AAFRC (American Association of Fundraising Counsel), 68, 313n93
A&P stores, 202
Abolitionists, bequest to, 78–81, 314–15n2
Abortion, gag rule on, 292
Abrams, Frank, 175
ACLU (American Civil Liberties Union), 257, 260
Adolescent Family Life Act (1983), 257
advertising: Depression-era fundraising via, 123; as educational vs. political, 206–7; specific groups targeted in, 62–63. See also mass media
advocacy: conservative initiatives in, 189–200; conservatives and liberal-pluralists as converging in tax rules on, 259–63; education distinguished from, 5, 89–103, 196–97, 206, 228–30; foundation funds for targeting specific elections and candidates, 222–23; giving combined with, 78–85, 314–15n2; liberal initiatives in, 180–89; objectivity vs., 98–99. See also politics and political issues
Afghanistan, Soviet abuses in, 274
Africa: Green Revolution in, 285–86; HIV/AIDS campaign in, 288. See also Ethiopia
African Americans: attitudes toward charity, 18; displaced in Mississippi flooding, 111, 112, 113–14; educational drive for southern schools for, 30–40; labor conference concerning, 270; NAACP membership drive among, 68–69; school decentralization experiment and, 224; voter registration drive for, 208–11, 222–23. See also civil rights; racial segregation
African Development Bank, 267
African Relief and Recovery Act (1985), 270
AFSC. See American Friends Service Committee (AFSC)
AGRA (Alliance for a Green Revolution for Africa), 285–86
agricultural development: Dust Bowl causes and recovery, 120–21, 134–35; extension agencies and, 40–41; Hoover’s land redistribution scheme and, 113–16; northern philanthropic support for southern, 40–41; philanthropic efforts extended abroad, 41–43; post-WWII foreign aid program for, 151–59; rice research and, 157. See also farm families; Green Revolution; rural development
Agriculture Department, U.S., 135
Aid to Families with Dependent Children program, 215
AIPAC (American Israel Public Affairs Committee), 167, 326–27n101
Alabama, public education spending of, 36
Albania, rural development program in, 152
Alcott, Gordon, 251
Aldrich, Nelson, 21
Aldrich, Winthrop W., 139
Alexander, Ashok, 290
Allen, Harold B., 152
Allen-Bradley Company, 250
All-Ethiopian Socialist Movement, 266
Alliance for a Green Revolution for Africa (AGRA), 285–86
almsgiving, 18. See also charity and charities; giving
alternative funds concept, 241
Aluminum Company of America, 171
American Action, 190
American Association of Fundraising Counsel (AAFRC), 68, 313n93
American Association of Social Workers, 126
American Baptist Education Society, 19, 27
American Birth Control League, 91, 94–97
American Cancer Society, 163, 241
American City (magazine), 67–68
American City Bureau (firm), 67–68
American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU), 257, 260
American Council for Nationalities Service, 222
American Council of Learned Societies, 195
American Council of Voluntary Agencies for Foreign Service, 142–43, 322n23
American Economic Review, 1
American Enterprise Institute (earlier, Association), 250, 251
American Equal Rights Association, 79
American Friends Service Committee (AFSC): Depression-era relief efforts of, 122; establishment of, 65; Ethiopian aid of, 268; humanitarian efforts in occupied areas by, 142; post-WWII food relief of, 143; post-WWII rural development program of, 159
American Historical Association, 195
American Israel Public Affairs Committee (AIPAC), 167, 326–27n101
American Jewish Committee, 164
American Jewish Congress, 257
American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee: humanitarian efforts in occupied areas by, 142; relief for Russian Jews in (1921), 115; UJA’s campaign for, 160; WWI humanitarian efforts of, 57; WWII humanitarian efforts of, 140
American Library Association, 311n65
American Mercury (magazine), 71
American Opinion (magazine), 198
American Public Welfare Association, 215
American Railway Association, 120
American Relief Clearing House (France), 57
American Relief for France (earlier, French Relief Fund), 139
American Relief for Holland (earlier, Queen Wilhelmina Fund), 139
American Social Science Association, 9, 18
American Society for Russian Relief (earlier, Russian War Relief), 139
American Society for the Control of Cancer, 67
American Soldier (study), 184
American Statistical Association, 108
American Zionist Council, 167
Americas Watch, 274
Amnesty International, 274
Anderson, Elizabeth Milbank, 304n38. See also Milbank Memorial Fund
Andrews, Elisha Benjamin, 94
Andrew W. Mellon Charitable and Educational Trust, 171. See also Mellon, Andrew
Andrew W. Mellon Foundation, 276
Anthony, Susan B., 79, 314–15n2
Anti-Saloon League, 103
A. P. Smith Manufacturing Company v. Barlow, 175
Arabian American Oil Company, 159
Archdiocese of Chicago, 130
Argentina, Jewish resettlement in, 160
Arkansas: microlending program in, 280; Mississippi flood (1927) in, 110
Armenia, assistance for victims of genocide in, 152, 162
Armstrong, Samuel C., 34
Army, U.S., 142, 144. See also veterans’ benefits
ARNOVA (Association for Research on Nonprofit Organizations and Voluntary Action; earlier. Association of Voluntary Action Scholars), 247
art collection, development of, 170–72
Ashcroft, John, 258
Ashoka Foundation, 281
Asia, post-WWII relief efforts in, 143. See also specific countries
Aspinall, Wayne, 207
Associated Charities (later, Family Society, Wilmington, Del.), 118, 130–31, 132, 134, 180
associational life: concept of, 232; Eastern European opportunities to promote, 272–79; in New England, 13. See also voluntarism
Association for Improving the Condition of the Poor, 126
Association of Community Chests and Councils, 75
Association of Voluntary Action Scholars (later, Association for Research on Nonprofit Organizations and Voluntary Action, ARNOVA), 247
associative state: concept of, 106; Delaware as exemplar of, 117–20; FDR’s rejection of, 125–26; federal funding for relief as test of, 121–23; Hoover’s insistence on, 116–17; limitations of, 113–14, 115–16, 117, 119–20, 125; Mississippi flood-relief efforts as proof of, 110–14
Astor, Brooke, 212
AT&T, 175
Autonómia Foundation (Budapest), 277
Avahan India AIDS Initiative, 289–91, 348n82
Aycock, Charles Brantley, 36
Baker, James, 260
Baldwin, James, 224
Baldwin, William H., 33, 34, 35
Bangladesh: microlending for, 279–81; NGOs key to, 282–83
Bankers Life and Casualty Co., 251
banking industry: agricultural loans of, 285–86; drought relief plan and, 120; entrepreneurial loans and, 217; microcredit for Bangladeshis, 279–81; stock market crash (1929) and, 117. See also World Bank Baroody, William J., Sr., 250
Barr, Joseph, 225
Barton, Bruce, 62
“Basic Christian Principles and Assumptions for Economic Life” (report), 195
BBC, Ethiopian famine film of, 268
Beard, Charles, 99
Bedford-Stuyvesant Restoration Corporation, 219–20
behavioral sciences: center for, 188; studies proposed, 185–87. See also social sciences
Ben-Gurion, David, 164, 165, 167
bequests and trusts: to advocacy causes, contested, 78–85, 314–15n2; British precedents in, 12–13, 15, 76–77; New York legal practice concerning, 13–16; open-ended type increasingly accepted, 15–17, 83–85; permissive approach in nineteenth century, 77–85; specificity required in, 11–12. See also donors; inheritance (and estate) laws; tax exemption; and specific trusts and foundations
Better Homes, Inc. (nonprofit), 109–10
Biafra, Red Cross policy on, 265
Bicknell, Ernest, 61
Biggs, Hermann M., 50
big-money/mass donations nexus, 3. See also mass philanthropy; wealthy people
Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation: Green Revolution for Africa initiative of, 285–86; HIV/AIDS campaign initiative of, 285, 288–92, 348n82; Indian ambivalence about, 287–88; origins of, 347n61; pragmatism of, 292; resources of, 284–85
Billings, Robert, 252
birth control and contraception: battle to legalize, 90–93; legalization of, 97–98; research on and movement for, 154–55, 297. See also American Birth Control League; population growth; Sanger, Margaret
Birth Control Clinical Research Bureau, 94–95
Bissell, Emily, 48
Bissell, Richard M., 147
Bixler, Paul, 183
Blair, Henry, 31
Blaustein, Jacob, 164
Blue Cross, 237
Boardman, Mabel, 58
Board of Foreign Missions, 20
Board of Homeland Ministries (Church of Christ), 245
Board of Tax Appeal (Treasury), 89–90, 95–97, 172
Boas, Franz, 294
Bolling, Landrum, 246
Bonaparte, Charles-Joseph, 20
Bond, Horace Mann, 39
Bond, Julia, 39
bond movement: advertising of, 62; community chests integral to, 59; for Israel, 164, 166; success of, 60–61; thrift stamps in, 63–64; for war support, 59–60, 64, 67
Bookman, C. M., 127
Boston (Mass.): federated fundraising in, 177; Museum of Fine Arts in, 312n91
Botswana, HIV/AIDS campaign in, 288
Bowditch, William L., 314–15n2
Bowen v. Kendrick (1988), 257
Bowles, Chester, 157
Boy Scouts, 60
Bradley, Harry, 250
Bradley, Lynde, 250
Bradley Foundation, 250–51, 253
Brandeis, Louis, 160
Brewster, Kingman, 340n51
Brookings, Robert, 108, 317n10
Brookings Institution, 108, 110, 236, 250
Brower, David, 206
Brown, Dyke, 183, 186, 211, 213
Brown, Josephine, 127, 128, 129
Brown v. Board of Education (1954), 193, 204, 207, 222
Bryn Mawr College, 4
Buchanan, Pat, 340n53
Buck, C. Douglass, 131
Buffett, Warren, 284, 298, 347n61
Bulgaria: Helsinki Accords signed by, 274; rural development program in, 152; Tocqueville’s work translated in, 273
Bullitt, William Marshall, 100
Bundy, McGeorge: on CORE and black militancy, 221, 222, 336n66; on education vs. politics distinction, 229; Ford Foundation role of, 201, 217–18, 223; grants for staff of Robert Kennedy from, 223–24; school decentralization and, 224; segregationists’ attack on tax exemption of philanthropies and, 225
Bureau of Economic Analysis, 301–2n6
Bureau of Labor Statistics, 45–46
Bureau of Social Hygiene, 94, 97
Bush, George H. W., 255
Bush, George W.: AIDS and anti-abortion policy of, 292; “compassionate conservatism” of, 6; faith-based initiatives under, 256, 258–59; Millennium Challenge Corporation created by, 285–86
Bush, Vannevar, 179
Businessmen’s Interracial Committee on Community Affairs of Cleveland, 222
business principles: investment in philanthropy based on, 2, 8–11, 295; nonprofit sector’s income sources based on, 4–5, 301–2n6; program-related investments idea, 218–20, 279–81. See also capitalism; Chambers of Commerce; corporations; economy
Business Week (magazine), 205
Byington, Margaret, 46
Byrd, Richard, 99
Calhoun, John, 105
California: Spiritual Mobilization in LA, 191, 195. See also San Francisco; Supreme Court, California
Campaign for Human Development (Catholic Church), 245
Campbell, Alan K., 241
capitalism: Eastern European opportunities for, 272–79; global opportunities to promote, 264; nonprofit sector created in, 4–5; wealth reinvested in philanthropy, 2, 8–11, 295. See also business principles; economy; politics and political issues
Capital Issues Committee, 60
Caplin, Mortimer, 210
CARE (Cooperative for American Remittances in Europe; later, Cooperative for American Relief Everywhere): Ethiopian aid of, 269, 270; federal employees’ donations to, 241; founding of, 143–44; HIV/AIDS campaign of, 290
Carnegie, Andrew: libraries supported by, 15, 20; pet projects of, 23, 42; philanthropic approach of, 1–2; “resolved to stop accumulating,” 1; scientific research supported by, 10; Scotland home of, 275; Social Darwinism of, 18; social goals of, 304n38; on trustees’ judgment, 303n20; Tuskegee funds from, 34
Carnegie Corporation: achievements of, 227; assets in 1950s, 174; charter of, 20–21, 218; civil rights and social justice efforts funded by, 201, 216; congressional investigation of, 193–94; Council on Foreign Relations funding of, 147; Eastern Europe initiatives of, 274; foreign exchange and study programs support of, 150; Great Society programs supported by, 233; mission statement of, 22; social sciences funding of, 184, 329n45; transparency efforts of, 195–96. See also Gardner, John; Pifer, Alan
Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 108, 193
Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, 24, 25, 216, 305n42
Carnegie Institution of Washington (D.C.), 23–24, 93
Carroll, Thomas H., II, 182
Carver, T. N., 73
Case, Clifford, 188
Case Western University, Center for Non-profit Management, 247
Cathedral of St. John the Divine (NYC), 67
Catholic Agencies, 142
Catholic charities: anti-poverty programs of, 245; federal funds administered by, 130; federal funds for, 243; philanthropic alliances of, 62; WWII humanitarian aid of, 139–40. See also specific entities
Catholic Church, Roman Catholic Bishops of (U.S.), 139–40
Catholic Conference, U.S., 245
Catholic Relief Services (earlier, National Catholic Welfare Conference): Ethiopian aid of, 267–69, 270, 271; federal funds for, 297; WWII humanitarian aid of, 140, 143
Catholic Welfare Conference, 149
CCF (Congress for Cultural Freedom), 151
Central Charities Bureau (Catholic), 130
Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), 148, 150–51, 203, 333n8
Ceylon: philanthropic public health efforts in, 41, 42–43
CFC (Combined Federal Campaign), 241
Chamberlain, Joseph P., 142
Chamber of Commerce, U.S.: Powell’s anti-liberal memo to, 248–49, 251
Chambers of Commerce: community chests promoted by, 69; federated fundraising and, 53, 54; fundraising firms utilized by, 67–68; lobbying rules protested by, 260
“charitable choice” concept, 257–59
Charitable Contributions Legislation, 246–47
Charities (magazine), 51
charity and charities: asset limitations on, 14, 15, 303n18; British law on bequests to, 12–13, 15; coerced giving and suspicions about, 65; cooperation among, 52–54; definitions of, 17, 78, 84; demise in Depression years, 122; foundations distinguished from, 205; limits of, 127, 254–55; mass fundraising by, 44–45; monies for special projects vs. U.S. Treasury, 81; New York incorporation statute on, 14, 15–16; open-ended bequests to, 15–17; philanthropy distinguished from, 2, 10; relief distinguished from, 128–29; specificity of bequests required, 8, 11–12; tax-exempt status of, 86; workers’ habits of giving to, 45–46. See also faith-based charities; giving; nonprofit sector; philanthropy; welfare system
Charity Organization Society: cooperation encouraged by, 52, 54; de Forest as president of, 19; scientific approach of, 18; thrift encouraged by, 46; training provided by, 53; tuberculosis prevention efforts of, 47, 50
Charles Stewart Mott Foundation, 276, 277, 345n33
Chicago: federal funds administered by Catholic Church in, 130; microlending in, 280
Child Development Act, defeated, 340n53
children and youth: bond drives of, 60; Clark’s doll tests of, 222; dust masks for, in drought, 135; foreign exchange programs for, 149–50; Graham’s appeal to, 197; Head Start for, 211; juvenile delinquency programs and, 211–13, 217; Red Cross fundraising by, 58; as seals campaign “crusaders,” 49, 51; WWI loyalty pledges of, 65
Child Welfare League, 215
Chile, rural development program in, 153
China Medical Board, 9
Christianity Today (magazine), 198
Christmas seal campaign, 48
Church Committee for Overseas Relief and Reconstruction, 140
churches: conservative seminaries funded by Pew, 191; cooperative fundraising among, 52; decline in giving to, 238; definition of, 16–17; democracy training efforts of, 148; disestablishment in New England, 13; donations by churches compared to giving to, 178; federal funds sought by, 255–59, 297; foreign exchange programs of, 149; fundraising firms utilized by, 67; International Voluntary Services of, 158–59; secular nonprofits allied with, 244–46; segregated schools of, 252; tax-exempt status of, 86, 87; “Tuberculosis Sunday” services in, 51; workers’ habits of giving to, 45–46; WWII humanitarian aid of, 139–40. See also Catholic charities; faith-based charities; missionary organizations; Protestant charities; religious issues
Churches Drought Action-Ethiopia, 269
Church World Service, 140, 154
CIA (Central Intelligence Agency), 148, 150–51, 203, 333n8
CIAA (Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs), 153, 155
Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission, 262–63
City University of New York, 247
civic responsibility: community possibilities and, 52; concept of (collective responsibility), 45; federal aid as, 125; Hoover’s view of, 107–10; tax exemption for donations as enshrining, 88–89
civil institutions: accountability to citizens vs. government, 234; drought relief plan and, 120–21, 134–35; Eastern European opportunities to promote, 272–79; emergency needs in Depression, 117–25; as executive instruments under Hoover, 104–5; fundraising firms utilized by, 67–68; as key to development, 281–82; “maximum feasible participation” in, 279–83; Mississippi flood-relief efforts of (1927), 111–14; openness to, threatened in some areas, 343n2; social and political conservatism of, 69–70; women’s organizations as influence on cultural, 312n91. See also Chambers of Commerce; community chest movement; community foundations; nonprofit sector; philanthropic organizations
civilization, philanthropy as force in, 9, 17, 42–43
civil rights: bequest to cause of, contested, 78–81, 83, 314–15n2; changing strategies on, 220–21; churches’ role in, 245; defense of, 187–88; Ford Foundation funding in support of, 201, 217–18, 221–23, 336n66; Freedom Rides and, 208, 220; philanthropies targeted for support of, 224–31; southern resentment of interference in, 204; status quo in, 188–89, 207–8; voter registration strategy in, 208–11, 222–23; War on Poverty linked to, 211–13; of women, 78–81, 84, 277, 281–82, 314–15n2. See also human rights; racial issues; racial segregation; voting rights; and specific foundations
Civil Rights Act (1875), 83
civil society: concept of, 9; liberal vs. conservative view of, 233; philanthropy as quintessential part of, 3. See also civil institutions; common good; democracy; public affairs
Civil War, mass fundraising in, 44–45
Civil Works Administration (CWA), 131–32
Clark, Glenville, 100
Clark, Joseph, 211
Clark, Kenneth, 222
Clark, Lincoln, 143
Cleveland (Ohio): charity investigation of, 65; civil rights organizing in, 221–23; community chest in, 52–53, 59, 69; community foundation in, 54–55
Cleveland, Frederick, 107
Cleveland Foundation, 69
Clinton, Hillary, 262
Clinton, William J.: AIDS policy of, 292, 348n83; microlending program under, 280; resources of, 287; welfare reform under, 257–59
Clinton Foundation, 287
Cloward, Richard, 212
Coalition for Human Needs (Episcopal Church), 245
Coalition of Voluntary Sector Organizations (CONVO), 241–42. See also Independent Sector
Coffin, Charles, 57
Cold War: American Jews’ support for U.S.
policy in, 162–63; declaration of, 146; demise of, 264, 271; as evangelical crusade, 197–200; foreign aid program for rural development in, 151–59; immediate impact of, 144; psychological warfare against communism in, 137–38, 146–51. See also midcentury philanthropy
collectivism: opposition to, 190–91, 195; responsibility and, 45. See also New Deal; Social Gospel movement
Colombia, rural development program in, 153
Colorado: federated fundraising in, 52;
tuberculosis treatment in, 50
Columbia University, 194, 247, 275
Combined Federal Campaign (CFC), 241
commerce. See business principles; capitalism; Chambers of Commerce; corporations; economy
Commerce Department, U.S.: Building and Housing division of, 109–10; Hoover as head of, 106–18; land redistribution scheme of, 113–16; Mississippi flood-relief efforts of (1927), 110–14; philanthropic partnerships of, 107–10
Commission for Relief in Belgium (CRB), 56–57
Commission on Training Camp Activities, 58
Committee for Constitutional Government, 190, 196
Committee of 100 on National Health, 46
Committee on Public Information, 60
Committee on Social Trends, 124
Committee to Defund the Left, 253
common good: appeals based on, 72–73; definitions of, 5–6; financiers’ investment in, 1–2; mass commitment to, 44; middle- and working-class contributions to, 2–3; political issues distinguished from, 76–77; rich people’s envisioning and fashioning of, 8–9; self-interest in, 72–73, 296–97. See also associational life; civil institutions; “improvement of mankind” concept; voluntarism
Commonwealth Fund, 1, 61, 108, 227, 301n2
communism: collapse of, 264, 271; evangelical crusade against, 197–200; Israel as block against, 162–63; psychological warfare against, 137–38, 146–51; rural development programs to counter, 151–59; teaching about vs. training in, 194. See also Cold War
Community Action Agencies (or programs), 211, 213, 214, 217, 221
community chest movement: class-targeted fundraising of, 62–64; coerced giving to, 65; democratization of giving evidenced in, 75; Depression-era limits of, 123; emergence of, 51–54; foundations distinguished from, 55, 205; midcentury fundraising for, 177; New Dealers’ criticism of, 69–70; tax-exempt status of, 87, 174, 175; WWI expansion of, 56, 59–60, 62–64; WWII fundraising for troops and humanitarian aid in, 139
Community Development Block Grants (1974), 235–36
Community Development Financial Institution Fund, 280
community foundations: emergence of, 54–55; interwar fundraising of, 69; promoted in Eastern Europe, 277; tax credit mechanisms beneficial to, 175–76; tax-exempt status of, 87
Comprehensive Employment and Training Act (1973), 235–36
Compton, Karl, 181
Conference on Christians and Jews, 149
Conference on Solicitations, 242
Congress, U.S.: African American education issues before, 31; agricultural rehabilitation funds of, 122; charters approved by, 20–21, 23, 153; Colorado River dams debate of, 206–7; drought relief measures of, 135; Ethiopian aid investigated by, 270; Ethiopian policy of, 266; foundations investigated by, 173, 187, 193–96, 202–4, 211 (see also Patman, Wright); McCarthy hearings, 170, 192–94, 195, 323n48; National Economy League and veterans lobbying of, 99–102; nonprofits’ place in political economy and, 259–63; Red Cross funding considered, 121–22; revenue bill (1969) before, 224–31; Rockefeller Jr.’s testimony for, 30; social services and regulations of, 220; tax codes changes before (1976), 237, 239–40; U.N. land donation and, 146; UNRRA funds restricted by, 141; Walsh Commission hearings, 55. See also foreign policy, U.S.; and specific acts
Congress for Cultural Freedom (CCF), 151
Connecticut: Depression-era relief in, 131–32
Conservative Caucus, 253
conservative initiatives: for alternative nonprofit federation, 248–55; in Eastern Europe, 274–75; opposed to federal funds for social services, 233, 255; of Pew family and foundation, 189–200; pluralist network’s convergence with, 255–63
Constitution, U.S.: as model for Eastern European countries, 272; Ten Commandments compared with, 190; First Amendment, 247, 256–57, 259–60; Thirteenth Amendment, 79; Fourteenth Amendment, 83; Fifteenth Amendment, 80, 83; Sixteenth Amendment, 4, 87
CONVO (Coalition of Voluntary Sector Organizations), 241–42. See also Independent Sector
cooperation: concept of, 107–10, 116–17. See also associative state
Cooperative Assistance Fund, 218–20
cooperative committee and conference system concept, 106
Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs (CIAA), 153, 155
Coors, Joseph, 251
CORE (Congress of Racial Equality): alliances of, 209, 210; Ford Foundation funds for, 221–23, 229, 336n66; nonviolence and, 220; as suspicious of JFK, 208
corporations: charitable donations of, 174–75, 328n20; community chest contributions of, 69; country stores vs. chain stores of, 202; federal tax on, 88; foundations of, 174–75; payroll deductions for charities by, 177–78; payroll deductions for emergency relief by, 119; political spending allowed for, 262; think tanks founded by executives of, 108; Treasury regulations on foundations of, 205–7
Corridors of the University of Manitoba, 290
Cost Principles for Nonprofit Organizations (OMB Circular A-122), 259–60
Couch, Harvey C., 113
Council of Jewish Federations, 246
Council of Relief Agencies Licensed to Operate in Germany, 143
Council on Foreign Relations, 108, 147
Council on Foundations, 244, 245, 253
Country Life Commission, 40, 107
Cox, Eugene, 187, 193–94, 195–96
Crane, Jasper E., 133, 192, 197
Crane, Phillip R., 251
CRB (Commission for Relief in Belgium), 56–57
Creel, George, 60
Crippen, Eugene, 65
Crosby, L. O., 113
Culver, Helen, 29
Cunningham, James, 221
Curran, Henry H., 100
Currier, Audrey Bruce, 209, 210–11, 217. See also Taconic Foundation (Curriers)
Currier, Stephen, 209, 210–11, 217. See also Taconic Foundation (Curriers)
Curtis, Carl, 227
Curtis, Thomas B., 203
Cutlip, Scott, 48
CWA (Civil Works Administration), 131–32
cy-près doctrine, 12, 14, 16, 79
Czech Republic (earlier, Czechoslovakia): Diaspora giving to, 278; Helsinki Accords signed by, 274; local community development in, 277
Daughters of the American Revolution, 57
Davies, Joseph E., 138–39, 144
Davies Committee (President’s Committee on War Relief Agencies), 138
Davis, James J., 108
Davis, Katherine B., 94
deductibility incentive, 88–89, 246–47. See also tax exemption
Defense Department, U.S., 5, 142, 144, 179, 301–2n6
de Forest, Charles, 49
de Forest, Robert, 19
Delaware: Depression-era federal relief in, 130–31, 132, 133–34; tuberculosis sanitarium campaign in, 48; united community fund of, 192. See also Wilmington (Del.)
Delineator (magazine), 109
democracy: community foundation based in, 55; contributing to war effort and, 64–65; Eastern European opportunities to promote, 272–79; global opportunities to promote, 264; Israel as bastion of, 162–63; liberal foundation’s focus on, 184; philanthropy’s potential to further, 298–99. See also civil society; common good
democratization of giving, 44, 56, 60, 66, 69, 72–75
demography field, 154–55. See also population growth
Denmark, tuberculosis treatment campaign in, 47–48
Derg (Ethiopian Coordinating Committee), 266–67
Detroit (Mich.): federated fundraising in, 177; payroll deductions of charitable donations in, 178; program-related investments in, 219. See also Ford Foundation; Michigan
DeVane, William C., 182
developing countries: aid distribution and governments in, 269–70; “maximum feasible participation” idea in, 279–83; opportunities to promote democracy in, 264. See also global community
development. See agricultural development; global community; public health issues; rural development
Dewey, Thomas, 162
Diaspora giving, 61, 144, 275, 278–79. See also immigrants
Dix, Dorothea, 105
Doak, William Nuckles, 119
Doctors Without Borders, 265
Donee Group (National Committee for Responsible Philanthropy), 240, 241, 248, 249
donor-advised funds, 278
donors: anonymous, 192; “arm’s length” provisions for, 204; “dead hand of” (restrictions), 3–4, 54–55, 204; decline in number and level of, 236–37, 238–39; Diaspora giving of, 61, 144, 275, 278–79; giving as safety net for, 46; motivations of, 176–77, 295–96; non-itemized charitable deductions allowed for, 246–47; open-ended giving preferred of, 15–17, 83–85; tax exemptions (or not) for donations of, 87–95, 164, 175–76; university presidents’ concerns about, 26. See also bequests and trusts; fundraising; giving; mass philanthropy; social classes; tax exemption
Donovan, William “Wild Bill,” 144–45
Dougherty, Dudley, 196
Douglas, Paul, 162
Douglas, William O., 162
Douglass, Frederick, 79
Drayton, Bill, 281
Du Bois, W.E.B., 31, 35, 192, 307n80
Duke Endowment, 174
Dulles, John Foster, 137, 147, 167, 192–93
Dunbar, Leslie W., 210
du Pont (family): opposition to New Deal, 134, 190; philanthropy of, 117–19; taxes avoided by, 172. See also Wilmington (Del.)
du Pont, Eugene, 192
du Pont, Irénée, 190
du Pont, Pierre S., 118–19, 131, 132, 134, 172
du Pont, William, 119
Eastern Europe (post-Soviet era): collapse of Soviet Union and, 264, 271; Diaspora giving to, 144, 278–79; foundations’ efforts in, 274–77; Tocqueville’s influence in, 273
East Germany (GDR): Helsinki Accords signed by, 274; philanthropic efforts in, 276
Economic Opportunity Act (1964), 214, 219
economic royalists concept, 170
economy: free-market ideas about, 250–54; liberal foundations’ focus on, 184; recession of 1973 and decline in giving, 238–39; stock market crash (1929), 117; stock market debacle (2008), 284, 298. See also capitalism; Great Depression
Economy Act (1933), 100
Ecumenical Social Action Committee of Jamaica Plain, 234
Edgar Stern Family Fund, 201, 209
education: advocacy distinguished from, 5, 89–103, 196–97, 206, 228–30; bequests for advocacy of changes via, 81, 82–85; definition of, 89–90; Dewey’s vs. Hutchins’s views on, 187; distinction of advocacy (political action) vs., 5, 89–103, 196–97, 206, 228–30; Ford Foundation’s attitude toward, 184, 186; foundations’ role in reform of, 24–26; Head Start program and, 211; industrial and vocational, 34–35, 41; philanthropies focused on, 5, 10, 30–40; secularization of, 10, 23–24, 26–30; “universal,” 33–34, 36; veterans’ (GI Bill), 179. See also schools; universities and colleges
Egypt: rural development programs in, 159; Suez Crisis and, 166
Ehrlich, Paul R., 324n61
Eisenhower, Dwight D.: attitudes toward Israel, 159–60, 161–62, 164–65, 166–67; campaign manager of, 187; on communism, 194; Graham’s support for, 197–98
eleemosynary statutes and institutions, 76, 78, 86, 105, 128, 303n18. See also charity and charities
Ellis, Havelock, 93
Ellis L. Phillips Foundation, 218
Embree, Edwin R.: call for big ideas, 178–79, 183, 259; Hoover’s land redistribution scheme and, 114; Rosenwald Fund overseen by, 39
Emerson, Guy, 312n85
English Journal, 64
Ensminger, Douglas, 156–57, 158
Enterprise Works/VITA, 270
environmental issues, 219. See also agricultural development
Episcopal Church, 67
Equal Opportunity Act (1964), 213
Equal Opportunity Employment Committee, 208
Equity Bank, 285
Ethiopia: aid distribution and government of, 269–70; INGOs expelled from, 271; Point Four programs in, 158; revolution, nationalization, and resettlement in, 266–67
Ethiopian famines: context of, 265–66; global humanitarian relief for, 268–71; U.S. government’s role in, 266–68
ethnicity-based organizations, 18, 45–46, 52. See also immigrants; Jewish charities
European Community: Ethiopian aid of, 268; as model for Eastern European countries, 273. See also Eastern Europe
Evarts, William, 31
Evers, Medgar, 210
Ewing, Robert T., 251
Facts Forum, 196
faith-based charities: conservatives and liberal-pluralists as converging in, 255–59; Ethiopian aid of, 267–71; religious awakening as fostering, 78; secular nonprofits allied with, 244–46. See also Catholic charities; churches; Jewish charities; Protestant charities
Falwell, Jerry, 252
Family Assistance Plan, 340n53
Family Health International, 290
Family Service Association (earlier, Family Welfare Association), 179–80, 216
Farfield Foundation, 151
Farmer, James, 220
farm families: Depression-era help for, 122; Dust Bowl in 1930s and, 120–21, 134–35; income and giving levels of, 74; sharecroppers in South, 113–14, 121. See also agricultural development; rural development
Farrand, Livingstone, 61
Federal Board of Vocational Education, 41
Federal Bureau of Social Statistics, 127
Federal Election Commission, 262–63
Federal Emergency Relief Administration (FERA): leadership of, 126; matching funds issues and, 132–34; private agencies barred from administering public funds by, 127–28, 130; social workers as public servants under, 131–32; temporary vs. permanent intentions of, 129–30. See also New Deal
Federal Emergency Relief and Construction Act (1932), 124
Federal Farm Board, 120
Federal Farm Loan Board, 120
federal funds and budget: block grants from, 235–36; channeled through philanthropies, 209–10, 217–20, 234–35; debate about relief funding from, 121–23; private foundation to reform, 107; private funds and organizations separated from, 105–6, 125–36; as threat to private philanthropy, 232–34; for welfare, science, and veterans’ education, 169. See also public philanthropy
federal government: African American education issues and, 31; authority increased over state and local governments, 106; differing ways of handling nonprofits, 6; drought relief plan and, 120–21, 134–35; education vs. political action distinction of, 5, 89–103, 196–97, 206, 228–30; FDR’s view of, 125–26; federal block grants to circumvent, 235–36; fundraising among employees of, 241; Hoover’s view of, 105, 107; limitations of reliance on philanthropy by, 3–4, 113–14, 115–16, 117, 119–20, 125; Mississippi flood-relief efforts of (1927), 110–14; social justice role of, 115–16; war bonds of, 59–61; WWI advertising of, 62. See also federal funds and budget; foreign policy, U.S.; philanthropy/government partnership; regulatory compromise; taxation
Federal Reserve, 60, 64, 120, 202
federal tax policies. See taxation; tax exemption
Federal Triangle, 171
federation movement: block grants in, 235–36; components of, 242–43; conservative alternative initiative in, 248–55; Filer Commission and acceptance of federal rule, 237–40; imbalances perceived in, 233–35; Independent Sector and, 242–43; pluralist type of, 242–47. See also philanthropy/government partnership
Federation of Allied Charities, 52
Feldstein, Martin, 236–37, 246
FERA. See Federal Emergency Relief Administration (FERA)
Ferry, W. H. “Ping,” 324n55
Feulner, Edwin J., 251
Field, Marshall, III, 209
Field Foundation, 201, 209, 210, 215, 218
Filer, John, 237
Filer Commission: dissenters within (see Donee Group); establishment of, 236–37, 249; report and recommendations of, 237–40; survey data countering findings of, 246
Fiske, Jennie, 14
Fiske, Willard, 14
501(c)(3), 501(c)(3) H, and 501(c)(4) definitions, 260–61
Florida: hurricane in (1926), 112; UJA fundraising in, 163–64, 166
Food and Agriculture Organization, 145
Ford, Clara, 173
Ford, Gerald R., 239
Ford, Henry, II: Ford Foundation role of, 180–81; fundraising of, 177; Hoffman and, 147, 186–87; inheritance of, 173–74; population control program of, 155, 297; resignation from foundation, 249
Ford Foundation: anticommunist stance of, 146–47; CIA funds refused by, 150–51; civil rights and social justice efforts funded by, 201, 217–18, 221–23, 229, 336n66; congressional investigation of, 193–94, 323n48; Eastern Europe initiatives of, 275, 276, 277; Gates Foundation compared with, 284; grants for staff of Robert Kennedy from, 223–24, 229–30; incorporation and expansion of, 173–74; liberal internationalist program of, 180–89, 249; microcredit program support from, 279–81; NGOs “certified” by, 282; population control program of, 155, 297; post-WWII European role of, 137–38; program-related investments supported by, 218–20, 224, 280; recession and cuts of, 238–39; religious voluntary organization funds of, 159; resignation of Ford II from, 249; rural development programs of, 156–57; transformation critical to, 205; youth and poor people’s programs of, 211–13
Ford Motor Company: foundation’s liberal stance and, 188, 210; Heritage Foundation funds from, 251; payroll deductions of union dues at, 177–78; revitalization of, 180; success of, 173
Foreign Affairs (journal), 147
foreign policy, U.S.: American Jews at odds with, 159–60, 161–62; arms control and security concerns of, 274; containment of communism, 147–51; on Ethiopia, 266–68, 269, 270; humanitarian aid used in, 137, 138–46; on Israel, 159–68; philanthropic organizations’ influence on, 6; rural development programs and, 151–59
Foundation Center (earlier, Foundation Library Center), 195–96, 284
“foundationese,” use of term, 186
foundations: achievements of, 227–28; assets and influence of, 174; call for big ideas of, 178–79, 183, 259; charities distinguished from, 205; as CIA fronts, 150–51, 203, 209, 212, 333n8; closures of, 238; congressional investigations of, 187, 193–96, 202–4; corporate type of, 174–75; development of, 10, 22; Eastern Europe initiatives of, 274–77; experts recruited by, 25–26; family and local type of, 175–76, 205; foreign exchange programs of, 149–50; global cooperation of, 283–84; government officials prohibited from accepting funds from, 230; Hoover’s embrace of, 107–10; increased number and diversity at mid-century, 169–70; management methods of, 23–24; minimum payout rate for, 239; proposed time limits on, 4, 204, 226–28; secularization of education forced by, 10, 23–24, 26–30; Social Security reforms in 1960s and, 215–16. See also community foundations; conservative initiatives; liberal initiatives; philanthropic organizations; tax exemption; think tanks; and specific entities
4-H program, 149
France: philanthropic alliances in, 62; philanthropic public health efforts in, 42, 61; Suez Crisis and, 166; WWII humanitarian aid for, 139
Franklin, Benjamin, 15, 64, 105
Freedom Trust (Pew), 197, 198, 199. See also Pew, J. Howard
Free Russia Fund, 147
Free University (Germany), 148
Frick, Henry, 171
Friedman, Milton, 250
Friendly House of Worcester, 234
Friendship Liberal League, 16–17
Friends of Africa, 270
Friends’ Relief, 142. See also American Friends Service Committee (AFSC)
Fulbright, J. William, 149, 225
Fund for Adult Education (Ford Foundation), 187
Fund for Southern Education (Peabody Fund), 10, 31–32
Fund for the Advancement of Education (Ford Foundation), 187
Fund for the Republic (Ford Foundation), 187–88, 195, 209–10
Fundraiser, use of term, 68
fundraising: alternative funds concept, 241; of conservative think tanks, 251–52; Depression-era limits of, 123–24; for Ethiopian aid, 268–69; federated drives for, 52–54, 177–78; golden age of, 176–77; mass focus in, 44–45; professionalization of, 53–54, 66–68, 71–72; training in, 53–54, 312n85; for tuberculosis research and treatment, 46–51; UJA strategies in, 163–64; for WWI humanitarian efforts, 56–66, 88; for WWII troops and humanitarian aid, 139–40. See also mass philanthropy
fundraising techniques: advertising, 62–63, 123; direct and mass mailings, 97, 252; Internet appeals, 279, 293; music concerts, 268; payroll deductions, 177–78, 241; “penny subscription” idea, 48; seals campaigns, 47–49; television audiences, 199–200; thrift stamps, 63–64. See also bond movement
Gaither, H. Rowan, Jr., 181–86, 188–89
Galton, Francis, 92
Gannett, Frank, 196
Gardner, John: on deductibility incentive, 246; nonprofit sector development and, 232, 233; pluralism of, 242–43; as president of Carnegie Corporation and a book on excellence, 181, 216, 232, 242; welfare reform and, 216
Garrison v. Little (Ill., 1897), 84
Gates, Bill: as Foundation head, 284; on HIV/AIDS campaign, 286; India visit of, 289; on philanthropic intentions, 298. See also Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation
Gates, Frederick: medical research foundation and, 24–25; on Rockefeller Foundation goal, 22; Rockefellers advised by, 18–19, 29, 289; on “scatteration” of resources, 178; school proposed by, 27; Southern Education Board and, 33
Gates, Melinda, 289. See also Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation
Gates Library Foundation, 347n61
Gaud, William, 324n55
GE Corporation, 251
Georgia, polio campaign in, 70–71
Germany: anti-Semitism in, 160; Ford Foundation programs in, 148–49; Nazism in, 275; peace movement in, 42; post-WWII relief efforts in, 143. See also East Germany
GI Bill (1944), 179
Gifford, Walter, 123
Gilman, Daniel Coit: as Carnegie Institution president, 24; on library bequest, 15; on philanthropy’s growth, 9–10; social science interests of, 18; on southern agenda, 30; mentioned, 23
Gingrich, Newt, 256
Girl Scouts, 246
giving: coerced, 65; culture of, 44–46; democratization of, 44, 56, 60, 66, 69, 72–75; Diaspora, 61, 144, 275, 278–79; ethic of, 75; in nonmarket societies, 294–95; thrift and, 49, 73–74. See also charity and charities; mass philanthropy; philanthropy; social classes
Giving in America (report), 237–39
Gladden, Washington, 20
Glenmede Trust Company, 196–97
Glenn, John, 50
Global Agriculture and Food Security Program, 286
Global Alliance for Vaccines and Immunizations, 286–87
global community: democracy and civil institutions promoted in, 272–79; Ethiopian famine and response of, 265, 268–71; Gates Foundation’s role in, 284–92; humanitarian efforts in and after WWII, 140–46; mass philanthropy for crises in, 292–93; “maximum feasible participation” in, 279–83; opportunities to promote democracy in, 264; philanthropic/federal cooperation in, 6–7; post–Civil War disasters and fundraising for, 45; post-Reconstruction philanthropy as model for, 11, 152; public health and farm productivity efforts extended to, 41–43; self-interest and altruism linked in philanthropy for, 72–73, 296–97. See also agricultural development; public health issues; rural development
GM Corporation, 251
Goldwater, Barry, 250
Goodspeed, Thomas, 27
Goodwill Industries, 246
Gorbachev, Mikhail, 274
Gore, Albert, Sr., 203, 206, 225–26, 227
Gore, Albert, Jr., 258
gospel of wealth concept, 1
governments: advocacy for improving, 99; bequest to improve, 84–85; Depression-era relief efforts transferred to, 127; Depression-era struggles of, 122–23; Hoover on role of, 106–7; private agencies/public funds dilemma of, 127–28, 130. See also Congress, U.S.; federal government; local and municipal governments; philanthropy/government partnership; public philanthropy; state governments
Grameen Bank (Bangladesh), 279–81
“Gray Areas” program, 213, 217
Great Britain: charitable uses statute of, 12–13, 15, 76–77; inheritance law in, 12–13; low-income housing project in, 218; Suez Crisis and, 166; tax exemption laws in, 17
Great Depression: community chest movement in, 75; Delaware as exemplar of relief in, 117–20; Dust Bowl (drought) in, 120–21, 134–35; FDR’s approach to (see New Deal); federal funds for relief proposed in, 121–23; Hoover’s approach to, 104, 117, 119–20; national vs. local priorities in, 125–26; veterans’ benefits and, 99–102
Great Society: Carnegie Corporation’s support for, 233; “creative federalism” of, 211, 212, 214; expansion continued in 1970s, 234; opposition to, 233, 255; private and public funding of social services in, 6, 136, 214–20. See also civil rights; Johnson, Lyndon B.; War on Poverty
Greene, Jerome D., 107, 317n10
Green Revolution: in Africa, 285–86; coining of, 324n55; in India and Pakistan, 157; in Mexico, 152–53; population concerns in, 154–55. See also agricultural development; rural development
Grew, Joseph, 149
Grew Foundation, 149
Guggenheim, John Simon, 22
Guggenheim, Simon, 22
Guggenheim Foundation, 109
Guideposts (magazine), 191
Hackett, David, 213
Haiti, AIDS and gag rule on abortion in, 292
Halderman, H. R., 340n53
Hale, Nathan, 109
Hall, Helen, 212
Hamburg, David, 274
Hamilton County (Ohio) Government League, 206
Harding, Warren G., 106
Harkness, Edward, 304n38
Harkness, Stephen V., 61, 301n2
Harper’s (magazine), 178
Harrar, J. George, 152
Harriman, Mrs. E. H., 93
Harrison, Byron Patton, 101
Harrison, William Lloyd, 314–15n2
Hartford, John A., 202
Hartford Foundation, 202
Harvard University: donations to, protected, 13; federal funds for, 179; Ford Foundation assets compared with, 174; fundraising firms utilized by, 67; medical school of, 25; Peabody Museum at, 302n7; recession of 1973 and, 238; Russian Research Center of, 150, 194
Hawley, Ellis, 106
Hawley-Smoot Tariff Act (1930), 110
Hayek, Friedrich A., 191, 275, 331n78
Hayes, Samuel P., Jr., 156
Head Start program, 211
Health, Education, and Welfare Department, U.S., 216
health associations, 67. See also medical research and treatment; public health issues
Hearst, William Randolph, 172
Height, Dorothy, 209
Heinz Foundation, 278
Helsinki Accords (1985), 274
Helsinki Watch, 274
Henry George et al., appellants v. William S. Braddock (New Jersey, 1889), 82
Henry Street Settlement House (N.Y.C.), 212
Heritage Foundation, 251, 252–53, 256
Hill, James J., 50
Hindustan Latex Family Planning Promotion Trust, 290, 291
Hiss, Alger, 193
HIV/AIDS campaigns, 285, 286–92
Hoffman, Paul G.: anticommunist stance of, 147–48; Eisenhower and, 187; Ford Foundation role of, 186–88, 195; on foreign policy and rural development programs, 159; on international understanding programs, 150; on Nehru, 325n69
Holland. See Netherlands
Hollis, Henry French, 88
Holmes, Oliver Wendell, Jr., 93–94
Hoover, Herbert: disillusionment of, 124–25; drought relief plan of, 120–21; election and inaugural speech of, 116–17; federal funding for relief opposed by, 121–23; humanitarian work of, 56–57, 75; land redistribution scheme of, 113–16; mass philanthropy used by, 6, 110–16; philanthropy/government partnership ideas of, 104–6, 121–22; think tanks and foundations used by, 107–10; troops sent to remove “bonus army,” 100
Hoover Institution on War, Revolution, and Peace, 108
Hopkins, Harry: background of, 126; on federal relief as temporary, 129–30; matching funds issues and, 133–34; partnership to help Latin America and, 153; philanthropic workers appointed to CWA by, 132; philanthropies excluded from New Deal, 6, 128–29; private agencies barred from administering public funds by, 127–28, 130
Hull, Cordell, 138
humanitarian aid: in Ethiopian famine, 265–71; foreign development goals merged with, 156; NGOs and means of funding, 279–83; philanthropic/federal cooperation in, 6–7; philanthropists’ embrace of, 40–43; post-WWII focus on, 137, 138–46; WWI fundraising for, 56–66. See also global community; natural disasters; and specific wars
human rights, 266, 274, 277. See also civil rights
Human Rights Watch, 274
Humphrey, Hubert, 265
Hungary: Helsinki Accords signed by, 274; Soros’s efforts in, 275–76, 277
Hunt, H. L., 196
Hunter, David, 213
Huntington, Emily, 74
Hutchins, Robert, 187, 194, 195
Hyde, Arthur, 120
ICNL (International Center for Not-for-Profit Law), 345n37
IIAA (Institute of Inter-American Affairs), 153, 157
Illinois: Depression-era relief in, 130, 131–32. See also Chicago
Illinois Emergency Relief Commission, 130
immigrants: American Jews as, 164; attitudes toward charity, 18; Diaspora giving of, 61, 144, 275, 278–79; organization for Americanization of, 90. See also ethnicity-based organizations
Immigration Restriction Act (1924), 93
“improvement of mankind” concept, 3, 17, 22, 54–55. See also common good
“incorporated pocketbook” concept, 172
Independent Sector: on IRS lobbying rules, 260; objectives of, 242–43; pluralist vision for, 243–46; reassessment and refocus of, 254–55; volunteer survey by, 246–47
India: ambivalence about Gates Foundation money in, 287–88; HIV/AIDS campaign in, 285, 288–92; microlending program in, 281; philanthropic public health efforts in, 42; rural development programs in, 156–57, 159
India HIV/AIDS Alliance, 290
Indiana: coerced giving in, 65; social service changes in, 179–80; WWI fundraising in, 59, 63
Indiana University, Center on Philanthropy, 247
Indian Penal Code, 288
inheritance (and estate) laws, 12–13, 87, 173–74. See also bequests and trusts; donors; taxation
Inner City Business Improvement Forum (Detroit), 219
Institute for Governmental Research, 107–8, 317n10
Institute of Inter-American Affairs (IIAA), 153, 157
Institute of Pacific Relations, 193, 195
insurance industry, 50
Internal Revenue Service (IRS): American Enterprise Institute investigated by, 250; birth control clinic’s challenge to, 95; congressional investigation of, 171; education vs. politics distinction in code, 5, 89–103, 196–97, 206, 228–30; family foundations examined by, 175, 205; lobbying and advocacy rules of, 259–61; lobbying and propaganda language of, 101–2; segregated Christian schools and, 252; Sierra Club investigated by, 207; “substantial” test of, 101–2, 204–5, 207, 259–60, 317n45; tax code changes (1976), 239–40. See also taxation; tax exemption; Treasury Department, U.S.
International AIDS/HIV Alliance, 290
International AIDS Vaccine Initiative, 287
International Center for Not-for-Profit Law (ICNL), 345n37
International Christian Youth Exchange, 149
International Commission of Jurists, 274
International Development Act (1950), 155
International Farm Youth Exchange, 149
International Fund for Agricultural Development, 285
International Health Commission, 41–42
International Management Center (Budapest), 276
international nongovernmental organizations (INGOs): development of, 264; Ethiopian aid of, 265, 268–71; HIV/AIDS campaign of, 289–91; increased number of, 282. See also nongovernmental organizations (NGOs)
International Reform Bureau (later, International Reform Federation), 90
international relations field: development of, 149–50; foreign aid program for rural development and, 151–59
International Rice Research Institute, 157
International Service Agencies, 241
International Voluntary Services, 158–59
Iowa: WWI fundraising in, 63
Iran: rural development program in, 152
Iraq: rural development program in, 159
Iriye, Akira, 149
Iron Curtain, 144. See also Cold War
IRS. See Internal Revenue Service (IRS)
Israel: establishment of, 159–60; Jordan River project of, 165–66; mass philanthropy in support of, 159–60, 161, 163–68; Suez Crisis and, 165, 166; U.S. recognition of, 161, 325n81. See also Jewish people
Jackson, Michael, “We Are the World,” 268 Jackson v. Wendell Phillips (Mass., 1867), 78–81, 314–15n2
James, William, 16
Japan: post-WWII relief efforts in, 143; Red Cross of, 58
Jeanes, Anna, 37
Jewish charities: Hopkins and, 130; local focus of, 160; WWII humanitarian and refugee work of, 140–41, 142. See also specific entities
Jewish people: anticommunist stance of, 162–63; immigration issue and, 164; Israel’s establishment supported by, 159–60, 161; Jewish resettlement projects of, 160–61; mass fundraising for Israel, 159–60, 161, 163–68; presidential election votes of (1952), 161–62
Jewish Welfare Board, 62, 311n65
J. Howard Pew Freedom Trust, 197, 198, 199. See also Pew, J. Howard
J. M. Kaplan Fund, 212
John Birch Society, 199
John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation, 251, 345n33
John M. Olin Foundation, 250, 252, 253, 276
John Price Jones Company, 67, 97
Johns Hopkins University, 9, 25
Johnson, Lyndon B. (LBJ): block grants under, 235; community action concept of, 213; education vs. politics distinction under, 196–97, 206; Jewish-American lobbyists and, 167; private and public funding of social services under, 6, 136, 232; on sanctions against donations to Israel, 167; Supreme Court nominee of, 228–29. See also Great Society; War on Poverty
Johnson, Tom, 54
Jones, John Price, 66, 67, 75, 97, 313–14n106
Jones, Thomas Duckett, 182, 186
Jordan: Israeli attack on Kibya in, 165; rural development programs in, 159
Jordan, Vernon, 210
Jordan, W. K., 12
judicial system: bequests contested in, 76–77, 78–85, 314–15n2; goal of probate judges, 81. See also legal issues; Supreme Court, U.S.; taxation
Julius Rosenwald Fund, 10, 35, 39, 114, 204
Justice Department, U.S., 208–10
Kadow, Kenneth J., 324n64
Kelly, Edward Joseph, 130
Kennan, George, 147
Kennedy, John F. (JFK), 208, 212–13
Kennedy, Robert: Bedford-Stuyvesant Restoration Corporation and, 219; civil rights efforts of, 208, 210; grants for staff of, after assassination, 223–24, 229–30; youth program and, 213
Kennedy School, 247
Kenya: agricultural development programs in, 285
Keppel, Frederick P., 22, 138, 174, 321n7
Ketchum (firm), 66
King, Martin Luther, Jr.: assassination of, 223; Cleveland march of, 222–23; family background of, 40; Ford Foundation president’s view of, 188–89; Graham’s relationship with, 198; staff of, 210; voter registration drive and, 208
King, Willford, 75
Kingsbury, John, 126
Kirkpatrick, Ellis, 74
Kiwanis, 149
Knight’s Estate, In re (Penn., 1894), 16–17
Knopf, S. Adolphus, 47
Koch, Robert, 47
Korea: post-WWII relief efforts in, 322n24
Korean War, 175
Kosovo: mass philanthropy for crisis in, 293
Krejci, Tomáö, 277
Kress, Samuel, 202
Kress stores, 202
Labor Department, U.S., 213
labor movement: coal miners’ strike (1922), 109; community status of, 177–78; suspicions about philanthropists, 20, 21
labor statistics, 108, 109, 238
labor unions: payroll deductions of, 177–78; political spending allowed for, 262; Rockefeller Jr.’s defense of open shop vs., 30
La Follette, Robert, 21
La Follette, Robert, Jr., 101–2
Lagemann, Ellen Condliffe, 305n42
Laidlaw, Walter C., 177
Lamont, Thomas, 172
land: Ford Foundation funds for acquiring strategic, 219; Hoover’s redistribution scheme for, 113–16; limits on institutional holdings of, 86; transfer to charitable organizations (mortmain), 14
Lattimore, Owen, 193
Laura Spelman Rockefeller Memorial Foundation, 9, 98–99, 184
Lauritsen, Charles C., 182
Lawrence, William, 312n85
laws. See legal issues
League of Nations, 138
League to Enforce Peace, 89–90
Lee, Ivy, 62
legal issues: asset limitations on charities, 14, 15, 303n18; birth control pamphlets and obscenity, 90–92; British precedents and, 12–13, 15; deductibility incentive, 88–89, 246–47; donors’ “dead hand,” 3–4, 54–55, 204; eleemosynary statutes, 76, 78, 86, 105, 128, 303n18; equivocation as way around, 83–85; mortmain, 14; tuberculosis case reporting, 50. See also bequests and trusts; judicial system; tax exemption; and specific legal cases
Lehman, Herbert H., 140, 141, 142, 144, 145, 163
Lenin, V. I., 277
LEPRA Society, 290
Levy Court (Del.), 131
Lewis’s Estate (Pa., 1893), 83
liberal initiatives: block grants to undermine, 235–36; bureaucracies as controlled by, 248–49; conservative efforts to defund, 249–54; conservative measures against, 189–200; conservative network’s convergence with pluralists, 255–63; diversity of, 180–89; in Eastern Europe, 275–78; pluralist network of, 242–47
libraries, 14–16, 20, 105, 311n65, 347n61
Licensed Agencies for Relief in Asia, 143
Lilly Endowment, 247
Lindbergh, Charles, 109
Lindblom, Charles E., 340n51
Lindsay, John, 224
Little, Bascom, 108
lobbying: congressional debate about, 99–102; IRS language on, 101–2, 259–63. See also advocacy; propaganda
local and municipal governments: Depression-era federal relief and, 130–34; Depression-era struggles of, 122–23. See also Chambers of Commerce; civil institutions; community chest movement; community foundations
localism: in Depression years, 117–20; Hoover’s support for, 107. See also civic responsibility
Lowell, Josephine Shaw, 18, 19
Luck, Mary, 74
Ludlow Massacre (1914), 21, 30
Lutheran World Federation, 269
Lutheran World Relief, 270
Lynd, Robert, 125
Lynde and Harry Bradley Foundation, 250–51, 253
MacArthur, Catherine T., 251, 345n33
MacArthur, Douglas, 143
MacArthur, John D., 251, 345n33
Macdonald, Dwight, 180, 185–86
Macedonia, rural development program in, 152
Malinowski, Bronislaw, 294
Mandate for Leadership (report), 253
Mann, Horace, 32
Manning, William T., 67
marketing. See mass philanthropy
Marquette University, 246
Marquis, Donald G., 182
Marshall Plan: as check on communism, 186; propaganda and, 150–51; Soros compared with, 276; staff of, 147; Stalin’s refusal of, 144, 278
Marts & Lundy (firm), 66
Maryland: charitable trust law in, 17
Massachusetts: legal treatment of bequests in, 13; public education in, 32; Red Cross fundraising in, 58; social services funding in, 234–35; tax-exemption policy of, 86, 90; tuberculosis study in (Framingham), 50. See also Boston; Supreme Court, Massachusetts
Massachusetts Anti-Cigarette League, 90
Massachusetts Anti-Saloon League, 90
Massachusetts Board of Charities, 18
Massachusetts Department of Public Welfare, 234
mass media: cancer information campaign in, 67; culture of giving linked to, 44; Ethiopian famine in, 268; Graham’s Crusades for Christ in, 199–200; public service announcements on, 290–91; public television, 187, 211, 227. See also advertising
mass philanthropy: of American Jews for Israel, 159–60, 161, 163–68; anticommunist stance of, 146–51; coercion in, 64–65; community foundation as, 54–55; concept of, 2, 45–46, 49; cooperation for, 49–54; current and future importance of, 292–93, 298–99; deductibility as key to, 88–89, 246–47; in Depression years, 117–25; early improvised campaigns of, 44–45; Eastern Europe initiatives of, 278–79; expansions of, 66–72, 176–78; Hoover’s incorporation of, 110–18; limitations of federal reliance on, 3–4, 113–14, 115–16, 117, 119–20, 125; Mississippi flood-relief efforts of (1927), 111–14; polio campaign in, 70–71; reinvigorations of, 71–72, 246–47; seasonality of, 2–3; standard of living and increased giving in, 72–75; state and federal funds compared with, 179–80; tuberculosis campaign as example of, 46–51; U.S. foreign policy supported by, 137; WWI expansion of, 56–66, 88; WWII humanitarian efforts of, 139–40, 142–44. See also charity and charities; social classes; and specific entities (e.g., Red Cross)
“maximum feasible participation,” 279–83
Mayor’s Emergency Relief Committee (Wilmington, Del.), 118, 119, 132
McAdoo, William, 60
McBride, Seán, 274
McCarthy, Joseph: anti-communist campaign of, 170; countermeasures to, 187–88; decline of momentum, 195; questions for Ford Foundation, 323n48; targets of, 192–94
McCracken, Paul, 250
McGraw, John, 14
McHugh, Frank, 118
McKenzie, Robert, 52
McMillan report, 171
McNamara, Robert, 180
Medical Education in the United States (report), 25
medical research and treatment: cancer, 67, 163, 179, 241; Flexner and, 25; flu epidemic (1917–18), 42, 59; Ford Foundation’s attitude toward, 186; Gates’s support for, 24–25; HIV/AIDS, 285, 286–92; hookworm eradication, 41, 42; poliomyelitis, 70–71; product development partnerships in, 287; Sloan Foundation’s role in, 172. See also tuberculosis
Medicare, 232
Mellon, Andrew: attempt to impeach (as Treasury secretary), 202; family of, 209, 334n23; investigated by FDR, 170, 172; National Gallery of Art role of, 171–72
Mellon, Paul, 334n23
Mellon Charitable and Educational Trust, 171
Mellon Foundation, 276
Mencken, H. L., 71
Mengistu Haile Mariam, 266, 271
Mennonite Central Committee, 268
Mercy Corps, 270
Metropolitan Applied Research Center, 221–22
“metropolitan community” concept, 52
Metropolitan Life, 50
Mexico: microlending program in, 281; rural development program in, 152–53
Michigan: benevolent corporation in, 173; charitable trust statute in, 17; Depression-era relief in, 131–32; W. K. Kellogg Foundation and, 180, 226. See also Detroit (Mich.); Ford Foundation
microlending/microcredit programs, 279–81
Microsoft. See Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation
midcentury philanthropy: changes and continuities of, 170–80; conservative initiatives in, 189–200; context of, 169–70; liberal initiatives in, 180–89
middle class: community foundation fundraising among, 54; disposable income increased among, 2–3; federal funds channeled to, 235–36, 254; income and giving levels of, 2–3, 74–75, 246; tax credit mechanisms used by, 175–76
Milbank Memorial Fund, 94–95, 97, 154–55
Mill, John Stuart, 82
Millennium Challenge Corporation, 285–86
Miller, Ernie, 246
Mills, Wilbur, 203, 224–25, 237, 239
Mining and Mechanical Institute of the Anthracite Coal Region (Pa.), 89–90
minorities: opening philanthropies to, 241; in post-Soviet Eastern Europe, 277; program-related investments in businesses of, 218–20, 279–81. See also African Americans; immigrants
missionary organizations: in HIV/AIDS campaign, 292; Rockefeller funds for, 20; in rural development, 154, 297. See also faith-based charities
mission statements, 22
Mississippi Freedom Campaign, 220
Mississippi River flooding (1927), 110–14
Mitchell, Wesley C., 1, 2, 108, 124
Mobilization for Youth, 212–13, 217
modernity, foundations’ focus on, 185–87
Modern Woodmen of America, 50
Moley, Raymond, 69
Mondale, Walter, 227
Mont Pelerin Society, 191
Moral Majority, 252
Morgenthau, Henry, Sr., 162
Morgenthau, Henry, Jr., 162, 163, 170, 172–74
mortmain, 14
Moton, Robert, 113
Mott Foundation, 276, 277, 345n33
Moulton, Harold Glenn, 110
Moynihan, Daniel P.: “creative federalism” of, 211, 212, 214; nonprofit sector development and, 232, 233; pluralism of, 243–44; on tax deductions for donations, 246–47
Mullen, Ethelda, 132
Murphy, Frank, 124
music concerts, 268
Mutual Security Act (1952), 158
NAACP (National Association for the Advancement of Colored People), 68–69, 209, 210, 237
NAACP Legal Defense Fund, 209
Nader, Ralph, 261
National Academy of Sciences, 155
National AIDS Control Program (NACO, India), 288
National Archives, 171
National Association for the Study and Prevention of Tuberculosis (later, National Tuberculosis Association [NTA]), 47, 48–51
National Association of Manufacturers, 260
National Black United Funds, 241
National Bureau of Economic Research, 1, 2, 108, 169
National Catholic Conference for Racial Justice (Cleveland), 222
National Catholic War Council, 62, 311n65
National Center for Charitable Statistics (NCCS), 247
National Christian Action Coalition, 252
National Committee for Responsible Philanthropy (NCRP, Donee Group), 240, 241, 248, 249
National Committee on Maternal Health, 94–95
National Conference of Social Work, 53–54
National Coordinating Committee Fund (refugee assistance), 160
National Council of Churches, 178, 195
National Council of Negro Women, 209
National Council on Philanthropy (NCOP), 241–42. See also Independent Sector
National Defense Research Council, 179
National Drought Relief Committee, 120–21
National Economic Council, 190
National Economy League, 99–102
National Education Association, 49
National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis, 71
National Gallery of Art, 170–72, 202
National Health Agencies, 241
National Institute of Mental Health, 212–13
National Investigation Bureau of War Charities (WWI), 65
National Recovery Administration, 190
National Refugee Service, 140
National Research Council, 109
National Science Foundation, 179
National Social Welfare Assembly, 215
National Student Organization, 333n8
National Urban League. See Urban League
National War Fund, 139
natural disasters: American giving abroad in response to, 308n97; charities and Red Cross assistance after, 57; Dust Bowl, 120–21, 134–35; hurricane, 112; Mississippi flood, 110–14; San Francisco earthquake (1906), 57. See also Ethiopian famines
NCCS (National Center for Charitable Statistics), 247
NCOP (National Council on Philanthropy), 241–42. See also Independent Sector
NCRP (National Committee for Responsible Philanthropy or Donee Group), 240, 241, 248, 249
Near East Foundation (earlier, Near East Relief), 142, 152
Nehru, Jawaharlal, 157
Nepal, rural development programs in, 159
Netherlands, WWII humanitarian aid for, 139
Neutrality Act (1939), 138
New Deal: attitudes toward philanthropies and community chests in, 69–70, 202; Great Society compared with, 215–16; opposition to, 134, 190–91; philanthropies sidelined in, 6, 128–29, 132–34; private agencies barred from administering public funds in, 127–28, 130; private and public separated in, 105–6, 125–36; temporary vs. permanent relief in, 129–30. See also Federal Emergency Relief Administration (FERA); Roosevelt, Franklin D.
New Federalism: block grants in, 235–36; conservative and liberal concerns about, 248; middle class helped in, 254
New Jersey, bequest contested in, 82. See also Supreme Court, New Jersey
“new right,” coining of, 251
New World Foundation, 209, 218
New York Board of Child Welfare, 126
New York Bureau of Municipal Research, 107
New York City: Depression-era relief expenditures of, 123; fundraising firms in, 66–68; Graham at Madison Square Garden in, 198–200; Liberty bond drive in, 67; library bequest in, 14–16; low-income housing projects in, 218; mayoral campaign funds in (1886), 81–82; program-related investments in (Bedford-Stuyvesant), 219–20; school decentralization experiment in Ocean Hill/Brownsville, 224; Tammany uses of public funds in, 105; tuberculosis treatment in, 50; unemployment agency in, 126; White Slave Grand Jury in, 94; youth programs in, 211–13
New Yorker (magazine), 180
New York Foundation, 218
New York Missionary Society, 32
New York Public Library, 16
New York Regional Survey and Plan, 109
New York Society for the Suppression of Vice, 92
New York State: charitable bequests and trust law in, 13–16, 17; class-targeted fundraising in, 62–63; coerced giving in, 65; Depression-era relief efforts in, 126, 131–32; obscenity law in, 92; Rockefeller Foundation chartered in, 21; tax-exemption policy of, 86; tuberculosis prevention efforts of, 50–51; university charter revised in, 14; war chest fundraising in, 59. See also New York City; Supreme Court, New York
New York State Charities Aid Association, 47
New York Times: on donations for Israel, 167; on education and/or politics, 102–3; on federated fundraising, 53; on Ford Foundation funds for CORE, 222; on Gates Foundation money in India, 287–88; Sierra Club ads in, 206–7; UJA ad in, 162
New York Tribune, 8
New York Tuberculosis Association, 126
New York University, 275
New York World, 57
Niebuhr, Reinhold, 148, 195, 199, 255
Nixon, Richard M.: Filer Commission and, 237; New Federalism of, 235–36, 248, 254; resignation of, 239; Supreme Court nominee of, 248
nongovernmental organizations (NGOs): African agricultural initiatives of, 286; indigenous, development of, 264, 271, 276–77; model for government cooperation of, 153; United Nations and, 145–46, 282. See also international nongovernmental organizations (INGOs)
nonprofit sector: academic research on, 247; challenges for development, 232–33; conservative alternative federation for, 248–55; convergence of conservative and pluralist networks in, 255–63; emergence of, 4–5; federal criteria for channeling money to, 214–20; federal funds and control of, 233–35; Filer report and recommendations on, 237–40; meaning of term, 337n1; as percentage of GDP, 301–2n6; pluralist approach to, 242–47; political spending allowed for, 262; public affairs concerns of, 76–77; public charities vs. private foundations distinction in, 205; statistics on extent of, 301–2n6; third sector as alternative name for, 232, 233–41, 249; turning point in, 173. See also foundations; philanthropy; philanthropy/government partnership; regulatory compromise; Rockefeller, John D., III; tax exemption; think tanks
North American Civic League for Immigrants, 90
North Carolina: tax-exemption policy of, 87
Norton, Charles Dyer, 109, 317n10
NSC 68 (National Security Council Report 68 [1950]), 158
NTA (National Association for the Study and Prevention of Tuberculosis; later, National Tuberculosis Association), 47, 48–51
O’Boyle, Patrick, 140
O’Connell, Brian, 242, 246, 254–55
O’Connor, Basil, 70
Odegard, Peter H., 182
Office of Economic Opportunity, 234–35
Office of Faith-Based and Community Initiatives, 258
Office of Foreign Relief and Rehabilitation Operations (OFRRO), 140–41
Office of Management and Budget, 259–60, 302n6
Office of Scientific Research and Development, 179
Office of Strategic Services (OSS), 144–45, 147
Ogburn, William, 124
Ogden, Robert C., 33
Ogden, William B., 29
Ohio: charity’s campaign for better government in, 206; class-targeted fundraising in, 62; community chests and contributions in, 59, 69. See also Cleveland
Ohlin, Lloyd, 212
oil supply and industry: embargo (1973), 238; Pew money in, 190; U.S. policy on Israel in context of, 159–60, 162, 165
Oklahoma A&M College, 158
Olin, John M., 250
Olin Foundation, 250, 252, 253, 276
Oppenheimer, J. Robert, 331n88
Organization of African Unity, 287
OSS (Office of Strategic Services), 144–45, 147
Oxfam, 270
Packard, Vance, 68
Pakistan: rural development programs in, 157
Palestine: changing views of, 160–61; Jewish resettlement in, 161. See also Israel
partnerships. See philanthropy/government partnership; reformers/rich people partnership
Pathfinder, 290
Patman, Wright: on Ford Foundation, 224; foundations exposed as CIA fronts, 203, 209, 212, 333n8; foundations investigated by, 202–4, 236; small businessmen defended by, 205; on tax exemption of philanthropies, 225, 226; on Treasury’s findings, 206
Payne, John Barton, 112, 113, 121–22
payroll deductions: for charities, 177–78, 241; for emergency relief, 119
Peabody, George, 10, 31, 218, 302n7
Peabody, George Foster, 33, 70
Peabody Fund (Fund for Southern Education), 10, 31–32
peace, 42, 89–90, 108, 183–84, 193
Peale, Norman Vincent, 191, 197
Pennsylvania: coerced giving in, 65; Depression-era relief in, 131; Diaspora giving from, 278; response to Carnegie libraries in, 20. See also Philadelphia; Supreme Court, Pennsylvania; University of Pittsburgh
Pennsylvania Society for the Prevention of Tuberculosis, 47
“penny subscription” concept, 48. See also seals campaign
PEPFAR (President’s Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief), 292
Percy, Charles H., 227
Perkins, George W., 63
Pershing, John, 99
Peters, Mary Francis, 246
Pew, J. Howard: religion and politics blended by, 191–92, 197–200, 297; Social Gospel denounced by, 189–90, 194–95; tax exemption and, 196–97
Pew, Joseph N., Sr., 190
Pew Memorial Trust (later, Pew Charitable Trusts): anonymity lifted by, 244; impetus for founding, 189–92; shift from private foundation to public charity, 261–62. See also J. Howard Pew Freedom Trust
pharmaceutical industry, 287
Philadelphia (Pa.): library in, 15, 105; tuberculosis treatment in, 50
philanthrocapitalism concept, 324n64
philanthropic organizations: alliances in WWI, 62–63, 311n65; anticommunist stance of, 146–51; barred from administering public funds, 127–28, 130; bureaucracies of, 178–79; developing general ideas for, 19–20; diversity at midcentury, 169–70; Eastern European opportunities to promote democracy and civil institutions, 272–79; as executive instruments, 107; federal funds channeled through, 209–10, 217–20, 234–35; humanitarian movement embraced by, 40–43; membership and fundraising of, 68–69; registration under Neutrality Act of, 138; sidelined in New Deal, 6, 128–29, 132–34; WWI fundraising and humanitarian efforts of, 61–62; WWII humanitarian efforts in occupied areas of, 141–43. See also charity and charities; churches; donors; ethnicity-based organizations; faith-based charities; foundations; fundraising; nonprofit sector; think tanks; and specific entities
philanthropists, terms for, 26
philanthropoid, use of term, 26
philanthropy: agenda unlimited and open-ended in, 3; charity distinguished from, 2, 10; confrontations and history of, 5–6; federal funds as threat to, 232–34; independence reclaimed by, 265, 268–71; interest and altruism linked in, 72–73, 295–96; as investment, 2, 8–11, 295; lawmaking’s relation to, 78–85, 100, 314–15n2; managerial principles applied to, 1 (see also business principles); novelty of, in America, 294–95; politics distinguished from, 77, 228–30; professionalization of, 53–54, 66–68, 71–72; reinvigoration of, 236–37; southern educational drive of, 30–40. See also charity and charities; community chest movement; foundations; fundraising; giving; global community; legal issues; mass philanthropy; mid-century philanthropy; nonprofit sector; philanthropic organizations; philanthropy/government partnership; political economy; public philanthropy; tax exemption; think tanks
philanthropy at midcentury. See midcentury philanthropy
philanthropy/government partnership: debates on, 104–6, 297–98; in Depression years, 117–25; fears of federal power in, 232–34; Gates Foundation in, 286; Hoover’s expansion of, 106–18; Hoover vs. FDR on, 128, 135–36; humanitarian efforts of, 56–66, 88, 137, 138–46; ideological confrontations and history of, 5–6; in international context, 6–7; limitations of, 3–4, 113–14, 115–16, 117, 119–20, 125; rural development programs of, 151–59; U.S. policy on Israel and, 159–68. See also federal government; federation movement; Great Society; nonprofit sector; regulatory compromise; tax exemption
Philanthropy Roundtable, 253
Phillips, Howard, 252
Phillips, Wendell, 78–81, 314–15n2
Phipps, Henry, 50
Pierce, Franklin, 105
Pifer, Alan, 233–34, 235, 236, 237, 238
Planned Parenthood, 259
Plessy v. Ferguson (1896), 34, 77
Point Four program (economic development), 155–58
Points of Light initiative, 255
Poland: Diaspora giving to, 278; Helsinki Accords signed by, 274
political economy: differing ways of handling nonprofits in, 6; federal funds and philanthropy as key to, 169–70; philanthropy embedded in, 294–95, 298–99; policymakers’ confusion over nonprofits’ place in, 259–63; of social services, 214–20. See also nonprofit sector
politics and political issues: bequests concerning, 78–85, 314–15n2; conservatives and liberal-pluralists as converging in tax rules concerning, 259–63; defined narrowly, 81–82; education distinguished from, 5, 89–103, 196–97, 206, 228–30; giving combined with, 78–85, 314–15n2; in Hoover’s philanthropy/government partnership, 110; philanthropic role in U.S. vs. foreign nations’, 76, 137–38; pluralist type of, 243–44; religion blended with, 190–200; specific elections and candidates in, 161–62, 222–23. See also advocacy; conservative initiatives; liberal initiatives; political economy
poor people and poverty: birth control battles and, 91–93; churches’ role in mediating, 244–45; conservatives’ view of, 248; federal vs. community solutions for, 235; “Gray Areas” program and, 213, 217; lack of safety net for, 130; “maximum feasible participation” of, 279–83; microcredit for Bangladeshis, 279–81; unpopular and ineffective relief for, 18. See also charity and charities; social services; War on Poverty; welfare system
Popper, Karl, 275
Population Association of America, 154
population growth: eugenics and, 92–94; rural development and concerns about, 154–55; “zero population growth” concept and, 324n61. See also birth control and contraception
“porchlight campaigns,” 71
Powell, Lewis, 233, 248–49, 251
President’s Committee on Juvenile Delinquency, 212–13
President’s Committee on War Relief Agencies (Davies Committee), 138
Presidents’ Conference (of Jewish organizations), 166, 167, 326–27n101
President’s Conference on Unemployment, 108, 117
President’s Emergency Committee for Employment, 117
President’s Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief (PEPFAR), 292
Princeton Office for Population Research, 154
Princeton University, 175
private voluntary organizations (PVOs), 145. See also nongovernmental organizations (NGOs)
Procter and Gamble, 251
product development partnerships (PDPs), 287
Program on Non-Profit Organizations (PONPO), 247, 340n51
program-related investments: in Bangladesh, 279–81; concept and uses of, 218–20
Progressive Era: collective responsibility concept of, 45; interest-group political theory of, 243–44. See also reformers; reformers/rich people partnership
prohibition-type organizations, 90, 103
Project Bridge, 222
propaganda: Cold War support for, 150–51; definition of, 96; tax code clause on, 102, 206–7; Treasury’s claim of, in tax-exemption cases, 89–90. See also lobbying
Protestant charities: anti-poverty programs of, 245; rural development programs of, 154; WWII humanitarian aid for Europe and, 140. See also specific entities
Protestants: attitudes toward poverty, 18–19; university emblematic of perspective of, 27
psychological warfare, 137–38, 146–51
public affairs: confusion over nonprofits’ place in political economy, 259–63; foundations’ influence on, 107–10; philanthropy as quintessential part of, 3. See also civil rights; common good; education; philanthropy/government partnership; public philanthropy
public health issues: appeals based on, 72; birth control access, 90–98; children as “crusaders” in, 49; HIV/AIDS, 285, 286–92; hookworm eradication drive, 41, 42; hunger as political access issue, 153; northern philanthropic support for southern, 40–41; philanthropic efforts extended abroad, 41–43; polio campaign, 70–71; tuberculosis research and treatment fundraising drive, 46–51; wealthy people uninterested in, 47, 48. See also Ethiopian famines; medical research and treatment
Public Opinion Quarterly, 75
public philanthropy: as challenge to private philanthropies, 178–80; concept of, 169; development in Great Society, 214–20; as threat to voluntarism, 232–34; youth and juvenile delinquency programs of, 211–13. See also social services; welfare system
public television, 187, 211, 227
Pusey, Nathan, 185
Quakers. See American Friends Service Committee (AFSC)
race riots: countermeasures to, 220–23;
Detroit (1968), 219; Springfield, Ill. (1908), 68
racial issues: dilemmas posed by, 42–43; federal government’s role in confronting, 115–16; foundation funds for targeting specific elections and candidates, 222–23; in Mississippi flood-relief efforts, 113–14; northern philanthropists’ view of, 33–37; philanthropists’ alliance with Jim Crow, 32–33; southerners alienated by focus on, 223–24; southern resentment of interference in, 204; tax exemption made into, 224–31. See also civil rights; voting rights
racial segregation: of Christian schools, 252; congressional and tax lawyers’ alliance in supporting, 201; investigation and exposure of, 184; legal defense of, 193; research on damaging impact of, 222; southern educational drive and, 30–40; status quo in, 188–89, 207–8; Supreme Court on, 34, 77, 193, 204, 207, 222
RAND Corporation, 181
Raskob, John, 172
Rauschenbusch, Walter, 51
Rayburn, Sam, 167
Reagan, Ronald: AIDS and anti-abortion policy of, 292, 348n83; conservative think tanks’ influence on, 252–53; democracy promotion abroad under, 272; Ethiopian aid and, 267–68, 269; social services cuts under, 244–45, 253–54; tax cuts for wealthy under, 246, 253
Recent Social Trends (report), 124
Reconstruction Finance Corporation (RFC), 124
Red Cross: anonymous (Pew) grant to, 192; Biafra policy of, 265; charter of, 321n2; coerced giving to, 65; deductibility incentive and, 246; Depression-era limits of, 123–24; drought relief and, 120–21, 135; family income and giving to, 74–75; federal control of, 112; federal employees’ donations to, 241; federal funding proposed for, 121–22; federal oversight of, 56; Hoover’s role in, 104; Hopkins’s role in, 126; lobbying rules protested by, 260; Mississippi flood-relief efforts of (1927), 111–14; racial issues and, 113–14; seals campaign for tuberculosis treatment, 48; UJA fundraising compared with, 163; WWI fundraising and humanitarian efforts of, 57–58, 59–60, 61, 62; WWII refugee assistance of, 142
Reece, B. Carroll, 194–96, 211, 225
reformers: characteristics of, 19–20; foundations as tools of, 10, 23–26; social science interests of, 18
reformers/rich people partnership: in agricultural and public health issues, 40–41; charity laws addressed by, 11–17; developing cooperation in, 18–20; educational reform fostered in, 23–26; emergence of, 8, 10–11; mass philanthropy techniques adopted by, 49–51; secularization fostered by, 10, 23–24, 26–30; southern educational drive of, 30–40; welfare systemized in, 17–18
refugees and displaced persons: assistance for (professionals), 148; in Mississippi flooding (1927), 111, 112, 113–14; WWII organizations helping, 142
Regan v. Taxation with Representation, 261
Regional Plan Association, 213
regulatory compromise: advocacy vs. education distinction in, 5, 89–103, 196–97, 206, 228–30; historical context of, 76–85; income tax implementation and, 87–89; tax code as affirmation of, 5, 98–103
Rehnquist, William, 257
Relief and Rehabilitation Commission (Ethiopia), 266, 270
Relief Commission, Inc. (Del.), 131
religious issues: appeals based on, 72; assistance to poor linked to religious conversion, 258–59; Cold War as evangelical crusade, 197–200; cooperative fundraising and, 52; decline in giving to, 238; eternal salvation and philanthropy linked, 189–90, 297; evangelicals’ attack on Great Society, 255–56; export of Christian democracy (via Point Four program), 156–57; federal funding and, 255–59, 297; Ford Foundation as ignoring, 189; Israel, fundraising and support for, 159–68; philanthropy fostered by religious awakening, 78; politics blended with, 191–92, 197–200; secular nonprofits allied with churches, 244–46; spiritual life and values in, 189–90, 198–200; WWI conscientious objectors, 65; WWII humanitarian aid and, 139–40. See also birth control and contraception; Catholic charities; churches; conservative initiatives; faith-based charities; Jewish charities; liberal initiatives; missionary organizations; Protestant charities
Republican Party: black votes for (1927), 114; Hoover’s election (1928), 116–17; Pew’s support for, 194–95; presidential hopefuls (1927), 111, 112–13, 114–15; real vs. pragmatic, 248; think tanks and 1980 success of, 251
Research Committee on Social Trends (Hoover), 75
research support, 22, 185. See also education; medical research; scientific research Reuther, Walter, 177
Revenue Acts (U.S.): 1913, 87; 1916, 87, 88; 1918, 88; 1921, 87, 88; 1924, 88; 1934, 91, 98, 103; 1935, 174; 1969, 224–31
RFC (Reconstruction Finance Corporation), 124
Ribicoff, Abraham, 215
Richardson, H. Smith, 250, 253, 276
Richardson, Sid, 200
Ringland, Arthur, 143
Robinson, Arthur, 100
Robinson, Joseph, 121
Robinson-Patman Act (1936), 202
Rockefeller, John D., Sr.: advised to give away money, 18–19; denunciations of, 21; federated fundraising support of, 53; foreign missions gift of, 20; initial charity supported by, 19, 27; institutions founded by, 9; medical research foundation and, 24–25; scientific research supported by, 10; social goals of, 304n38; tuberculosis prevention contribution of, 50; wealth of, 8
Rockefeller, John D., Jr.: African American education support of, 31; eugenics and population control interests of, 93, 94–95, 97, 154; as exemplar of reformers/rich people partnership, 29–30; low-income housing project of, 218; modernist stance of, 305n56; nondenominational stance of, 29; relief for Russian Jews in (1921), 115; social goals of, 304n38; Southern Education Board and, 33; U.N. land donated by, 146; WWI fundraising of, 63
Rockefeller, John D., III: birth control research supported by, 154–55; CONVO and, 242; death of, 240; Filer Commission and, 237, 239, 249; on lobbying rules, 240; mass media and, 200; nonprofit sector development and, 232, 233, 237; response to questions about foundations, 227; scientific research supported by, 179; voter registration drive support of, 209
Rockefeller, Laura Spelman, 9, 31, 98–99, 184. See also Spelman College
Rockefeller, Nelson: CIAA role of, 153; Filer commission and, 239; philanthrocapitalism concept of, 155, 324n64; Point Four role of, 155–56; rural development goals in Latin America, 153; U.N. land donated by, 146; voter registration drive support of, 209
Rockefeller Brothers Fund, 159, 276
Rockefeller Foundation: achievements of, 227; agricultural and rural development programs supported by, 152–53, 285, 286; applied research supported by, 109; assets in 1950s, 174; British investments of, 17; charter of, 20–21, 22; congressional investigation of, 193; Council on Foreign Relations funding of, 147; denunciations of, 21; Depression-era relief efforts in coalmining areas, 122; educational role of, 23; founding of, 9; Gates Foundation compared with, 284; International Health Division of, 141; mission statement of, 22; Mississippi flood-relief efforts of (1927), 112; product development partnerships (PDPs) of, 287; program-related investments supported by, 218; public health and farm productivity efforts of, 41–42; scientific research supported by, 10, 179; Social Gospel report and, 195; social science division of, 123, 184; tuberculosis prevention efforts of, 50, 61. See also Fosdick, Raymond; Gates, Frederick; Green Revolution
Rockefeller General Education Board: British tax law and, 303n24; congressional charter for, 21; farm demonstration program of, 40–41; founding of, 9, 33; medical education and, 25; southern educational drive of, 10, 31, 35–36, 37, 38
Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research, 9, 24–25
Rockefeller Sanitary Commission, 9, 41, 42
Rockefeller War Relief Commission, 61
Rockwell International, 250
Roman Catholic Bishops of the United States, 139–40
Romania: Helsinki Accords signed by, 274
Rooney, John, 223
Roosevelt, Archibald B., 99
Roosevelt, Eleanor, 162
Roosevelt, Franklin D. (FDR): on corporate charitable contributions, 174; drought relief measures of, 135; on federal funds for relief, 125; Mellon investigated by, 170, 172, 202; neutrality of U.S. under, 138; philanthropy excluded from New Deal solutions, 6; philanthropy for troops and humanitarian aid under, 139–46; polio campaign led by, 70–71; public and private funds separated by, 105–6; retirement benefits vs. safety net for poor under, 130. See also New Deal
Roosevelt, Theodore: as Carnegie board member, 23; on collective responsibility, 45; Country Life Commission of, 40; health committee of, 46–47; mayoral campaign of (1886), 81–82; philanthropy/government partnership under, 40, 107; suspicions about philanthropists, 20
Root, Elihu, 99
Rorty, Malcolm, 108
Rose, Wycliffe, 37, 41, 42, 61
Rosenwald, Julius: African American schools in South supported by, 3, 35–36, 39; on donor restrictions, 3–4; family of, 209; on federal funds for relief, 115–16, 125; on foundation’s time limit, 4, 204; on Hoover’s land distribution scheme, 114–16; NAACP funding of, 68; Palestine agricultural project funding of, 160; social goals of, 304n38; Washington’s influence on, 35
Rosenwald Fund, 4, 10, 35, 39, 114, 204
Rotary Club, 149
rural development: in Ethiopia, 266, 270–71;
relief aid distinguished from, 270. See also agricultural development; global community; public health issues
Rush College of Medicine, 25
Rusk, Dean, 147
Russell Sage Foundation: behavioral and social science research of, 26, 180; Country Life Commission funding of, 107; Depression-era limits of, 123; employment study of, 109; low-income housing project of, 218; mission statement of, 22–23; scientific research supported by, 10; tuberculosis prevention efforts of, 50; on working-class donations, 176
Russia (post-Soviet era): arms control and security concerns of, 274; Soros’s efforts in, 276. See also Eastern Europe; Soviet Union
Rustin, Bayard, 208
Sachem Funds, 218
Sage, Olivia, 10, 19, 23, 304n38. See also Russell Sage Foundation
Sage, Russell, 10. See also Russell Sage Foundation
Salvation Army, 118, 130–31, 246, 311n65
San Francisco (Calif.): earthquake (1906) in, 57; family income and giving levels in, 74–75
Sanger, Margaret: birth control battles of, 91–92; eugenics movement utilized by, 92–94; organizations of, 94–98; Rockefeller’s support for, 154
Sanger, William, 92
Sanitary Commission, U.S., 44–45
Sarah Mellon Scaife Foundation, 251
Saranac Sanitarium (New York), 50
Save the Children organization, 270
savings: balancing giving with, 49; encouraged, 46; statistics on, 309n20; war chest investments as, 63–64. See also thrift
Sawyer, Wilbur, 141
Scaife, Richard Mellon, 233, 251
Scaife, Sarah Mellon, 251
Scaife Family Foundation, 250, 253
Schenkel, Albert F., 305n56
schools: communities’ building of, 39–40; decentralization experiment of, 224; industrial and vocational, 34–35, 41; racial segregation of, 30–40, 252; tax exemption of, 252; thrift movement in, 64. See also education; universities and colleges
Scientific American (magazine), 93
scientific research: aviation, 109; creating structure for, 9–10; military support for, 179; “objectivity” of, 98–99; public health efforts based on, 41–42; secularization tied to, 26, 28–29; support for technological innovation and applied, 109; tax-exempt status and, 87, 92–93. See also medical research and treatment
Scientific Temperance Federation, 90
SCLC (Southern Christian Leadership Conference), 209, 210
Scripps, Edward, 154
Scripps Foundation for Population Research, 154
Sealander, Judith, 304n38, 308n94
Sears, Roebuck & Company, 39
Seasongood v. Commissioner (1955), 206
secular nonprofits allied with churches: tax exemption and, 86, 87
Self Development of People Fund (Presbyterian Church), 245
self-reliance doctrine, 192
Sen, Amartya, 266, 279, 281–82, 288
Shanker, Albert, 224
Sharett, Moshe, 165
Sharon, Ariel, 165
ShoreBank (Chicago), 280
Shriver, Sargent, 213
Simon, William, 233, 239, 248–49
Skoll, Jeff, 281
Slater, John, 32
Slater Fund, 10, 32, 34, 35–36
Sloan, Alfred P., 172
Smith, Adam, 204, 294, 295, 296
Smith, Cornelius, 68
Smith-Hughes Act (1917), 41
Smith Richardson Foundation, 250, 253, 276
Smithsonian Institution, 105
Smoot-Hawley Tariff Act (1930), 110
SNCC (Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee), 209, 210
social classes: fundraising targeted at specific, 62–64; standard of living issues, 72–75, 156, 313–14n106. See also middle class; poor people and poverty; wealthy people; working class
Social Darwinism, 18
Social Gospel movement: Independent Sector as continuing, 244, 255; Pew’s denunciation of, 189–90, 194–95; Rockefeller Jr. influenced by, 29; suspicions about philanthropists, 20
social justice: churches’ role in, 245; federal government’s role in, 115–16; philanthropies’ contradictory role in, 30–31; planting seeds of, 38–39. See also civil rights; human rights; poor people and poverty
Social Science Research Council (SSRC), 98–99, 124, 195
social sciences: foreign exchange programs and, 150; interests of, 18; liberal foundation’s focus on, 183–86; philanthropy’s growth and, 9. See also behavioral sciences
Social Security Act (1935), 130, 215–16
social services: agencies and community chest partners in, 52; churches’ role in, 244–45; faith-based charities providing, 255–59; federal funds for, 233, 234–35; increasing costs of, 238; Medicare introduced, 232; philanthropic vs. government funding for, 179–80, 254–55; political economy of, 214–20; Reagan’s cuts in, 244–45, 253–54. See also Great Society; New Deal; welfare system
social workers: Depression-era manuals for, 123; fundraising skills of, 53–54; Hopkins’s training as, 126; as public servants under FERA, 131–32; theories of, 212, 214
Society of St. Vincent de Paul, 130
Soil Conservation Service, 135
Sombart, Werner, 2
Soros Foundation Hungary, 275–76
South, U.S.: hookworm eradication drive in, 41; Hoover’s scheme for redistributing land in, 113–16; northern support for educational drive in, 30–40; philanthropic drive to help, 10–11; planters’ treatment of sharecroppers in, 113–14, 121; post-Reconstruction philanthropy as model for global community, 11, 152
Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC), 209, 210
Southern Education Board, 33, 37, 41
Southern Manifesto, 204, 225, 226
Southern Regional Council (SRC), 209–10
Soviet Union (USSR): collapse of, 264, 271;
development aid from, 158; Ethiopian aid from, 267; exiles from, 147; funds for, 171; Helsinki Accords signed by, 274; Jewish resettlement in, 160; relief efforts cut off by, 144, 278; U.S. relief for famine in (1921), 115; WWII humanitarian aid for, 139. See also Cold War; Eastern Europe; Russia (post-Soviet era)
Sparks, Frank, 119
Spaulding, Francis T., 182, 188
Spiritual Mobilization in Los Angeles, 191, 195
SRC (Southern Regional Council), 209–10
SSRC (Social Science Research Council), 98–99, 124, 195
standard of living issues, 72–75, 156, 313–14n106
Standard Oil Company of New Jersey, 21, 61, 175, 301n2
Stanford, Leland, 9
State Department, U.S.: attempts to stop donations for Israel, 167; Ford Foundation connections in, 148; Point Four program co-opted by, 158; recognition of Israel and, 161. See also Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs (CIAA)
state governments: Depression-era federal relief and, 130–34; Depression-era struggles of, 118–19, 122–23; drought relief plan and, 120–21; federal block grants for, 235–36; federal funds channeled through, 234–35; matching federal dollars to private donations allowed, 216; post-WWII concerns of, 188; tax-exemption policies of, 86, 87–88, 175. See also specific states Statute of Charitable Uses (Britain, 1601), 12–13, 15, 76–77