Paul recognized that to most people the gospel seems foolish. In settings like business, government, and higher education, the message of Christ can at times seem completely out of place. The moment we attempt to introduce it as relevant, we face stares of incredulity if not disgust. The irony is that the gospel is not only relevant to any situation—it is the most important part of every situation. And it is to those who need the gospel the most that it seems the most foolish. But only the Holy Spirit can open people’s eyes to the truth. We must communicate the Christian message as persuasively and persistently as we can while relying on the Spirit to work in us and everyone around us.
More: Both non-Christians and Christians feel uncomfortable with evangelism. But the Holy Spirit makes all the difference. See “Whose Job Is Evangelism?” at John 16:8.
Go to the Focus Index.
Faith and Reason
Michael Polanyi (1891–1976) was a Hungarian-born scholar whose accomplishments spanned an astonishing range of fields. Trained as a doctor, he went on to make world-class contributions to chemistry, economics, and philosophy. In his early thirties he was converted from his family’s secular Judaism to Christianity and was an ardent believer for the rest of his life.
After graduating with a degree in medicine in 1914, he left Budapest to study in Germany. His work was encouraged by Albert Einstein, and he earned a doctorate in physical chemistry. He left Germany for England in 1933 when the Nazis came to power.
Polanyi often took a stand against those who sought to enforce top-down control in any public arena, including science. He argued that science is not merely a method—a cycle of hypothesis, testing, drawing conclusions, and generating new hypotheses. Rather, science is guided at every step by imagination and intuition. It involves a common faith among scientists that an impersonal, objective truth exists and can be discovered by free investigation. It brings together an interactive group of people who challenge and confirm each other’s work. To Polanyi, the structure of the scientific community serves as a model for other parts of society. It should not be controlled either by political or economic authority; no one should dictate acceptable subjects of study or limit others through philosophical skepticism, which rejects the knowability of truth.
Polanyi’s arguments are pertinent to the everyday lives of people who make their living in any number of ways. They supply reasons for engaging in constructive arguments with friends and family, for encouraging civil discourse and discussion, and for welcoming debates within the church. Polanyi himself was intrigued by the nature of religion in modern life and spent sixteen years in roundtables with British intellectuals examining how Christianity impacts culture.
In his epic work Personal Knowledge, Polanyi showed that “tacit knowledge” is essential to every part of life, not only to science but also to art and religion. “We know more than we can tell,” he writes, implying that our inability to decipher every mystery or logically express every part of a belief system does not make the object of our faith any less real. Instead of being satisfied with our lack of knowledge, however, we should press on for greater understanding—within a community of other individuals also seeking truth.
Polanyi called the Christian message an outrage to Greek rationalism, which is based solely on truth that can be consciously and explicitly detailed. He writes, “[The Christian message] proclaimed that a man put to death a few years before in a remote provincial capital was the Son of Almighty God ruling the universe, and he, this man, had atoned by his death for the sins of mankind. It taught that it was the Christian’s duty to believe in this epochal event and to be totally absorbed by its implications.” Like the apostle Paul, Polanyi urged his hearers to abandon themselves to a personal knowledge of God, to a faith that mocks pure reason and that embraces what some will regard as mere foolishness.
Go to the Life Studies Index.
Paul’s claim that Christians will judge all things sounds arrogant, as if he were urging us to police the morality of everything and everyone. But Paul was making a more nuanced point. He was challenging spiritually immature Christians in Corinth to grow up by using spiritual discernment to examine the world around them. He identifies three categories of people:
• natural (1 Cor. 2:14)—those without Christ, still living in the lost condition in which they were born;
• spiritual (2:15)—Christians in whom the Spirit of God is producing growth; and
• carnal (3:1)—Christians who remain immature in the faith because they don’t allow the Spirit to work in their lives.
Spiritual people “judge” in the sense of examining and investigating the spiritual value of beliefs, attitudes, and actions. This is a task not just for individuals but for groups. Christians in various occupations, for example, need to band together to explore how their faith applies to their jobs. By analyzing work in light of Scripture, we can detect points of concern and determine how to deal with them in a Christlike way. We can take this a step further by listening to the voices of Christians in other times, places, and cultures.
This type of judgment has nothing to do with condemning others but everything to do with recognizing and doing what God wants. Rather than giving us an occasion for pride, it should lead us to fresh humility, because God will be the final judge of everything we do (2 Cor. 5:10).
Go to the Focus Index.
Starting the church at Corinth was not a one-person job. The task required the joint efforts of Apollos, Paul, and others, not to mention God. The Lord desires us to work through cooperation rather than seeking our own personal agendas.
That principle applies to every part of life. Getting individual credit for success may feel good temporarily, but collaborative efforts almost always result in achievements far greater than what people can accomplish in isolation. The variety of skills, fresh insights, and collective energy of a group has enormous potential, but we will miss out on those powerful contributions if we make it our goal to promote ourselves alone.
More: Apollos was a gifted orator, but he learned much of his theology from a couple who mentored him. See Apollos’s profile at Acts 18:24–28. See Priscilla and Aquila’s profile at Rom. 16:3–5.
Go to the Focus Index.
Paul called himself one of God’s “fellow workers,” and each of us is a coworker with God (see “People at Work” at Ps. 8:6). But distorted views of work dominate modern culture. These ideas damage people and Christ’s message.
Myth: Only church and missionary work has spiritual value. Some people believe that everyday work in the “secular” world has no lasting value and that only “sacred” work matters to God.
Truth: Christianity makes no distinction between the “sacred” and the “secular.” We live all of life under Christ’s lordship. He sees all work as valuable, and we will each answer to Him for how we have carried out the tasks He gave us (1 Cor. 3:13).
Myth: Pastors, missionaries, and Christian leaders are heroes, and laypeople barely matter. It follows that if only “sacred” work has eternal value, then “sacred” workers outclass everyone else. The best that non-clergy can do is to support religious professionals and engage in ministry in their spare time.
Truth: God delegates His work to everyone. The Bible’s main characters are ranchers, farmers, fishermen, winemakers, ironworkers, carpenters, tentmakers, textile manufacturers, government officials, construction workers and supervisors, military personnel, financiers, physicians, judges, tax collectors, musicians, sculptors, dancers, poets, writers, and more. Nowhere does God diminish their worth or dismiss their work. Their labors accomplish His purposes and reflect His image (see “God: The Original Worker” at John 5:17).
Myth: Work is a part of the Curse. Some people maintain that God punished Adam and Eve for their sin by forcing them to work: “In the sweat of your face you shall eat bread till you return to the ground” (Gen. 3:19). This punishment supposedly explains why work feels like an endless slog and why workplaces are driven by greed and selfishness.
Truth: Work is a gift from God. Work is one of God’s best gifts (Eccl. 3:13; 5:18, 19). While work did become more toilsome after the Fall (see “The Toil of Work” at Gen. 3:17–19), God gave work to Adam and Eve long before they sinned (2:15), and the Bible shows that God still praised and commanded work long afterward (9:1–7; Col. 3:23; I Thess. 4:11). From this we can safely say that He continues to treat work as a gift today.
Myth: God is no longer involved in His creation. Many modern believers think God is irrelevant to the workplace. And because He doesn’t care about their work, they don’t care much about His.
Truth: God remains intimately connected with both His world and its workers. Nowhere in Scripture does God behave like a detached Creator. He holds creation together (Col. 1:16, 17) and works to restore it from sin (John 5:17; Rom. 8:18–25). And He uses people’s efforts to accomplish His purposes. Christians serve Christ as their ultimate boss (see “The Lord’s Employees” at Col. 3:22–24), and He actively watches over their work (see “Your Workstyle” at Titus 2:9–11).
Myth: You only live once, so you better make the most of it. Some people say that life in the here and now is what matters, and heaven is a make-believe world of gold-paved streets and never-ending choir music. We should live to the fullest while we can.
Truth: God saves the best rewards for eternity. Scripture offers few details about life after death, but it does promise a future society remade by God, and in this society, work goes on—without the sweat, toil, pain, or futility of the Curse (Is. 65:17–25; Rev. 22:2–5). God rewards His people according to how they have spent their lives, including working hours (1 Cor. 3:9–15).
Myth: Friday is the most important day of the week. The secular work ethic cries, “Thank God it’s Friday!” Because work doesn’t really matter, weekends are for catching up on real life—and escaping the drudgery of meaningless work.
Truth: God wants us to pursue cycles of meaningful work and restorative rest. God never intended for us to work seven days a week, but every day of the week is equally important to Him. He invites us to join Him in a weekly day of rest, renewal, and celebration—so that we can return to work with a fresh sense of purpose, thanking Him for Monday.
Go to the Focus Index.
Over the centuries, people have laughed at, satirized, and mocked the idea of standing before God and having one’s life examined. But there is no joke in Paul’s description of a day of accountability. Everyone who follows Jesus will appear before God as He evaluates how we spent our lives, a judgment that will not determine our salvation but our reward or loss.
Paul makes his point through the image of metal being purified in a refining fire. The flames burn away the worthless impurities, leaving only what is precious behind. Based on the values laid out in Scripture, we can imagine some of what constitutes “gold, silver, precious stones”: acts of charity and kindness; ethical decision-making; pursuing justice and fair play; keeping our word; exuding courage and perseverance in the face of opposition and persecution; humility; communicating Christ’s message to others; honoring our marriage vows; working hard wherever God puts us; trusting God to keep His promises. When the flames die down, whatever is left will meet with God’s approval.
We can likewise envision what sorts of “wood, hay, straw” will burn up: lies we have told; abusive acts; manipulative behavior; thefts we have committed; selfishness of every kind; squandering our income on trivial luxuries; ignoring the poor and disadvantaged; damaging the environment; perpetuating systems that lock ourselves into positions of power and lock others out; arrogant self-sufficiency; lack of faith.
It is well worth it to ask ourselves: When the smoke clears, what will be left?
Go to the Focus Index.
Evil doesn’t go away just because it is ignored, or covered up; like yeast, evil does its work from within (1 Cor. 5:6–8). And Christians who consistently disobey God’s clear commands infect others around them. Groups who tolerate evil can develop a distorted perception that allows faults among their own members yet condemns outsiders for the same shortcomings (Rom. 1:32; 1 Cor. 5:9, 10).
Paul challenged the Corinthians to confront the sin they had allowed within their congregation (5:5). Once the perpetrator had repented, however, they were to seek his restoration. Their corrective actions had the goal of promoting healing rather than permanently expelling wrongdoers (Matt. 18:15–22; 2 Cor. 10:8). In the kingdom of God there are no throwaway people.
Go to the Focus Index.
Scripture declares that for one Christian to take another Christian to court is “an utter failure” (1 Cor. 6:7). So what should we do when we have disputes that call for litigation? Paul recommends that we take our issues not to a civil court but to a court of wise believers to pass judgment (6:4, 5). If such an arrangement is impossible, Paul says that it would be better to “accept wrong” (6:7) than to ask non-believers to judge the situation.
Modern Christians often disagree on how to interpret this passage. Do Paul’s words categorically rule out lawsuits between followers of Christ? No one can be certain, but we do know that early churches took Paul’s instructions literally, forbidding their members from turning to pagan courts for justice. They instead appointed elders to preside over civil disputes.
Those courts gained such a reputation for justice that they even attracted non-Christians, who found them preferable to the notoriously corrupt Roman imperial courts. Church courts eventually replaced secular courts, and for six centuries they were the most important courts in Europe. In some places they were the only formal courts in existence.
Today some Christians are attempting to restore the church’s judicial function, using Christian attorneys who work alongside church leaders to settle disputes among church members. The decisions can even be legally binding if the disputants agree in advance to treat them as such. This alternative to civil litigation is often locally available to any who feel convicted by Paul’s words to avoid suing a fellow believer.
Go to the Focus Index.
Christians live under grace, not law. The Cross sets us free from conforming to prescribed regulations and obligations like those of the Old Testament Hebrews. But Paul reminds us that many of our freely-chosen commitments end up hindering our freedom. Our habits overpower us. Our possessions possess us. Our jobs and social activities consume us. But there are ways to manage these commitments:
• Determine your limits. What can you realistically handle?
• Allow yourself time to make decisions. Acting rashly often brings harm.
• Listen to your family and friends. Shared decision-making is wise.
• Consider what you are giving up. What will you lose by taking on a new commitment? What new problems will arise?
• Commit to subtracting as well as adding. Learning to say no sets you free from the tyranny of too many responsibilities.
Go to the Focus Index.
Reading 1 Corinthians 7 is like listening to one side of a conversation. Hearing not only Paul’s answers but also the questions and objections posed by the Corinthians would help fill out our understanding of biblical ideals of marriage. But we can still draw several practical lessons, especially since marriage was undergoing profound changes then just as it is now.
Some early Christians had already married by the time they came to know Christ. They wondered whether they should divorce their unbelieving spouses in order to marry fellow Christians instead and thus live more wholeheartedly for Christ. On the surface that argument might make sense. When our primary loyalty shifts toward Jesus, our other loyalties can undergo dramatic changes as well.
But Paul did not recommend divorce. In fact, he wrote that Christians should do everything they possibly can to preserve their marriages, even marriages to non-believers—as long as their spouses are willing (1 Cor. 7:10–13). God desires peace in relationships (7:15), and that may or may not be possible in a family where religious beliefs are not shared. If a non-believer wants to leave, he or she should be allowed to go (7:15).
This statute seems pretty simple, but there are many situations that complicate matters for churches in a variety of cultures today. For example, issues regarding marriage can seem cloudy when …
• The new believer’s spouse is apathetic toward marriage as well as uninterested in church or religion.
• A congregation includes unmarried couples living together in relationships many years or even decades old.
• An unfaithful spouse admits to having two families—and asks which one should be bound by marriage.
• A member of a polygamous society wants to join the church—along with his five wives. Should he divorce his wives? Keep one? Which one?
Paul offers no simple solutions for any of these situations, but he shares a piece of important news: it is possible for a Christian to “sanctify” a family—to be an agent of God’s love and grace, and perhaps to eventually bring other family members to faith. No matter how unconventional a situation might be, Scripture does not advise sudden changes. God may have work left to do in a family for as long as it holds together.
More: God considers marriage sacred, yet in a fallen world some couples break that bond. For help on this complex issue, see “Marriage and Divorce” at Deut. 24:1–4.
Go to the Focus Index.
In the ancient world, people generally worked their entire lives at the same job. But Paul’s admonition that Christians stay in the situation where God has called them seems irrelevant in the modern world, where people are both more empowered and more often required to change careers multiple times in their lifespan.
Maybe we need to see Paul’s words from another angle—that becoming a Christian does not necessitate a career change. Wherever we are when we meet God, we can pursue that role to God’s glory. On the other hand, nothing about our faith locks us into any particular work situation any more than an unmarried person is locked into remaining single (1 Cor. 7:8, 9).
What Paul wrote about work parallels what he wrote about marriages that had been entered into before coming to Christ (7:10–16). A Christian is not compelled to leave his or her unbelieving spouse, but if the unbeliever departs, the marriage may be dissolved to maintain peace. Conversion is neither a mandate nor an excuse to end a marriage—nor is it a reason to exit a job, career field, or educational path.
Christianity instills in us new values that may make us eager to escape certain work environments. But Paul discouraged such an escape as the normal path for a new believer. A job change may be necessary, as Jesus’ disciples found out when He plucked them out of their old careers in order to take His message to the world. But just as a believer can lead others to Christ in an unbelieving family (7:16), so may Jesus’ followers make a difference for Him at any place of employment.
More: It is important for us to figure out how best to use our God-given skills and abilities in whatever opportunities the Lord brings our way. See “Career Change” at Gen. 50:24; “You Are Unique” at Ps. 33:15; and “Finding Direction” at Is. 6:8, 9. Working alongside non-Christians is an advantage that lets us communicate the message of Christ by how we do our jobs. See “Your Workstyle” at Titus 2:9–11.
Go to the Focus Index.
Women and Work in the Ancient World
Paul’s observation that marriage compels a woman to care about “the things of the world” hints at the demanding lives of first-century women, especially in the large cities of the Roman empire.
The New Testament shows women carrying out a wide range of tasks: drawing water, grinding grain, manufacturing tents, hosting guests, governing and influencing civic affairs, making clothes, teaching, prophesying and fulfilling other spiritual functions, burying the dead, and doing the work of slaves, to name but a few. Additional historical evidence reveals that women also served as wool workers, midwives, hairdressers, nurses, vendors, entertainers, political leaders, and even construction workers, among many other occupations.
If a woman was a member of the upper classes, custom dictated that her role in society was to marry a Roman citizen, give birth to legitimate heirs, and manage her household according to her husband’s orders. By the first century A.D., however, few families lived out that model.
Female slaves were used by wealthy women to cook, make clothes, wash laundry, and care for children (see “The Value of Children” at Matt. 19:14). A high-ranking slave was often designated the household manager. Female slaves were considered household property as well as sexual property. A master could force a slave to have sex with him or anyone he chose. Children she bore also became his property.
Individual women who were freeborn or former slaves often lacked the economic security of either the citizen or the slave. Many women nevertheless sought to buy their way out of slavery. Some of these working-class women made their way in the world as vendors of fish, grain, vegetables, clothing, or perfume. Others became wet nurses, and some chose to become entertainers or prostitutes, occupations considered beneath the dignity of respectable women.
More: Jewish women carried out household tasks and also prepared their family for the Sabbath. See “Jewish Homemaking” at Mark 1:29–31. Not all first-century women centered their lives around domestic responsibilities, however. Lydia was a successful businesswoman in the purple trade (see her profile at Acts 16:14) and Priscilla manufactured tents with her husband (see Priscilla and Aquila’s profile at Rom. 16:3–5).
Go to the Insight Index.
The Christians in first-century Corinth passionately disagreed about meat sacrificed to idols. It was a gray area—a matter without clear-cut biblical instruction. Paul could have told the Corinthians to settle their disputes with a list of dos and don’ts. He instead appealed to the conscience of each believer.
Paul argued that what we eat or drink does not define our relationship to God (1 Cor. 8:8). Idols are nothing more than inventions of human imagination, so eating meat offered to made-up idols cannot make a person right or wrong with God (8:4–6). It means nothing when a pagan priest blesses meat and offers it to an idol. Christians should therefore enjoy whatever food they want.
Nevertheless, our actions affect our relationships with other Christians and with non-Christians. We are obligated to keep from making ourselves a “stumbling block” (8:9) and are instead to love our neighbors. Our faith is not just between us and God; we also have corporate ethical responsibilities.
So we live in this tension: God’s grace frees us to choose as we please, but God’s love requires us to pay attention to our conscience. What we eat, where we live, how we spend time and money, what entertainment we pursue—almost everything we do affects others (8:10–13). We must ask ourselves whether we treat them with disregard or with love.
God does not expect us to let others manipulate us with legalistic criticism. But He does want us to discern how our choices impact the people who observe us. Following Christ with our hearts is not enough. We must also follow Him with our consciences.
More: See “Matters of Conscience” at Rom. 14:1–23.
Go to the Focus Index.
Professional Christian Workers
How much should pastors, missionaries, and ministry staff be paid? Should they be compensated at all? Paul offers insight to these questions.
Philosophers in Paul’s day traveled from city to city, charging a fee for public lessons. More prestigious teachers commanded higher fees. When Paul charged nothing for teaching Christ to the Corinthians, he faced criticism. Some said that an authentic religious leader would never offer his services for free.
While Paul disagreed with this assertion, he also insisted that spiritual laborers should be supported materially by those who benefit from their efforts. He backed up his argument by pointing to five similar situations:
• Roman soldiers drew pay for their service (1 Cor. 9:7).
• Winemakers enjoyed the fruits of their vineyards (9:7).
• Shepherds received food from their flocks (9:7).
• The Law affirmed the right of laborers to receive fair compensation (9:8–10).
• The Law allowed priests and their attendants to live off of the sacrifices that people brought to the temple (9:13).
Paul explained that Jesus allowed those who preach the gospel to make their living from doing so (9:14). Elsewhere the apostle wrote that church elders who rule well are worthy of “double honor” (1 Tim. 5:17, 18), and the context shows that Paul had payment in mind. In short, effective vocational Christian workers should be paid fairly for their labor.
Yet Paul refused to receive payment at Corinth. Why? He felt that he owed it to God to communicate the gospel for free. When he considered his past and how God had rescued him, this “chief of sinners” (1 Tim. 1:15) thought it was payment enough to be able to tell people about Jesus (1 Cor. 9:18). In this Paul reminds us not only that Christian workers should be compensated for their work but also that they have the option to provide their own income or supplement it through other types of work.
Go to the Focus Index.
Paul’s use of running, boxing, and other athletic feats as metaphors for spiritual discipline fit perfectly with Corinthian culture. Corinth was host to the prestigious Isthmian Games, one of four major Greek athletic festivals.
The Isthmian Games were held every other year and attracted athletes from all over Greece. The competitions were between individuals rather than teams, and participants vied more for glory than for tangible prizes. Victors were crowned with pine needle garlands, the “perishable crown” mentioned by Paul.
When the winners returned home, their cities might erect statues in their honor, throw a parade, or write poems celebrating their victories. A champion might be exempted from paying taxes, treated to free meals, or given a seat of honor at public events.
One of the most important public institutions associated with these athletic contests was the gymnasium, where young men were educated by philosophers and trained in physical routines. The name was derived from the fact that the athletes trained and performed naked (Greek: gumnos). That practice and the close ties between gymnastic activities and Greek culture made the institution repulsive to most Jewish people. But Paul’s Corinthian readers were no doubt well-acquainted with this prominent feature of Greek life, and perhaps enjoyed the spirit behind the athletic competitions if not the style in which they were performed.
More: To learn about two athletes whose faith was manifested in their actions, see articles on the lives of Eric Liddell (here) and Billy Sunday (here).
Go to the Insight Index.
Like every human being who has gone before us, we are fallen, prone to temptation and subject to sin. So as people attempting to follow Jesus, few Bible teachings have more practical impact on our day-to-day journey of faith than Paul’s warning to “take heed lest [you] fall.”
External promptings toward sin never stop, and none of us is immune to our own corrupt cravings. Unless we take Paul’s caution seriously and pay attention to temptation, we will surely fall. But we can gain greater perseverance by making a habit of acting on several ideas that Scripture offers for dealing with temptation:
• We should avoid temptation whenever we can. Proverbs 4:14, 15 urges, “Do not enter the path of the wicked, and do not walk in the way of evil. Avoid it, do not travel on it.” We often know ahead of time whether a situation is likely to lead us to sin. The obvious way to avoid doing wrong is to sidestep those situations. Paul described a “way of escape” from temptation (1 Cor. 10:13), and often all it takes to evade sin is to stay clear of the place or people where temptation lurks.
• We should avoid encouraging others to do wrong, even inadvertently. Teachers, for example, can help students avoid cheating by constructing assignments and tests in ways that reduce the incentive to cheat. Business owners can implement procedures that do not put employees in a position that tempts them to steal. People are worthy of trust, but human nature is never immune to temptation.
• We should immediately flee from the most powerful temptations. Paul warned the Corinthians to flee sexual immorality (6:18) and idolatry (10:14). Elsewhere he warned Timothy to flee covetousness and wealth (1 Tim. 6:9–11) as well as youthful lusts (2 Tim. 2:22). The message is: instead of flirting with temptation, flee from it.
• We should admit chronic temptation to Christ and ask for His healing work. Some temptations powerfully remind us of how fallen we really are. Rather than denying our state of corruption or trying to repress our cravings, we should bring them to Christ. He alone is capable of transforming us from the inside out.
• We must continue resisting temptation until it subsides. When Christ was tempted by the devil, He continued His fight until the devil left (Matt. 4:1–11). James encourages us to do the same (James 4:7). Resistance begins by bringing the Word of God to mind and standing our ground. We have God’s faithful promise that the temptations we encounter will never go beyond what is “common to man,” or beyond our ability to bear (1 Cor. 10:13).
Go to the Focus Index.
Meat sold in the Corinthian meat market had often been offered to the Greek gods. Paul had to address the morality of Christians buying and eating such food. His conclusion: Don’t worry about it. The earth and all it produces belong to God.
Beef was something of luxury in ancient Greece and seldom eaten. A far more common source of meat was fish. A typical meal might also include cheese, leeks, olives, wine, oil, and vinegar. Greece raised some wheat, but most of its bread was made from grain imported from Egypt or Asia Minor.
In Palestine, the land of “milk and honey” (Ex. 13:5), Jewish farmers raised a variety of cereal grains such as wheat and other related products, spelt, barley, and millet. They also cultivated cucumbers, squash, beans, lentils, leeks, onions, and garlic. Fruits and nuts included melons, grapes, raisins, figs, apricots, oranges, almonds, and pistachios.
Honey was gathered from bees or made by mashing dates. Regional spices included mint, anise, dill, and cumin. As in the rest of the Mediterranean, olives were plentiful. They were eaten green or ripe, or they were pressed into oil, which was used for cooking, seasoning, and for use as fuel for lamps.
In Palestine beef and mutton were common daily fare, along with milk, butter, and cheese. A midday meal for a workman might consist of two small loaves of barley bread—one filled with cheese, the other with olives.
The Jews divided animals into two classes, clean and unclean (Lev. 11:1–47; Acts 10:9–15). Only clean animals—those that chewed the cud and had cloven hooves—could be used for food (Lev. 11:3), except the fat (3:16, 17). Pigs and camels were ceremonially unclean and therefore unfit for food. Camel’s milk and cheese, however, were not forbidden.
Many kinds of fish could be eaten (11:9–12), but not shellfish such as oysters or shrimp. Some twenty different species of birds were also taboo (11:13–19). Insects that had legs and leaped, such as the grasshopper, were fit for consumption.
The major preservative for these foods was salt. An abundant supply was available from the Sea of Salt, or Dead Sea, in the south.
Go to the Insight Index.
Head coverings were an essential article in first-century wardrobes, protecting both men and women from intense sun and heat as well as rain. A woman’s head covering also signaled her modesty and fidelity. Jewish women and other women of the Middle East wore veils in public, but women of Rome never wore veils. Among the Greeks, some did and some did not. Some cultures assumed that a woman without a veil had loose morals.
These cultural issues flared in Corinth as the church debated whether women were required to cover their heads during worship. Paul wrote that the church had no general policy, suggesting that individuals, or at least individual households or congregations, were free to choose for themselves how to handle the issue.
The issue may have been especially critical in Corinth, where a favorite slogan was “All things are lawful” (1 Cor. 6:12; 10:23). Paul wanted Christians to maintain a high moral reputation and create no barriers to others becoming Christ’s followers. This included avoiding offending others’ sensibilities when they were more conservative than one’s own (Rom. 14:13; 1 Cor. 8:9).
Go to the Focus Index.
Some believe that the term head by definition implies subordination of one thing to another. Others disagree. For example, John Chrysostom, an early church leader, declared that only a heretic would understand “head” in 1 Corinthians 11:3 to mean “chief” or “authority over.” Rather, he understood the word to mean “absolute oneness,” “cause,” or “primal source.” It is important to note that while “the head of Christ is God,” Jesus is elsewhere shown to be equal with God (John 1:1–3; 10:30; Col. 1:15). So the term head need not negate the idea of equality. At the same time, although Christ is God’s equal, He became obedient to the point of death (Phil. 2:5–8), demonstrating that equality need not rule out submission.
Go to the Focus Index.
Not many readers realize that the word testament is another word for covenant. The New Testament describes the new covenant that God has made with mankind, a new agreement based on the death and resurrection of Jesus Christ.
Covenants in the Bible are more than a contract or simple agreement. A contract comes to an end, while a covenant is a permanent arrangement. A contract also generally involves only one part of a person—such as a skill—while a covenant covers a person’s entire being. God entered into covenants with people throughout the Old Testament: Adam and Eve (Gen. 3:15); Noah (8:21, 22; 2 Pet. 3:7, 15); Abraham (Gen. 12:1–3); Israel (Deut. 29:1—30:20); and David (2 Sam. 7:12–16; 22:51). The Lord’s agreement with Israel was especially significant, because it established a unique relationship. He made the Israelites His chosen people, and through them He would bring blessing and hope to the rest of the world.
But because the recipients of God’s law could not keep it perfectly, something more was needed for them and for all humanity. That “something more” was God’s promise of a new covenant. Under this new agreement, spoken through the prophet Jeremiah (see “Written on Their Hearts” at Jer. 31:31–34), the Lord would write His law on human hearts, bringing about a new depth of obedience and knowledge of Him.
The work of Jesus Christ on the cross made the promised new covenant a reality. When Jesus ate His final Passover meal with the Twelve, He spoke of the cup as “the new covenant in My blood” (Luke 22:20), words that Paul quoted to the Corinthians to remind them of the need for propriety and purity in worship (1 Cor. 11:25–34).
The new covenant rests on Christ’s sacrifice on the cross, an act foreshadowed by Israel’s system of sacrifices. His death removes sin and cleanses the conscience of all who have faith in Him (Heb. 10:2, 22). Each time Christians celebrate the Lord’s Supper, they remind themselves that God has fulfilled His promise: “I will be their God, and they shall be My people.… I will be merciful to their unrighteousness, and their sins and their lawless deeds I will remember no more” (Heb. 8:10, 12; compare Jer. 31:33, 34).
Go to the Insight Index.
God made us to carry out His purposes, uniquely designing each of us for specific tasks. Paul writes that “the manifestation of the Spirit is given to each one for the profit of all” (1 Cor. 12:7). God distributes spiritual gifts, skills, abilities, interests, and personalities so that we can carry out His work. Those endeavors include “spiritual” tasks but also extend to pursuits related to health, education, agriculture, business, law, communication, the arts—any work arena that has the capacity to bring glory to God.
The Lord lies behind all of our giftedness, but He cares even more about our character and conduct. Between chapters on spiritual gifts (chs. 12, 14) Paul includes his famous description of “a more excellent way” (12:31). First Corinthians 13 reveals the way of living with Christlike love. Whatever other gifts we possess, it is most important that we excel at love (13:13; Matt. 22:35–40).
Go to the Focus Index.
First Corinthians 13 has long been called the Love Chapter because of its moving description of love. But it is more than beautiful words to be recited at weddings or printed on a keepsake. It describes the hard work of a lifestyle of love. God intended love as more than passion, romantic feelings, or sentimental expressions. Love requires commitment, sacrifice, and service—actions that benefit both the giver and the receiver. Paul’s words sum up the characteristics of godly love:
Love and Oneself
• Love does not battle with rivals for attention (“envy”).
• Love does not brag about itself (“parade”).
• Love does not inflate its view of itself (“puffed up”).
Love and Relationships
• Love does not trample on others’ feelings (“rude”).
• Love does not serve its needs at the expense of others’ (“seek its own”).
• Love does not take offense easily (“provoked”).
Love and Sins
• Love does not keep track of wrongs suffered (“no evil”).
• Love does not celebrate sin (“rejoice in iniquity”).
• Love delights in every correct thought, word, or act (“rejoices in the truth”).
Love and Sinners
• Love keeps all things in confidence (“bears all things”).
• Love knows what God can do (“believes all things”).
• Love is optimistic (“hopes all things”).
• Love survives under any condition (“endures all things”).
Where do we learn to love like this? Only God can teach us. “We love … ,” wrote John, “because [Christ] first loved us” (1 John 4:19). If we want to be loved with a love like 1 Corinthians 13 describes—and be able to love others in the same way—we must first accept Jesus’ love for us, then commit ourselves to expressing that kind of love for His sake.
More: First Corinthians 13 is not the only passage where Paul describes the lifestyle of love that Christ wants to produce in His followers. See “New Creatures with New Character” at Gal. 5:22, 23. Juan Luis Segundo argued that the Bible is only fully understood in the context of community, where it can be embodied in a lifestyle of justice and compassion. See here for an article on his life.
Go to the Insight Index.
When Paul instructs women to keep silent in the church, he seems to contradict the unbiased view of women implied by his earlier statements in the letter. In chapter 11 he mentioned women who prayed and prophesied, presumably during worship services (v. 5). He also wrote that the Spirit gave gifts to everyone in the body (12:7, 11). Presumably some women would have received speaking gifts.
So why did Paul urge women to keep silent? Some scholars posit that the women in the congregation at Corinth had few opportunities for formal education and little exposure to large gatherings. Paul may have been advising them to take advantage of their newfound opportunity to listen and learn in a large community setting.
More: Whatever Paul meant by his words in 1 Cor. 14:34, no one can argue that women have played a major role in spreading the gospel, upholding social justice, and impacting the world for Christ. To learn about some of these remarkable women, explore the Life Studies index.
Go to the Focus Index.
Paul asserted that someday all authority, rule, and power will end. Peter made a similar statement when he asked what kind of people we should be in light of the end of the present time (1 Pet. 3:10–13). No matter how hard we have worked to acquire power, it will eventually fade away. In the meantime, we are to hold authority lightly and use it wisely to further God’s purposes.
Go to the Focus Index.
Burial practices in Corinth and the other cities of the Roman empire were largely a function of status. If the deceased was a member of the upper class, preparing the body was delegated to professional undertakers who usually dressed the body in a toga adorned with badges and other signs of the person’s accomplishments and offices. Professional mourners and musicians led a funeral procession to the burial site. Actors might follow the cortege, wearing masks depicting the family’s ancestors. The body was either cremated or buried. Either way, the rich often buried their dead in elaborate tombs. Some formed cooperatives that held hundreds of urns.
The poor laid their dead to rest in common, often unmarked graves. Those who lived in or near Rome might use the catacombs, a maze of underground tunnels outside the city. In the late first century, Christians were banned from regular cemeteries, so they resorted to the catacombs for their funerals. As persecution increased, some fled there to survive.
The Jews laid their dead either in a shallow grave covered with stones or in a cave or tomb cut out of stone and secured by a circular slab rolled and sealed over the entrance. Graves were often marked with a large upright stone.
The hot climate of Palestine caused a dead body to decay rapidly, so burial usually occurred within a few hours of death and always within twenty-four hours. The Jews did not follow the Greek custom of cremation except in emergencies, nor did they generally use coffins. Although they had historical ties to Egypt, they did not embalm their dead like the Egyptians, who had invented mummification thousands of years before. To learn more about the Jews’ burial customs, see “Funeral Preparations” at John 12:1–8.
Go to the Insight Index.
Paul was once a dangerous enemy of Christ’s followers. But his dramatic encounter with the Savior and subsequent change of heart brought him into God’s family (Acts 9:1–30). Courageous Christians such as Ananias and Barnabas began to nurture and aid this new brother in Christ.
Jesus still welcomes people today into His family. Because we have experienced the same gift from God—forgiveness and hope—we are now brothers and sisters in Christ.
As Paul closed 1 Corinthians, he acknowledged several of his family of faith:
• Timothy (1 Cor. 16:10, 11) was a younger coworker who needed acceptance and affirmation (see his profile at 2 Tim. 1:1).
• Apollos (1 Cor. 16:12) was a gifted former leader of the Corinthians (1:12) who was unable to go to them at that time (see his profile at Acts 18:24–28).
• Stephanas (1 Cor. 16:15, 16) was baptized by Paul in the early days of the Corinthian church. The Corinthians needed to respect him.
• Fortunatus and Achaicus (16:17, 18) were supporters of Paul who may have brought him the letter from the Corinthians that he answered with 1 Corinthians. Like Stephanas, they deserved recognition.
• Priscilla and Aquila (16:19) were cofounders of the Corinthian church and business partners with Paul (Acts 18:1–4). They were now leading a similar gathering at Ephesus and sent warm greetings to their brothers and sisters across the Aegean Sea (see their profile at Rom. 16:3–5).
Once an enemy, Paul had become a true friend, partner, and advocate of Christians. Just as others had once cared for him and his needs, he openly shared with the Corinthians the needs and concerns of his brothers and sisters elsewhere. Their mutual support models the relationships we should build with friends in the faith—a network of connections that extends beyond enjoying each other’s company to showing support in hard times and bringing others to their aid if we find ourselves out of reach.
Go to the Focus Index.