Macbeth, and King Richard the Third

• Describe the timing of hazard mitigation and preparedness relative to disasters

• Understand the connection among hazard mitigation, resilience, and sustainability

As we learned in Chapter 1, we cannot stop most natural hazards from happening, nor can we prevent many human-made hazards from threatening communities. But we can take action to reduce the impacts of these hazards so that the damage is less extensive and recovery can take place quickly. This chapter introduces the concepts of hazard mitigation and preparedness as important pieces of the emergency management system in the United States. The chapter also lays the groundwork for a basic understanding of adaptation in the context of climate change and natural hazards. In addition to describing hazard mitigation, preparedness, and adaptation, we also discuss some of the primary types of tools and processes that can help reduce hazard risk. This chapter then explains how actions taken to lower disaster risk can ultimately help communities reduce losses and become more environmentally, economically, and socially stable.

Comprehensive emergency management is a widely used approach at the local, state, and federal levels to deal with the inevitability of natural hazards and the possibility of human-made hazards and their potential to cause disasters in a community. The four traditional phases of a comprehensive emergency management system are Preparedness, Response, Recovery, and Mitigation. A fifth phase, Prevention is occasionally included in the description of the emergency management system, primarily in the context of human-made hazards and public health threats. Table 2.1 outlines each of these phases.

Although other models of emergency management are used as well, the four traditional phases of comprehensive emergency management are often illustrated in a circular pattern, signifying its cyclical nature (see Figure 2.1). We prepare for disasters before they occur. When a disaster happens, a community must first respond to that particular event and soon thereafter begin recovery. But even while the community is still recovering from one disaster, it must begin the process of mitigating the impacts of the next disaster.

Also known as the disaster life cycle, this system describes the process through which emergency managers prepare for emergencies and disasters, respond to them when they occur, help people and institutions recover from them, and continually take actions to mitigate the effects of disasters on communities.

We are always preparing for and mitigating the impacts of disasters. These two phases are the building blocks for creating more resilient communities—communities that anticipate hazards and plan ahead to reduce losses. Interestingly, the period of recovery following a hazard event often provides unique opportunities to rebuild in a way that incorporates mitigation concepts into the redevelopment of a damaged community. In fact, the availability of government funding to carry out mitigation plans and projects has historically been highest during the recovery phase of the disaster life cycle. New emphasis is being placed on pre-disaster mitigation activity, but the post-disaster environment continues to be one of significant increases in funding availability. The level of technical expertise to carry out hazard mitigation activities also tends to surge in the aftermath of a disaster, so communities that are aware can often find advantage in the midst of adversity.

Preparedness ensures that if a disaster occurs, people are ready to get through it safely and respond to it effectively. Preparedness can be characterized as a “state of readiness” to respond to any emergency or disaster. It involves anticipating what might happen during different sorts of hazard events and developing plans to deal with those possibilities. Preparedness also involves carrying out exercises, evaluating plans for shortfalls, and training and education. Although emergency managers must remain flexible and able to adapt their plans to meet immediate needs as the situation warrants, a plan or established protocol for dealing with disasters and emergencies of all sorts is crucial to a successful response. We will discuss preparedness in more detail in Chapter 11, but for now, the activities listed in Table 2.2 will give you some idea of the range of actions an emergency manager can expect to carry out prior to disaster to help citizens get ready for any type of emergency.

TURN AROUND DON’T DROWN

An example of a very successful warning system is the placement of road signs to alert drivers to dangerous flood hazards. According to the National Weather Service (NWS), almost half of all flood fatalities occur in vehicles. Local storms can quickly fill underpasses and cover bridges, and as little as two feet of water can cause a vehicle to float, even a large SUV or truck. If the water is moving, vehicles can be swept away. Driving at night during a local flood can be especially hazardous. To increase awareness of the dangers of shallow flooding, the NWS has initiated the “Turn Around Don’t Drown” program to help communities educate residents about the dangers of walking or driving in floodwaters (see Figure 2.2).

FIGURE 2.2 “Turn Around Don’t Drown” is a National Weather Service campaign which promotes preparedness by warning people of the hazards of walking or driving through flood waters.

Preparedness activities are one element of a broader national preparedness system led by the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA). The National Preparedness Directorate was established in 2007 following Hurricane Katrina. It provides policy and planning guidance to build prevention, protection, response and recovery capabilities for states and local governments nationwide, including many of the strategies that enable professional First Responders to carry out their preparedness duties. You can find out more about the Directorate at www.fema.gov/national-preparedness-directorate.

FEMA’s public engagement and awareness campaign, Ready.gov provides a wealth of information, in both English and Spanish to empower Americans to prepare for and respond to emergencies, including natural and man-made disasters. The goal of the campaign is to get the public involved and ultimately to increase the level of basic preparedness across the nation. Ready. gov urges individuals to do three things

3. Be informed about the different types of emergencies that can occur and their appropriate response

Ready.gov/business is an extension of the Ready program that focuses on business preparedness, while Ready.gov/kids provides tools, including interactive games, accessible information, and planning templates for educators and parents to teach children in grades 8 through 12 about emergencies and how to prepare for them in a nonthreatening, age appropriate way.

TRAINING AND EXERCISES: DISASTER CITY

While it is important to have a well-informed and prepared citizenry, the skills of professional first responders are essential in any large-scale emergency or disaster. A critical element of a successful preparedness program relies on frequent training and exercises for first responders. There are many training facilities throughout the United States, but one of the oldest and best known is located near Texas A&M University in College Station, Texas. The 52-acre training campus, known as Disaster City, includes a wide variety of emergency scenarios, complete with full-scale props such as derailed trains, collapsed buildings, leaking hazmat tanks, and other realistic disaster situations. There is even a portion of a WWII battle ship to simulate the experience of fires and other emergencies that can occur aboard large oil and gas tankers and drilling platforms. Experienced facilitators expose fire fighters, law enforcement, emergency medical technicians (EMTs), emergency managers, industrial workers, and others responsible for public and worker safety to rigorous training “in the field.” For more information, visit the Texas A&M Engineering Extension Service at http://www.teex.com (Figure 2.3a and b).

FIGURE 2.3 (a) Each year, thousands of first responders from around the globe receive intensive hands-one scenario-based training at the “Disaster City” training ground at Texas A&M University. (b) A simulated train wreck is used to teach emergency workers how to respond quickly and effectively in potentially dangerous conditions. (Courtesy of Anna Schwab.)

Hazard Mitigation is defined as “any sustained action to reduce or eliminate long-term risk to people and property from hazards and their effects.” This definition highlights the long-term benefits that effective mitigation can have. This definition also emphasizes that mitigation is an ongoing effort that communities must make on a continuous basis. Mitigation involves planning, strategizing, and implementing action ideas in advance of a hazard event. The ultimate purpose of mitigation plans, strategies, and actions is to avoid placing people and property in harm’s way and to make structures safer and stronger when avoidance is impossible or impractical.

Preparedness involves the functional, logistical, and operational elements of emergency management. Although preparedness activities are carried out in advance of a hazard event, they are directed to the response and, to a lesser degree, the recovery phases of the emergency management cycle. During preparedness, we gather our supplies and make our plans for what to do when the disaster hits.

Preparedness can be visualized as the phase in which we pose a series of “what if” questions, and seek to find the answers before they become reality. For instance, an emergency manager may consider various worst-case scenarios, such as the following:

• What if the power goes out? Do we have generators and a supply of fuel? What about telecommunications, water, and sewer service?

• What if the roads are blocked? How will we deliver needed supplies and medical services to impacted populations?

• What if our food supplies are cut off? Do we have access to water, ice, Meals-Ready-to-Eat? Where are these supplies stored, and how quickly can they become available?

• What if there are multiple injuries? Who are our medical contacts? Will they need transportation, supplies, a power source, blood?

• What if residents have to leave their homes quickly? Is an evacuation plan in place? Does it account for fluctuations in populations, such as the tourist season in a resort community? What about people who do not own cars or are not independently mobile? How do we handle residents who are disabled, ill, old, young, and illiterate?

• Are community buildings ready to serve as shelters? Are their locations clearly identified and accessible? Who opens the shelters? Are pets provided for as well?

• Are first responders ready to carry out search and rescue missions? Have they been trained to serve in disaster conditions? How will they communicate with one another?

These are the types of issues that the preparedness phase attempts to address before emergency conditions render the situation unmanageable.

Hazard mitigation, in contrast, is the ongoing effort to lessen the impacts of disasters on people and property through pre-disaster activities. Mitigation can take place months, years, and even decades before a hazard event and continues after a disaster occurs with an eye to the future. Mitigation differs from the other phases of emergency management in that it looks for long-term solutions to reduce hazards. Hazard mitigation involves a different thought process and a different skill set, one that is oriented toward long-range policy and decision-making processes.

One of the primary differences between hazard mitigation and preparedness is the visibility of the respective results. The benefits of mitigation often are not realized for some time—months or even years after being implemented. Success is measured by what does not occur, or “losses avoided.” Avoidance and prevention are the outcomes of mitigation done well, outcomes that can be difficult to quantify. As a result, communities have often favored highly visible, results-oriented action in preparation for the immediacy of an emergency situation over the more deliberate, process-oriented strategy of hazard mitigation.

Unfortunately, hazard mitigation is often neglected until after a disaster actually occurs. In the case of natural disasters, history is filled with examples of communities that rebuild in the same places, in the same manner as previously, only to suffer the same perils when the hazard event recurs. It’s natural and expected for people whose homes and businesses have been destroyed by a hurricane, tornado, or flood to want to get their lives back to normal—and they want that to happen as quickly as possible. But sometimes rebuilding too quickly means opportunities to build back smarter may be missed. Hazard mitigation seeks to consciously break the cycle of destruction and reconstruction that accompanies repeat disasters by adapting human settlement patterns and construction techniques to reflect the threat posed by future hazards.¹

REBUILDING THE JERSEY SHORE

When Hurricane Sandy came ashore in October of 2012, tens of thousands of families living along the New Jersey shoreline were displaced, and the $16 billion Jersey Shore tourism industry, crucial to the state economy, ground to a halt. In the weeks and months following the storm there was intense pressure on political leaders—from the local town mayor up to the Governor—to rebuild immediately, so that businesses could reopen in time for the busy summer season. But despite the rush to rebuild, some Sandy-impacted communities are taking a more deliberate approach, realizing that another intense storm may come ashore again, and that the constantly changing climate must be considered as part of a long-range approach to planning for the future (see Figure 2.4).

FIGURE 2.4 Following Hurricane Sandy, several businesses along the Jersey Shore were open for business in time for the busy summer season. Many more, however, will take much longer to recover, if in fact they are rebuilt at all. (Official White House photo by Sonya Herbert.)

SELF-CHECK

• List the four stages of the comprehensive emergency management cycle.

• Discuss the difference between preparedness and mitigation.

• Describe the primary preparedness tasks that Ready.gov encourages citizens to carry out.

As we will explore further in later chapters, climate change has a direct and causal effect on many of the natural hazards we deal with today. As climate continues to change, the frequency, intensity, spatial extent, duration, and timing of extreme weather will change and may result in unprecedented extreme weather and climate events. Events that occurred only once every 30 years on average may begin occurring every 4–5 years in the future.

There is little that can be done to prevent this increase in extremes, but there are opportunities to decrease community vulnerability and climate impacts, and in doing so, decrease losses from current and future disasters. While climate change may increase the frequency and intensity of hazards, the damage caused by those hazards cannot be attributed to climate change alone—good policy can reduce risk today and in the future.

Responses to climate change are generally divided into two categories: mitigation efforts that address the “cause” of human-induced climate change—this typically involves attempts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions that cause warming of the Earth’s atmosphere; and adaptation efforts to address the “symptoms” of climate change. Neither of these efforts pursued alone can help us avoid all climate change impacts, rather, mitigation and adaptation complement each other, and if pursued together, can significantly reduce the results of climate change.²

HAZARD MITIGATION, CLIMATE MITIGATION, AND CLIMATE ADAPTATION: CONFUSING TERMS!

Climate mitigation aims to reduce the forcing that causes climate change while adaptation aims at reducing vulnerability to climate change. Hazard mitigation, focused on reducing vulnerability to natural hazards, shares many of the same characteristics of climate adaptation. Both are focused on identifying vulnerability to natural hazards and developing strategies to reduce that vulnerability; in fact, many of the strategies used for both hazard mitigation and climate mitigation overlap. So what’s the difference? Although both take the long view, climate adaptation in general requires a longer time frame and broader approach than is incorporated into the typical hazard mitigation plan, which tends to have a 5–15 year planning horizon.

Even if carbon dioxide emissions stopped today, we know that we are already committed to some warming of global temperatures, and that this warming will affect many of the critical services and functions that governments provide, especially at the local level. Some communities are already feeling the effects of climate change in the form of frequent flooding, long-lasting drought, changing fauna and flora, and higher disaster costs. However, the high cost and damage of climate change are not inevitable. Adaptation provides an opportunity to reduce these risks.

The good news is that many adaptation actions have obvious immediate benefits as well as long-term advantages for the community and are worth pursuing in and of themselves. Adaptation strategies are generally consistent with sound environmental practice, by improving resource use and preserving natural features.

ROOFTOP GARDENING IS COOL!

Many adaptation actions also reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Green roofs (see Figure 2.5), or rooftop gardens, cool cities, helping to adapt to the “heat island” effect of urban areas (adaptation). These vegetated roofs also retain water during storms and reduce the amount of runoff that comes from impervious surfaces (hazard mitigation); at the same time, green roofs also increase the energy efficiency of buildings, resulting in lower demand for fossil fuels and lower emission of greenhouse gases (climate mitigation).

FIGURE 2.5 Green roofs, like this one on City Hall in Chicago, are good examples of multiobjective building techniques, by serving both natural hazard mitigation as well as climate change mitigation purposes. The vegetation captures excess rainwater while also cooling the building, thereby reducing the building’s energy consumption.

There is a wide variety of tools and techniques that a community can use to reduce the impacts of hazards on people and property, while also adapting to climate change. Although every community is unique in terms of its hazards and individual level of risk, some of the possible options available to reduce that risk may include the following categories of hazard mitigation and adaptation actions.

Infrastructure strategies involve changes or modifications of the basic physical systems of society to make both infrastructure itself, and the community that depends on it, more resilient to natural hazards and climate change impacts. Examples of this type of strategy include construction of new water storage systems, increased street maintenance, and raising waste-water treatment plants above flood levels and more.

Land use strategies guide development and people out of harm’s way, as well as improve design and location of development to better respond to hazard risks. Land use includes restrictions on development in flood zones, low impact design to improve management of storm water, and urban landscaping to reduce summer temperatures.

Natural resource strategies reduce consumption of raw resources and protect ecosystems that provide essential services. For example, techniques to reduce fresh water consumption and measures to protect coastal marshes that limit storm damage would both be considered natural resource strategies.

Education strategies disseminate information to the general public and businesses about climate change and natural hazard impacts, along with information about adaption and mitigation measures. The success of many of the above strategies relies on the willing participation of community members; thus education strategies are central to effective risk reduction.

Each of these types of strategies seeks to reduce the vulnerability of the built environment to the impacts of hazards (see Figure 2.6). Many communities use a combination of strategies to meet their risk reduction needs. See Chapter 12 for a more detailed discussion of hazard mitigation tools and techniques.

Before a community can implement any of its hazard mitigation or climate change adaptation strategies, it must have a clear picture of the types of hazards that pose a threat and how those hazards may impact people and property. Hazard identification is the necessary first step to reducing vulnerability; it involves a process of culling information about the community’s hazard history, profiling various hazard events, and making predictions about the possibility of future hazards. The community must also determine what assets and populations are vulnerable to the hazards that have been identified, including analysis of land use patterns, growth potential, and development trends to evaluate what may be at risk in the future. Maps are an important component of a community risk assessment, as they can be used to illustrate where hazards intersect with the built environment in a graphic and visual way. The analysis and maps produced during a risk assessment can help a community make important decisions about how to protect local assets and vulnerable populations against likely hazards. See Chapter 10 for a more in-depth discussion about community risk assessment.

Many communities in the United States have an official flood insurance rate map, or FIRM, that shows the location of flood-prone areas throughout the jurisdiction. These maps indicate the likelihood that a particular home, street or business could be flooded during the next 100-year flood (a flood that has a 1% chance of occurring during a given year). These maps also contain visual information about the frequencies of other flooding events. These maps are used as the basis for developing ordinances that regulate the types of structures that are allowed in the community’s floodplain and specify how structures must be protected to mitigate the impacts of various levels of flooding.

One of the most effective approaches to hazard mitigation and climate change adaptation involves managing community growth and development through land use planning and regulations, as well as controlling the quality of structures that are built through building standards and code requirements. Local governments can use zoning and subdivision ordinances to steer development away from hazardous locations such as floodplains, seismic risk areas, landslide-prone sites, and wildfire areas. Local governments can also install infrastructure such as roads, utility lines, water and sewage treatment facilities, and other public services to avoid hazardous areas. By making hazardous areas less attractive for development though strategic investment in capital improvements, communities can discourage building on inappropriate sites.

The choices we make regarding where and how we build determine our level of vulnerability to many natural and human-made hazards. Hazard mitigation should not be seen as an impediment to growth and development of a community. On the contrary, incorporating hazard mitigation into decisions related to a community’s growth can result in a safer, more resilient community and one that is more attractive to new families and businesses.

RISK REDUCTION REQUIRES POLICY IMPLEMENTATION

A thoughtful risk assessment will provide good information that identifies potential hazards and illustrates the impact those hazards are likely to have on the community. However, a viable risk reduction strategy relies on more than the production of colorful maps, no matter how detailed they are. Instead, decision makers must use the information gathered during the risk assessment to develop sound policies that specifically address the identified threats. But even that step is not going far enough—it is not until the policies are implemented will changes take place that reduce the level of risk. Unfortunately, all too often this final “action” step does not take place, and local residents remain vulnerable, despite the knowledge that danger lurks.

Tragically, this seems to be the case in Oso, Washington, where on March 22, 2014 a very large, rapidly moving landslide killed approximately 39 people, many of whom were in their homes when a wall of mud rushed down a steep slope, engulfing an entire neighborhood in a suffocating mix of earth, stones, tree trunks and other debris. Aerial photography clearly showed the occurrence of previous landslides (an indication that future landslides were possible), identifying the area as a very high landslide risk zone. The county had considered buying up and emptying property later wiped out in the mudslide but decided instead to stabilize the base of the slope and leave residents where they were. Additionally, there were few restrictions on new construction in the area. If more stringent development guidelines had been implemented to limit residents’ exposure to the landslide risk, the tragedy in Oso may have been avoided.

SELF-CHECK

• List four major categories of hazard mitigation strategies that can also be used for climate change adaptation.

• Describe how risk assessment and mapping help inform the hazard mitigation strategy process.

• How can land use planning contribute to a community’s overall risk reduction strategy?

We have learned that the goal of mitigation is to save lives and reduce property damage by encouraging long-term reduction of hazard vulnerability (see Table 2.3). Hazard mitigation can be accomplished through cost-effective and environmentally sound actions which, in turn, can reduce the enormous cost of disasters to property owners, businesses, and all levels of government. In addition, hazard mitigation can protect critical community facilities, reduce exposure to liability, and minimize community disruption At the same time, preparedness saves lives and property, and facilitates response operations through pre-disaster plans, training, and exercises.

A fundamental premise of mitigation is that current dollars invested in hazard mitigation will significantly reduce the demand for future dollars by reducing the amount needed for emergency response, recovery, repair, and reconstruction following a disaster. By protecting its investment in infrastructure and capital assets, a community will enjoy cost savings over the long term. Hazard mitigation, therefore, is a fiscally responsible activity for a community to pursue. The benefits of mitigation and preparedness likewise accrue to business, industry, and other members of the private sector. By reducing risk to hazard losses, companies can protect their employees, their income stream, and company assets, and they are better equipped to maintain fiscal solvency and economic viability even after a disaster. See Chapter 9 for a discussion of private sector mitigation and preparedness activities.

A DOLLAR FOR HAZARD MITIGATION SAVES FOUR!

Several programs authorize the use of federal funds to mitigate the impacts of natural hazards on American communities. Between mid-1993 and mid-2003, more than $3.5 billion of federal, state, and local funds were spent to reduce flood, windstorm, and earthquake risk. In light of those expenditures, the U.S. Congress directed the FEMA to fund an independent study to assess future savings resulting from hazard mitigation activities. The study analyzed the costs and benefits of nearly 5500 mitigation grants for earthquake, flood, and wind hazards. The results indicate that the overall benefit–cost ratio for FEMA mitigation grants is about 4:1, meaning that for every dollar spent in hazard mitigation activities, an average of four dollars is saved over time because of reduced or avoided losses from future disasters.4

As hazard mitigation serves to protect the environment and reduce disaster-related costs, it can contribute to the community’s long-term sustainability, supporting economic vitality, environmental health, and quality of life for the community as a whole. Climate change adaptation takes this one step further, by factoring future climate conditions into decisions made today. Sustainability is attained when decisions made by the present generation do not reduce the options of future generations. Sustainable development is development that “meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.”* Building in a way that reduces or avoids the impacts of disasters is an essential characteristic of a sustainable community.

Sustainability is a concept that can help communities of all sizes and in all locations make decisions that will lead to a better quality of life for all of their members, now and in the future. The principles of sustainability also apply to communities that find they must recover and rebuild in the aftermath of a disaster. The goal of sustainable development (and redevelopment) is to create and maintain safe, lasting communities through the protection of life, property, the natural environment, and the economy. Hazard mitigation and climate change adaptation activities are a very important part of any effort to become more sustainable.

The guiding principles of sustainable development are intended to provide a sense of direction to decision makers for ensuring the quality of development. Sustainability recognizes that the economy and the environment are not in conflict, but are intricately intertwined. These principles are not an impediment to growth; instead, sustainable development fosters smart growth.

Embracing hazard mitigation and climate change adaptation is also a key component of disaster resilience. A disaster resilient community is a community or region developed or redeveloped to minimize the social, environmental, and economic losses and disruption caused by disasters. A resilient community understands natural systems and realizes that appropriate siting, design, and construction of the built environment are essential to advances in disaster prevention.⁵ Resilient communities are towns, cities, counties, and states that prepare and plan for, recover from, and more successfully adapt to adverse events.⁶ Actions to prepare for natural and human-made hazards and mitigate the impacts of these hazards are essential components of resilience. See Chapter 13 for further discussion of the role of mitigation and preparedness in building community sustainability and resilience.

Hurricane Sandy Recovery: Promoting Resilience through Innovative Planning and Design

When Hurricane Sandy devastated communities in the region, we were reminded of the importance that climate change will have in all development and planning for our communities to become more resilient and sustainable.

Shaun Donovan
U.S. Secretary of Housing and Urban Development (HUD)

Hurricane Sandy was unlike any storm before it. The unprecedented damage revealed the true threat that weather events pose to our communities, states and greater region, and marked a new era of public awareness that we must change our practices and thinking and way of living to address climate change and sea level rise. While everyone affected by the storm continues to push forward with the recovery process, it is clear that we cannot simply rebuild what existed before. We need to think differently this time around, making sure the region is resilient enough to rebound from future storms.

To address these challenges, in June 2013, Secretary Donovan launched Rebuild by Design, a multistage design competition to develop innovative, implementable proposals to promote resilience in the Sandy-affected region. To read more about the Rebuild by Design initiative, visit http://www.rebuildbydesign.org.

SELF-CHECK

• Describe four benefits of hazard mitigation and preparedness.

• Explain how hazard mitigation and preparedness are connected to sustainable development.

Hazard mitigation and preparedness activities help communities become more resilient to the impacts of hazards, and climate change adaptation gives communities a running start to deal with the impacts of natural hazards in the future. Disaster costs continue to escalate in the United States, and we must increase our efforts to keep property out of vulnerable locations through implementation of long-lasting and forward-thinking mitigation strategies such as natural resource protection and land use regulations to keep development out of hazard areas, and building codes to strengthen homes and businesses against hazard impacts. We have much to do in terms of preparedness as well. The loss of life and property during Hurricanes Sandy and Katrina, and other recent catastrophic events, highlights the need for vast improvements in our ability to evacuate, shelter, and administer emergency aid to disaster victims. These areas of improvement should serve as a catalyst for further research and study into the most effective means of preventing disasters so that community resilience becomes reality. These issues are explored in detail in Chapters 10 through 12.

1. Hazard mitigation can only be carried out during or after a disaster takes place. True or False?

2. Exercises and drills are a valuable component of disaster preparedness True or False?

3. Which of the following websites is not part of FEMA’s public engagement and awareness campaign?

4. Because residents want to recover from disasters as quickly as possible, planners and emergency managers should always make speed their only recovery goal. True or False?

5. Installing air conditioning to better cope with heat waves is a form of climate change mitigation. True or False?

6. Some climate change adaptation strategies may have immediate benefits and cost savings. True or False?

7. A resilient community is a community that prevents hazards from happening. True or False?

8. Preparedness involves anticipating what might happen during different types of hazard events. True or False?

10. The period following a disaster is a valuable time for implementing mitigation measures. True or False?

1. What stages of the emergency management cycle do resilient communities use to try to limit the long-term impact of a disaster?

2. Citing examples, explain the difference between preparedness and hazard mitigation.

3. A comprehensive emergency management system follows four stages. Name the stages.

4. Hazard mitigation should be considered a wise investment for a community. Explain why.

5. How does hazard mitigation affect a community’s decisions regarding growth and development?

6. Describe the results of research analyzing the overall return on investment for money spent on hazard mitigation.

7. Explain the difference between climate change mitigation and climate change adaptation.

1. Compare how a town in northern Minnesota would prepare for hazards versus a town in Arizona. Which measures are consistent?

2. As the chief emergency manager in your town, you must present a proposal to the local governing board about a new state program that requires local governments to engage in hazard mitigation activities. How will you describe what a resilient community is? What will you include in your presentation about the benefits of hazard mitigation? How will you convince the board to authorize spending local resources to reduce the impacts of hazards?

As an official with your local government, you have a responsibility to ensure the safety of those who live in your town. You haven’t experienced a serious hurricane in decades, but one changed its track last year and narrowly missed your town. Assume that hurricane season is approaching, and outline a public announcement that will update residents about what your town has done to prepare for this year’s season. The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) hurricane tracking website (www.nhc.noaa.gov) is an excellent resource.

Assume you are an emergency manager in a flood-prone community. What factors will you look at to determine how resilient your community is to this hazard? How can you determine whether your community will experience a natural hazard event, so that damage is minimal and people are safe, or whether your community will suffer a disaster?

1. Blanchard, W. 1997. Emergency Management USA: Student Manual. FEMA Emergency Management Institute, Emmitsburg, MD.

2. Bernstein, L., R. K. Pachauri, and A. Reisinger, 2008. Climate Change 2007: Synthesis Report. Geneva, Switzerland: IPCC, in Woodruff.

3. Woodruff, S. C. et al. 2013. Adapting to Climate Change: A Handbook for Local Governments in North Carolina. Chapel Hill, NC: Coast Hazards Center at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill.

4. Rose, A. et al. 2007. Benefit–cost analysis of FEMA hazard mitigation grants. Nat. Hazards Rev., (American Society of Civil Engineers) 8(4): 97–111.

5. The H. John Heinz III Center for Science, Economics and the Environment. 2000. The Hidden Costs of Coastal Hazards: Implications for Risk Assessment and Mitigation. Washington, DC: Island Press.

6. National Research Council. 2012. Disaster Resilience: A National Imperative. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.

* The sections in this chapter and throughout the book that focus on climate change are largely adopted from Woodruff, S. C. et al. 2013. Adapting to Climate Change: A Handbook for Local Governments in North Carolina. Chapel Hill, NC: Coastal Hazards Center at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. Available online at coastalhazardscenter.org/adapt.

* This is the definition of “sustainable development” developed by the Brundtland Commission in 1987, World Commission on Environment and Development, Our Common Future 43. 1987.

Preparedness Activity	Description
Planning	All 56 U.S. states and territories prepare emergency operations plans (EOPs). The EOP establishes a chain of command, designates responsible parties, provides for continuity of government functions, establishes an emergency operations center (EOC), and provides a road map for decision making during emergencies. Evacuation and emergency sheltering are also an important planning function of the preparedness phase, as is creation of back-up lifeline services such as power, water, sewage, and communication systems
Training	Emergency managers, first responders, and public officials take classes in emergency planning, disaster management, hazardous materials response, fire service management, etc.
Exercises and drills	From “tabletop” discussions of a specific problem to full-scale exercises that involve detailed disaster scenarios that unfold over several days, exercise events bring together every agency and volunteer organization that would respond in a real disaster
Emergency awareness and education	Educational messages include teaching children how to make a 911 call, reminding parents to keep emergency supplies on hand, showing homeowners how to make their homes more hazard proof, distributing disaster specific messages to areas at risk, and so forth
Warning	Warning activities include development of warning systems, emergency alert systems, and coordination of sirens and other emergency notification methods. Regular testing of warning and notification devices is critical

Mitigation and Preparedness Benefit	Description
Reduces loss of life and damage to property	Communities can save lives and reduce property damage from hazards through mitigation actions, such as moving families and their homes out of harm’s way. Mitigation and preparedness also reduce the risk to emergency workers who must rescue people and pets during a disaster
Reduces vulnerability to future hazards	By having mitigation and preparedness plans in place, a community is able to take steps to permanently reduce the risk of future losses
Saves money	A community will experience cost savings by not having to provide emergency services, rescue operations, or recovery efforts. Communities also avoid costly repairs or replacement of buildings and infrastructure
Speeds response and recovery	By considering mitigation and preparation in advance, a community can identify post-disaster opportunities before a disaster occurs. A strategy that is thought out prior to a disaster allows the community to react quickly when the time comes
Demonstrates commitment to community health and safety	A mitigation and preparedness strategy demonstrates the community’s commitment to safeguarding its citizens and protecting its economic, social, and environmental well-being

Adaptation	The process of adjustment to the actual or expected climate and its effects, in order to moderate harm or exploit beneficial opportunities.
Comprehensive emergency management	Approach used to deal with natural hazards and human-caused hazards and their potential to cause disasters in a community.
Disaster life cycle	The cycle of the four phases of the comprehensive emergency management system as it interacts with a disaster event.
Disaster resilient community	A community or region developed or redeveloped to minimize the human, environmental, and property losses and the social and economic disruption caused by disasters. A resilient community understands natural systems and realizes that appropriate siting, design, and construction of the built environment are essential to advances in disaster prevention.
Hazard mitigation	Any sustained action to reduce or eliminate long-term risk to people and property from hazards and their effects.
National Preparedness Directorate	Within FEMA, the National Preparedness Directorate provides strategy, policy and planning guidance to build prevention, protection, response, and recovery capabilities for states and local governments nationwide. You can find out more about the Directorate at www.fema.gov/national-preparedness-directorate.
Preparedness	A state of readiness to respond to any emergency or disaster.
Ready.gov	FEMA’s public outreach and education program that helps communities, businesses, families, and individuals learn about steps they can take to be prepared for any emergency.
Recovery	Phase in the emergency management cycle that involves actions that begin after a disaster to rebuild the community; examples include road and bridge repairs and restoration of power.
Response	Phase in the emergency management cycle that involves activities to meet the urgent needs of victims during or immediately following a disaster; examples include sheltering, evacuation, search and rescue, and delivery of emergency supplies.
Risk assessment	The process or methodology used to evaluate risk.
Sustainable development	Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.

Preparedness	• Activities to improve the ability to respond quickly in the immediate aftermath of an incident • Includes development of response procedures, design and installation of warning systems, evacuation planning, exercises to test emergency operations, and training of emergency personnel
Response	• Activities during or immediately following a disaster to meet the urgent needs of disaster victims • Involves mobilizing and positioning emergency equipment and personnel; includes time-sensitive operations such as search and rescue, evacuation, emergency medical care, food and shelter programs, and bringing damaged services and systems back online
Recovery	• Actions that begin after the disaster, when the most urgent needs have been met. Recovery actions are designed to put the community back together • Includes repairs to roads, bridges, and other public facilities, restoration of power, water, and other municipal services, and other activities to help restore normal operations to a community
Hazard mitigation	• Activities that prevent a disaster, reduce the chance of a disaster happening, or lessen the damaging effects of unavoidable disasters and emergencies • Includes engineering solutions such as dams and levees; land use planning to prevent development in hazardous areas; protecting structures through sound building practices and retrofitting; acquiring and relocating damaged structures; preserving the natural environment to serve as a buffer against hazard impacts; insurance, such as flood insurance, to protect homeowner’s investment and lessen the financial impact on individuals, families, communities, and society as a whole; and educating the public about hazards and ways to reduce risk
Prevention	• Countermeasure activities such as heightened inspections, improved surveillance, and security operations to determine the full nature and source of the threat • Law enforcement activities aimed at deterring, preempting, interdicting, or disrupting illegal activity • Public health activities to detect and prevent pandemic, such as surveillance, testing, mass immunization, isolation, and quarantine