King Papers, Man. Div., box 12, Knox file, LC.

74. E. B. Potter, Nimitz (Annapolis, Md.: Naval Institute Press, 1975), 186.

75. Forrestal to King, May 29, 1944, King Collection, 37/7/20, Naval War College.

76. Ernest J. King, n.d., “Secretaries Knox and Forrestal,” King Collection, 37/7/20/1–2, Naval War College.

77. Joint Chiefs of Staff to FDR, memorandum, “Operations against Burma,” attached to JCS 162, December 7, 1942, Records of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, part 1, 1942–1945: European Theater (Frederick/Bethesda, Md.: University Publications of America, 1982), reel 12, frames 0841–0842, 1–2.

78. King interview, “Comments of Joint Chiefs of Staff,” July 30–31, 1949, King Collection, 37/7/25/2–3, Naval War College.

79. James MacGregor Burns, Roosevelt: The Soldier of Freedom: 1940–1945 (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1970), 492–95.

80. Christopher Thorne, Allies of a Kind: The United States, Britain and the War against Japan (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1978), 165–66; Keith Eubank, Summit at Teheran (New York: William Morrow, 1985), 60–67.

81. Burns, Roosevelt, 41–42, 45–47, 210–12, 499–501; William Manchester. American Caesar: Douglas MacArthur, 1880–1964 (Boston: Little, Brown, 1978), 146, 150; D. Clayton James, The Years of MacArthur, vol. 1, 1880–1941 (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1970), 352–54.

82. Timothy Maga, “Vision and Victory: Franklin Roosevelt and the Pacific War Council, 1942–1944,” Presidential Studies Quarterly 21 (Spring 1991), 351–52.

83. Ibid., 352.

84. Ibid., 355–63.

85. Ibid., 352–55, 360–63.

86. British Chiefs of Staff Committee, COS (43) 220, July 30, 1943, “Meeting with Dr. T.V. Soong,” CAB 80/41/1–3, TNA.

87. Burns, Roosevelt, 495–96; minutes COS (43) 75th Meeting (0), April 13, 1943, CAB 79/60, TNA.

88. Roskill, Churchill and the Admirals, 210, 295–99; Richards, Portal of Hungerford, 187; Andrew Roberts, Masters and Commanders: How Four Titans Won the War in the West, 1941–1945 (New York: HarperCollins, 2009), 43.

89. Richards, Portal of Hungerford, 183–85.

90. Ibid., 185.

91. Ibid., 187.

92. Cunningham Diary, July 14, 1944, Cunningham Collection, ADD 52577, 46, BL.

93. Oliver Warner, Admiral of the Fleet: Cunningham of Hyndhope—the Battle for the Mediterranean (Athens: Ohio University Press, 1967), 244.

94. See, for example, Cunningham diary entry, August 10, 1944, ADD 52577, 58.

95. Brooke diary entry, September 15, 1942, 5/6A/40.

96. Ibid., 5/6A/41.

97. Fraser, Alanbrooke, 361.

98. British Joint Planning Staff, JP (43) 296 (Final), September 9, 1943, “Operations against Norway,” CAB 84/55/1, TNA.

99. Robert E. Sherwood, Roosevelt and Hopkins: An Intimate History (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1950), 470–73.

100. King to Hopkins, September 28, 1945, King Papers, Man. Div., box 12, Hopkins file, LC.

101. Gerald T. White, Billions for Defense: Government Financing by the Defense Plant Corporation during World War II (University: University of Alabama Press, 1980), 18, 36, 67, 75; Rigby, “The Mobilization of the American Economy during the Second World War” (unpublished paper, December 1991), passim.

102. R. Elberton Smith, The United States Army in World War II: The Army and Economic Mobilization (Washington, D.C.: Office of the Chief of Military History, 1959), 146.

103. John D. Millett, The United States Army in World War II: The Organization and Role of the Army Service Forces (Washington, D.C.: Office of the Chief of Military History, 1954), 189–212, 218, 227, 229; Donald M. Nelson, Arsenal of Democracy: The Story of American War Production (New York: Harcourt Brace, 1946), 109–10, 201–2; Smith, Army and Economic Mobilization, 146; John Kennedy Ohl, Supplying the Troops: General Somervell and American Logistics in WWII (DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 1994), 75. See Rigby, “Mobilization of the American Economy during the Second World War,” passim; and Rigby, “American Strategy in the Second World War with Special Emphasis on the European Theater and Logistics” (unpublished paper, May 1991), passim. 100.

104. Ohl, Supplying the Troops, 75.

105. Norman Beasley, Knudsen: A Biography (New York and London: Whittlesey House McGraw-Hill, 1947), 343.

Chapter 7. Delegation versus Control from the Center

1. R. J. Overy, Why the Allies Won (New York: W. W. Norton, 1995), 255–56.

2. See chapter 6. See also ibid., 21–22.

3. Brooke diary, August 6, 1942, Alanbrooke Papers, 5/6B/20, LHC.

4. Ibid., 5/6B/21.

5. Ibid., 5/6B/22.

6. Alex Danchev and Daniel Todman, eds., War Diaries 1939–1945: Field Marshal Lord Alanbrooke (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001), 259, 290–96.

7. Ibid., 295.

8. E. B. Potter, Nimitz (Annapolis, Md.: Naval Institute Press, 1975), 191.

9. Ibid., 191–92, 196–97, 207–8, 222; Henry H. Arnold, Global Mission (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1949), 340–43; Thomas B. Buell, Master of Sea Power: A Biography of Admiral Ernest J. King (Boston: Little, Brown, 1980), 225.

10. Potter, Nimitz, 191–92, 196–97, 207–8, 222; Buell, Master of Sea Power, 225.

11. Potter, Nimitz, 197.

12. Buell, Master of Sea Power, 225; Robert William Love Jr., “Ernest Joseph King,” in The Chiefs of Naval Operations (Annapolis, Md.: Naval Institute Press, 1980), 156–57.

13. Buell, Master of Sea Power, 225, 478.

14. Edward P. Stafford, The Big E: The Story of the USS Enterprise (Annapolis, Md.: Naval Institute Press, 1962, 1988), 177.

15. Potter, Nimitz, 191–92, 196–98, 206–8, 222; Arnold, Global Mission, 340; Buell, Master of Sea Power, 225, 478.

16. Forrest C. Pogue, George C. Marshall, vol. 3, Organizer of Victory (New York: Viking, 1973), 330–33; Carlo D’Este, World War II in the Mediterranean 1942–1945 (Chapel Hill, N.C.: Algonquin Books of Chapel Hill, 1990), 139–46, 154–56; Barrie Pitt, ed., The Military History of World War II (New York: Military, 1986), 276–79.

17. See Andrew Roberts, Masters and Commanders: How Four Titans Won the War in the West, 1941–1945 (New York: HarperCollins, 2009), 235.

18. Larry I. Bland, ed., Sharon Ritenour Stevens, assoc. ed., The Papers of George Catlett Marshall, vol. 3, “The Right Man for the Job:” December 7, 1941–May 31, 1943 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991), 472, 473n; Walter Muir Whitehill, afterword, in Ernest J. King and Whitehill, Fleet Admiral King: A Naval Record (New York: W. W. Norton, 1952), 651.

19. Douglas Southall Freeman, Lee’s Lieutenants: A Study in Command, vol. 1, Manassas to Malvern Hill (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1942), 621–28.

20. Ibid., 627.

21. Ibid., 664–68.

22. Bland and Stevens, Papers of George Catlett Marshall, vol. 3, 472.

23. Ibid., 472

24. Freeman, Lee’s Lieutenants, 605–14, 628–29; Bruce Catton, The Civil War (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1987), 348.

25. See quote from Marshall to Freeman above.

26. Winston S. Churchill, The Second World War, vol. 4, The Hinge of Fate (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1950), 262–66; Stephen Roskill, Churchill and the Admirals (New York: William Morrow, 1978), 130, 210.

27. Peter Kemp, “Admiral of the Fleet: Sir Dudley Pound,” in Men of War: Great Naval Leaders of World War II, edited by Stephen Howarth (New York: St. Martin’s, 1992), 34–35; Robin Brodhurst, Churchill’s Anchor: Admiral of the Fleet Sir Dudley Pound, OM, GCB, GCVO (Barnsley, South Yorkshire, UK: Leo Cooper, 2000), 248.

28. Roskill, Churchill and the Admirals, 130.

29. Robin Brodhurst, Churchill’s Anchor, 238, 245, 248.

30. Pound to Naval Staff, July 18, 1943, ADM 205/27, TNA.

31. Portal to COS Committee, COS (42) 341, “Provision of Long Range Aircraft for Anti-Submarine Patrols,” July 14, 1942, CAB 80/37/1–3, TNA; Pound to COS Committee, COS (42) 342, “Provision of Long Range Aircraft for Anti-Submarine Patrols,” July 14, 1942, CAB 80/37, TNA.

32. Kemp, “Admiral of the Fleet Sir Dudley Pound,” 21–22, 39; Brodhurst, Churchill’s Anchor, 180.

33. Pound to Churchill and British Chiefs of Staff, February 10, 1943, ADM 205/27, TNA.

34. Denis Richards, Portal of Hungerford (London: Heinemann, 1977), 306.

35. Portal to Harris, June 14, 1942, Portal Papers, 9/31A/1–2, Christ Church, Oxford; Richards, Portal of Hungerford, 306.

36. Richards, Portal of Hungerford, 140.

37. Portal to Leigh-Mallory, July 21, 1944, Portal Papers, 12/7D, Christ Church, Oxford.

38. Buell, Master of Sea Power, 361.

39. Potter, Nimitz, 241.

40. Ibid., 265–66.

41. Martin Stephen, The Fighting Admirals: British Admirals of the Second World War (Annapolis, Md.: Naval Institute Press, 1991), 185.

42. Cunningham diary, April 13, 1944, ADD52577, 7, BL.

43. Cunningham diary entry, April 14, 1944, 7.

44. Combined Staff planners, CCS 496, March 3, 1944, “Policy as to the Organization and Employment of Airborne Troops,” attached to COS (44) 230 (0), March 6, 1944, AIR 8/662/1–3, TNA.

45. Ibid., 1 (of CCS 496).

46. Pogue, Organizer of Victory, 378–83.

47. Brooke to COS Committee, COS (42) 426, October 10, 1942, “The Value of Airborne Forces,” CAB 80/38/1–5, TNA.

48. Brooke to COS Committee, COS (43) 81 (0), “Airborne Forces for North Africa and the United Kingdom,” February 24, 1943, AIR 8/661/1, TNA; Portal to COS Committee, Minutes of COS (43) 87th Meeting (0), April 28, 1943, AIR 8/661, 1 of extract, TNA.

49. Portal to JSM (RAFDEL), Webber W395, April 15, 1943, AIR 8/661/1, TNA.

50. Ibid.

51. Wesley Frank Craven and James Lea Cate, The Army Air Forces in World War II, vol. 6, Men and Planes (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1955), 352, 354.

52. Portal to COS Committee, COS (42) 417, September 28, 1942, “Airborne Forces,” CAB 80/38/1–4, TNA.

53. Ibid., 2.

54. Ibid.

55. Ibid., 3.

56. Combined Staff planners, “Policy as to the Organization and Employment of Airborne Troops,” AIR 8/662/2.

57. Ibid.

58. Ibid., 1–2.

59. Combined Staff planners, COS (44) 230 (0).

60. Combined Chiefs of Staff, CCS 252, June 3, 1943, CAB 88/12/1–3, TNA. See also, CCS 252/1, June 8, 1943, CAB 88/12, TNA.

61. Marshall to Eisenhower, CCS 103/2, September 14, 1942, CAB 88/7, TNA. See also, Joint Staff Mission to British Chiefs of Staff, JSM 465, November 6, 1942, CAB 122/177, TNA.

62. Dill to COS Committee, November 2, 1942, JSM 455, CAB 122/177, TNA.

63. Ibid.

64. Churchill, Hinge of Fate, 620–47. See also, Gordon Wright, The Ordeal of Total War: 1939–1945 (New York: Harper Torchbooks, 1968), 186–87.

65. Halifax to Eden, telegram 5933, December 7, 1942, CAB 122/180, TNA.

66. Ibid.

67. Churchill, Hinge of Fate, 620–47; Wright, Ordeal of Total War, 186–87.

68. Eden to Halifax, telegram 8255, December 29, 1942, CAB 122/180/1, TNA.

69. Commander R. D. Coleridge, RN, to William G. Hayter of British Embassy, Washington, D.C., November 14, 1942, CAB 122/180, 1–2, and enclosure, TNA.

70. Marshall to Eisenhower, as reprinted in JSM 626, from Joint Staff Mission to British Chiefs of Staff, December 28, 1942, CAB 122/180/1, TNA.

71. Winston S. Churchill, The Second World War, vol. 6, Triumph and Tragedy (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1953), 172–86.

Chapter 8. Production and Diplomatic Tasks for the Combined Chiefs

1. The Aircraft Carrier (Secaucus, N.J.: Chartwell Books, 1984), 76–77; Barrie Pitt, ed., The Military History of World War II (New York: Military, 1986), 201.

2. Land to War Production Board, April 12, 1945, attached to letter from Land to King, July 26, 1946, King Papers, Man. Div., box 18, Stark file, LC.

3. Munitions Assignment Board to Combined Chiefs of Staff, CCS 62, “Auxiliary Aircraft Carriers,” April 9, 1942, CAB 88/6/1–2, TNA; Combined Chiefs of Staff, CCS 62/1, “Auxiliary Aircraft Carriers,” April 24, 1942, CAB 88/6/2, TNA. See also Thomas B. Buell, Master of Sea Power: A Biography of Admiral Ernest J. King (Boston: Little, Brown, 1980), 309–10.

4. Admiralty to BAD August 8, 1942, Salor 4392, CAB 122/172/1–7, TNA.

5. Sir Charles Webster and Noble Frankland, The Strategic Air Offensive against Germany, 1939–1945, vol. 2, Endeavor (London: Her Majesty’s Stationery Office, 1961), part 4, 231, 250. See also United States Strategic Bombing Survey, “Defeat of the German Air Force,” in United States Strategic Bombing Survey (New York: Garland, 1976), 3, 6; and David Rigby. “The Effects of Strategic Bombardment on Germany during the Second World War” (unpublished paper, February 1992), 31–33, 38–39.

6. FDR to Joint Chiefs of Staff, October 1, 1942, enclosure to JCS 124, “Production of Combat Aircraft for 1943,” October 7, 1942, Records of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, part 1, 1942–1945: Strategic Issues (Frederick/Bethesda, Md.: University Publications of America, 1982), reel 8, frame 0626, 1.

7. Ibid.

8. Ibid., frames 0626–0627, 1–2.

9. Joint Chiefs of Staff to FDR, enclosure to JCS 134/1, “U.S. War Production Objectives, 1943,” October 22, 1942, Records of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, part 1, 1942–1945: Strategic Issues, reel 8, frame 0629, 1 [my italics].

10. Ibid.

11. Ibid., frames 0629–0630, 1–2.

12. Ibid., frame 0630, 2.

13. Ibid.

14. Wesley Frank Craven and James Lea Cate, eds. The Army Air Forces in World War II, vol. 6, Men and Planes (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1955), 352; Paul Kennedy, The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers: Economic Change and Military Conflict from 1500 to 2000 (New York: Vintage Books, 1987, 1989), 354.

15. Portal to Sinclair, July 17, 1942, AIR 8/451/2–4, TNA.

16. Portal to Freeman, January 6, 1943, AIR 8/451, TNA. Background on Freeman is from a telephone interview I conducted with Mr. Sebastian Cox, Head of the Air Historical Branch at the Ministry of Defence, London, June 25, 1997. See also, Sebastian Ritchie, Industry and Air Power: The Expansion of British Aircraft Production, 1935–1941 (London: Frank Cass, 1997), 51–52, 188, 223, 228–29.

17. Portal to Sinclair, July 17, 1942, AIR 8/451/5.

18. Portal to Freeman, March 9, 1943, AIR 8/451, TNA.

19. Ibid.

20. Portal to Sinclair, July 17, 1942, AIR 8/451/5.

21. Portal to Freeman, January 6, 1943.

22. Freeman to Portal, December 19, 1942, AIR 8/451/1–2, TNA.

23. Ibid., 2.

24. William Green and Gordon Swanborough, The Complete Book of Fighters (New York: Smithmark, 1994), 288–89.

25. Portal to Freeman, November 18, 1942, AIR 8/451/1, TNA.

26. Portal to Freeman, December 13, 1942, AIR 8/451/1, TNA.

27. Denis Richards, Portal of Hungerford (London: Heinemann, 1977), 218–23.

28. Thomas M. Coffey, HAP: The Story of the U.S. Air Force and the Man Who Built It, General Henry H. “Hap” Arnold (New York: Viking, 1982), 182, 257–58, 314–15, 322–23.

29. Portal to Sinclair, December 10, 1940, AIR 8/452/1, TNA.

30. Sinclair to Beaverbrook, December 2, 1940, AIR 8/452/2, TNA.

31. Richards, Portal of Hungerford, 219.

32. Joint War Production Staff to COS Committee, “Combined Production Requirements for 1943,” annex to JWPS (42) 77 (Final), October 3, 1942, CAB 80/38/1, TNA.

33. Ibid., 2.

34. Ibid.

35. Joint War Production Staff to COS Committee, “Combined Production Requirements for 1943,” CAB 80/38/2.

36. Ibid.

37. Ibid.

38. Leahy (for JCS) to FDR, July 20, 1943, “Logistics Planning,” RG 218/127/20/9/2, NA.

39. Ibid.

40. Ibid.

41. Reeves and Dorling to Combined Staff planners, June 4, 1942, attached to CCS 80, June 12, 1942, CAB 88/6/3–6, TNA.

42. Clark G. Reynolds, The Fast Carriers: The Forging of An Air Navy (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1968), 127–28.

43. Ibid., 19.

44. Reeves and Dorling to Combined Staff planners, June 4, 1942, attached to CCS 80, June 12, 1942, CAB 88/6/3–6, TNA.

45. King to Combined Chiefs of Staff, CCS 80/1, June 16, 1942, “Balanced Building Program of Cargo and Combat Shipping,” CAB 88/6/1–2, TNA.

46. Ibid., 1.

47. Ibid., 2.

48. Ibid.

49. Pound to Naval Staff, July 18, 1943, ADM 205/27, TNA.

50. Leahy to Combined Production and Resources Board, January 2, 1943, attached to CCS 137/1, January 8, 1943, “Construction Program of Escort Vessels,” CAB 88/8/Enclosure B, TNA.

51. Ibid.

52. King to Vice Chief of Naval Operations, C-in-C Pacific Fleet, and C-in-C Atlantic Fleet, February 11, 1943, King Papers, 7/5/9/1, Naval War College.

53. Ibid., 2.

54. Samuel Eliot Morison, The Two Ocean War: A Short History of the United States Navy in the Second World War (Boston: Little, Brown, 1962), 108–21.

55. Buell, Master of Sea Power, 309–10.

56. Robert E. Sherwood, Roosevelt and Hopkins: An Intimate History (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1950), 745–93.

57. Joint Staff Mission, CCS 270/8, September 20, 1943, “Land Airport Facilities in the Azores,” CAB 88/13/1–2, TNA.

58. Ibid., CAB 88/13/1–3, 5, 12, and appendix B.

59. Ibid., 4–5.

60. See George F. Kennan, Memoirs: 1925–1950 (Boston: Little, Brown, 1967), 151.

61. Joint Chiefs of Staff. CCS 270/7, September 7, 1943, “Plans for the Use of the Azores,” CAB 88/13/2, TNA.

62. Joint Staff Mission, CCS 270/8, September 20, 1943, “Land Airport Facilities in the Azores,” CAB 88/13/2–3, TNA.

63. Joint Chiefs of Staff, “Plans for the Use of the Azores.”

64. Joint Staff Mission, “Land Airport Facilities in the Azores,” CAB 88/13.

65. Ibid., 3.

66. Kennan, Memoirs, 145–63.

67. Frank O. Braynard (FRS) and William H. Miller, Fifty Famous Liners 2 (New York: W. W. Norton, 1985), 103–6. See also, Nicholas T. Cairis, North Atlantic Passenger Liners: Since 1900 (London: Ian Allan, 1972), 199.

68. Braynard and Miller, Fifty Famous Liners 2, 103.

69. Ibid., 106.

70. Ibid., 103.

71. Joint Chiefs of Staff, CCS 228, June 7, 1943, CAB 88/11/1, TNA. See also, Combined Chiefs of Staff, Series CCS 228/1–12, June 7, 1943–July 4, 1944, CAB 88/11, TNA.

72. Marshall to Joint Chiefs of Staff, 714-1 (JCS 504), September 17, 1943, “Japanese Atrocities—Reports of by Escaped Prisoners,” Records of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, part 1, 1942–1945: The Pacific Theater (Frederick/Bethesda, Md.: University Publications of America, 1982), reel 1, frames 0001–0003, 1–3; P. Scott Corbett, Quiet Passages: The Exchange of Civilians between the United States and Japan during the Second World War (Kent, Ohio: Kent State University Press, 1987), 57, 64–65, 93–94.

73. FDR to Stimson and Knox, September 9, 1943, “Japanese Atrocities—Reports of by Escaped Prisoners,” Records of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, part 1, 1942–1945: The Pacific Theater, reel 1, frame 0004, 4.

74. Leahy to FDR, September 17, 1943, enclosure B, “Japanese Atrocities—Reports of by Escaped Prisoners,” Records of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, part 1, 1942–1945: The Pacific Theater, reel 1, frames 0005–0006, 5–6.

75. Ibid., frame 0005, 5.

76. Marshall to Joint Chiefs of Staff, 714–1 (JCS 504), September 17, 1943. “Japanese Atrocities—Reports of by Escaped Prisoners,” Records of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, part 1, 1942–1945: The Pacific Theater, reel 1, frames 0002–0003, 2–3.

77. Joint Chiefs of Staff, CCS 228, June 7, 1943, CAB 88|11, TNA passim.

78. Ibid., CAB 88/11/1.

79. Joint Chiefs of Staff, CCS 228/11, June 27, 1944, CAB 88/11/1–2, TNA. See also, Joint Staff Mission, CCS 228/12, July 4, 1944, CAB 88/11/1–3, TNA.

80. Christopher Thorne, Allies of a Kind: The United States, Britain and the War against Japan (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1978), 620.

81. British Chiefs of Staff Committee, COS (43) 212, July 26, 1943, “Trial of Service and Merchant Navy Personnel for Offences in Russia,” CAB 80/41/Annex, TNA [my italics].

82. Winston S. Churchill, The Second World War, vol. 6, Triumph and Tragedy (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1953), 551–61.

83. British Joint Staff Mission, CCS 739/8, May 19, 1945, “Relations with Yugoslav Forces in Austria and Venezia Giulia,” Records of the Joint Chiefs of Staff—The European Theater (Frederick/Bethesda, Md.: University Publications of America, 1982), reel 5, frame 0407, 2.

84. Churchill, Triumph and Tragedy, 551–61.

Conclusion

1. Mark A. Stoler, Allies and Adversaries: The Joint Chiefs of Staff, the Grand Alliance, and U.S. Strategy in World War II (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2000), 166–70; Andrew Roberts, Masters and Commanders: How Four Titans Won the War in the West, 1941–1945 (New York: HarperCollins, 2009), 398, 432, 458; Michael Simpson, A Life of Admiral of the Fleet Andrew Cunningham: A Twentieth Century Naval Leader (London: Frank Cass, 2004), 176.

2. See chapter 2.

3. Sally Lister Parker, Attendant Lords: A Study of the British Joint Staff Mission in Washington, 1941–1945 (PhD dissertation, University of Maryland, College Park, 1984), 117–18.

4. Omar Bradley, A Soldier’s Story (New York: Henry Holt, 1951), 195.

5. Ibid.

6. Alex Danchev and Daniel Todman, eds., War Diaries 1939–1945: Field Marshal Lord Alanbrooke (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001), 23–32. See also, Alex Danchev, “Good Boy: Field Marshal Sir John Dill,” in On Specialness: Essays in Anglo-American Relations (New York: St. Martin’s, 1998), 86.

7. A. W. DePorte, Europe between the Superpowers: The Enduring Balance (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1986), 47–48.

8. E. B. Potter, Nimitz (Annapolis, Md.: Naval Institute Press, 1975), 324–25.

9. Ibid, 325.