The page numbers in this index refer to the printed version of this book. The link provided will take you to the beginning of that print page. You may need to scroll forward from that location to find the corresponding reference on your e-reader.
Page numbers in italics indicate illustrations.
Aberdeen, Maryland test site, 156
academics
PhD final oral examination, 260–261
PhD preliminary examination, 132–133, 135
PhD publication requirement, 38–39
publications as primary yardstick to measure, 23
research failures of, 185
Afghanistan, 111, 117, 120, 123
Alexander (physician scientist), 48, 49–50
Alexander the Great, 57
American Diver, 73
ammunition during Civil War, 13, 15–16, 86. See also black powder
anxiety and carbon dioxide levels, 52
Aristotle, 57
asphyxiation. See also deaths of Hunley crews
carbon dioxide rates and, 39
death from, described, 39, 268
markers within crew of Hunley, 54–55
rates of oxygen consumption and, 40
aviators and partial pressures, 45
Azan, Nick
author’s engagement to, 196–197
author’s parents and, 22
finding Pitt Farm and, 140, 141
getting black powder with, 237, 238
marriage to, 278
at National Archives with author, 96, 97–98
PhD final examination and, 260
relationship with, 21, 140, 199
tests at Farm, 162, 188–191, 197–198
tests at lab, 186
bacteria, 169
Baker, Mrs. E. H., 126–128, 129
Barrow, Robert Ruffin, 66
Barrow, Volumnia, 66
Bass, Cameron R. “Dale”
with author at Warren Lasch Conservation Center, 22–24, 26–27
building model of Hunley, 125
description of, 9
experiment about transmission of blasts, 18
position at Duke, 8–9
suggestion to study HL Hunley, 11
Bates, Adna, 178, 213, 229–231
Battery Marshall, 233–235, 265
Battle of Bull Run, First, 174
Battle of Shiloh, 174
Beauregard, P.G.T., 74, 77, 141
Bennett, Queenie, 170
black powder
amount in Hunley’s torpedo, 266
amount in Singer’s torpedoes, 16
amount used during battle of ironclads, 106
in Civil War ammunition, 15–16
Confederacy’s need for, 101–102
confinement-sensitivity of, 95, 191
described, 90
development of, 90–91
du Pont and, 98
ingredients at time of Civil War, 91–93, 103–104, 106
in land mines, 100
in mines in Charleston Harbor, 106–107
obtained by author for testing, 159–160
quality test of, during Civil War, 94
RE values for, 259
scientific literature about, 125
testing in torpedoes by author, 146–148
testing strength of, 248–249
tests by Harris, 156
transporting impact sensitivity of, 237–238
as used in Civil War rifles, 86
black powder manufacture
dangers of, 83
deaths during, 109–110
by George Washington Rains, 101–105, 106–107, 109–110, 266
instability during, 93–94
last company in America, 94
process during Civil War, 102–107
simplest way, 91
blasts. See explosions
blue light sightings, 225–226, 227, 234, 235
“the Bomb Brothers.” See Rains, Gabriel; Rains, George Washington
bombs, protective suits for, 18
Bourne, William, 58
Brandtaucher (Bauer’s submarine), 59–62
Breach Inlet, 145, 217, 235, 265
Buchanan, Franklin, 73, 74, 130
Bull Run, First Battle of, 174
Bushnell, David, 74
the cable equation, 188
Canandaigua, USS, 178, 223, 225, 228
carbon
food as source of, 171
in human bones, 171–172
carbon dioxide
anxiety and panic attacks induced by, 52
as cause of last crew’s deaths, 32
as cause of second crew’s deaths, 78
experiments on effects on humans of, 48–50, 52
human brain’s response to increase in, 51–52
normally in human body, 51
physical symptoms from inhalation of, 50, 60
rates of, and asphyxiation, 39
removal from air by plants, 171
scrubbed by rebreathers, 32
slow rise of levels of, in Hunley, 51
warning to crew of build up, 52–53
Carlsen, Johan Frederick, 172
background, 173–174
enlistment of, 176
Carter, Robert, 175–176
Chaffin, Tom, 72
Champion, Howard, 123
charcoal in black powder, 91–92, 103–104
Charleston, South Carolina
attacked by Union forces, 213–214
bombardment of, 141, 180–182, 183, 206, 263
food and ammunition shortages, 13, 182
Charleston Harbor
blockade of, 2, 13, 180–181, 182, 263–264, 265
bombardment of Fort Sumter from, 63–64
as harmonic station, 88–89
opening and deepening of mouth of, 272–273
raising of Housatonic, 272
temperatures in, at time of sinking, 178
Charleston Naval Complex Redevelopment Authority, 13
Chatham University, 23
Chen, Justin, 185
Chesnut, James, Jr., 64
Chicora, CSS, 177
Civil War. See also Confederacy; Housatonic, USS; Hunley, HL; Union
advances in military technology, 1–2, 3–4, 16, 96, 100, 116
ammunition and guns, 13, 15–16, 86 See also black powder
black powder in ammunition, 15–16
black powder ingredients at time of, 91–93, 103–104, 106
black powder manufacturing process during, 102–106
early expectations about length of, 174
fatalities, 169
quality test of black powder during, 94
reenactors, 84
spies, 127–128
Clawson, Lucas, 99
Clemson University
Grujicic Lab, 245–246
Restoration Institute, 13, 19–20, 22–24, 26–28, 29, 277
CNN website, Hunley as lead story on, 19
Confederacy. See also Hunley, HL
American Diver and, 73
assault on Fort Sumter, 63–64
Chicora, 177
Conscription Act, 174–175
David and boats based on David, 129–130, 131, 132, 145
drawings of torpedoes of, 253–254
early submarines rejected by, 73
Etowah, 75
Fish Boat seized by, and renamed Hunley, 74–75
foreign-language speaking units, 176
importance of blockade runners, 105
manufacture of black powder, 102–105, 106–107, 109–110
need for black powder, 101–102
performance of black powder, 96, 103–105
potassium nitrate farms, 105–106
resources available to, 63, 64, 165
reward for destruction of Union ships, 64–65
standard issue rifles, 86
conning towers
in Fish Boat, 73–74
Hunley’s described, 35
as only means of entry and exit, 34
test at firing range, 85–87
consciousness
cases with almost immediate loss of, 50–51
useful consciousness data from Moon, 45
conservation
funding, 28
spar of Hunley, 16
webcams to watch work of, 36
constructive interference, 209
Cousteau, Jacques, 25
crank
friction of, and suffocation, 24
location of, 34–35
operation of, 34
of Turtle, 74
crew of Hunley. See also Dixon, Lt. George; pilot
consciousness of, after sinking of ship, 14–15
extraction of, 166
extra pay for “Special Expedition” duty, 177
facial reconstructions of, 28
generation of heat by, 178–179
loss of consciousness by, 40, 51
operation of crank by, 34
positions and condition of, when found, 4, 14, 167, 259
positions of, during missions, 33–34, 37
rates of oxygen consumption by, 40
risks of injuries from pressure wave, 251, 258
smoking by, 28
ventilation of submarine by, 26
warning time until death for, 52–53
window of warning time and gas, 53–54
crew of Hunley: first, 5, 74–77
crew of Hunley: second, 77–78, 140–141
Crisafulli, Michael, 36
Crosby, John, 219, 222, 223, 224
CSS Tiny (author’s model), 189, 197, 203, 206, 208, 210, 238–241, 250
Dahlgren, John, 224
David (Confederate boat), 130, 131, 132
death
from asphyxiation, 32, 39, 40, 46, 54–55, 268
from carbon dioxide poisoning, 32, 78
constructive interference and, 209
from explosions, 109–110
fight against, as universal instinct, 15
from shock waves, 115–116, 122–123
deaths of Hunley crews
asphyxiation as cause of, 32, 46, 54–55
asphyxiation in high-carbon dioxide environments in medical literature, 50–51
blast trauma not suspected, 18
carbon dioxide as cause of, 32, 78
described, 268
estimated internal volume of Hunley and, 39–40
risks of, from pressure waves, 251, 258
spar angle of Hunley and, 211
suffocation assumed as cause of, 17
Department of Defense SMART Program, 205
detonations, 94–95
Dixon, Lt. George Erasmus. See also pilot
blue light as signal of success, 225–226
chosen by Hunley as pilot, 77
on conditions needed to take Hunley out, 183–184
death of, 268
injury suffered at Battle of Shiloh, 166, 169–170
items used to identify corpse of, 28, 165–166, 170, 265
physical description of, 264
rate of oxygen consumption by, 40
Union bombardment of Charleston and, 182–183
Drebbel, Cornelis, 58–59
Duff (physician scientist), 48, 49–50
Duke University
author’s office at, 8
author’s research adviser, 8–9
author’s tests at, 185–188
author’s tests at blast test building, 157–158
Chilled Water Plant 2 (CHWP2), 200–202, 203–204, 206–210, 236
hyperbarics department, 43, 49, 278–279
lab meetings of grad students, 80–81
PhD final oral examination, 260–261
PhD preliminary examination by advisory committee, 132–133, 135
publication as nonnegotiable to obtain PhD from, 38–39
requirements of DoD-funded scholarship for PhD, 205–206
du Pont, Éleuthère Irénée, 98
Dynamic System Advanced Simulation (DYSMAS) program
Harris and, 154–155
problems with, 124–125
Edwards, Mark, 59
Emancipation Proclamation, 175
Enola Gay, 276–277
ergometers, 24
Etowah, CSS (Etiwan, CSS), 75
explosions
behaviors of everyday objects in path of, 242–243
deaths from, described, 109–110
early research on victims of, 12
effect of, on human bones, 251
elements required for, 92–93
of Housatonic described, 219–220
materials for author’s test for PhD, 136–137, 159–160
medical treatment for injuries from, 117–118
nuclear, 116
pressure waves and, 120–121
scaling, 139
tests by author at Duke blast test building, 157–158, 185–188
tests by author at Farm, 139, 152–154, 161–164, 189–191, 196, 197–198, 236–237, 238–242
tests by author in CHWP2, 200–202, 203–204, 206–210, 236
types of, 94–95
types of injuries from, 9, 10, 110–111
underwater, 9–10, 131, 156, 163, 244–246
Explosive Ordnance Disposal (EOD) personnel, 18
the Farm, 135–136, 138–139, 152–154, 157–158, 160–164, 188–191, 189–191, 196, 197–198, 200, 236–237, 238–242
Fatt, Michael Hoo, 151
fire, elements required for, 92–93
firing ranges in North Carolina, 84–87
First Battle of Bull Run, 174
Fish Boat
building of, 73–75
first crew, 75–77
renamed Hunley, 74–75
second crew, 77–78
Flemming, Robert Francis
background, 216
blue light and, 225–226
life after sinking, 228
position on Housatonic, 216–217, 266
rescue of, 223
sighting of Hunley by, 217, 220, 266, 269
food
blockade of Charleston Harbor and, 13, 182
as concern of World War II doctors, 10
destruction of, by Union forces, 213
as source of carbon, 171
Friends of the Hunley
attempts to work with, 19–20
as guardians of submarine, 28
model of Pioneer, 72
publication by author prohibited by, 38
on snorkel system, 35
time for Hunley to reach where found, 89–90
Fulton, Robert, 74
calculating Hunley’s internal volume, 33, 35, 40
crew’s window of warning time and, 53–54
open-circuit scuba equipment, 25
oxygen percentage in, 44
rebreathers and, 31–32
stalactites of concretion and, 14–15
volume in Drebbel’s submarine, 59
Gillmore, Quincy Adams, 180–181, 253
Glassell, William, 129–130, 132
GOEX, 94
gold coin, 28, 165–166, 170, 265
Gough, John, 218–219, 222, 227–228, 268
grandmother, death of author’s, 198–199
Gray, M. Martin, 158
Green, Joseph F., 223, 226–227
Greg (store clerk), 136–137
Grethe (coal-carrying brig), 173
Grujicic Lab, 245–246
Gulf War, 121
Hagley mills, 103
Hagley Museum (Delaware), 98–99, 248
Haldane, John BS, 48, 49–50, 54
“harmonic stations,” 88
Harris, Greg, 154–156
Harvest Moon, USS, 231
Hasker, Charles, 76
hatches, sealing material for, 34
hemorrhaging, internal, in asphyxiation, 54
Higginson (lieutenant on Housatonic), 224
Hodgkin, Alan, 188
Housatonic, USS, 146. See also torpedo on Hunley
approach of Hunley and, 217–219
crew injuries, 227–228
crew rescue, 221–223
crew’s lives after sinking, 228–229
effect of cold water on crew, 221–223
firing on Hunley, 86, 218, 227
former slaves on, 215
fractured Hunley conning tower and, 80
inquiry into sinking, 224–226, 229
lucky-shot theory, 80, 86–87, 88–89
method of repelling torpedoes, 2
raising of, 272
Singer’s torpedo to blow up, 16
sinking of, 2–4, 219–220, 230–231, 266–269
as target of Hunley, 13
human bones
carbon in, 171–172
condition of, after healing from injuries, 168–169, 171
effect of explosions on, 251
signs of life lived in, 177
Hunley, HL, 230. See also crew of Hunley; crew of Hunley: first; crew of Hunley: second; deaths of Hunley crews; spar of Hunley; torpedo on Hunley
angle of approach, 224
author’s 3-D digital recreation, 33, 35, 36–37, 37
author’s model, 150–151, 189, 197, 203, 206, 208, 210, 238–241, 250
computing amount of pressure within, from pressure wave, 247
conditions inside, 178–180
conditions needed to take, into Atlantic, 183–184
construction of, 12
described, 1
dimensions, 33
discovery and raising of, 13, 33, 273–276, 277
distance from bomb during explosion, 17
Fish Boat seized by Confederacy and renamed, 74–75
as lead story on CNN website, 19
location when found, 88–89
mission of, 12–13
navigation of, 35
post–Civil War reports of, 272
pressure on, from torpedo, 250
as rebreather problem, 26
signal from, after attack, 234, 235–236
sinking of, 14, 28, 29, 178, 269
speed of, during approach, 224–225
stalactites of concretion, 14–15
suggested by Dale for study, 11
testing of, 130–132
title to and exhibition location of, 275–278
Hunley, Horace
American Diver, 73
background, 66
as captain of second crew, 77–78
as provider of building funds, 68
testing of Hunley, 132
Hunley Commission, 275, 276, 277–278
“Hunley Project,” 13
Huxley, Andrew, 188
hydrogen sulfide, 91
hyperbaric chambers, 41–43
hypercapnia, 52
Ives (physician scientist), 48, 49–50
Jahren, Hope, 135
Jarvis, Tripp, 149, 150, 151–152
Jefferson Davis (privateer), 173–174
keel, weights along, necessary for submersion, 14
Kelley, Chris, 83–84, 86–87, 90
Kelly (member of Housatonic crew), 224
Kemp, Francis, 126
Kronegh, Adam Jon, 172–173, 174
Kwolek, Stephanie, 120
on air supply in submarines, 31
on Drebbel, 59
story about CSS Pioneer by, 70
land mines
invention of, 100
manufacture of, 193
torpedoes used as, 231
Lee, Robert E., 165
Leeds, Charles, 73
Liberty Arts Foundry, 150
lucky-shot theory, 80, 86–87, 88–89
Lumpkin (first name of crewman unknown), 28
Maltitz, Ian von, 83
Maxwell, James Clerk, 79
McClellan, George, 127
McClintock, James
American Diver, 73
appearance of, 66
background, 66–67
design of Hunley, 79
idea for bomb-laden submarine and, 68–69, 71
knowledge of early submarines, 74
Pioneer and, 69–70
testing of Hunley, 132
McConnell, Glenn, 274–275, 277
military technology, wartime advances in, 116–117
Miller (crew member of Hunley), 176–177, 264
Minié bullets, 86
Monitor, USS, 274
National Archives, Washington, DC, 96–98
National Park Service, 33
National Underwater Marine Agency (NUMA), 13
Nautilus, 74
Naval History and Heritage Command (NHHC), 13, 275
New Ironsides, USS, 65, 130, 230
Nick. See Azan, Nick
North Carolina firing ranges, 84–87
open-circuit oxygen tanks, 25
Operation Plumbbob, 116
oxygen consumption
measurement of, 24
predictability of human, 24–25
pressure of oxygen and, 44–45
rates of, and asphyxiation, 40
panic attacks and carbon dioxide levels, 52
Parks and Lyons machine shop in Mobile, Alabama, 73
partial pressure concept, 44–45
Pasteur, Louis, 169
Patriots Point Naval and Maritime Museum, 273
Phillips, Michael, 141
photosynthesis, 171
Pickering, Charles Whipple
actions at first alarm, 218, 266
after Housatonic, 229
court of inquiry and, 229
firing on Hunley by, 227
injuries suffered, 227–228, 269
position of, when torpedo struck, 219
in water, 220–222
pilot. See also Dixon, Lt. George
coin found on, 28, 165–166, 170
location of, in submarine, 34–35
position of, when ship sunk, 14, 15
Pitt, Bert, 141–144
Pitt, Gwen, 142
Pitt Farm. See the Farm
potassium nitrate in black powder, 93, 104–105
pressure waves
from author’s last test, 241
author’s research questions about, 242
computing amount of pressure within Hunley from, 247
damage to humans from, 120–121
damage to structures from, 120
measuring, 207–209
risks of injuries from, to crew of Hunley, 251, 258
secondary, 245–246
spar angle and, 210–211
from torpedo on Hunley, 195, 267
“trampoline bounce” and, 250
primary blast injuries, 110, 111–116
publications, as primary yardstick to measure academics, 23
quaternary blast injuries, 110–111
Ragan, Mark, 71–72
Rains, Gabriel
in Charleston, 106–107
design iterations of torpedoes, 192–194, 266
family and background, 100, 101
nickname, 102
positioning of Hunley torpedo, 250
on torpedoes for attack on Housatonic, 158–159
Rains, George Washington
characteristics, 99–100
family and background, 100–101
manufacture of black powder for Confederacy by, 101–105, 106–107, 109–110, 266
nickname, 102
potassium nitrate farms, 105
on Southern assumption North would not oppose secession, 64
rebreathers, operation of, 25, 31–32
“relative effectiveness” (RE, TNT equivalency), 258–259
Renton (physician scientist), 48, 49–50
researchers. See academics
“risk curves,” 251
Robinson, William, 76
Ruffin, Edmund, 141, 145, 254–258, 256
saltpeter in black powder, 93, 104–105
Scafuri, Michael
failure to respond to author, 37–38
initial contact with, 20
meeting with, at Warren Lasch Conservation Center, 22–24, 26–27
nondisclosure agreement from, 38, 39
Scheuber, Frederick, 175
scientists
characteristics, 7
employability of, 17
Seager, Sara, 7
2nd South Carolina Volunteer Infantry of Union Army, 214
secondary blast injuries, 111
sediment layers and level, 14
Sherman, William Tecumseh, 213
Shiloh, Battle of, 174
shock waves
defining, 120
descriptions of experiencing, 233
development of, 111–113
effect on human body, 113–115
fatalities from, 115–116, 122–123
methods of making, 118–119
World War II bombings, 109, 115
Singer’s torpedoes
amount of black powder in, 16
attachment to spar, 16–17
National Archives drawings, 158, 159, 254, 255
Smith, Darin, 200
Soda House, 99
South Carolina Hunley Commission, 13
spar of Hunley
conservation and condition of, 16
described, 1
evidence of deformation from explosion, 240
positioning of torpedo and, 132
Gabriel Rains and length of, necessary for safety, 195
Spy of the Rebellion (Pinkerton), 128
stadia, described, 32
stalactites of concretion, 14–15
Stalcup, Luke
making of science tubes, 160–161
making of test torpedoes, 159
tests at Farm, 152–154, 157–158, 161–164, 189–191, 196, 197–198, 239–242
Sturma, Michael, 233
submarines, history of
American Diver, 73
in ancient world, 57
Bauer, 59–62
Bourne, 58
David and boats of similar design, 130, 131, 132, 145
Drebbel, 58–59
early design concept of a torpedo-carrying, 68
early submarines rejected by Union and Confederacy, 73
Fish Boat, 73–78
hull changes since 1900, 252–253
Nautilus, 74
nickname, 62–63
protective measures against, 145–146
Thetis (British submarine), 47–49
suffocation
assumed as cause of death, 17
of buried skiers, 31
friction of crank and, 24
as not cause of death, 32
rebreather problem of Hunley, 26
Restoration Institute failure to pursue, as cause of death, 23
sulfur in black powder, 91, 104
Sullivan’s Island, 144–146, 176, 217, 265
SWAGs (scientific wild-ass guesses), 39
Teddeman, Charles, 215, 228, 229
Teddeman, John, 215, 228, 229, 266
Teddeman, William, 215
tertiary blast injuries, 111
Thetis (British submarine), 47–49
Thetis (Greek goddess), 46
Thomsen (in Bauer’s submarine), 59–62
Tidyman, Philip, 214–215
TNT equivalency (“relative effectiveness,” RE), 258–259
torpedoes
confinement of black powder in, 96
current name for, 2
design iterations of Confederate, 192–194, 266
drawings of Confederate, 253–254
ingredients, 193
Kemp’s “water rockets,” 126
Singer’s, 16, 158, 159, 254, 255
testing by author, 146–148
Union protection against, 145–146
used as land mines, 231
torpedo on Hunley, 255
amount of black powder in, 266
for attack on Housatonic, 158–159, 191–192
copper, 195
design, 266
effect of explosion on Housatonic, 219–220
operation of, 3–4
positioning of, to cause damage, 1–2, 131–132, 194–195, 210, 250
sound of explosion of, 202–203
strength of black powder in, 248–249
trigger design, 158–159
transatlantic telegraph cable, first, 187–188, 193
trauma, human body and patterns of, 22–23
Tubman, Harriet, 214
Turtle, 74
Udelhofen, Matt, 201–202, 206–210
underwater breathing systems, new technology for, 7
underwater cables, 187–188, 193
Union. See also Housatonic, USS
Anaconda Plan to starve South into submission, 64, 65
attack on Charleston, 213–214
blockade of Charleston Harbor, 2, 13, 180–181, 182, 263–264, 265
blockade of Southern ports, 13
bombardment of Charleston area, 141, 180–182, 183, 206, 263
Canandaigua, 178, 223, 225, 228
control of New Orleans, 72–73
destruction of South’s food by, 213
draft, 175
early submarines rejected by, 73
Emancipation Proclamation, 175
former slaves in armed forces of, 214–216
Harvest Moon, 231
Monitor, 274
protection against submarine attacks, 145–146
resources available to, 63
standard issue rifles, 86
Vanderbilt, 229
Vanderbilt, USS, 229
Verne, Jules, 57
VernianEra.com, 36
Waltham Abbey Gunpowder Works (England), 102
Warder, Henry, 85–86, 87, 88, 138–139, 148
Warren Lasch Conservation Center
author’s attempts to work with, 19–20
author’s meeting with Scafuri and Fortenberry at, 22–24, 26–27
described, 27–28
display of Hunley at, 277
lack of physiologist on team, 24, 27
location, 22
publications of, 23
public vote for cause of sinking, 29
role in conservation and preservation of Hunley, 13
“water rockets,” 126
Watson, Baxter
American Diver, 73
testing of Hunley, 132
Wescoat, Artha, 181
White, Walter, 91–92
Wicks, James A., 28, 177, 178, 264
Williams, Absolum, 77
Witt (in Bauer’s submarine), 59–62
Wojtylak, Brad
black powder obtained from, 159–160
making of science tubes, 160–161
reassignment of, 236
tests at Farm, 161–164, 188–191, 196, 197–198, 239–242
Woolverton, Justin, 52
World War I, 116–117, 252, 271
World War II, 10, 117, 122, 252–253
Wright, Frederick, 102