Judges opens with the Israelites asking God which of their tribes should “go up” into battle against the Canaanites. The book ends with the nation descending into sin, chaos, and leaderless anarchy several generations later (Judg. 21:25). At the beginning of this account, the Canaanites are the villains. By the end, however, the Israelites have become as corrupt as their immoral neighbors. Find out more about these influencers in “The Canaanites” at Joshua 3:10.
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God had promised the Israelites that He would drive out the Canaanites from the land. The tribes of Judah and Simeon highlighted that promise by changing the name of the captured stronghold of Zephath (“Watchtower”) to Hormah (“Complete Destruction”). Learn more about this important Canaanite city at its profile at Numbers 21:3.
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Judah may have conquered three of the Philistines’ principal cities—Gaza, Ashkelon, and Ekron—but the victory was short-lived. During most of the Old Testament era, the Philistines remained politically and militarily independent of Israel. Learn more about Gaza and Ashkelon at the cities’ profiles at Judges 16:1 and Judges 14:19.
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The “house of Joseph” that sent spies to Bethel was actually composed of two tribes, Ephraim and Manasseh. See “The Sons of Joseph” at Numbers 1:32–35.
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The Israelites exited Egypt with high hopes, setting out on a journey to a land “flowing with milk and honey” (Ex. 13:5). Yet their first exposure to Canaan went very badly (Num. 13–14). A new generation under Joshua finally crossed the Jordan River to take possession of Canaan (Josh. 1:11), but by the end of Joshua’s life, major portions of the Promised Land remained unconquered, and many of the Canaanites and Amorites whom Israel was commanded to displace remained in the cities. This failure meant that Israel would suffer several generations of civil, political, and spiritual unrest (Judg. 2:11–23). It was not until God finally raised up David as a unifying king that the extent of Israel’s borders began to match the expectations originally laid out by God (Num. 34:1–12).
More: To learn more about the land that God originally promised to give to the Israelites, see the map at “The Promised Land” at Josh. 1:11. To find out why God decided to remove the Canaanites and Amorites from the land, see “Amorites and Canaanites” at Josh. 5:1. Israel’s territory reached its greatest extent under Solomon. See “Solomon’s Empire” at 2 Chr. 9:26.
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God told the Israelites to drive the Canaanites out of the land by taking over their cities, destroying their idols and altars, and refusing to enter into agreements with them. Apparently the citizens of Bochim failed to carry out those instructions. Their offense was serious enough for the Angel of the Lord to come up from Gilgal to this village near Bethel and cry against it.
The timing of this sermon was crucial. The days of Israel’s conquest of Canaan were drawing to a close, yet many cities remained under the sway of the Canaanites (Judg. 1:27–35). Joshua’s life was over (2:8), and a new generation was coming into power (2:10).
Bochim’s spiritual failures set a dangerous precedent of idolatry that persisted from that day forward. Apparently the people of Bochim tearfully repented of their wrongs and offered a sacrifice to atone for their sins (2:5, 6). But the pattern of spiritual adultery was established, and its consequences would be like a thorn in the people’s side.
In modern American society, unbelievers are free to worship whatever gods they wish. But God’s people cannot adopt their ways. Like Israel, Christians must preserve their own faith, letting nothing distract them from unswerving allegiance to the Lord. Otherwise they invite a legacy of thorns and tears.
More: Christians at Colosse struggled with mixing the truths of Christ with ideas and practices from surrounding non-Christian cultures. See “Syncretism: A Dangerous Mix” at Col. 2:1–23.
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The Lord’s first commandment was, “You shall have no other gods before Me” (Ex. 20:3). Yet within a generation after entering the Promised Land, the Israelites began following other gods, specifically the deities of the Canaanites. Find out more about the two gods mentioned here in “Baal of Peor” at Numbers 25:3 and “Ashtoreth the Fertility Goddess” at Judges 10:6.
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For more than three hundred years—approximately from 1380 to 1050 B.C.—Israel was led by a succession of national leaders called judges. These male and female heroes rallied the people against oppressive enemies and led them in spiritual revival.
The judges derived their authority from the days of the Exodus, when Moses almost exhausted himself trying to settle the many cases brought before him (Ex. 18). Following the advice of his father-in-law Jethro, Moses appointed judges over the people to handle all but the most important questions. The Law later commanded that judges be appointed city by city when the people entered the Promised Land (Deut. 16:18). The most difficult cases were heard in conjunction with the priests, who served as custodians of the Law (17:8–13).
The Israelites apparently followed this pattern during the days of the conquest (Josh. 8:33; 24:1), but after the death of Joshua, the rule of law disintegrated and the people hastened their rebellion. Lacking a human king to guide them, “everyone did what was right in his own eyes” (Judg. 17:6; 21:25). Just as God had warned (Lev. 26:14–17), spiritual apostasy soon led to military defeat and political oppression by outsiders (Judg. 2:11–15).
Nevertheless, God raised up judges (2:16) to deliver His people from their enemies and turn them back to Him. Early judges largely succeeded, but over time the call for revival became less effective. Samson, the last judge mentioned in this book, indulged in pride and sexual sin and managed to deliver his people from their Philistine enemies only by taking his own life (16:28–30). The final chapters of Judges tell of ever-increasing idolatry, immorality, and civil war—marks of a dying nation.
Eli, the next-to-last judge, failed both as a father and as a national leader (1 Sam. 2:22–25; 3:11–18; 4:1–18). Samuel, his successor, was immeasurably more effective, but even under his capable leadership the people rebelled, insisting on a king of their own choosing (8:4–9, 19–22).
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The Book of Judges reveals a cycle often repeated during the early years of Israel’s history in Canaan: the people fell into sin (Judg. 2:11–13); God sent judgment on them (2:14); the people cried for deliverance (2:15); God raised up a deliverer to rescue them from their enemies and bring spiritual renewal (2:16–18); and eventually the people fell into sin again after the passing of the judge (2:19). The table below lists the twelve judges mentioned in this book.
Judge: Othniel (Judg. 3:7–11)
Duration of Leadership: 40 years
Major Accomplishments: Caleb’s nephew; defeated a king of Mesopotamia.
Judge: Ehud (Judg. 3:12–30)
Duration of Leadership: 80 years
Major Accomplishments: Killed Eglon, king of Moab, and subdued the Moabites.
Judge: Shamgar (Judg. 3:31)
Duration of Leadership: Unknown
Major Accomplishments: Killed 600 Philistines.
Judge: Deborah (Judg. 4:4—5:31)
Duration of Leadership: 40 years
Major Accomplishments: Recruited Barak to lead Israelite warriors to victory over the Canaanite king Jabin and his general Sisera.
Judge: Gideon (Judg. 6:11—8:32)
Duration of Leadership: 40 years
Major Accomplishments: With a force of only 300 men, defeated the Midianites.
Judge: Tola (Judg. 10:1, 2)
Duration of Leadership: 23 years
Major Accomplishments: Unknown.
Judge: Jair (Judg. 10:3–5)
Duration of Leadership: 22 years
Major Accomplishments: Unknown.
Judge: Jephthah (Judg. 11:1—12:7)
Duration of Leadership: 6 years
Major Accomplishments: Subdued the Ammonites, but at the cost of a daughter he vowed to sacrifice as a burnt offering; disciplined the Ephraimites.
Judge: Ibzan (Judg. 12:8–10)
Duration of Leadership: 7 years
Major Accomplishments: Unknown.
Judge: Elon (Judg. 12:11–12)
Duration of Leadership: 10 years
Major Accomplishments: Unknown.
Judge: Abdon (Judg. 12:13–15)
Duration of Leadership: 8 years
Major Accomplishments: Unknown.
Judge: Samson (Judg. 13:2—16:31)
Duration of Leadership: 20 years
Major Accomplishments: Harassed the Philistines; died as he destroyed a pagan temple, killing many Philistines.
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The Israelites lived in constant conflict with the nations that they were supposed to drive out during the conquest of Canaan (Deut. 7). Many Canaanites remained in the land, and during the era of the judges, God used these people to challenge the Israelites, punish them for violating His laws, and turn them back toward Him.
As God challenges our faith and points out areas where we fail to follow Him, He may place similar people in our paths—an insensitive relative, unreasonable supervisor, irritating neighbor, or annoying classmate. Our clashes with these problem people may be God-given opportunities for us to grow.
More: James urged us to rejoice at the times that test our faith—and the people who test it. See James 1:2–4.
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Name means: “God Is Force.”
Family: Son of Kenaz; nephew as well as son-in-law of Caleb; husband of Achsah.
Occupation: Judge of Israel.
Best known as: The first of Israel’s judges. He served for 40 years after overthrowing the oppressive Cushan-Rishathaim, king of Mesopotamia (Judg. 3:9–11).
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Three groups joined together to defeat Israel—the Moabites, Ammonites, and Amalekites. Their capture of Jericho, the city of palm trees (see the city’s profile at Josh. 6:1), was deeply troubling because Jericho was the first city to be taken by the Israelites during the conquest. Now it was taken from them and handed to their enemies. One of these tribes, the Amalekites, awaited God’s judgment for a previous attack on the Israelites. But for now, God used them to discipline His people. For more, see “The Amalekites” at 1 Samuel 15:2, 3.
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Name means: “Union.”
Family: Son of Gera the Benjamite.
Occupation: Judge of Israel.
Of special interest: Used his left-handedness to hide a handmade dagger in a sheath on his right thigh, where it was not detected (Judg. 3:15, 16, 20, 21).
Best known as: The judge of Israel who killed Eglon, king of Moab (3:20–25, 30).
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Name means: “Bee.”
Not to be confused with: The nurse of Rebekah (Gen. 35:8).
Home: Between Bethel and Ramah, in the hill country of Ephraim (Judg. 4:5).
Family: Wife of Lapidoth.
Occupation: Prophetess and judge of Israel.
Best known for: Leading the people of Israel to victory over the armies of the Canaanite general Sisera (4:4–16). She and her general Barak sang a victory song (5:1–31), and the nation experienced 40 years of peace.
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Name means: “Lightning.”
Home: Kedesh in Naphtali.
Family: Son of Abinoam.
Occupation: Military commander; aide to Deborah the judge.
Best known as: Deborah’s general who routed the Canaanite forces of Jabin and Sisera after Deborah committed to join him in the effort (Judg. 4:8, 9, 14–16).
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Onward, Christian Soldiers
Evangeline Booth (1865–1950) was born during the same year that her parents answered God’s call to minister to London’s poor by starting an organization that became the Salvation Army. Evangeline’s father William had been raised in a family that, once affluent, had faced bankruptcy during his childhood. After being apprenticed to a pawnbroker at age thirteen, he had prepared to become a lay minister by training himself to write and speak. As an adult he gave up his assignment as a Methodist pastor in order to serve as a full-time evangelist. Evangeline’s mother Catherine was a sensitive girl who was said to have read through the Bible eight times before she turned twelve. William and Catherine tirelessly engaged in ministry even as they courted, married, and raised eight children to share their passion for evangelism. The recipients of their compassion included prostitutes, alcoholics, and the destitute.
William Booth conceived his growing ministry as a Christian army battling the powers of evil for the salvation of souls. He took the title of General and assigned other workers various ranks as officers. The group donned military-style uniforms and created music that set Christian words to pub tunes. Whether through public preaching, helping the needy, or sharing the gospel through music, Salvation Army volunteers aimed to lead their world to faith in Christ.
Evangeline Booth was the seventh child in this deeply spiritual family. From an early age she sang or played instruments while her father preached. At age fifteen she was allowed to put on the Salvation Army uniform and begin preaching herself. She rose quickly through the organizational hierarchy. In her twenties she became Field Commissioner of England, headed the Army’s International Training College, and commanded the London branch.
Booth was barely thirty years old when she was appointed Territorial Commander of the Salvation Army in Canada. In 1904 she became head of the American organization, and in 1934 she was elected the Army’s first female General and International Commander-in-Chief.
Booth led fearlessly. When her brother Ballington tried to create a breakaway American group in 1896, her father sent her to the United States to intervene. Locked out of Army headquarters, she scaled the fire escape and climbed through a rear window. Dissidents booed until she wrapped herself in an American flag and challenged them, “Hiss that, if you dare.” Booth then played her concertina and sang to the stunned crowd. The rebellion was over, the evangelists reunited in their common cause.
After arriving in New York, Booth was alarmed by the fact that seventy thousand children in the city went to school without breakfast. Within weeks, Booth organized a plan to feed thirty thousand people on Christmas Day. She opened soup kitchens and emergency shelters for the hungry and homeless. She established hospitals for unwed mothers. And following the San Francisco earthquake of 1906, she raised enormous sums to fund the Army’s first disaster relief work. As General, Booth traveled the world to promote serving the poor and winning souls over to Christ.
Though she never married, Booth adopted and raised four children. She continued her work until her death at age eighty-four in Hartsdale, New York.
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Not to be confused with: A family of people who returned to Judah from the Babylonian exile in the time of Ezra (Ezra 2:53).
Home: Harosheth Hagoyim (“Forest of the Gentiles”), where he may have been king.
Occupation: Commander of the army of the Canaanite king Jabin.
Best known for: The defeat of his army by Deborah and her general Barak (Judg. 4:12–16) and his death at the hands of Jael (4:21).
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Name means: “Mountain Goat.”
Home: Probably the vicinity of Harosheth Hagoyim (Judg. 4:16, 17); location is uncertain, but presumably near the site of the Israelite-Canaanite battle by the river Kishon.
Family: Wife of Heber of the Kenite tribe of Midianites.
Occupation: Most likely a homemaker.
Best known for: Assassinating the Canaanite general Sisera by driving a tent peg through his temple (4:21), securing victory for the Israelites and fulfilling Deborah’s prophecy that a woman would get the glory for the day’s battle (4:9).
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The era of the judges was marked by a chronic leadership crisis. In a time and place when “everyone did what was right in his own eyes” (Judg. 21:25), few were willing or able to offer moral and spiritual direction, a sure reason why Deborah celebrated willing leaders and willing people in her song of praise for Israel’s victory over Jabin and Sisera (5:2, 9). The people were glad to follow leaders who led rather than despots who dominated. Deborah and Barak possessed ability and integrity that inspired ordinary people like the woman Jael to fight boldly and strike down their oppressors (4:17–22; 5:24–27).
Many people are eager to be in charge, but people of character and ability who will step into roles of leadership are rare. God invites us to be His willing leaders. Whatever our sphere of influence—our home, church, community, or work—we can accept the challenge to stand for God’s ways and encourage others to follow.
More: Nehemiah is one of the Bible’s prime examples of effective leadership. See “Leadership Principles from Nehemiah” at Neh. 1:1.
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Deborah’s song of victory encouraged the wealthy to join the celebration of Barak’s victory over Sisera and the Canaanites. Those “who ride on white donkeys” were rich or royal, privileged people who preferred donkeys to horses as a means of transportation. See “Donkeys: A Mark of Royalty” at Judges 12:14.
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Name means: “Cutter of Trees.”
Also known as: Jerubbaal (“Let Baal Plead”; Judg. 6:32) and Jerubbesheth (“Let Shame Plead”; 2 Sam. 11:21).
Home: Ophrah, probably in the Valley of Jezreel.
Family: Son of Joash; father of 70 sons by several wives and of Abimelech by his Canaanite concubine.
Occupation: Wheat farmer.
Best known as: The military leader of a small force of Israelites that God used to rout the Midianites (Judg. 7:1–25).
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Many Christians look to Gideon as a model for making godly decisions. As Gideon carefully weighed whether the Lord wanted him to rally an army and attack the Midianites, he twice set out a clump of wool to ascertain God’s wishes. Some Christians seeking guidance believe they should follow Gideon’s example and expect tangible signs indicating God’s will.
This is the only instance in Scripture when God revealed His plans through a fleece, and Gideon’s actions were steered by extreme hesitation, doubt, and fear. The Lord had already told him what to do through the Angel of the Lord (Judg. 6:11–16). The Angel had even given Gideon a confirming sign (6:17–22). So Gideon’s fleece appears to demonstrate more about his lack of faith than a zeal to be certain of God’s will. The Lord patiently granted his request for yet more confirmations, but using a fleece to determine God’s intentions does not seem to be the best pattern for leaning on God for guidance.
God has objectively told us throughout the Bible what He wants. The Ten Commandments, for example, give straightforward instructions for our behavior in major areas of life. Likewise, a New Testament passage says plainly, “This is the will of God” (1 Thess. 4:3), then outlines God’s will regarding sexuality.
When it comes to making choices, God calls us to engage in deliberation based on our relationship with Him and our allegiance to the principles and values He has clearly spelled out in Scripture. God has designed us as analytical and discerning beings responsible for making our way through life consistent with His general plans and purposes. He challenges us to investigate everything we can about any situation, relationship, responsibility, or opportunity, weigh our findings in light of His precepts and principles, and then act. We can move ahead with confidence that He works in us “both to will and to do for His good pleasure” (Phil. 2:13).
More: For more on how God’s basic values should guide decision-making, see “Ten Practical Commandments” at James 2:8–13.
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Conquering for Christ
Emperor Constantine (A.D. 272–337) has been much debated among historians, who question whether his conversion to Christianity was an act of faith or a political strategy. Yet despite the debate that surrounds him, Constantine did seem to experience sincere spiritual growth in his rapidly changing world.
Constantine carved out his place as sole leader of the Roman empire by defeating his enemies in battle. First he faced his rival Maxentius in a civil war. Pagan prophets foretold Constantine’s defeat, but the Lord gave him confidence in a vision of a brilliant cross with the words, “By this sign conquer.” Although many of his soldiers were pagans, Constantine was advised in the vision to mark their shields with the Chi Rho, a symbol formed from the first two letters of the Greek spelling of Christ. Despite the fact that they were outnumbered four to one, Constantine’s troops were victorious. As Maxentius’s forces retreated over a bridge, their leader fell into the Tiber River and drowned under the weight of his armor. Constantine entered Rome as the undisputed ruler of the West.
Constantine’s victory in 312 was followed by the Edict of Milan in 313, a declaration Constantine co-signed with the eastern emperor Licinius (whom he later defeated in 323, when he became sole emperor of the Roman world). It guaranteed religious freedom within the empire, forcing the implementation of earlier edicts of toleration that granted rights to Christians.
In the Roman world, Christians had long been regarded as troublemakers, disloyal to emperors and to ancient gods celebrated by the state. A few emperors had tolerated their dissent, but others severely persecuted Christ’s followers through torture, imprisonment, and death. Constantine overturned this situation, actively promoting Christianity but refraining from imposing his newfound faith on others. “The struggle for deathlessness,” he said, “must be free.” Constantine held a strong belief in God’s grace and power to lead individuals to Himself. In a message he sent to an assembly of bishops in 314, he wrote about how God does not allow people “to wander in the shadows” but reveals to them the way of salvation: “I have experienced this in others and in myself, for I walked not in the way of righteousness.… But the Almighty God, who sits in the court of heaven, granted what I did not deserve.”
Constantine effected both personal and public reforms in keeping with authentic faith. Unlike many of his predecessors, he refused to be worshiped as a god. Rather, he saw himself as a “bishop, ordained by God to oversee those outside the church.” He gave generously to the poor and made a habit of prayer. He enacted laws that protected children from violence and women from being discarded by their husbands. He released Christians from prisons and mines. Magnificent churches were built, and filled.
During the last fourteen years of his reign, Constantine became less tolerant and proceeded to build the foundation of a state church. He banned taxation of the church and gave bishops the authority to judge legal issues. Meanwhile, Constantine behaved much like a typical Roman emperor. He ordered the executions of his eldest son, his second wife, and his sister’s husband. Scholars are unable to fully explain Constantine’s reasons for these actions, though such actions are certainly often associated with those in positions of unregulated power.
Modern Christians differ on the issue of state religion, and many of Constantine’s moral choices cannot be defended. But he is perhaps one of history’s best representations of a lifetime struggle to live out one’s faith in a changing world, an especially difficult course for any person at the pinnacle of world power.
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The rout of the Midianites was payback for Midian’s offense in seducing the Hebrews to follow Baal Peor. Find out more about that incident in “Baal of Peor” at Numbers 25:3. See also “The Midianites” at Numbers 25:17.
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Whatever fear Gideon felt prior to the battle with the Midianites, he displayed shrewd political instincts in calming the Ephraimites. His allusion to gleaning after a quality harvest was designed to soothe resentment that the men of Ephraim were not mustered for the main battle but only given a mop-up operation (Judg. 7:24—8:1)—what one might consider a form of military gleaning.
Gleaning was an Israelite custom that required landowners to leave a portion of their harvests behind for the benefit of the poor. After the harvesters had completed their work, the poor were encouraged to go through the fields and vineyards to gather what was left (see “Gleaning and the Poor” at Lev. 19:9, 10). Gideon praised the men of Ephraim by saying that the leftovers of their vineyards were superior to the best fruits of his own clan of Abiezer. This was an extreme compliment since the Abiezrites’ vineyards in the Valley of Jezreel were among the most productive in all of Israel.
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• An undetermined site of a city to the east of Succoth (see Succoth’s profile at Gen. 33:17) on the Jabbok River, a tributary east of the Jordan River.
• Named by Jacob, who wrestled with a “Man” (probably the Angel of the Lord, Gen. 32:22–32; Hos. 12:4) and called the place Peniel, or Penuel (“Face of God”; Gen. 32:30; compare 33:10).
• Inhabitants insulted Gideon and his 300 men by refusing to help him pursue the Midianites (Judg. 8:8, 9).
• Later captured by Gideon, who took revenge by killing its men, demolishing its tower, and executing its king (8:17, 21).
• Rebuilt by Jeroboam (1 Kin. 12:25).
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Gideon’s many wives bore him many sons (Judg. 8:30), but it was Abimelech, his son by his concubine, who became one of the most notorious figures in the days of the judges (8:31; see also Abimelech’s profile at Judg. 9:1). Concubines were usually female slaves with whom a male owner was free to have sexual relations as though they were wives. They were not considered full wives but enjoyed rights that common slaves did not (see “Concubines” at Gen. 30:3–13).
The fact that Gideon’s concubine was from Shechem may mean that she was an Israelite born to an impoverished family that sold her into slavery (compare Judg. 9:1–3, 18). Or she may have been a Canaanite taken by Gideon as a female servant. Some Canaanites remained in Shechem during that era, and the city was a center for Baal worship (9:4).
The Israelites were forbidden to marry Canaanites (Deut. 7:1–6). Gideon, despite his apparent trust in God and victory over the Midianites, might not have been above skirting the Law, as he had demonstrated by fashioning an ephod, a sacred garment, from the Midian plunder (see “Seeking Guidance Through the Urim and Thummim” at Ex. 28:30). The object became a spiritual snare for him and his family (Judg. 8:24–27) and aided Israel in reverting to idolatry after his passing (8:33). The result of Gideon’s union with his concubine was bloodshed and civil disorder (9:1–57).
It is up to us to learn from Gideon’s mistakes and identify potential snares in our own lives. To avoid being trapped, we must search our lives and identify and forsake anything that might keep us from full obedience.
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The decision to worship Baal-Berith was alarming. The name meant “Lord of Covenant,” so serving Baal-Berith was an unbridled insult to the true Lord of covenant, who had kept His agreement with His people by saving them from their enemies (Judg. 8:34). Baal-Berith was one of many gods in Canaan that the Israelites regarded as attractive substitutes for God. Find out about others in “The Gods of the Canaanites” at Deuteronomy 32:39.
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Name means: “My Father Is King.”
Not to be confused with: Philistine rulers known by the name Abimelech in the time of Abraham (Gen. 20:2) and Isaac (26:1).
Home: Shechem, a Canaanite city 31 miles north of Jerusalem (see the city’s profile at Gen. 33:18).
Family: Son of Gideon by a concubine from Shechem; had 70 half brothers.
Occupation: Self-appointed king of Shechem and Beth Millo (Judg. 9:6).
Best known as: An assassin who murdered his 70 half brothers and later was mortally wounded after a woman dropped a millstone on his head (9:50–54).
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When the people of Israel tried to crown Gideon king after he defeated the Midianites, he refused the title (Judg. 8:22, 23). His son Abimelech was not so humble. Although his ascent required the brutal murder of his seventy half brothers, Abimelech arranged to have himself crowned king of Shechem.
Abimelech’s glory was limited in scope and duration. Even though he was said to have reigned over Israel (9:22), his influence probably never extended more than ten miles. After three years he was driven from Shechem by the same people who aided his rise to power and he sought safety several miles south at Arumah (9:39–41).
As Abimelech’s grasp on the region began to slip, he inflicted more violence in a desperate effort to retain control (9:42–52). Rejected by Gideon’s family, his mother’s family, and the citizens of his tiny kingdom, he found himself dying in shame. He made a final, misguided attempt to preserve his dignity by compelling one of his men to run him through with a sword (9:53, 54).
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The fact that Jair’s thirty sons rode thirty donkeys and ruled over thirty cities indicates Jair’s great prosperity and power. In the ancient world, donkeys were most often ridden by royalty and the very wealthy, except in times of war. See “Donkeys: A Mark of Royalty” at Judges 12:14.
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Ashtoreth the Fertility Goddess
Often depicted as a naked female figure, the goddess of love and fertility worshiped by many Semitic peoples was called Ashtoreth by both the Canaanites and Israelites. Other cultures knew her by other names: Astarte (Phoenicians), Inanna (Sumerians), Ishtar (Babylonians), Aphrodite (Greeks), and Venus (Romans). The Canaanite cult of Ashtoreth involved depraved behavior that included intercourse with temple prostitutes—one reason the Canaanites stood under the Lord’s judgment (see “The Abominations of the Canaanites” at Lev. 18:24–30). Nevertheless, soon after the conquest of Canaan, the Israelites quickly succumbed to worshiping Ashtoreth (Judg. 2:13). This worship persisted into the days of Samuel, who temporarily halted its practice (1 Sam. 7:3, 4; 12:10). The cult quickly recovered when Solomon, turned from the Lord by his foreign wives, erected a public altar to Ashtoreth and worshiped there (1 Kin. 11:5; 2 Kin. 23:13).
More: For more on the deities worshiped by the Canaanites, see “The Gods of the Canaanites” at Deut. 32:39. Ritual prostitution was part of religious ceremonies from at least 3000 B.C. See “Prostitutes in the Ancient World” at Judg. 16:1. Amy Carmichael was a missionary who rescued girls from the perils of ritual prostitution in India. See here for an article on her life.
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Name means: “He Will Open.”
Home: Probably born at Gilead, the mountainous region east of the Jordan River; settled in Tob, north of Gilead.
Family: Son of Gilead by a harlot, therefore excluded from the family inheritance by his legitimate half brothers; father of a daughter he vowed to the Lord.
Occupation: Leader of a band of raiders that probably protected Israelite towns from the Ammonites.
Best known for: His rash vow that resulted in the loss of his daughter. The text does not confirm that she was sacrificed as a burnt offering, but human sacrifice was practiced at the time and the text presents Jephthah as man of his word (compare Judg. 12:1–6).
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The product of his father’s liaison with a prostitute, Jephthah was expelled from the rest of his family. He took up a criminal life, though his gang of raiders may have harassed Ammonites more than Israelites. Ironically, when Israel faced war with Ammon, Jephthah’s hometown leaders expected him to deliver them. They offered no apology but merely appealed for help. Jephthah agreed to help them after negotiating his terms (Judg. 11:9–11), and God gave him the victory (11:33).
God does not judge people on the basis of appearances (Deut. 10:17; 1 Sam. 16:7; Rom. 2:11). He overcomes any background and uses every circumstance to accomplish His purposes.
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As Jephthah prepared to battle the Ammonites, he traveled from the northern territory of Manasseh in Gilead south to Mizpah of Gilead. Mizpah was probably the Levitical city of Ramoth Gilead, a leading commercial center located on a well-traveled highway called the Road to Bashan, the northern extension of the major north-south route known as the King’s Highway. Learn more about Ramoth Gilead at the city’s profile at 1 Kings 22:29. A map of the King’s Highway appears at Numbers 20:17.
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The Tragedy of Jephthah’s Daughter
Modern readers may find the incident of Jephthah’s daughter profoundly cruel. But this narrative must be interpreted in the context of the moral climate in which it occurred. Though the Bible records the events as they actually occurred, this does not imply that God approved of them. Rather, it shows the poor state of Israel’s spiritual well-being at this point in history.
Jephthah vowed to sacrifice as a burnt offering whatever came out of his door if he returned victorious from battle. Many commentators think Jephthah had human sacrifice in mind, probably an intention to offer a slave. It was common for warriors to make vows to their gods to secure their assistance in warfare. Child sacrifice was common among the Ammonites and Moabites (2 Kin. 3:27), but the Israelites were banned from making human sacrifices (Lev. 18:21; Deut. 12:31).
We may puzzle over why Jephthah would make such a vow or why he would decide to keep his pledge once he realized his daughter had become an unintentional victim. Our answer may lie in how steeply Israel’s moral and spiritual condition had declined by this time. The Mosaic covenant was violated more often than it was honored, and spiritual abandonment had overtaken the land. God used the Ammonites to bring His people to their knees (Judg. 11:4). Though they had not turned back to Him, they recruited Jephthah to lead them (4:5–11).
Jephthah was no spiritual giant. But he at least remembered the history between Israel and Ammon, and how God had rescued His people during the Exodus (11:14–28). He viewed the Lord as the supreme “Judge” (11:27) who would decide the current conflict between Ammon and Israel.
Jephthah perceived correctly that God would indeed judge between the two peoples. Neither group was without sin. The Israelites had forsaken the Lord for idols (10:6) yet repented (10:10–16). The Ammonites had long practiced abominations such as child sacrifice (see “The Abominations of the Canaanites” at Lev. 18:24–30) without rejecting their sin. Now they had claimed territory that was not theirs (Judg. 11:13).
God decided the matter by empowering Jephthah to recruit an army to carry out His judgment on the Ammonites (11:29). At this point, filled with zealous energy, Jephthah made his rash vow (11:30, 31), maybe based on an inadequate view of God. Although Jephthah correctly understood God as Judge, he may have incorrectly likened Him to the god Chemosh of the Ammonites (11:24). If Chemosh’s help was enlisted through human sacrifice, perhaps Jephthah assumed that Lord’s help must be gained in the same way.
Jephthah appears to have followed through on his vow, first giving his daughter time to grieve that she would never marry and have children (11:37–39). He kept the vow because he deeply feared what God might do if he did not (compare Num. 30:2; Deut. 23:21–23). From our perspective, his fear seems primitive, superstitious, and tragically mistaken. But it was certainly genuine.
The daughter’s statement of submission is one of the Bible’s most touching speeches (Judg. 11:36). She shared her father’s extreme reverence for God, even at the cost of marriage, children, and life itself. No wonder the young women of Israel honored her ever after (11:40).
This incident warns us to beware of spiritual decline in our culture. Our neighbors’ disobedience can warp our perspective, leading us to speak and do things unworthy of our Lord. This incident also reminds us how seriously we should take our own commitments to Him. We may regard Jephthah as superstitious and cruel, but we cannot deny that he took God seriously.
More: Abraham demonstrated utter commitment to God when the Lord challenged him to sacrifice his only son Isaac as a burnt offering. Read Gen. 22:1–18; Rom. 4; Heb. 11:17–19; James 2:21–24. The Israelites and the Ammonites were perpetual enemies. See 1 Chr. 19:1–9.
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We might laugh as we picture Abdon’s sons and grandsons riding seventy young donkeys—or similar reports about Jair’s sons (Judg. 10:4) and an unnamed Levite (19:3). But the donkey was the preferred means of transportation for the rich and royal (compare 5:10). Donkeys signaled power. They were also a sign of peace. During the Old Testament era, it was a breach of etiquette for royalty to ride horses except in war. Large number of donkeys in the days of Jair and Abdon tell us that they had delivered Israel from its enemies and the land once again enjoyed peace.
More: The significance of donkeys explains why Jesus rode into Jerusalem on a young donkey. See Zech. 9:9 and Matt. 21:1–9.
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The conflict between the Israelites and the Philistines preceding Samson’s birth was one of many throughout history. No other group was more of an irritant to the Israelites than their neighbors along the southeastern Mediterranean coast, a region known as Philistia (see “The Philistine Threat” at 1 Sam. 28:4, 5).
The Philistines were descendants of Noah’s son Ham through his son Mizraim and grandson Casluhim (Gen. 10:13–14). The name Philistines was used by the Egyptian pharaoh Ramses III to describe one of the “sea peoples,” a coalition of invaders he repelled in a naval battle around 1188 B.C.
The Bible associates the Philistines with the land of Caphtor, likely Crete, and its inhabitants, the Caphtorim (1 Chr. 1:12; Jer. 47:4; Amos 9:7). This is consistent with the theory that as the Greeks began moving into the Aegean area around 1500 B.C., Philistines and other seafarers migrated south and east. Some eventually settled in southwestern Canaan.
This migration probably occurred in two waves. Abraham and Isaac knew of an early Philistine king, Abimelech of Gerar (Gen. 20–21, 26). By the time of the Exodus, a second wave had arrived and established the five principal city-states of Philistia: Ekron, Ashdod, Gath, Ashkelon, and Gaza.
Possessing superior iron weapons, the Philistines hacked away at Israelite territory after the conquest. God used these attacks to discipline His people and to bring them back to the covenant (Judg. 3:1–3). But any revivals were usually short-lived. In the days of Eli the judge, the Israelites foolishly carried the ark of the covenant into battle, and the Philistines captured it (see “The Capture and Return of the Ark” at 1 Sam. 5:11). The ark was eventually recovered, but the Philistine threat continued right up to the fall of Jerusalem in 587 B.C.
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When Judges records that Manoah’s wife was barren, it implied she was cursed. In the ancient world, children were always a sign of blessing. So the angel’s announcement that Manoah’s wife would bear a son (Judg. 13:3) was especially welcome news. The child, Samson, was blessed by God (13:24) and grew up to save Israel. Find out more about barren women in Scripture in “Barrenness” at Genesis 18:11, 12.
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Israelites could devote themselves to God by making a special vow involving abstinence from all products of the vine, from the use of a razor, and from touching a dead body. This Nazirite vow was usually voluntary and temporary. Samson was unusual in that he was dedicated as a Nazirite before he was even born. For more on this expression of devotion, see “The Nazirite Vow” at Numbers 6:2.
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Name means: “Sunny.”
Home: Born at Zorah in the region of Dan, on the border between Israel and the territory of the Philistines.
Family: Son of Manoah and an unnamed, childless woman; married to a Philistine woman from Timnah but deserted her after one week; consorted with but probably did not marry a woman named Delilah.
Occupation: A judge of Israel (Judg. 15:20; 16:31).
Of special interest: Set apart to God as a Nazirite by his parents (13:5; see also “The Nazirite Vow” at Num. 6:2).
Best known for: His miraculous strength, which he used to harass the Philistines, and for the long hair that gave him his strength.
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God’s Gifts Without God’s Blessing
The Book of Hebrews lists Samson as a hero of the faith (Heb. 11:32), an honor that seems to conflict with his image in the Book of Judges. His famous involvement with Delilah led to his downfall. As a Nazirite he was obligated to refrain from touching a dead body, to abstain from alcohol and other products of the vine, and to avoid the use of a razor. He clearly violated the first commitment (Judg. 14:8, 9, 19; 15:8, 15), likely ignored the second, and ended up betraying the third (16:13–17).
These failures must be seen in the context of the appallingly low moral and spiritual condition of Samson’s day (13:1; 21:25). Samson did act in faith when he asked God for strength to pull down a roof on his enemies (16:28–30). He destroyed a temple of Dagon and killed many Philistines, likely members of the ruling class.
Samson proves that it is possible to experience God’s gifts and power without enjoying God’s blessing. God sometimes grants the ability to accomplish His purposes without requiring that recipients follow His ways. God empowered Balaam to bless Israel, for example, yet Balaam remained spiritually deficient (see “Playing with Fire” at Num. 31:15, 16).
Immense abilities are not the same as immense faith. As the apostle Paul pointed out, one can “speak with the tongues of men and of angels” yet end up empty and loveless (1 Cor. 13:1). To experience the true gift of a relationship with God, we must seek Him in our way of life, not only relying on His ability to work through us but in us.
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• One of the five principal cities of the Philistines; others were Gaza, Gath, Ekron, and Ashdod (Josh. 13:3).
• Located on the Mediterranean coast 12 miles northeast of Gaza.
• Name means “Holm Oak,” a large evergreen oak native to the region.
• Posed a serious threat to the Israelites during the ages of the judges and the monarchy.
• Captured and controlled for a short time by the tribe of Judah (Judg. 1:18) but remained politically and militarily independent of Israel during most of the Old Testament era.
• Harassed by Samson, who killed 30 men from Ashkelon (14:19).
• Warned by Zephaniah that Jews would occupy the city after their return from the Babylonian captivity (Zeph. 2:4, 7).
• Overrun by Babylon in 598 B.C., foreshadowing the capture of Jerusalem several years later (Jer. 52:4–11).
• Reputed birthplace of Herod the Great, the ruler who tried to assassinate the baby Jesus.
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• A major city of the Philistine region, 12 miles southwest of Ashkelon.
• Name means “Stronghold.”
• Located on the Via Maris, a major caravan route linking Mesopotamia and Egypt (see “Travel in the Ancient World” at Acts 13:3, 4), and therefore an important commercial center.
• Allotted to the tribe of Judah by Joshua (Josh. 15:47).
• Taken by the Philistines, who held it until the time of King Hezekiah of Judah (2 Kin. 18:8).
• Site of a Philistine temple to Dagon where Samson was paraded until he pulled down the roof and killed many of his captors (Judg. 16:23–30).
• Destroyed by Alexander the Great in 332 B.C., an outcome prophesied by Amos (Amos 1:6, 7) and Zechariah (Zech. 9:5).
• Mentioned in the New Testament in connection with the route of an Ethiopian treasurer (see “The Message Spreads to Africa” at Acts 8:27–39).
• Site of the modern-day Palestinian city of Gaza.
More: For more about the Philistines who inhabited Gaza, see “The Philistines” at Judg. 13:1.
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Prostitutes in the Ancient World
Prostitutes like the woman whom Samson visited at Gaza were common in the ancient world. In fact, prostitution has been a part of religious rites since at least 3000 B.C.
Engaging in intercourse with a temple prostitute in places like Babylon, Syria, Canaan, Arabia, and Phoenicia was believed to promote fertility among humans, animals, and crops. The historian Herodotus reports a Babylonian custom that required every woman to sit in the temple of the goddess Ishtar until a stranger chose her for sexual relations. A man would toss a coin in a woman’s lap, and if she accepted the coin and his sexual advances, she met her obligation to the goddess and was free to return to her normal life.
In Israel, however, ritual prostitution was forbidden (Deut. 23:17). Laws prevented priests from marrying prostitutes (Lev. 21:7), and prostitutes’ earnings were not accepted as payment of temple vows (Deut. 23:18).
Nevertheless, commercial prostitutes worked freely in Israel, easily recognized by their hairstyle, head ornaments, or a special forehead mark. Clothing and jewelry signaled their availability, and they frequented particular locales. They accepted payments in money, grain, wine, or livestock, and often accepted pledges until payment could be fulfilled.
Samson used his God-given strength to escape the Philistines after spending an evening with a prostitute (Judg. 16:3), but God did not overlook his immorality. Samson’s next choice—taking up with the woman Delilah (16:4)—led to his betrayal and capture (16:18–21). His morality reached a low point when he visited the prostitute at Gaza, and soon he paid the price of ignoring God’s commands.
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Name means: “Lustful.”
Home: The Valley of Sorek, the long valley between Jerusalem and the Mediterranean Sea, in the land of the Philistines.
Occupation: Unknown; possibly a prostitute.
Best known for: Betraying Samson to his Philistine enemies by pestering him until he shared the secret of his strength (Judg. 16:5–17); for her work she received 1,100 pieces of silver.
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The Secret of Samson’s Strength
Samson’s strength was connected with the Nazirite vow that his parents made for him before he was born (compare Judg. 13:3–7). This vow prohibited him from using a razor (see “The Nazirite Vow” at Num. 6:2), and in that sense his hair was the secret of his strength. Long hair on a man was also perceived as a sign of vitality. See “A Sign of Strength” at 2 Samuel 14:26.
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Capturing Samson was cause for grand celebration among the Philistines. They interpreted their victory over the Israelite champion as a victory of their god Dagon. The Lord eventually vindicated Himself by again making Samson strong (Judg. 16:28–30), but the Philistines remained a danger to the Israelites throughout the nation’s history. To better understand the extent of this harassment, see the map at “The Philistine Threat” at 1 Samuel 28:4, 5.
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• A city in northern Canaan near one of the sources of the Jordan River.
• Captured from the Canaanites by the tribe of Dan.
• Name changed from Laish to Dan (Judg. 18:29); also referred to as Leshem (Josh. 19:47).
• Located at the northern extremity of Israel, thus the phrase “from Dan to Beersheba” (Judg. 20:1) to indicate the entire Israelite territory.
• Located on a trade route to the Syrian coast.
• Site of an idolatrous shrine set up by Jonathan (Moses’ grandson according to one tradition, 18:30, 31) and continuously maintained throughout Israel’s history.
• Mentioned by the historian Josephus as an area where Titus stamped out a revolt in A.D. 67.
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By falling into adultery—and possibly prostitution—the Levite’s concubine made a mistake with far-reaching consequences. Had she not been unfaithful to her husband, he would not have journeyed to Bethlehem, and the sordid events that followed may have been prevented. Concubines had a difficult life. They were essentially slaves whose masters decided to marry them in order to produce legitimate children. Find out more in “Concubines” at Genesis 30:3–13.
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Gibeah is associated with several tragedies in the Bible. Judges 19–20 reports one of the worst: the shameful rape of a Levite’s concubine and the civil war set into motion by the crime. To learn more about Gibeah’s dark legacy, see the city’s profile at 1 Samuel 10:26.
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Moral Decadence in the Book of Judges
The Book of Judges begins on a high note, with the people of Israel continuing Joshua’s legacy, taking possession of more and more territory in the Promised Land (Judg. 1). Yet the book ends at a low point in Israel’s history, with the nation sinking into depravity, anarchy, and a civil war touched off by the rape of a Levite’s concubine (19:25).
This widespread, rapid decline is difficult to fathom in light of the lofty standards of the Law envisioned in Exodus, Leviticus, and Deuteronomy. Romans 7 provides one explanation; there Paul points out that the Law is powerless to produce righteousness. Instead, it exposes sin (Rom. 7:7–12).
This is a crucial fact as we watch our own society’s moral decline. Laws alone cannot change behavior, because they only help to distinguish right from wrong. People must choose whether or not they will do what is right.
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The phrase “from Dan to Beersheba” is used a total of seven times in the historical books of the Old Testament (Judg. 20:1; 1 Sam. 3:20; 2 Sam. 3:10; 17:11; 24:2, 15; 1 Kin. 4:25). The phrase indicated the entire nation of Israel, from north (Dan) to south (Beersheba; see the map at “The Promised Land” at Josh. 1:11). The distance between the two cities was about 145 miles.
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• A city allotted to Benjamin (Josh. 18:26) located near Geba and Ramah (1 Kin. 15:22), about eight miles north of Jerusalem.
• Name means “Watchtower,” a description that fit numerous elevated locations in Canaan and thus was used as the name of several sites.
• Place where outraged citizens gathered to plan a response to the rape and murder of the Levite’s concubine (Judg. 20:1, 2).
• Site where Samuel organized a special prayer assembly after the return of the ark to Kirjath Jearim and the victory over the Philistines, who never attacked again (1 Sam. 7:5–13).
• One of the cities on Samuel’s judicial circuit (7:16).
• Fortified by King Asa of Judah against attack from King Baasha of Israel (1 Kin. 15:22).
• Survived the fall of Jerusalem in 587 B.C. and became home to Gedaliah, the governor appointed over the remnant (2 Kin. 25:23).
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The civil war between the Benjamites and Israel’s other tribes was cause for the nation to stop and examine its spiritual condition. The situation called for a day of fasting and weeping as the people cried out to the Lord for mercy and wisdom. This kind of soul-searching is one purpose of fasting. See “The Value of Fasting” at 1 Chronicles 10:12.
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An elderly man at the time of Benjamin’s resistance, Phinehas nevertheless remained at his post, faithfully serving the Lord and the people in the tabernacle. Phinehas showed to the day of his death the same zeal and determination that led him to spear a Midianite priestess and her Jewish lover (Num. 25:6–8). Find out more about this stouthearted grandson of Aaron at his profile at Numbers 25:7.
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The Women of Judges: Acclaimed and Abused
The Book of Judges illustrates a wide range of women’s experiences in history, as the following table shows.
Women | Experience |
Achsah | Caleb gave away his daughter Achsah as a reward for success in war (Judg. 1:12, 13). He also gave her land, unusual because few Hebrew women owned land (1:14–16). |
Deborah | The nation’s judge for 40 years, she enlisted Barak to lead the people to victory over the Canaanite general Sisera (Judg. 4:1—5:31). |
Jael | The wife of Heber the Kenite became a war hero by assassinating the general Sisera (Judg. 4:17–22). |
An Unnamed Concubine | Gideon’s concubine gave birth to Abimelech (Judg. 8:31), who brought disaster on the nation. |
An Unnamed Prostitute | She gave birth to a son, Jephthah, who was rejected by his half brothers but later recruited to rescue Israel from the Ammonites (Judg. 11:1–33). |
An Unnamed Daughter | Jephthah’s daughter was presumably sacrificed as a burnt offering because of her father’s rash vow (Judg. 11:29–40). |
An Unnamed, Barren Wife | Manoah’s wife was chosen by God to be the mother of Samson, Israel’s savior from the Philistines (Judg. 13:2–25). |
An Unnamed Philistine Wife | Samson’s marriage to his wife from Timnah lasted only one week before she was given to his best man (Judg. 14:1–20). |
An Unnamed Prostitute | She tried to trap Samson in a Philistine ambush, but his physical strength confounded her efforts (Judg. 16:1–3). |
Delilah | Having attracted Samson’s affections, she wore him down until he revealed the secret of his strength (Judg. 16:4–31). |
An Unnamed Mother | Her son Micah stole 1,100 shekels of silver from her but returned it. Together they fashioned idols that became a spiritual trap for a foolish Levite (Judg. 17:1–13). |
An Unnamed Concubine | She proved unfaithful to her Levite husband and returned to her father’s house at Bethlehem. After the Levite retrieved her, she was gang-raped until she died, and her husband dismembered her and vowed revenge. The incident led to civil war in Israel (Judg. 19:1–30). |
400 Virgins of Mizpah | Captured as prizes in a civil war, they were given as wives to the wayward Benjamites (Judg. 21:1–25). |
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The Book of Judges closes with sobering words that reflect a declining culture. The lack of a king was not the fundamental problem. Israel’s anarchy grew out of its departure from the Lord, the nation’s King. Sooner or later, this situation was bound to end in disaster. To discover what happened, see “The Capture and Return of the Ark” at 1 Samuel 5:11.
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