Page numbers refer to the print edition but are hyperlinked to the appropriate location in the e-book.
Aceh, xi, xv, 49, 91, 99–105, 142, 203, 209, 210, 216; as exceptional, 143, 157, 158, 161–167; FPI in, 121; Helsinki Accord and, 91, 116, 162; HTI in, 124; independence movement in, 15, 16, 101, 113, 130–32, 135–138, 144–145; Islam in, xii, 161, 165, 166; peace in, 48; presidential agreement on, 29; secessionist movement in, 3, 30; separatism in, 35–37, 127, 143; sharia, 149–150, 157, 161–167; violence and, 43, 100, 137–138, 144, 166
adat (local ways of resolving disputes), 150–154, 167
Ahmad, Mirza Ghulam, 32, 83
Ambon, 121, 137, 208n17; religious violence in, 14, 78, 111–117, 151, 206n3, 207n9, 207n10
AMIN (Angkatan Mujahidin Islam Nusantara) (Islamic Mujahidin Forces of the Indonesian Archipelago), 113
Amrullah, Haji Abdul Malik Karim, 55, 56
Angkatan Bersenjata Republik Indonesia (Indonesian Army Forces), 64–65
armed forces, 26, 34–35, 47, 89–108, 158, 192n23; combating communal violence, 100–101, 108, 128; democratization and, 89–90, 100, 102, 105, 107; East Timor and, 97, 101, 105, 130; GAM and, 100–102, 38; Habibie and, 96–98; military courts and, 170, 171; Parliament and, 90, 98, 100–102; secessionism and, 136–137, 143; Suharto and, 25, 89, 90, 92, 94–96, 98, 107, 137, 203n16; Sukarno and, 93–95, 107; Sutrisno and, 28, 95; as veto power, 90–103, 106–108; Yudhoyono and, 96–97. See also Angkatan Bersenjata Republik Indonesia; military; officers, military; TNI
asas tunggal (sole foundation), xiv, 65
Aspinall, Edward, 15, 16, 36, 198n15; Problems of Democratization in Indonesia, 189
Association of Southeast Asian Nations, xiii, 4, 106
Attorney General’s Office, xv, 30, 47
authoritarianism, 7, 29, 37, 138, 143, 146; desire for, 34; in Egypt, 9; end of, 5; erosion of, 8; of religious groups, 73; of Suharto, 30, 49, 89, 107, 185; of Sukarno, 34
Badan Intelijen Negara (National Intelligence Agency). See BIN
Badan Pusat Statistik (Central Statistical Bureau), 41
Bali, 142; Hindus in, 9, 74, 77; nightclub bombing in, xiv, 14, 81, 115–121, 124, 202n6, 209n29
Bali Merdeka (Free Bali) movement, 131
BIN (Badan Intelijen Negara) (National Intelligence Agency), ix, 114, 144, 207
Buddhism, Buddhists, 8, 53, 74, 75, 80, 191n17, 199n22; state recognition of, xv, 9, 61, 75
Budi Utomo (Prime Philosophy), xi
Bustamam-Ahmad, Kamaruzzaman, 63, 200n31
Catholicism, Catholics, 69, 74, 191n17; divorce and, 193n33; as minority religion, 10; in Philippines, 4; as priests, 73; state recognition of, xv, 9, 75
central government, 16, 128, 129, 209n24; jurisdiction of, 156, 162, 221n45; lawmaking power of, 183–184; legal hierarchy and, 20; regions and, xv, 35, 130, 131, 132, 135, 142, 154, 165; religion and, 156, 163; responsibilities of, 129; right of review of, 19, 181, 222n56; strong, 44, 47; Supreme Court and, 172; TNI and, 105. See also decentralization
Christianity, Christians: Christianization and, 78, 85; as equal citizens, 61; hostility toward, 124; as largest minority religion, 10; Muslims and, 79–82; parties of, xiv; as percentage of population, 74; as separatists, 112, 114, 131; tolerance toward, 70–76. See also churches; and names of specific Christian denominations
citizenship, citizens, 11, 61, 73, 75, 82, 169, 170; attitudes of, 5, 84; education of, 16; fears of, 90; identity cards and, 142; legal system and, 168, 173, 174, 180, 181; review of laws and, 170, 182–185, 186; rights of, 17, 20, 74, 180; state and, 19, 173, 179; young, 125
civil society, 6, 9, 21, 73, 46, 73, 110, 122; consolidated democracy and, 24–25, 45; corruption and, 21; democratic values in, 7; hard-line, 119; Islamic organizations of, 7–8, 169; judicial reform and, 172, 177; repression of, 138–139, 171; Supreme Court and, 172
colonialism, 37, 55, 150–153, 161; anti-, 39, 143; colonial army and, 91, 92; Dutch, xi, xii, xiii, 34, 141, 143; Portuguese, xiv, 35, 98, 127; post-, 150
Committee for the Preparation and Creation of Islamic Sharia (Komite Persiapan dan Penegakan Syariat Islam). See KPPSI
Communists, Communism, xi, xii, 28, 56, 97, 114, 203n16; anti-, 65, 200n32, 201n4; coups of, xiii, 94, 107; nationalism and, 140–141; threat of, 30, 34, 134. See also PKI
concessions: as appeasement, 135, 136, 146; granted to generals, 90, 93, 104, 108; granted to regions, 128, 132–133, 146
Constitution, xii, 26, 49, 93, 100, 186, 194n5; amendments to, 5, 31, 33, 34, 74, 91, 99–100, 102, 171; Article 1(3) of, 169; Article 24C of, 170, 171; crisis of, 99; debates on, 10; democratic consolidation and, 43–44, 102; Islam and, 53, 55, 75, 161; legal system and, 168, 169, 182; religious freedom in, 22, 74; rights under, 20; Sukarno and, xiii, 56; tolerance and, 73; Wiranto and, 27. See also constitutionalism; Mahkamah Konstitusi
conversion, religious, 74, 76, 83
corruption, 37, 46, 93, 103; campaigns against, 21, 39, 47, 80, 130, 223n79; centers of, 16; extortion, 48; Islam and, 155; judicial, 168, 171, 175–178, 186; media and, 173; of Members of Parliament, 46; military officers and, 35; under Suharto, 25, 27; of Syaukani, 133. See also Komisi Pemberantasan Korupsi
Council of Indonesian Muslim Associations (Majelis Syuro Muslimin Indonesians). See Masyumi
courts, 20–21, 100, 156, 163, 169, 178; Bali bombers in, 117–118, 121; as corrupt, 175, 185; divorce and, 18, 153; Islamic, 8, 150–152, 153, 154, 157; jurisdiction of, 150–154, 162; military, 170, 171; organizational control of, 170; religious, 152, 170, 171; sharia, 163. See also judges; judiciary; law, laws; legal system; and names of specific courts
Darul Islam (House of Islam) movement: Aceh and, xii, 161, 166; Ambon conflict and, 113–14; emergence of, xii, 161; JI and, 32, 112
dawa (propagation of faith), 57, 65
decentralization, 12, 15, 16, 19, 30, 132–133, 142; armed forces and, 90–91, 106; “big bang,” 129; Habibie and, 37, 98, 129, 134; legal system and, 158–159, 173, 179–180, 186; pro-sharia Islamists and, 32, 156–159; separatism and, 35–38, 128, 136, 144–145
democracy, 3, 20, 30, 146; armed forces and, 90, 106; attitudes toward, 6–11; decentralization and, 37, 38, 173; definitions of, 38–39; electoral, 102, 108; Guided, xiii, 34, 46, 93, 107; Gus Dur and, 69–70; hierarchy of law and, 20–21; liberal, xii, 170; Madjid and, 69; new, 84, 99, 103; opposition to, 32, 35, 49; parliamentary, 61, 93; pluralist, 53–72, 79, 98, 115; presidential, 33, 44, 49; quality of, 15, 18, 73, 144; radical Islam and, 109–10, 119, 122–125; representative, 27, 169; rule of law and, 17; stability of, 50; support for, 16, 25, 38, 41, 49; Supreme Court and, 186; terrorism and, 125; in world, 4
democratic consensus, 6–11
democratic consolidation, 4, 5, 9, 20, 49, 102; attitudinal, 38–42; behavior and, 29–38; challenges and threats to, 22, 25, 30–31, 44–50, 89–90, 144; characteristics of, 24; constitutional, 43–44; economy and, 41; protection of, 7; radical Islam and, 110
democratic transition, 3, 5, 9, 25–29, 49, 80; beginning of, 4, 10, 11, 25; Bertrand on, 44; challenges to, 144, 146; completion of, 4, 99; military and, 12, 90, 95–96, 104, 107; Muslim organizations and, 81; protection of, 7, 138; requirements of, 24, 29; social conflict and, 43–44, 104, 144
democratic welfare state, 61
democratization, 6, 9, 22; of Constitution, 5, 100; decentralization and, 15, 30, 128; opposition to, 11, 33; problems and weaknesses of, 44–50, 134; reforms of, 133, 142; regionalism and, 16, 145–146; separatism and, 133, 144–146; theory of, 3, 5, 12, 17
Department of Judicial Affairs, 170
Department of Welfare and Social Affairs, 160
Development and Unity Party (Partai Pesatuan Pembangunan). See PPP
Dewan Pemerintahan Daerah (Regional Representative Council), 33, 190n8
Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat (People’s Representative Council). See DPR
Dinas Syariat Islam (Office of Islam Sharia), 162, 164
districts, 31, 151; authority of, 129, 134, 142, 145; autonomy of, 179; decentralization and, 37, 38, 129, 133, 134; electoral, 29, 45; institutions in, 144; Islam in, 32, 79; military in, 105; perda of, 181; provinces and, 145, 154; sub-, 104; tourist, 77. See also municipalities; regencies; regions
Djajoesman, Noegroho, 111
DPR (Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat) (People’s Representative Council), 26, 198–199n15
Dutch, 34, 36, 92, 131, 143, 203n10; in Aceh and Borneo, xi, 164, 166; in East Indies, 141; federal constitution and, 15; independence struggle against, 19, 167, 169; legal system of, 46, 150, 151, 152; reoccupation by, 3, 55, 91; revolts against, xii. See also Netherlands
Dutch East Indies, xi, xii
dynamization (dinamisasi) of Islam, 58, 59, 60, 61, 67; Gus Dur and, 66, 68
East Timor, xiv, 35, 43, 142, 143, 208n17; division of, 204n32; human rights violations in, 117, 130, 144; independence movement in, 15, 98, 101, 127, 130–132, 135, 143–145, 207n12; referendum on, xiv, 28, 130, 131, 137; secession of, 36, 98, 105, 112, 113;
economic development, 27, 45; agencies for, 129; aid for, 93; attitudes toward, 38, 39, 41; Muslim world and, 60; victims of, 201n4
economic society and consolidated democracy, 25, 48–49
economy, 3, 39, 41, 49, 105, 111; Chinese investment in, 48, 50; crisis of, xiv, 4, 38; market reforms and, 12; Suharto and, 25, 35, 47. See also economic development
education, 16–17, 48, 63, 133, 142; co-, 68, 71; Dutch elite and, 36; freedom of religious, 75, 212n14; government and, 48; Islamic, 57–59, 66–67, 71, 72, 80, 119, 159–162; JI and, 32; modernist, 71–72; networks of, 8; Pancasila and, 64; PKS and, 31. See also pesantren
elections, 38, 45–46, 82, 96, 133, 194n6; campaigns for, 48, 80; competitive, 106, 174; contested, 32, 138, 206n50; disputed, 170; first democratic, 26, 28, 29; FPI and, 121; free and fair, xiii, xiv, 5, 24; local, 38; military and, 97, 104; under New Order, 28; of 1955, 33, 198n8; of 1999, 29, 82, 130, 194n3; Parliamentary, 25–26, 31, 41, 64; presidential, xiii, xiv, xv, 5, 11–13, 25, 33, 65, 100, 103; regional, 36; subnational, 16, 37; terrorism and, 118; of 2004, 80, 82, 90; of 2009, 21, 36, 80, 82, 123, 149, 194n7
Endin and the Three Judges case, 177
ethnicity, ethnic groups, 138–146; conflict between, 43, 78, 105, 127–129, 132, 134, 139, 208n17, 212n27; diversity of, 16, 126; identity of, 35, 161
Europe: eastern, 48, 66, 71; religion and, 10, 58. See also names of specific countries
European Economic Community, 139–140
Forum Demokrasi (Democratic Forum), Wahid and, 10, 69
Forum Kedaulatan Maluku (Maluku Sovereignty Forum), 131, 137
FPI (Front Pembela Islam) (Islamic Defenders’ Front), 31, 119; founding of, 32; police and, 120; as thugs, 22, 111–112, 118, 121; violence by, 83, 125; on voting, 122–123
Free Aceh Movement (Gerakan Aceh Merdeka). See GAM
Front Pembela Islam (Islamic Defenders’ Front). See FPI
GAM (Gerakan Aceh Merdeka) (Free Aceh Movement), xv, 16, 35, 100–102, 113, 162–163, 207n14, 208n15; rebellion of, 35–36, 135, 138; sharia and, 161, 164, 209n30
Gerakan Aceh Merdeka (Free Aceh Movement). See GAM
Gerakan Moral Nasional (National Moral Council), 81
Gerakan Negara Sunda (Sunda State Movement), 137
Golkar (Golongan Karya) (Functional Groups), 26, 27, 34–35, 46, 79
government, governance, 24–29, 129, 134, 156, 174; central, 16, 19, 44, 128–132, 135, 165, 209n24, 221n45; coalition, 46; courts and, 178; debates on, 150; inaction of, 73; Islam and, 55, 56, 109–125; law and, 168–186; local, 25, 133, 154, 155, 162, 222n56; military and, 12, 34–36, 93–101, 104–107; under New Order, 32, 37, 89, 195n23; PKS promise of good, 31; popular attitudes of, 39, 47–49; provincial, 141–142, 149; religion and, 54, 70; SBY and, 41; security sector, 105–107; self-, 167; transitional, 145, 146, 204n26; transparency of, 21–22, 89; workers in, 153, 159. See also corruption; decentralization
gross domestic product (GDP), 3–4, 49
Group for the Oneness of God Partisans (Jamaah Ansharut Tauhid). See JAT
Habibie, B. J., xiv, 96–98, 207n5; democratic elections and, 28–29, 130; presidency of, 26–27; radical Islam and, 110–12; reforms of, 54, 100, 129, 134, 138, 145; rule of law and, 47; secessionism and, 15, 37, 130, 131, 145; South Sulawesi and, 158
Helsinki Memorandum of Understanding (2005), xv, 36, 138
Himpunan Mahasiswa Indonesia (Islamic Students Association). See HMI
Himpunan Ulama Dayah Aceh (Ulama Association of Aceh Islamic Boarding Schools), 162
Hinduism, Hindus, 74, 191n17, 208n17; in Bali, 77, 116; as equal citizens, 61; Islam and, 27, 53, 199n22, 212n14; state recognition of, xv, 9, 75
Hizbut Tahrir Indonesia (Indonesian Party of Liberation). See HTI, 32, 122
HMI (Himpunan Mahasiswa Indonesia) (Islamic Students Association), 59, 60, 64, 198–199n15
holidays, religious, 10, 75, 79
human rights, 14, 35, 169, 183, 216n24, 218n10; abuses of, 130, 168, 186, 192n23; under Constitution, 19, 20, 33, 74, 170, 190n8, 193n40; crimes against humanity and, 15, 144; Islamic law and, 162–165; violations of, 75, 89, 104, 113, 117, 164, 168
Hurgronje, C. Snouck, 151
IAIN (Institut Agama Islam Negeri) (State Islamic Institute), 63, 70, 162, 166, 198n11; Harun Nasution and, 57–58; Madjid and, 59, 63;
identity, 78, 134, 151; ethnic, 140–143, 145; Islamic, 158–161, 167; national, 30, 35–37, 140–144; regional, 128, 134, 142, 145, 158–159, 167
Ikatan Cendekiawan Muslim se-Indonesia (All-Indonesia Union of Muslim Intellectuals), xiv
independence: of Aceh, 16, 35, 101, 136, 138, 144; army and, 34, 95, 106; declaration of, 3, 34, 54, 151; from Dutch, 19, 141, 167; of East Timor, xiv, 15, 28, 98, 127, 130–131, 135, 207n12; justifications for, 132, 139–140; movements for, 15, 144; Muslims and, 62; of Papua, 136, 144; revolution for, 43, 46; Roem and, 199n27; social violence and, 43; of South Maluku, 131; spirit of, 55; Sukarno and, 9, 74; war for, xii, 91–92, 106, 141
Indies Social Democratic Association. See PKI
Indonesia Corruption Watch, 177
Indonesian Communist Party (Partai Komunis Indonesia). See PKI
Indonesian Democracy Party (Partai Demokrasi Indonesia). See PDI
Indonesian Democracy Party/Struggle (Partai Demokrasi Indonesia Perjuangan). See PDIP
Indonesian Institute for an Independent Judiciary (Lembaga Kajian dan Advokasi untuk Independensi Peradilan). See LeIP
Indonesian Jihad Fighters Council (Majelis Mujahidin Indonesia). See MMI
Indonesian Nationalist Party (Partai Nasional Indonesia). See PNI
Indonesian National Military (Tentara Nasional Indonesia). See TNI
Indonesian Survey Institute (Lembaga Survei Indonesia). See LSI
inheritance, jurisdiction over, 150–153
Institut Agama Islam Negeri (State Islamic Institute). See IAIN
intellectuals, 54, 65, 75, 131, 209n25; Islamic, 63, 71, 200n31; opinions of, 129, 137; public, 6, 7, 59; Suharto and, xiv
Internal Security Act, 117
International Crisis Group in Southeast Asia, 13
International Monetary Fund (IMF), xiv
Islamic law, 30, 31, 55, 67, 112, 149, 154; compilation of, 153; democracy and, 122–123; Gus Dur on, 68–69; human rights and, 162–165; in multireligious society, 71; priority of, 164–166; promotion of, 118, 157; as regional identity, 158–161; regulations, 150, 155, 159–160. See also sharia
Islamic League (Sarekat Islam), xi, 61
Islamic state, xii, 44, 75, 122, 152; creation of, 54–55; through democratic process, 30; as goal of radicals, 122; JI and, 109–110, 111, 112; Konstituante and, 53–54; model of, xiii; NU and, 56, 159; opposition to, 7, 27; Sukarno and, 9–10; Zainal and, 54–55
Islamic Students Association (Himpunan Mahasiswa Indonesia). See HMI
Islamic unity: 56, Sukarno and, xiii
Islamism, Islamists, 5, 30–33, 75; as danger to democracy, 29–30, 34, 45; in hiding, 32; moderate, 8; parties, 61; in 2004 and 2009 elections, 80; violent, 13–14
Jakarta, 19, 22, 130; bombings in, xiv, 115, 116, 118, 121; as center of government, 36; colonialism, 161, 167; FPI in, 121; HTI in, 124; IAIN in, 57–58, 59, 63; political elite in, 80, 102, 104, 105, 132, 133; rallies in, 113, 121; riots and mob attacks in, 43, 76, 130; as term, 178; violence in, 101, 111–112. See also government, governance; Piagam Jakarta
Jakarta Klub Kajian Agama (Club of Religious Studies), 63
Jamaah Ansharut Tauhid (Group for the Oneness of God Partisans). See JAT
Japan, xii; capitulation of, 54; naval officials of, 9; occupation by, 46, 74, 194n5
Jaringan Islam Liberal (Liberal Islam Network), 22
JAT (Jamaah Ansharut Tauhid) (Group for the Oneness of God Partisans), 123, 210n39; on democracy, 123, 210n39
Java, xi, 21, 44, 59, 66, 71, 80, 104, 107, 116, 123, 161, 203; Christians in, 75–78; under Dutch rule, 141; Islamic courts in, 150, 152–155; Muslims in, 79; national identity and, 143–144, 161; NU in, 68; pesantren in, 64; revolts in, xii, 107; syncretism in, 53; violence in, 83, 107; in war for independence, xii. See also names of provinces of
Jews, Judaism: divorce and, 18; hostility toward, 124, 208n17; Muslims and, 31
jihadism, jihadists: Ambon and, 113–114, 206n3; JAT and, 210n39; JI and, 110–112; media of, 121, 125; violence of, 14, 114, 121–122, 123, 209n32. See also names of specific groups
JI (Jemaah Islamiyah) (Islamic Community), 31, 118–123, 208, 210; Bali nightclub bombing and, xiv, 118; bombings by, 119, 208n15; democracy and, 109–116, 122; founding of, 32; Habibie administration and, 111–112; motivations of, 119–122; other groups and, 206n3, 207n9; training, 116; Wahid administration and, 112–115
jinaya (criminal law), 163
Jones, Sidney, 76, 77, 80; as specialist on religious violence, 13–14
judges: accountability of, 176; corruption of, 168, 175–178; dependence of, 172; impropriety among, 173; Islamic law and, 154; of Supreme Court, 186
Judicial Commission Law, 176
judiciary, 168, 174, 185, 222n63; changes to, 172–173; complaints about, 221n39; corruption of, 175–178, 219n28; independence of, 169, 170–172; Islamic, 150; review by, 152. See also courts; judges; legal system; and names of courts
Justice Party (Partai Keadilan). See PK
ketuhanan yang maha esa (belief in one God), 74, 194n5
Komisi Nasional Anti Kekerasan Terhadap Perempuan (National Committee on Violence Against Women), 156
Komisi Pemberantasan Korupsi (Corruption Eradication Commission), 47, 177
Komisi Yudisial (Judicial Commission), 173, 176–177
Komite Persiapan dan Penegakan Syariat Islam (Committee for the Preparation and Creation of Islamic Sharia). See KPPSI
KOMPAK (Mujahidin Komite Aksi Penanggulangan Akibat Krisis) (Mujahideen Crisis Management/ Prevention Committee), 9, 131–132, 134, 226, 227; establishment of, 111–112; Malaku and, 114
Konstituante (Constitutional Assembly): dissolution of, xii, xiii, 56; elections for, xiii; Hamka and, 55; Islamist discourse in, 54–57; on question of Islamic state, 10, 53–54
KPPSI (Komite Persiapan dan Penegakan Syariat Islam) (Committee for the Preparation and Creation of Islamic Sharia), 158–160
Künkler, Mirjam, 8, 75; in Ambon, 14; work of, 9
Kuta, bombings in, 77, 81
Kutai Kartanegara district, 133
Laskar Mujahidin (Mujahidin Militia), 114
law, laws: autonomy laws, 128–130, 135, 136, 145, 154, 163, 183–184; commercial, 163; compliance to, 169; criminal law, 163; decentralization and, 156, 158–159, 179–180; on elections, 28; electoral, 45; enforcement of, 22, 156, 168, 178; family, 163; on fiscal balance, 129; hierarchy of, 17, 18, 20–21, 184; international, 139, 140; on labor unions, 97; Law No. 35 (1999), 170; lawyers, 172; as legal debris, 185–186; local, 174, 180, 184, 185; marriage and divorce, 75, 152–154, 163; national, 18–20, 68, 154, 157, 162, 163, 166, 174, 181, 180, 182, 184, 216n30; priority of, 164–166; religious, 62–63; review of, 33, 170; Shafi fiqh, 53; threshold, 31. See also Islamic law; perda; rule of law; sharia; and “legal” entries
Law for the Government of Aceh (2006), 162
Law on Decentralization (1999), xiv
legal system, 115, 129; access to, 18; decentralization and, xiv; Dutch and, 46; dysfunction of, 168, 169, 171, 173, 185; as flawed, 117; Islamization of law and, 19; judges and, 154; legal debris and, 184, 185–186; quotas in, 55; reform of, 172, 174; sharia in, 69, 161. See also courts; judges; judiciary; law, laws; and names of specific courts
legislature, legislators, 20, 24, 34, 46, 79; checks on, 170; constituents and, 46; corruption and, 219n28; decentralization and, 130, 179; executive and, 25, 50, 154, 179, 183, 185; impeachments by, 99; local, 181; military and, 5, 90, 93, 104; Muslims and, 32–33; under New Order, 65; provincial and regional, 26, 33, 36, 37, 46, 190n8; security and, 105; Suharto and, xii, 129, 179; Volksraad, xi. See also Parliament; regional legislatures
LeIP (Lembaga Kajian dan Advokasi untuk Independensi Peradilan) (Indonesian Institute for an Independent Judiciary), 172, 177
Lembaga Advokasi dan Pendidikan Anak Rakyat (Institute for Legal Advocacy and for Popular Education), 160
Lembaga Ilmu Pengetahuan Indonesia (Indonesian Academy of Sciences), 63
Lembaga Kajian dan Advokasi untuk Independensi Peradilan (Indonesian Institute for an Independent Judiciary). See LeIP
Lembaga Penelitian, Pendidikan dan Penerangan Ekonomi dan Sosial (Institute for Social and Economic Research, Education, and Information), 63
Lembaga Studi Agama dan Filsafat (Philosophy and Religion Study Circle), 63
Lembaga Survei Indonesia (Indonesian Survey Institute). See LSI
liberal Islamic discourse, 54; emergence of, 57–58
Linz, Juan J., 16, 24, 48, 192n25; conceptual approach of, 5; on democratization, 5, 45, 133, 144, 146, 191n19; on requirements for transition, 25, 29
Lombok: church bombings in, 77; riots in, 76, 113; violent attacks in, 83
madhabs (religious school of law or fiqh), 67
al-Madjlisoel-Islamil-Alaa Indonesia (Great Islamic Council of Indonesia), xii
Magnis-Suseno, Franz, 10, 11, 73
Mahkamah Agung (Supreme Court), 19, 151, 153–154, 169–170; amended Article 24 and, 171–172; failures of legal system and, 173; judicial administration by, 171; judicial corruption and, 175–178; Lilies Lindawati case and, 183; judges of, 186; judicial review of regional laws by, 20, 162, 163, 165, 169, 170, 174–175, 180, 181–185, 222n63; reform of, 175
Mahkamah Konstitusi (Constitutional Court), 19, 33, 45, 170, 171, 176, 185, 186; as authority, 163; judges of, 156
Mahkamah Syariah (Sharia Courts), 163. See also sharia
Majelis Mujahidin Indonesia (Indonesian Jihad Fighters Council). See MMI
Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat (People’s Consultative Assembly). See MPR
Majelis Permusyawaratan Ulama (Ulama Deliberative Council). See MPU
Majelis Syuro (Advisory Council), 54, 197–198n8
Majelis Syuro Muslimin Indonesia (Council of Indonesian Muslim Associations. See Masyumi
Majelis Ulama Indonesia (Indonesian Ulama Council). See MUI
Majelis Ulama Nanggroe Aceh (Aceh Province Ulama Council), 163
Malaysia, 14, 206n2; antiterrorism in, 117; GAM and, 113; Indonesian attack on, 93; JI and, 32, 111, 115–116, 118; as Muslim, 4; as nondemocracy, 21
Maluku province: civil war in, 77, 201n2; governors of, 104; Helsinki Agreement and, 116; independence movement in, 131; social violence in, 43, 80, 100, 111, 112–114, 132
Manan, Bagir, as chief justice, 172
marriage: interfaith, xv, 22, 75; jurisdiction over, 18, 150–154; laws, 75, 152–153, 193n33; requirements for, 19, 159; traditions of, 160
Masyarakat Transparansi Indonesia (Indonesia Transparency Society), 177
Masyumi (Majelis Syuro Muslimin Indonesia) (Council of Indonesian Muslim Associations), 55; debates on nature of state and, 54; election results of, xiii; founding of, xii; Islam and, 61; members of, 59, 62; Nahdlatul Ulama and, xii, 197–198n8; outlawing of, xiii, 56
Maududi, Abul Aala, 56, 122
media, 22, 110; corruption and, 175, 177; internationa1, 119, 182–183; judicial reform and, 173; Lilies Lindawati case and, 183; pro-sharia, 157–158; sensationalism, 162; shaming by, 177–178. See also press
militants: 120; Islamic, 22; violence of, 4
military, xii, 14, 16, 75; Aceh and, 29; civil war and, 77; counterterrorism and, 115; courts of, 170, 171; dwifungsi and, xiii, 11; elections and, 5, 12; fragmentation and, 14–15; human rights abuses by, 168, 186; in Latin America, 13; martial law and, xiii, 138; Muslim militias and, 112; rule by, 4, 21, 27; Suharto and, xiii, 25, 89, 90, 92, 94–96, 98, 107, 137; transformation of, 11–13. See also armed forces; coups; officers, military
minister of home affairs, 20
minister of the interior, xv
Ministry of Religion, xiii, 75, 152, 193n39; Department for Muslim Affairs in, 198n8; Directorate of Religious Justice, 152; Islamists and, 30; minister of religious affairs and, xv, 66, 198n10; Munawir Sjadzali and, 58; NU and, 64
Ministry of the Interior, 193n39
minority religions, 77, 85; citizenship for, 74; holidays for, 10; rights for, 124,
MMI (Majelis Mujahidin Indonesia) (Indonesian Jihad Fighters Council), 32
modernism, modernists, 197–198n8; education and, 63, 71–72; Gus Dur and, 66; Islamic, 56, 57, 64, 66, 69–70, 196n15; Madjid and, 59–62, 63, 69; organizations of, xii, xiv, 27, 64, 80–81; Siddiq and, 65; Zainal and, 54, 56
Moro Islamic Liberation Front, 114
MPR (Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat) (People’s Consultative Assembly), 100, 112, 211; debates, 33–34; presidential elections and, xiv, 11–12, 26, 29, 205n40; Suharto and, 64
MPU (Majelis Permusyawaratan Ulama) (Ulama Deliberative Council), 162–163, 216n25
Muhammadiyah (Followers of Muhammad), 80–81, 159; Christians and, 80–81, 85; founding of, xi; leaders of, 63; members of, 59, 63, 66; membership of, 8, 191n17; openness of, 85; Rais and, 27, 70, 81; schools of, 8, 67; sharia and, 79, 159
MUI (Majelis Ulama Indonesia) (Indonesian Ulama Council): Bulukumba branch, 160; fatwas of, xiv–xv, 22, 32–33, 78–79, 83, 122–123, 155; Hamka and, 55; Islamic legitimacy and, 21–22; Islamists and, 30, 45
Mujahideen Crisis Management/Prevention Committee (Mujahidin Komite Aksi Penanggulangan Akibat Krisis). See KOMPAK
Mujahidin Komite Aksi Penanggulangan Akibat Krisis (Mujahideen Crisis Management/Prevention Committee). See KOMPAK
Mulyani, Sri, as finance minister, 21
Muslim Brotherhood, 8, 31
Muslim minorities, 10, 73–85; Muslim majorities’ intolerance toward, 82–84, 124
Muslim Party of Indonesia (Partai Muslimin Indonesia). See Parmusi
Muslims, violence against, 113–14
Muzakkar, Abdul Aziz Kahar, 158
Nahdlatul Ulama (Rise of the Ulama). See NU
National Intelligence Agency (Badan Intelijen Negara). See BIN
nationalism, nationalists, xiii, 37, 49, 92, 131; in elections, 80; ethno-, 145; Islam and, 60, 62, 80, 82; military and, 95; modernists and, 62; origins of, xi; Pancasila and, xii, xiv; pragmatists and, 56; roots of, 30; secular, 26, 27, 30, 33–35, 49, 54; separatism and, 35, 36, 130, 132, 140–143; ultra-, 112; of youth, xii
nationalist parties, xi, xiv, 80. See also names of specific parties
Netherlands, 10, 36, 91, 141, 207; as colonial power, xi, xii, 141; federal constitution of 1949 and, 15; Portugal and, xiv; religion in, 10; reoccupation of Indonesian cities by, 3; war for independence and, xii, 19, 91–92, 141
networks: civil society and, 7, 8; of intellectuals, 59, 70–71; jihad, 122; religious, 59, 63, 207n10. See also names of specific organizations
nondiscrimination, religious, 74, 75
NU (Nahdlatul Ulama) (Rise of the Ulama), 54, 56, 64–68, 200n32, 201; Christians and, 80–81; exit from regime-structured politics and, 64–66; in first elections, xiii; founding and founders of, xii, 66; Madjid and, 59, 63; Masyumi and, xii, 197–198n8; membership of, 7–8, 191n17, 197n1; military and, xiii; 1984 muktamar of, 65, 66; openness of, 85; pesantren, 66, 67, 71; positive influence of, 81; sharia and, 79, 159; as traditionalist, 59, 80; Wahid and, 10, 27, 66–68, 200n34, 201n43; youth militia of, 22, 200n33
officers, military, 35, 114; antidemocratic, 30; civilian politicians and, 28, 93; in government positions, 94–95, 103–104, 203n10; ideology and, 34, 100; institutional privileges of, 96; junior, 13; legal accountability of, 104, 108; murder of, 25; in religious armed conflicts, 14; reputation of army and, 27; TNI and, 97. See also armed forces; military
Orde Baru (New Order), xiii, 25, 38, 151; as authoritarian, 30, 185; civil society repressed by, 166, 171; courts under, 172, 185; electoral system of, 28–29; end of, 168; Islamists and, 32, 76; legal system under, 46–47, 141–142, 168; legislature, 65; Madjid and, 62; media repression under, 178; military officers under, 27, 34–35, 89, 94, 99, 104, 107; Pancasila and, 30, 56, 64; PNI under, 33; policies under, 21; secularism of, 60, 62; strength of, 49; weakening of, 44, 126, 130
Organisasi Papua Merdeka (Free Papua Organization), 36–37, 137
orthodoxy, xiii, 84; state recognition of, xv, 9
Pancasila, xiii, 55, 69–70, 79, 85; adoption of, xii, 201n43; 1945 Constitution and, 54, 56, 74; reassertion of, xiv, 56; reconcilability of, with Islam, 65, 82, 157, 159; Suharto and, 30, 64–65; Sukarno and, 9–10
Panitia Persiapan Kemerdekaan Indonesia (Preparatory Committee for Indonesian Independence), 74
Papua, 92, 93; as exception, 105, 143; independence movement in, 15, 36–38, 130–132, 135–138, 143, 144–145, 210n40; separatism in, 25, 30, 35, 43, 49, 127; violence and, 43, 100, 101, 108, 137, 144
Papuan People’s Congress, 135
Paramadina Foundation, 59, 63
Papuan Spring of 1999–2000, 137
Parliament, 32, 118, 123; Acehnese, 162; amendments and laws by, 33, 117, 154; armed forces and, 90, 93, 98–102, 204n20, 205n34; in Chile, 13; as corrupt, 46; democratic elections and, 5, 25–26, 29, 34; Egyptian, 8; electoral law and, 45, 190n8; members of, 46, 190, 194n6; PPP members of, 30; quotas for Muslims in, 55, 70; sharia and, 161; Siddiq in, 65; as superior, 163–164, 222n63. See also legislature, legislators
Parliamentary elections, xiii, 25–26, 29, 31, 33, 36, 37, 64; of 2009, 41, 80, 149
Parmusi (Partai Muslimin Indonesia) (Muslim Party of Indonesia), 56–57
Partai Amanat Nasional (National Mandate Party), 79, 130
Partai Damai Sejahtera (Prosperous Peace Party), 31
Partai Demokrasi Indonesia (Indonesian Democracy Party). See PDI
Partai Demokrasi Indonesia Perjuangan (Indonesian Democracy Party/Struggle). See PDIP
Partai Demokrat (PD) (Democrat Party), 36, 40; SBY and, 41, 42, 46
Partai Keadilan (Justice Party). See PK
Partai Keadilan Sejahtera (Prosperous Justice Party). See PKS
Partai Kebangkitan Bangsa (National Awakening Party), 79
Partai Komunis Indonesia (Indonesian Communist Party). See PKI
Partai Muslimin Indonesia (Muslim Party of Indonesia). See Parmusi
Partai Nasional Indonesia (Indonesian Nationalist Party). See PNI
Partai Pesatuan Pembangunan (Development and Unity Party). See PPP
Partai Sarekat Islam Indonesia (Indonesian Islamic Union Party), 61
PDI (Partai Demokrasi Indonesia) (Indonesian Democracy Party), xiv, 26, 33
PDIP (Partai Demokrasi Indonesia Perjuangan) (Indonesian Democracy Party/Struggle), 33–34, 79, 195
People’s Consultative Assembly (Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat). See MPR
People’s Council (Volksraad), xi
People’s Representative Council (Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat). See DPR
perda (regional regulations), 170, 179–180; Islamic, 150, 155, 159–160; priority of, 164–166; review of, 174, 180–185, 186, 222n56; Supreme Court and, 169, 223n66
Perhimpunan Pengembangan Pesantren dan Masyarakat (Association for the Development of Pesantren and Society), 63, 67
Philippines, 14; ambassador of, 113, 114; Catholicism in, 4; corruption in, 21; democratization of, 106, war on Islam in, 119
PK (Partai Keadilan) (Justice Party), 31, 220n33
pluralism, religious, 22, 70; compromise of, 74–76; fatwas against, xv
PNI (Partai Nasional Indonesia) (Indonesian Nationalist Party), xii, xiii, 33
police, 129, 201n2; counterterrorism and, 77, 83, 113–122, 210n39; failure of, 84, 158, 166, 169; HTI and, 122, 124; state security and, 14, 125. See also WH
political parties, 82, 93, 102; accountability of, 45; in Aceh, 36; ban on, 26, 28; coalitions of, 47, 82; limitation on, 133–134, 145; lists of, 45; local, 133, 134, 145; in 1999 election, 29, 97; sharia and, 79; unpopularity of, 93, 103. See also names of specific parties
political society, 6, 7, 9, 50; consolidated democracy and, 25, 45–46
popular sovereignty, 54–55
pragmatism, pragmatists, in NU, 56
presidential elections, xiii, xiv, xv, 65, 83, 100; military and, 5; MPR and, 11–12, 33; of 2004 and 2009, 80, 81, 103
Presidium Dewan Papua (Papua Presidium Council), 137
Prime Philosophy (Budi Utomo), xi
privatization, military and, 12
Prosperous Justice Party (Partai Keadilan Sejahtera). See PKS
protests, protestors, 130, 131, 135; political, 26, 27, 59, 65, 96; violence against, 112, 137
provinces (propinsi), 43, 105, 128, 154, 179; authority of, 129, 134, 141–142, 145; decentralization and, 15, 38, 132, 134, 144–145, 179–180; establishment of, xiv; political parties and, 29, 133, 212n19; separatism and, 28, 37, 127, 131, 135, 138, 143; sharia and, 19, 149, 158, 167. See also districts; and names of specific provinces
Pusat Studi Hukum dan Kebijaksanaan Indonesia (Center for Indonesian Law and Policy Studies), 177
Qurʾan, 6, 57, 165; literacy, 160–161, 167; Madjid on, 59–60, 62; maqasid, 160, 164; Muhammadiyah and, 8; recitation of, 18–19, 149, 155, 156, 159; study of, 71
Qutb, Sayyed (Sayyid Qutub), 56, 122
Rechtsstaat (law state), 168, 169
regencies (kabupaten), xiv, 179
Regional Autonomy Laws of 1999, 135, 154
regional elections, 16, 37–38, 103–104, 206n50; in Aceh, 36, 121, 138; parties in, 26, 31, 133–134
regions: autonomy of, 128–130, 135, 145, 154, 179, 185; diversity of, 16; languages of, 159; regional law and, 18, 19, 20, 129, 156, 179–180; sharia and, 19, 158–161. See also perda; provinces; regional elections; regional legislatures
religion, religions, 6, 53, 77–78, 152; conflict and violence and, 4, 14, 73, 76–79, 117, 131; freedom of, 7, 22, 33, 49, 55, 74, 75, 82–85, 156, 193n40; indigenous, xiii, 74, 75; Madjid on, 60–62, 199n22; minority, 10–11, 69, 74, 85; orthodox, xiii, xv, 9–10, 75, 161; in public sphere, 17, 19, 69; religious courts and, 150–152, 157, 170, 171; role of, in state, 17, 19, 54, 70, 167. See also sharia; and names of denominations and organizations
Riau Merdeka (Free Riau) movement, 131, 133
rights, 17–20, 45; under constitution, 22, 33, 55, 49, 76, 93, 99, 170; infringements of, 11, 45, 143, 156; legal, 133, 161, 169, 180, 218n12; minority, 124; political, 4, 82, 101, 106, 185, 190n8; religious, 17–18, 33, 74, 76, 83–84, 149, 161–164, 193n33. See also human rights
Rise of the Ulama (Nahdlatul Ulama). See NU
rule of law, 21, 46–50, 84, 175, 186; in common law, 169; damage to, 178, 183, 185; under decentralization, 106, 179–180; democracy and, 25, 106; index of, 46, 47; legal pluralism and, 5, 17–18; Supreme Court and, 174, 181, 183. See also negara hukum; Rechsstaat
Sarekat Islam (Islamic League), xi, 61
satu atap (“one-roof”) reforms, 172, 173, 176
secessionist movements, 3–5, 130, 134; Aceh and, 137–138, 144; in East Timor, xiv, 15, 130, 137, 144; international, 126, 138–140; military and, xiii, 15, 136; in Papua, 137, 144; regional separatists and, 11, 30, 34; as threat, 131, 132. See also separatism, separatists
secularism, secularization, 7, 8, 32, 62–65, 70, 194n7; democratization and, 6–7, 12; education and, 18, 31, 67; fatwas against, xv, 22, 123; Madjid and, 60; nationalist, 27, 30, 33–35, 82
separatism, separatists, 34, 126–146; Aceh, 30, 100; armed, 137; Christians as, 112, 114; decentralization and, 35–38, 128, 132–134, 144–145; opposition to, 16, 110, 136; Papua, 25, 49, 105. See also secessionist movements
“Serambi Mecca” (Veranda of Mecca). See Aceh
serangan fajar (“dawn attacks”), in general elections, 46
sharia, 6, 7, 75; colonialism and, 161, 164; councils of, 17–18; creeping shariazation and, 22, 69, 79, 161; human rights and, 162–165; legislation based on, 56, 149–167, 194n5, 215n9; post-Reformation, 30, 150; priority of, 164–166; publications in favor of, 157–158; regions and, 18–19, 53, 79, 158–161, 167, 180; state-imposed, 7, 10, 30, 54, 79–80, 180, 191n16, 194n5; as threat to national unity, 30, 32, 152, 157, 159. See also WH
Sharia Police (Wilayatul Hisbah). See WH
“Simplification of the Party System,” xiii–xiv
Sjadzali, Munawir, as minister of religion, 58
social movement organizations, 30–32
Soroush, Abdolkarim, 9, 62
South Maluku independence movement, 131
state: apparatus of, 5, 25, 47–48, 84; ideology of, 9, 30, 56, 157; inactivity of, 84–85; security of, 15, 125; structure of, 16, 128, 134, 146; terror by, 136–138; unitary, 128, 138, 141–144
State Islamic Institute (Institut Agama Islam Negeri). See IAIN
Stepan, Alfred, 16, 25, 29, 48, 191n13, 192n25; conceptual approach of, 5; on democratization, 24, 45, 133, 144, 146; on toleration, 7; on Tunisia, 8
students: of Madjid, 59, 63; movement of, 96, 110, 161, 198n15; protests by, 27, 130, 131; sharia and, 159. See also education; Islamic schools; pesantren; youth
Suharto, 79, 81, 185; aging of, 12, 37, 39, 49, 74; armed forces and, xiii, 25, 34, 89, 90, 92–98, 107, 137; centralization under, 179; Compilation of Islamic Law and, 153; death of, 102; economy under, 47; elections of, 26, 64; as founding father, 25; intellectuals and, xiv; JI and, 111; Muslims and, 56; as nondemocratic, 38; overthrow of, 3, 112; Pertamina and, 48; PPP and, 30; as president, xiii, 28, 75, 179; resignation of, xiv, 25, 27, 43, 54, 59, 82, 90, 130, 136, 154, 168–169; turn to Islam of, 76. See also Orde Baru
Sukarno, 27, 30, 37; armed forces and, 93–95, 107; Constitution and, 34, 56, 100; “Guided Democracy” and, xiii, 46, 93, 107; independence and, 74, 91–92; Pancasila and, 9–10, 56; PNI and, xii; overthrow of, 43; as president, xii, 64; as secular nationalist, 33
Sukarnoputri, Megawati: armed forces and, 99–100, 136; election of, xiv; GAM and, 101; reforms of, 44; rule of law and, 47; secular nationalism and, 27; as Sukarno’s daughter, 33; supporters of, 131; terrorism and, 110, 115–118; Wahid and, 99, 113
Sulawesi: Christianity in, 75; churches destroyed in, 201n2; elections in, 103–104; insurgencies of, 107, 158; interreligious conflict in, 77, 100, 114, 120; North, 155; secessionism in, xiii, 3; sharia in, 18, 150; South, xii, 157–161, 167
Sumpah Pemuda (Youth Pledge), xii
Sutrisno, Gen. Try, 28; armed forces and, 95, 204n20; as vice president, 95
Syansuri, Bisri, as NU founder, 66
Tadjoeddin, Mohammad Zulfan, 43–44
Tentara Nasional Indonesia (Indonesian National Military). See TNI
territorial integration, 14–17
terrorism, terrorists: Australian embassy bombings, 115, 118; Bali nightclub bombings, xiv, 14, 77, 81, 121, 124; Christmas 2000 bombings, 77; counter-, 115–117; 119; democracy and, 125; Islamists and, 13, 32; Jakarta Marriott bombing, xiv, 115, 118; September 11, 2001, attacks, 14, 110, 115–116
Tim Gabungan Pemberantasan Tindak Pidana Korupsi (Joint Anticorruption Team), 177
de Tocqueville, Alexis, 135
toleration, tolerance, religious, 16, 53, 77; democracy and, 6, 7, 16, 74, 190n12; failure of, 84; intolerance and, 17, 73, 75, 80–82, 84, 119, 122, 125; Islam and, 8, 11, 22, 81, 82; need for, 124–125; NU and, 79–80; Stepan on, 7
trias politika (separation of powers), 170
Ulama Deliberative Council (Majelis Permusyawaratan Ulama). See MPU
undang-undang (national statutes), review of, 170
United States: counterterrorism and, 116; education, 58; invasion of Afghanistan, 161; JI and, 110; sanctions on TNI, 98; September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks, 14, 110, 115–116
Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 170
Universitas Islam Negiri (State Islamic
Universitas Syiah Kuala, 165
University of Baghdad, 66
University of Chicago, 58, 59
vice president: elections for, 29, 33, 80, 82, 190n8; Habibie, xiv, 26–28, 54, 204n20; Hatta, xii; Haz, 116; Kalla, 46, 83, 120, 157; succession of, 96; Sukarnoputri, 99; Sutrisno, 95
vigilantism, vigilantes, xv, 13, 118; Islamists and sharia as prevention for, 165–166
violence, 11, 49, 80, 83, 202n6, 208: antiminority, 78; against Christian churches, 76, 201n2; of Christian-Muslim quasi-war, 79–80; of civil wars, 77; communal, 111, 132–133, 144, 201–202; crimes against humanity, 15, 144; of Islamists, 5, 11, 13–14, 166; murder of army officers, 25; mob, 84, 122; orthodox, 84; separatism and, 37; social, 43–44; against women, 17–18, 156. See also assassinations; militants; terrorism, terrorists
Volksraad (People’s Council), xi
voters, 29, 31, 37–38, 45, 50; paying, 37, 46; surveys of, 39, 40, 46, 47, 196n29
Wahhabism, Wahhabists, 80, 81
Wahid, Abdurrahman (Gus Dur), xiv, 29, 33, 47, 79, 211n13; Forum Demokrasi and, 10, 69; impeachment of, 99, 205n36; NU and, 27, 66–69, 80–81, 200n34; presidency of, 70, 75, 112; radical violence and, 110–115, 124; Siddiq and, 65–66, 201n43
WH (Wilayatul Hisbah) (Sharia Police), 162, 216n23
Wilayatul Hisbah (Sharia Police). See WH
women, 8, 21, 48, 71, 155–156; dress of, 149, 159; education and, 17; exploitation of, 183; Islamists and, 30, 32, 69; rights of, 18; violence against, 117
Yayasan Lembaga Bantuan Hukum Indonesia (Indonesian Legal Aid Institute Foundation), 177
youth, xii, 22, 71; student demonstrations, 27, 130, 161; traditionalist, 66; in universities, 31
Youth Pledge (Sumpah Pemuda), xii
Yudhoyono, Susilo Bambang (SBY), 38, 39; Aceh separatists and, 16, 101; armed forces and, 96–97, 103; attitudes toward, 40, 41, 104; coalition government under, 46; elections of, xiv, xv; HTI and, 124; on judicial corruption, 168, 171; Partai Demokrat and, 36, 41, 46, 194n7; radical Islam and, 118–122; reforms of, 21, 35; rule of law and, 47, 50