Notes

Preface

1.Rodríguez-Salgado, ‘Felipe II en su aniversario’, 9: ‘Confieso que he pasado más tiempo con Felipe II que con ningún otro hombre, y puede decirse que le he dedicado los mejores años de mi vida.’

2.IVdeDJ 61/306, 339 and 360, and BL Addl. 28,350/315–26, all undated billetes exchanged between Philip and Hoyo written over the winter of 1562–3 about the ‘zahorí’; García Tapia, ‘El Escorial’, 420–1, about the ‘necesarias’(with more examples in chapter 6).

3.Gardiner, ‘Prescott’s most indispensable aide’, 99, Gayangos to Prescott in 1843; Prescott, History, I, iv; Riba, 36, Philip to Vázquez, 30 May 1576; ASVe SDS 20/68, Lippomano to Venice, 14 Apr. 1587.

4.Ball and Parker, Cómo ser rey, 158, Charles to Philip, Palamos, 6 May 1543, holograph. See chapters 4 and 16 for examples of decisions that have left little or no documentary trail.

5.AGS Estado 153/68, 72 and 77, Velasco to Gabriel de Zayas, 27 July 1571 and 1 and 9 Aug. 1571; BL Addl. 28,336/76, Velasco to Cardinal Espinosa, 9 Aug. 1571. See chapter 11 for more details.

6.Voltaire, Essai, II, 431–2 (published in 1756); Watson, History, II, 408 (published in 1777).

7.Bouza, ‘Felipe II sube a los cielos’, 301 n. 2; Cohen, Supreme Command, 113.

8.Kamen, Philip, 320 (citing Fernand Braudel, Mediterranean, II, 1244). To be fair, Kamen had retreated from this extreme position by 2004, when he reviewed James Tracy’s biography of Charles V: ‘Historians have too easily given in to the view that the emperor was able to do very little in the face of the vast scenario facing him. Now … we can agree with Tracy that a great deal was in fact done: “Charles V did make a difference”’ (Renaissance Quarterly, LVII (2004), 242). The argument of this biography is that Philip II, too, ‘did make a difference’.

9.AGS Estado K 1490/44, Philip to Emmanuel Philibert of Savoy, 22 July 1557; AGS Estado 146/147, Pérez to Philip and reply, and [10] Apr. 1565; IVdeDJ 44/127, Philip to Mateo Vázquez and reply, 16 Apr. 1575; Bouza, Cartas, 85, Philip to his daughters, 1583.

10.AHN Consejos 4416/101, Herrera to Don Luis de Salazar, 15 Dec. 1599, letter and image.

Chapter One: Apprenticeship, 1527–1543

1.Vilar Sánchez, 1526, 42–3, citing a Portuguese envoy who had accompanied the bride to Seville.

2.Brewer et al., Letters and papers, IV.2, 1127, Dr Edward Lee to Henry VIII, 30 Sep. 1526.

3.Gonzalo Sánchez-Molero, ‘El príncipe’, 886.

4.Zúñiga, Crónica burlesca, 141 (‘El emperador y Felipito su hijo están buenos’); Rodríguez Villa, El Emperador, 359, Salinas to Ferdinand, Valladolid, 28 May 1527.

5.Rodríguez Villa, El Emperador, 363, Salinas to Ferdinand, Valladolid, 19 Aug. 1527.

6.March, Niñez, I, 122–3, Leonor de Castro to Charles, 15 Nov. 1530; and 46, Pedro González de Mendoza to Charles, undated but spring 1531.

7.Ibid., I, 47, González de Mendoza to Charles, 15 and 30 Apr. and 20 May 1531.

8.Gonzalo Sánchez-Molero, Aprendizaje, 182, quoting Francisco de Encinas.

9.Rodríguez Villa, El Emperador, 499–500, Martín de Salinas to Ferdinand, Madrid, 14 Sep. 1530.

10.Alonso Acero and Gonzalo Sánchez-Molero, ‘Alá’, 119 (‘Mucho me aprietas, Hulano; cras me besaría la mano’, based on an exchange in La Jura de Santa Gadea).

11.Fernández de Oviedo, Libro de la Cámara Real del Prinçipe Don Juan, 1–3; March, Niñez, I, 230, Zúñiga to Charles, Madrid, 11 Feb. 1536.

12.Gonzalo Sánchez-Molero, Aprendizaje, 77, quoting Francisco de Monzón, Libro primero del espejo del prinçipe christiano (Lisbon, 1544).

13.March, Niñez, I, 68–70, 72, Silíceo to Charles, 26 Nov. 1535, 25 Feb. 1536 and 19 Mar. 1540.

14.Ibid., I, 227 and 230, Zúñiga to Charles, 25 Aug. 1535 and 9 Feb. 1536.

15.AGS CSR 36 fo. 7, ‘Memoria de las cosas de oro y plata’; and Gonzalo Sánchez-Molero, Aprendizaje, 101–2; March, Niñez, II, 344, Doña Estefania de Requesens to her mother, 28 Oct. 1537.

16.BL Addl. 28,354/51–2, 113, 176, marquis of Ladrada to Philip, and rescript, 25 Oct. and 23 Dec. 1570, and 5 Apr. 1571; AHN Inq. libro 101/695–7, Hernando Arenillas de Reynoso to Philip, 4 Dec. 1594, with rescript.

17.Gachard, ‘Charles-Quint’, 625n: Mary of Hungary to Charles, 9 June 1538.

18.CDCV, II, 32–43, Charles’s Instructions to Philip, 5 Nov. 1539. All quotations come from this source.

19.March, Niñez, I, 249, Zúñiga to Charles, 25 June 1541.

20.Ibid., I, 237, 241, 247, 259 and 261, Zúñiga to Charles, 25 Feb. and 19 May 1540, 24 Mar. 1541, 10 Sep. 1543 and 4 Feb. 1544; AGS CSR 36 fo. 8, unfol., payments of 23 Dec. 1540.

21.March, Niñez, I, 248–9, Zúñiga to Charles, 25 June 1541.

22.AGS CSR 106/470–1, warrant in favour of ‘el bachiller Christobal de Estrella’, 4 Feb. 1541.

23.AGS CSR 36 fo. 8/237v, records the purchase.

24.Gonzalo Sánchez-Molero, Felipe II: la educación, 605, report by the prince’s tutor Vargas Mexía.

25.March, Niñez, I, 248–9, Zúñiga to Charles, 25 June 1541; Ball and Parker, Cómo ser rey, 151–2, Charles to Philip, 4 May 1543.

26.AGS Estado 393/36, Zayas to Philip and rescript, ‘Good Friday’ [= 17 Apr.] 1576.

27.Alonso Acero and Gonzalo Sánchez-Molero. ‘Alá’, 118; Gonzalo Sánchez-Molero, Aprendizaje, 147–9; AGS CSR 36 fo 8, unfol., payment of 30 June 1544.

28.AGS CSR 35/22, list of musicians in the prince’s chapel, 11 Sep. 1543.

29.AGS CSR 36 fo. 8, entry for 23 June 1540.

30.Gonzalo Sánchez-Molero, Aprendizaje, 154–6, on the heraldic innovations; March, Niñez, I, 247 and 249, Zúñiga to Charles, 24 Mar. and 25 Aug. 1541.

31.March, Niñez, II, 285 and 335, Doña Estefanía de Requesens to her mother, Madrid, 9 Sep. 1535.

32.BL Cott. Ms Vespasian C VII/171–4, ‘Poder para Castilla’, 1 May 1543.

33.CDCV, II, 86–7, ‘Instrucción General’, and AGS PR 26/83, ‘La restricción del poder del príncipe’, both signed by Charles in Barcelona, 1 May 1543.

34.Ball and Parker, Cómo ser rey, 149–53, Charles to Philip, Palamos, 4 May 1543, holograph, the source of all quotations from this document.

35.CDCV, II, 179, ‘Bodas de Felipe’; Bouza, Locos, 196, quoting the chronicler Alonso de Santa Cruz; March, Niñez, I, 262–3, Zúñiga to Charles, 4 Feb. 1544; and Bouza, Locos, pp. 78–9, Don Luis Hurtado de Mendoza, Spanish ambassador in Portugal, to Carlos, 21 Nov. 1544.

36.Ball and Parker, Cómo ser sey, 154–9, Charles to Philip, Palamos, 6 May 1543, holograph, the source of all quotations from this document.

37.Fernández Álvarez, ‘Las instrucciones políticas’, 175, Francisco de Eraso to Philip and reply, 20 Feb. 1559; DH, I, 319–22, testimony given under oath by Philip, 11 Jan. 1560; BZ 144/39, Mateo Vázquez to Philip II and reply, 28 Dec. 1574.

38.March, Niñez, I, 255, Zúñiga to Charles, 8 June 1543; Fernández Álvarez, Felipe II, 675, Tavera to Charles, 8 June 1543; March, Niñez, I, 304, Charles to Zúñiga, 1 May 1543; CDCV, II, 157, Cobos to Charles, 7 Aug. 1543 (Charles agreed on 27 Oct. 1543: Martínez Millán, La corte, II, 102).

Chapter Two: A Renaissance prince, 1543–1551

1.CDCV, II, 172–3 and 183, Charles to Philip, 27 Oct. and 15 Nov. 1543.

2.Ibid., II, 189–93, Philip to Charles, 4 Feb. 1544, minute. Although it seems unlikely that the prince, still only sixteen, would have composed such a defiant letter, he signed it and no doubt sympathized with its content.

3.BNE Ms 10,300/116–33, Los Cobos to Charles, Aranjuez, mid-July 1544, copy.

4.Chabod, ‘¿Milán o los Países Bajos?’, 336, Philip to Charles, 14 Dec. 1544.

5.CDCV, II, 300–1, Philip to Charles, 14 Dec. 1544 [misdated 24 Dec.].

6.March, Niñez, I, 74–5, Silíceo to Charles, 6 Aug. 1543.

7.AGS CSR 36 fo. 1/28v–29, various cédulas of July 1544; Édouard, L’empire, 29–32; Frieder, Chivalry, 42–8; AGS CSR 36 fo. 1/85–6, cédulas of 18 July and 7 Aug. 1546; Fallows, Jousting, 392, quoting Luis Zapata de Chaves.

8.Gonzalo Sánchez-Molero, La ‘Librería Rica’, 74–5.

9.March, Niñez, I, 321–2, Charles to Zúñiga, 24 Dec. 1544.

10.Ibid., I, 323–6, Charles to Zúñiga, 17 Feb. 1545.

11.Gonzalo Sánchez-Molero, Felipe II, la mirada, chap. 7, on Philip’s ‘rebeldía juvenil’.

12.Cabrera de Córdoba, Historia, III, 1270; BR Ms II–587/43, from the Tratado del príncipe instruido, composed by Don Francisco de Gurrea y Aragón, duke of Villahermosa, around 1615.

13.CDCV, II, 408, Philip to Charles, Valladolid, 13 Aug. 1545.

14.Gonzalo Sánchez-Molero, Aprentizaje, 166, prints part of the document, presented to Philip in a private ceremony of investiture on 16 Sep. 1546.

15.Kamen, Philip, 29, Philip to Charles, 20 Dec. 1546.

16.Calvete de Estrella, Felicíssimo Viaje, 607 (Relación of Vicente Álvarez).

17.All quotations from CDCV, II, 612–15, Charles to Philip, Augsburg, 9 Apr. 1548.

18.Martínez Millán and Carlos Morales, Felipe II, 387, quoting Antonio Pérez and García de Loaysa.

19.Calvete de Estrella, Felicíssimo Viaje, 45 (Calvete), 610 and 619 (Relación of Álvarez); Álvarez-Ossorio Alvariño, ‘Ver y conocer’, 55, 72 and 77, Ludovico Strozzi to duke of Mantua, Genoa, 1 and 9 Dec. 1548.

20.Calvete de Estrella, Felicíssimo viaje, 630 (Álvarez).

21.Morel-Fatio, ‘La vie’, 285. See page 29 above for a criticism of Philip’s jousting skills.

22.Calvete de Estrella, Felicíssimo viaje, 424 (Antwerp).

23.Lanz, Correspondenz, III, 17, Charles to Mary of Hungary, 16 Dec. 1550.

24.IVdeDJ 55/IX/97–8, Mateo Vázquez to Philip, and reply, 17 June 1586.

25.HHStA Spanien: Hofkorrespondenz, Karton 1, mappe 4/23 and 27, Philip to Maximilian, 16 and 25 Sep. 1551.

Chapter Three: The changing face of empire, 1551–1558

1.CDCV, III, 359–69, 377–90 and 617, Philip to Charles, Toro, 27 Sep. 1551, Madrid 24 Nov. 1551 and Valladolid, 2 Sep. 1553; Fernández Álvarez, Felipe II y su tiempo, 761, count of Buendía to Philip, 2 Sep. 1552.

2.CDCV, III, 420, Charles to Philip, 9 Apr. 1552.

3.Ibid., 423–35, Philip to Charles, undated.

4.RAH Salazar y Castro Ms A–51/107v–108, Philip to Don Luis de Ávila, Monzón, 6 Oct. 1552.

5.CDCV, III, 579–80, Charles to Philip, 2 Apr. 1553.

6.AGS Estado 807/29, Charles to Philip, 30 July 1553.

7.CDCV, III, 636–9, and CODOIN, III, 451–3, Charles to Philip, 16 and 26 Dec. 1553, and 21 Jan. 1554.

8.Adams and Stephens, Select Documents, No. 264, ‘Act for the Marriage of Queen Mary to Philip of Spain, 1554’ (1 Mary, sess. 3, c. 2. 4).

9.AGS Estado 807/36–2, ‘Escriptura ad cautelam’, 4 Jan. 1554.

10.CODOIN, III, 473–7, Mary of Hungary to Philip, 4 Feb. 1554.

11.CDCV, IV, 109–10, Philip’s Instructions to Juana, 12 July 1554.

12.Fernández y Fernández de Retana, España, 344, Philip to Antonio de Rojas, c. 20 July 1554.

13.Malfatti, The accession, 141 and 144, Barahona to his uncle Antonio, in the form of a diary. Many historians have debated the language in which the spouses conversed: Barahona’s eyewitness testimony settles the matter. Other details from Elder, Copie, sigs Aiv and Bi.

14.Muñoz, Viaje, 97.

15.Ibid., 77–8 (Muñoz’s account) and 118 (letter of Oct. 1554).

16.CSPSp, XIII, 2, 6, Ruy Gómez to Francisco de Eraso, 26 and 29 July 1554; BR MS II–2257, Francisco de Ibarra to Granvelle, 13 Apr. 1559.

17.CSPSp, XIII, 102, Renard to Charles, 23 Nov. 1554; and ibid., 124, Mary the Queen to Charles, 20 Dec. 1554, holograph; Gachard, Voyages, IV, 20–1.

18.CSPV, VI part 1, 147–9 and 177–9, Giovanni Michiel to Venice, London, 5 Aug. and 3 Sep. 1555.

19.APC, V, 53, Order of 27 July 1554 – the first act of the new regime: ‘Anno primo et secundo Philippi et Marie Regis et Regine’.

20.CSPV, VI part 1, 176 and 190, Pole to Philip, Richmond, 2 and 16 Sep. 1555, register copies. (Mary and Martha appear in St Luke’s Gospel, 10: 38–42, 11: 20 and 12: 1–8.)

21.Tytler, England, II, 485, Memorandum of early Sep. 1555. For the council’s compliance, see APC, V, 219–20 and 257–8, orders authorizing Admiral Howard to investigate the state of the fleet and repair defective ships (6 Jan. 1556), and to move the navy to Portsmouth and build new ships (30 Mar. 1556).

22.DH, III, 29–30 (question 63) and 186 (answer); Redworth, ‘Matters impertinent’, 606, citing Lord Pembroke to Lord Shrewsbury, Jan. 1556.

23.DH, II, p. 568, testimony of Carranza, 4 Sep. 1559 (‘hizo él encarcelar e quemar más de 450’ heretics); Duffy, Fires of faith, 7.

24.DH, III, 23, testimony of Carranza; and 185, sworn testimony of Philip in the Carranza trial, 14 Oct. 1562.

25.GRM Introduction, 87, n. 1, ‘Sommaire description’ of the ceremony. Antoine Perrenot de Granvelle (1517–86) is referred to as ‘Granvelle’ throughout this book.

26.GRM Introduction, 98.

27.Epistolario, I, 258, Alba to Ruy Gómez, Milan, 11 July 1555.

28.CODOIN, II, 430–1, Philip II to Ferdinand, 20 Nov. 1556.

29.Fernández Álvarez, Felipe II, 764, Philip to Juana, 17 Sep. 1556; AGS Estado, 112/226–9, Juana to Philip, 21 Nov. 1556; GRM, II, 184–5, royal cédula of 28 Apr. 1557.

30.Kervijn de Lettenhove, Relations politiques, I, 54–9, Instructions to Ruy Gómez, 2 Feb. 1557.

31.BL Addl. 28,264/10–12v, Philip to Emmanuel Philibert, Brussels, 27 July 1557, cyphered but with a holograph postcript by the king.

32.BL Addl. 28,264/17–19 and 26–7, Philip to Emmanuel Philibert, Cambrai, 6, 7 and 9 Aug. 1557, cyphered but with holograph postcripts by the king.

33.Tellechea Idígoras, Carranza y Pole, 263, Carranza to Villagarcía, 28 Aug. 1557; AGS Estado 153/103, Feria to Zayas, 9 Aug. 1571, the eve of the fourteenth anniversary of the battle, written at San Lorenzo de El Escorial.

34.Sigüenza, 8. See also chapter 7.

35.HSA Altamira, 7/VI/36, ‘Traslado de una carta que Christóbal Vázquez de Ávila escribió’, 30 Aug. 1557; CODOIN, II, 496, ‘Relación’ sent by Philip to Ferdinand, 29 Aug. 1557; Kamen, Philip, 70, Philip to Juana 2 Sep. 1557.

36.Cabrera de Córdoba, Historia, I, 144; Verzosa, Annales, pp. 62–3.

37.AGS Estado K 1490/78, Philip to Charles, 28 Aug. 1557.

38.AGS Estado K 1490/98, Philip to Emmanuel Philibert, Brussels, 21 Oct. 1557.

39.AGS Estado 128/326 Charles to Philip, Yuste, 15 Nov. 1558, with a holograph postscript; and 317, ‘Relación de cartas del emperador a Su Magestad.’ Eraso endorsed both documents

40.Kervijn de Lettenhove, Relations politiques, I, 116–17, Philip to Lord Wentworth, Brussels, 2 Jan. 1558.

41.Tellechea Idígoras, Carranza y Pole, 268–9, Carranza to Villagarcía, 20 Jan 1558. The ‘engraved on my heart’ story first appeared in Foxe’s Actes and Monuments of 1563 – a hostile source, to be sure, but it has a ring of truth about it.

42.Kervijn de Lettenhove, Relations politiques, I, 120–1, Philip to Pole, 21 Jan. 1558, and Instruction to Feria, 28 Jan.; ibid., 153, Feria to Philip, 10 Mar. 1558; and 191–4, Feria to Philip, 18 May 1558.

43.FCDM AH R7–5, 9 and 10, Philip to Feria, 18 Feb., 17 Mar. and 5 Apr. 1558, all holographs.

44.FCDM AH R7–4 and 6, Philip to Feria, 30 Jan. and 27 Feb. 1558, both holograph.

45.CODOIN, LXXXVII, 40–3, Feria to Philip, Greenwich, 1 May 1558; FCDM, AH R7–12 and 13, Philip to Feria, 7 and 14 May 1558, both holograph.

46.Brunelli, Emanuele Filiberto, 46–7 (Philip ‘very happy’) and 72–3 (council debate).

47.Kervijn de Lettenhove, Relations politiques, I, 269, Philip to the English commissioners, 30 Oct. 1558; Brunelli, Emanuele Filiberto, 101–3 (entry for 26 Oct. 1558).

48.Rodríguez Salgado and Adams. ‘The count of Feria’s dispatch’, 319–20, Feria to Philip, 14 Nov. 1558; Kervijn de Lettenhove, Relations politiques, I, 277, Assonleville to Philip, Westminster, 7 Nov. 1558.

49.Malfatti, The accession, 149, Juan de Barahona to his uncle, 25 Oct. 1554; Hegarty, ‘Carranza and the English universities’, 160, John Jewel to Heinrich Bullinger, 20 Mar. 1559.

50.Brunelli, Emanuele Filiberto, 109 (entry for 12 Nov. 1558); FCDM AH R7–19, Philip to Feria, 25 Nov. 1558, holograph; GRM, I, 447–8, Philip to Juana, 4 Dec. 1558. Mary of Hungary died on 18 Oct. 1558.

51.TR, II, p. 523, Fresneda to Cardinal Caraffa, 11 Dec. 1558; FCDM AH R7–27, Philip to Feria, 27 Dec. 1558, holograph.

52.AGS Estado 128/340, Philip’s comment to Francisco de Eraso on the dorse of a letter from Mary of Hungary dated 10 May 1558.

53.AGS 29/35 Codicil signed by Philip, Ghent, 5 Aug. 1559.

Chapter Four: The king at work

1.Although this chapter contains examples from the whole reign, it focuses on the period before 1580; after that the king changed his administrative style. Chapter 16 focuses on the later part of the reign.

2.Paris, Négociations, 49, bishop of Limoges to the cardinal of Lorraine and the duke of Guise, Ghent, 27 July 1559; Firpo, Relazioni, VIII, 670, Notes by Donà, 1574; Iñiguez de Lequerica, Sermones funerales, fo. 15, sermon by Dr Aguilar de Terrones, 19 Oct. 1598.

3.FCDM AH, R7–10, Philip to Feria, 5 Apr. 1558, holograph; AGS, Estado 527/5, Philip to Gonzalo Pérez, with replies, 24–25 Mar. 1565; IVdeDJ 53/VI/51, and BZ 142/9, Philip to Mateo Vázquez, with replies, 15 May 1577 and 29 Nov. 1578.

4.Álvarez-Nogal and Chamley, ‘Debt policy’, 192.

5.McNamara, In retrospect, xvii.

6.HSA Altamira 1/I/4, Vázquez to Philip, and reply, undated but 1578.

7.NA SP 70/136/38, Henry Cobham to Lord Burghley, Madrid, 14 Nov. 1575; ASVe SDS 20/68, Lippomano to the Doge of Venice, 14 Apr. 1587; Birch, Memoirs, 82, Anthony Standen to Lord Burghley, 8 Sep. 1592.

8.RAH Salazar y Castro Ms A–1/107v–108, Philip to Don Luis de Ávila, Monzón, 6 Oct. 1552; HSA Altamira 1/I/40, Bernardo de Bolea, vice-chancellor of Aragon, to Philip, undated but 1572; BL Addl. 28.262/599–601, Antonio Pérez to Philip and reply (undated, but 1577); Muro, La princesa, Appendix 36, Pazos to Philip, with rescript, 12 May 1579; AHN Inq. libro 249/534v–535, Philip to the bishop of Cartagena, 9 Mar. 1588, register copy.

9.BL Addl. 28,399/20, Philip to viceroy of Sicily, 20 Jan. 1559.

10.Escudero, Felipe II, 459–60; TMLM Ms 12,9960, Antonio Pérez to Philip, and reply, 30 Nov. 1574; BL Eg. 1506/92–4, Quiroga to Philip, and replies, 15 and 19 Nov. 1578.

11.IVdeDJ 55/XI/ 149–150, Vázquez to Philip, and reply, 4 Aug. 1588; BL Addl. 28,262/137, Philip to Antonio Pérez, 12 Feb. 1577.

12.BL Addl. 28,263/7, undated Philip memorandum (first two examples); Escudero, Felipe II, 477; and IVdeDJ 55/X/181, Philip to the duke of Albuquerque, Oct. 1587, draft; AHN Inq. libro 284/107, Quiroga to Philip, and reply, 21 Apr. 1577.

13.DH, III, 404–5, testimony by Philip, 13 Oct. 1562 (Carranza case); BL Addl. 28,263/432, Vázquez to Philip and reply, 11 Aug. 1587 (Miguel de Piedrola, a Plaza Prophet).

14.IVdeDJ 53/3/65 and 51/170, Philip to Vázquez, with rescripts, 8 June 1574 and 20 July 1575; IVdeDJ 56, paquete 6–2, unfol., Hernando de Ávalos to Vázquez, with royal apostil, 25 Mar. 1576.

15.HSA Altamira 1/III/7, Philip toVázquez, Madrid, 18 Nov. 1573. Philip’s confusion on the subject should not surprise us: even economists and economic historians today cannot agree about the king’s fiscal situation: compare (for example) the incompatible analyses published early in 2014 by Álvarez-Nogal and Chamley, ‘Debt policy’, and Drelichman and Voth, Lending.

16.IVdeDJ 53/4/169 and 53/3/76, BL Addl. 28,699/103, and Riba, 105–6, Philip to Vázquez, and replies, 12 Sep. 1575, 26 July 1574, and 22 and 23 Apr. 1577.

17.BZ 144/11, Vázquez to Philip, 20 May 1574. HSA Altamira 5/1/13 ‘Señor Maximiliano’ of Austria to Jerónimo Gassol, 27 Dec. 1586.

18.HSA Altamira 5/III/17, Vázquez to Juan Fernández de Espinosa, 12 Jan. 1586; BNF Ms. Esp. 132/179–80, Pérez to Juan de Vargas Mexía, 26 Jan. 1579; Oria, 152, Idiáquez and Moura to Medina Sidonia, 22 Feb. 1588; BL Addl. 28,377/110v, Poza to Moura, 7 Sep. 1595.

19.TMLM Ms 129961, Philip to Vázquez, 3 Oct. 1578; Tellechea Idígoras, El ocaso, 105–7 and 286–8, ‘Juicio sobre Felipe II’ by Caetani, Madrid, 13 Sep. 1598.

20.Paris, Négocations, 558–60, Memorial of the French ambassador in Spain, 26 Sep. 1560.

21.Serrano y Sanz, Autobiografías, 199–201, ‘Vida y cosas notables’ of Dr Diego de Simancas. Simancas was right: Quiroga had indeed boosted Pazos, someone almost unknown to the king: AHN Inq. libro 284/71–2, Quiroga to Philip, and reply, 4 Mar. 1577.

22.BL Addl. 28,399/20, Philip to the viceroy of Sicily, 20 Jan. 1559, copy (apparently the first use of the technique); BZ 141/108, Philip to Mateo Vázquez, 1 May 1586 (the ‘offender’ was the viceroy of Navarre).

23.Escudero, Felipe II, 531–2, Gassol to Philip and rescript, 14 Nov. 1594.

24.BZ, 144/33, Vázquez to Philip and reply, 6 Dec. 1574; IVdeDJ, 51/17, Philip to Vázquez, 17 July 1573; IVdeDJ, 21/716, royal apostil on a letter of Fray Antonio de San Pablo to Vázquez, 17 Nov. 1581.

25.Donà, 350, letter to Venice, 23 Aug. 1571; Firpo, Relazioni, VIII, 669.

26.GCP I, 358, Pérez to Tomás de Armenteros, 30 May 1565; AA 56/63, Zayas to Alba, 30 June 1567.

27.Paris, Négociations, 66, bishop of Limoges to Francis II, 4 Aug. 1559.

28.MHSI, Borgia, III, 482, Borja to Philip, 5 May 1559; AGS Estado, 148/181, count of Chinchón to the governor of Lombardy, 12 Dec. 1566; AA 44/81–3, Dr Juan Milio to Juan de Albornoz, 12 June 1571; Douais, II, 88, Fourquevaux to Catherine de Médici, 6 July 1569.

29.IVdeDJ 81/1251, Requesens to Zúñiga, Nov. 1572. See Janis, Groupthink, on the costs of administrative practices like those fostered by Espinosa.

30.AMAE (P) MDFDE 239/126–35, Philip to Don Diego de Covarrubias (undated but Oct. 1572), copy; Secret Instruction of Charles to Philip, 6 May 1543 (chapter 1).

31.BZ 144/1, Vázquez to Philip, undated but Mar. 1573.

32.DHME, V, 57 and 81 (‘Diurnal’ entries for 7 Oct. 1572 and 5 Mar. 1573); Poole, ‘The politics of Limpieza de Sangre’, 382.

33.BZ 144/16 and 141/9, and BL Addl. 28,263/222, Philip to Mateo Vázquez, 6 Nov. 1574, 24 July 1577 and 14 Apr. 1579.

34.Calculations by Rodríguez Salgado, ‘The Court’, 226, from the ‘Diurnal’ kept by Antonio Gracián.

35.BZ 44/116–17, and HSA Altamira 1/I/4, Vázquez to Philip, and replies, 28 Feb., 3 Mar. 1575 and undated but 1578.

36.DHME, V, 42, 81 and 89 (‘Diurnal’ entries for 11 July 1572, 5 Mar. and 5 Apr. 1573 respectively; BZ 141/11, Philip to Vázquez, 25 June 1577.

37.CCG, IV, 558, Granvelle to Morillon, 11 May 1573; AA Montijo caja 34–1/72, Granvelle to duke of Villahermosa, 13 July 1576.

38.BR Ms. II–2291, unfol., Pérez to Granvelle, 16 Apr. 1560; Groen van Prinsterer, Archives, 1st series I, 426, Chantonnay, Spanish ambassador in Vienna, to Granvelle, 6 Oct. 1565.

39.Paris, Négociations, 562, mémoire of 26 Sep. 1560; Douais, II, 338, Fourquevaux to Charles IX, 31 Mar. 1571; and Binchy, ‘An Irish ambassador’, 371, quoting the cardinal of Como to Nuncio Ormanetto, 2 July 1577.

40.BR Ms II–2291/224-5, Córdoba to Granvelle, 3 Sep. 1560; Berwick y Alba, Documentos escogidos, 100–1, Córdoba to Alba, 1 Feb. 1571; AA 32/42, Córdoba to Prior Don Hernando de Toledo, 4 Aug. 1574.

41.BL Addl. 28,350/233, and IVdeDJ 61/130, Philip to Hoyo, secretary of the Junta de Obras y Bosques, Dec. 1565 and Apr. 1567.

42.DHME, V, 100.

43.AHN Inq. libro 100/242, Philip to Quiroga, 1 Sep. 1574, holograph; IVdeDJ, 51/49, Philip to Vázquez, 30 Aug. 1575.

44.IVdeDJ 61/19, Hoyo to Philip and reply, 22 May 1562; BZ 144/34, Philip to Vázquez, 10 Dec. 1574.

45.Firpo, Relazioni, VIII, 669 (Donà); CCG, XI, 272, Granvelle to Margaret of Parma, 21 Sep. 1584; ASV NS 19/192, Novara to Rusticucci, 3 May 1587.

46.BCR Ms 2417/39, Silva to Esteban de Ibarra, 13 Aug. 1589.

47.Sánchez, El monasterio de El Escorial, 207–9, letters from the prior of El Escorial, 27 Aug. and 8 Sep. 1572.

48.Escudero, Felipe II, 457 n. 1051, quoting a ‘Relación’ of Baron Dietrichstein, ambassador at Philip’s court 1563–72; Donà, 319, letter to Venice, 3 July 1571.

49.Riba, 105–6, Vázquez to Philip, and reply, 23 Apr. 1577; IVdeDJ 68/286, Vega to Philip II and rescript, 22 Aug. 1583.

50.BL Addl. 28,263/34, IVdeDJ 51/ 178, and Escudero, Felipe II, 574, Philip to Vázquez, 23 May 1576, 6 May 1578, and 3 Apr. 1574.

51.ARSI Epistolae Hispaniae 143/293–294v, holograph report by Acosta, 16 Sep. 1588.

52.Donà, 39–40 and 198, letters to Venice, 6 June 1570 and 4 Feb. 1571.

53.NA SP 70/143/29, Sir John Smythe to Walsingham, 5 Feb. 1577; IVdeDJ 53/5/15, Vázquez to Philip and reply, 27 Jan. 1576; Donà, 677–81, letter to Venice, 17 Apr. 1573; IVdeDJ 60/96, Philip to Pérez, undated but also 17 Apr. 1573.

54.Serrano y Sanz, Autobiografías, 198; Mosconi, La nunziatura, 16–17, Novara to Rusticucci, 18 Oct. 1586.

55.Douais, II, 18 and 21, letters to Charles IX and Catherine de Medici, 18 Nov. 1568; Donà, 393–4, letter to Venice, 26 Nov. 1571.

56.Firpo, Relazioni, VIII, 257, Lorenzo Priuli in 1576; Sigüenza, 57.

Chapter Five: The king and God

1.TMLM Ms 129978, Secret Instructions for Don John of Austria, 23 May 1568, draft corrected by Philip (slightly different from the text in Van der Hammen, Don Juan de Austria, fos 4–44).

2.Lhermite, Passetemps, II, 130.

3.DHME, II, p. 47, Codicil of 23 Aug. 1597.

4.DHME, V, 37–8, Gracián’s ‘Diurnal’ for 10 June 1572.

5.BL Addl. 28,263/105–6, Vázquez to Philip and rescript, San Lorenzo, 6 Apr. 1577; Sigüenza, 71.

6.IVdeDJ 55/IX/111, Philip to Mateo Vázquez, 26 July 1586; BZ 143/6 and 141/84, same to same, 4 Jan. 1588 and 19 Feb. 1586.

7.ASVe SDS 12/44 and 74, Giovanfrancesco Morosini to the Doge of Venice, Madrid, 12 Aug. 1579 and 8 Feb. 1580; Sigüenza, 92 and 158. For the arrest of Don Carlos, see chapter 10; for that of Pérez, see chapter 14.

8.AGS Estado 153/54, Gracián to Zayas, 9 Aug. 1571; IVdeDJ 67/287a, Vázquez to Philip and reply, 28 June 1574; Bouza, Cartas, 65, letter to his daughters [30 Mar.] 1584.

9.CODOIN, VII, 366 (Memorias de San Gerónimo).

10.AGS CC Libros de cédulas 321/248–9, 272–5, 184–186v, 299-301, 303 (‘plegarías’ between 1560 and 1568); Sigüenza, 69 (Moriscos); Bouza, Imagen y propaganda, 144–6 (prayer chain); BL Eg. 1506/16–17, Philip to Gaspar de Quiroga, bishop of Cuenca (and Inquisitor-General), 8 Mar. 1574.

11.HSA Altamira 1/I/46, Diego de Covarrubias, president of the council of Castile, to Philip and rescript, 11 Sep. 1577. On the decision to break the peace in the Netherlands, see chapter 13.

12.IVdeDJ 56/6/19, Vázquez to Chaves and reply, 24 June 1581; HSA Altamira 1/III/8, Chaves to Philip, 20 May 1587.

13.Martínez Millán and Carlos Morales, Felipe II, 268–9, Chaves to Philip, 24 Oct. 1588 (about the need to investigate irregularities among the Jesuits of Spain); and Fernández, Historia, 278–9, same to same, 19 Mar. 1592.

14.Calvete de Estrella, Felicíssimo viaje, 663 (Vicente Álvarez); HSA Altamira 7/VI/36, ‘Traslado de una carta que Christóbal Vázquez de Ávila escribió’, 30 Aug. 1557.

15.Sigüenza, 367; Estal, Personalidad religiosa, 159, noted ‘a tooth said to belong to St Lawrence with a holograph note by Philip II attached’. See chapter 19 on Philip’s reverence for relics during his final illness.

16.PEG, V, 643, and VI, 149, Philip to Granvelle, 24 Aug. 1559 and 7 Sep. 1560; AGS Estado 527/5, Philip to Gonzalo Pérez, undated [Mar. 1565].

17.BZ 166/92 and 100, rescripts on Hernando de Vega to Philip, 9 and 11 Nov. 1586 (rejoicing); chapter 10 on Fray Diego; AHN Inq. libro 284/107 (old fos. 96–7), Quiroga to Philip and rescript, 21 Apr. 1578; BL Addl. 28,262/558–9, Antonio Pérez to Philip, and rescript, undated but Oct. 1578.

18.IVdeDJ 53/3/56 and BZ 144/36, Vázquez to Philip and reply, 13 May and 11 Dec. 1574.

19.BPU Ms Favre 30/73v, Philip to Requesens, 20 Oct. 1573, copy of holograph original; IVdeDJ 37/155, Vázquez to Philip and reply, 22 Jan. 1576; AHN Inq. libro 101/325, Philip rescript to a consulta from the Suprema, 11 Jan. 1592.

20.AHN Inq. libro 284/81 [modern fo. 85], and BL Eg. 1506/94, Quiroga to Philip and rescripts, 20 Oct. 1577 and 19 Nov. 1578. See chapters 13 and 14 on the role of Quiroga in formulating the king’s policy towards the Dutch.

21.AGS Estado K 1530/53bis, Philip to Don Diego de Zúñiga, his ambassador in Paris, 18 Sep. 1572; Gachard, La Bibliothèque Nationale à Paris, II, 395–6, St Gouard to Charles IX, 12 Sep.1572.

22.AGS CC Libros de cédulas 321/248v–9, 272–5, 284–286v; González Novalín, Historia de la Iglesia, III–2, 21, Philip to Pius IV and his ambassador in Rome, 30 Nov. 1562; AGS PR 21/133, Philip’s Instructions to the count of Luna, his envoy to the council, 26 Oct. 1562, holograph addition, copy.

23.Fernández Terricabras, Felipe II, 105, Philip to the count of Luna.

24.Novísima Recopilación de las leyes, I.i.13, pragmática of 12 July 1564 for Castile.

25.Fernández Terricabras, ‘Philippe II’, 222–3 and 230, Dr Velasco to the vice-chancellor of Aragon, 25 July 1564, and Philip II to all cathedral chapters, 4 Dec. 1564.

26.Fernández Terricabras, Felipe II, 123–31, Philip’s instructions to his commissaries; Fernández Collado, ‘Felipe II y su mentalidad reformadora’, 463, Don Francisco de Toledo (the future viceroy of Peru) to Philip.

27.AGS Estado 897/3, Philip to Cardinal Pacheco, 1 Jan. 1565; Fernández Terricabras, ‘La reforma de las Ordenes’, 193, Philip to Requesens, May 1569.

28.Berwick y Alba, Documentos escogidos, 284–6, Philip to Granvelle, 10 July 1581, holograph.

29.Hinojosa, Felipe II, 106–7, Ambassador Vargas to Philip, 29 Dec. 1559; Astraín, Historia, III, 703–8, Philip to Ambassador Olivares, 9 Dec. 1588.

30.Philip’s letters to Rome in favour of his nominees for benefices in Castile are registered in AHN Consejos suprimidos: Libros de Iglesia, 1–4.

31.AMAE (P), MDFDE 237/59, Philip to Olivares, 30 Sep. 1585; Cloulas, ‘La monarchie catholique’, provides a list of pensioners.

32.Serrano, II, 515, Requesens to Philip, 10 Dec. 1568; BCR Ms 2174/76v–77, Philip to Ambassador Zúñiga, 17 July 1569; and Serrano, I, 444, ‘Memorial de los agravios’.

33.Tellechea Idígoras, Felipe II y el Papado, II, 112, Philip to Gregory XIII, 10 Aug. 1580, holograph.

34.Berwick y Alba, Documentos escogidos, 284–6, Philip to Granvelle, 10 July 1581, holograph.

35.BMO, I, 42, Philip to Alba, 22 Jan. 1570; and 43–7, Alba to Philip, 23 and 24 Feb. 1570.

36.AA 7/58, Philip to Alba, 14 July 1571, cyphered with decrypt, received in record time on 30 July.

37.AGS Estado 153/68 and BL Addl. 28,336/70, Velasco to Zayas and to Espinosa, both on 27 July 1571; AGS Estado 153/72, Velasco to Zayas, 1 Aug. 1571; and idem, fo. 103, Feria to Zayas, 9 Aug. 1571.

38.BMO, 1, 57–62, Philip to Alba, 4 Aug. 1571, and reply 27 Aug. 1571.

39.CCG, XII, 339–41, Philip to Parma, 17 Aug. 1585; AGS Estado 165/2–3, Philip to Archduke Albert, 14 Sep. 1587 (message for the marquis of Santa Cruz); Oria, 210–14, Philip to the duke of Medina Sidonia, 1 July 1588.

40.BZ 145/76, Mateo Vázquez to Philip and reply, 10 Nov. 1588; KML MSP: CR 6/174, Philip to Medina Sidonia, 15 Dec. 1590; IVdeDJ 51/1, Vázquez to Philip and reply, 8 Feb. 1591.

41.Abad, ‘Dos inéditos del siglo XVI’, 332 (Bartolomé Torres).

42.Márquez Villanueva, ‘Giovan Giorgio Trission y el soneto de Hernando de Acuña’.

43.The texts of the Masses by Escobedo and Rogier, and of Infantas’s Quasi stella matutina, may be found in Sierra, Música.

44.Porreño, Historia, 346–7, Don John to Margaret, 26 Oct. 1576.

45.MHSI, LX: Ribadeneira, II, 492–3, Ruy Gómez to Pedro de Ribadeneira, SJ, 13 Apr. 1559; Fernández Álvarez, La princesa, 102–5, based on chap. XVII of Teresa’s Libro de las Fundaciones.

46.Rodríguez, Álava, 97, Álava to Alba, 17 Mar. 1568; AGRB Audience 1728/2/77, Alba to Count Bossu, 29 Aug. 1572.

47.BZ 136/19, Pérez to Mateo Vázquez, 13 Nov. 1575 (‘Yo me parto hoy … a mi romería’); IVdeDJ 60/209–10, Pérez to Philip, 1 Jan. 1576; HSA Altamira, 1/II/52 (iv), Barajas to Mateo Vázquez, 15 Dec. 1584; TMLM Ms 660, ‘Ciertas minutas de principio del año de 1587 sobre cosas de Inglaterra’, by Idiáquez.

48.IVdeDJ 51/31 and HSA Altamira 1/I/24, Vázquez to Philip, 31 May 1574 and 13 Aug. 1578.

49.IVdeDJ 24/38, Ovando to Philip, 16 Jan. 1574, holograph; CCG, X, 331–2, Granvelle to Idiáquez, 21 Aug. 1583.

50.Campanella, Monarchie d’Espagne (original Italian version written 1598–1605), 10–13.

51.Clausewitz, On War, 119, 139.

Chapter Six: The king at play

1.HSA Altamira 5/III/14, Vázquez marginal response, 8 Dec. 1585, to a letter from Juan Fernández de Espinosa.

2.Ruiz, A king travels, 7.

3.Firpo, Relazione, VIII, 438 and 507 (Soranzo and Cavalli).

4.Brantôme, Oeuvres complètes, I, 126.

5.DHME, V, 58–60, from the ‘Diurnal’ of Antonio Gracián.

6.AGPM CR 2/142v–3, patent for Juan Bautista de Toledo, 12 Aug. 1561 (noting the earlier order of 15 July 1559); Gachard, La Bibliothèque Nationale à Paris, II, 170, St Sulpice to Charles IX, 12 June 1564.

7.IVdeDJ 61/386, Philip to Hoyo, with rescript, undated but Apr. 1565.

8.IVdeDJ 61/85–6, Philip to Hoyo, Aug. 1565; AGS CSR 247/1 fo. 126, Juan Bautista de Toledo to Hoyo, 13 Aug. 1565, with royal rescript.

9.AGS CSR 133/83, Philip to the executors of the emperor’s testament, Brussels, 27 July 1559.

10.AGPM CR 2/99 and 125v–126, Philip to the General of the Jeronimite Order, 16 Apr. and 20 June 1561; AGS CSR 258/265, Jeronimite general to Philip, 1 Jan. 1562 (San Lorenzo de la Victoria became San Lorenzo el Real).

11.DHME, I, p. 12 (Villacastín, ‘Memorias’); BL Addl. 28,350/169, Philip to Hoyo, Sep. 1564.

12.DHME, III, prints the 1569 ‘Cédula por la cual Su Majestad altera algunos capítulos de los de la instrucción de los que tiene dada para la obra del monasterio de Sant Lorenzo’ and ‘Instrucción para el gobierno y prosecución de la fábrica y obra de Sanct Lorenzo’.

13.CODOIN, VII, 163–4, ‘Memorias’ of San Gerónimo; DHME, I, 20; Sigüenza, 452.

14.Wilkinson Zerner, Juan de Herrera, 54.

15.AGS Estado 153/54 and 77, Antonio Gracián and Dr Velasco to Zayas, both on 9 Aug. 1571.

16.Mulcahy, Philip II, 50.

17.[Eliot,] Ortho-epia Gallica, 44–5; Howell, Epistolae, section III, 115–17, to Sir T. S., undated but 9 Mar. 1623.

18.Lhermite, Passetemps, II, 86–91, Villacastín to Lhermite, 4 Mar. 1600, followed by Lhermite’s calculations.

19.AGS CC 409/26, Fray Hernando de Ciudad Real to Philip, 9 Nov. 1571, with royal apostils.

20.CODOIN, VII, 141 (San Gerónimo).

21.Aguiló Alonso, Orden y decoro, 123–202; García Tapia, ‘El Escorial’, 420–1.

22.CODOIN, VII, 20, observation by Fray Marcos de Cardona; IVdeDJ 61/1, Philip to Hoyo, undated but probably May 1563; BZ 146/69, Philip to Hoyo, undated but May 1567.

23.AGPM CR 2/254, Philip cédula, 8 Nov. 1562; IVdeDJ 61/7, Philip to Hoyo, 26 Dec. 1561.

24.Wilkinson Zerner, ‘Construcción de una imagen’, 332.

25.IVdeDJ 61/105, Philip to Hoyo, 10 Feb. 1566; CODOIN, VII, 157, ‘Memorias’ of San Gerónimo.

26.IVdeDJ 7/113, Don Luis Osorio to Mateo Vázquez, 13 Dec. 1584, and reply; AGP CR 7/66v, order of 19 Mar. 1588.

27.Sigüenza, 102; Lhermite, Passetemps, I, 82–3.

28.López Piñero, Historia de la ciencia, 91–2, citing Laguna, Pedacio Dioscorides (Antwerp, 1555) and Franco, Libro de enfermedades (Seville, 1569).

29.Puerto Sarmiento, ‘Los “destilatorios”’, 434–6, quoting royal cédulas; Sigüenza, 392.

30.IVdeDJ 61/306, 339 and 360, and BL Addl. 28,350/315–26, all undated billetes exchanged between Philip and Hoyo written over the winter of 1562–3.

31.López Piñero, Historia de la ciencia, 47–48 (Ondériz), 289–91 (Zúñiga).

32.See chapter 5 on the Biblia regia; and Marías Franco, ‘Felipe II y los artistas’ and Ramirez, Dios arquitecto, 215–41 and 249–51 on Philip’s sponsorship of In Ezechielem explanationes.

33.Royal order printed by van ‘t Hoff, Jacob van Deventer, 36.

34.BNE Ms. 5589/64, ‘Ynterrogatorio’.

35.Rodríguez, Álava, 181, Philip to Don Francés de Álava, 28 May 1567.

36.Herrera, Institución de la Academia Real Mathemática, 1, 4 and 19.

37.IVdeDJ, 61/131, Pedro de Hoyo to Philip, and rescript, undated but 1561; Riba, 207, Philip to Vázquez, 21 June 1579.

38.Bouza, Cartas, 14 n. 27, prints the Orden submitted by Mendoza.

39.Escudero, Felipe II, 576, and IVdeDJ 51/172, Philip to Vázquez, 10 Aug. and 21 and 26 May 1578.

40.NA SP 94/1/19, Zayas to Antonio de Guaras, 7 Oct. 1577; IVdeDJ 55/IX/155, Philip to Vázquez, 8 Nov. 1586.

41.Lhermite, Passetemps, II, 173–8.

42.BL Addl. 28, 699/114, Vázquez to Philip, with rescript, 2 May 1577.

43.FCDM AH R7–5, Philip to Feria, 18 Feb. 1558; PEG, V, 491, Philip to Granvelle and Ruy Gómez, Brussels, 19 Feb. 1559.

44.IVdeDJ 53/5/140 and 53/6/39, Vázquez to Philip, with rescripts, 14 July 1576 and 13 July 1577.

45.CODOIN, VII, 385; Martínez Hernández, El marqués de Velada, 334–6; Bouza, Cartas, 91, Philip to his daughters, 17 Sep. 1582, and note 196.

46.IVdeDJ 51/189, Vázquez to Philip, 20 Apr. 1586, and reply; Bouza, Cartas, 181, Philip to Catalina, 10 June 1591.

47.Bouza, Cartas, 51, 61 and 113, Philip to his daughters, 10 July and 23 Oct. 1581, and Easter 1584.

48.Riba, 179, Philip to Vázquez, undated but 1578; IVdeDJ 55/XI/121–2 Vázquez to Philip and reply, 27 July 1588.

49.AGS Estado 946/141a, Philip to the count of Olivares, ambassador in Rome, 31 Mar. 1585.

50.DHME, V, 27; IVdeDJ 55/IX/93, Philip to Vázquez, 8 Dec. 1586; Bouza, Cartas, 85, Philip to his daughters, 1583.

51.Bustamante García, ‘La arquitectura de Felipe II’, 492.

52.Kamen, Philip, 55, 90, 222.

53.Smith, The life, 19 (funeral oration for Magdalen, Viscountess Montague, née Dacre, by her confessor, to whom she had confided these details). Since Magdalen married in 1556, this incident took place in 1554–5. The ‘lewdnes’ may have been worse. The Latin original reads “vbi faciem suam forte ipsa lauabat”: facies can mean either ‘face’ or ‘body’: Smith, Vita, 38–9.

54.Firpo, Relazioni, VIII, 438–9, Soranzo, Jan. 1565, repeated in William of Orange’s Apology: Duke, ‘William of Orange’, 29; Gachard, Bibliothèque Nationale de Paris, II, 177, St Sulpice to Charles IX, 7 Oct. 1564. Ruy Gómez may have been speaking of Isabel Osorio.

55.Belda, ‘Carta’, 474–5, Zúñiga to Philip, 3 Dec. 1578. Zúñiga, son of Philip’s stern governor with the same name, attended the king in the Netherlands and Spain until he went to Rome in 1567.

56.Valente, Un dramma, 7–8, Cavaliere Bondi to Cardinal Farnese, 8 Feb. 1586.

57.BL 192.f.17 (i), Lord Burghley’s annotated copy of Relación de la Felicíssima Armada; Yale University, Beinecke Library, Osborn Shelves, fo. 20, [João de Teixiera], ‘The Anatomie of Spayne’, 65: see FBD, 969–70, on the Portuguese original of this translation, written in 1598.

Chapter Seven: Getting a grip, 1558–1561

1.AGS Estado 128/378, Philip to Juan Vázquez de Molina, 9 Dec, 1558, holograph postscript; FCDM AH R7-19, Philip to Feria, 25 Nov. 1558, holograph; Fernández Álvarez, Tres embajadores, 215–19, same to same, 28 Dec. 1558.

2.CODOIN, LXXXVII, 80–5, Feria to Philip, 21 Nov. 1558 (Feria encoded much of this letter).

3.NA SP 70/1, fo. 23, Elizabeth to Cobham, 23 Nov. 1558.

4.FCDM AH, R7–19, Philip to Feria, 25 Nov 1558, holograph; CODOIN, LXXXVII, 83 and 93, Feria to Philip, 21 Nov. and 14 Dec. 1558.

5.Fernández Álvarez, Tres embajadores, 215–19, Philip to Feria, 28 Dec. 1558; Hatfield House, Cecil Papers, 133/188, Philip to Elizabeth, 27 Dec. 1558, holograph

6.See, for example, NA SP 70/2 fo. 49, Philip to Elizabeth, 20 Jan. 1559.

7.CODOIN, LXXXVII, 111, Feria to Philip, 29 Dec. 1558.

8.González, ‘Apuntamientos’, 157–9, Philip to Feria, 10 Jan. 1559.

9.FCDM AH R7–1 and 21, Philip to Feria, 10 and 28 Jan. 1559, both holograph.

10.CODOIN, LXXXVII, 133–4, ‘Puntos’ by Feria for Philip.

11.Ibid., 141, Philip to Feria, 23 Mar. 1559.

12.Brunelli, Emanuele Filiberto, 101–3, report of a resolution by Philip’s council on 26 Oct. 1558 – three weeks before Mary died.

13.PEG, V, 585–7, Granvelle to Feria, 3 Apr. 1559.

14.FCDM AH R7–23, Philip to Feria, 21 Mar. 1559, holograph.

15.Tellechea Idígoras, El Papado y Felipe II, I, 85–6, Paul IV to Philip, 6 May 1559.

16.FCDM AH R7–22, Philip to Feria, 11 Feb. 1559, holograph; PEG, V, 606, Philip to Granvelle, 24 June 1559.

17.BR Ms II-2320/124, Granvelle to Juan Vázquez de Molina, 21 July 1559; NA SP 70/6/32v–33, Challoner to Elizabeth, 3 Aug. 1559, holograph.

18.AGS Estado 137/227, Juana to Philip, 14 July 1559, decoded with the king’s holograph comments.

19.AGS PR 26/169–70, Philip’s Instruction to Ruy Gómez and Dr Velasco and letter to Juana, both 23 July 1559.

20.GRM, I, 444–6, Quijada to Philip, 28 Nov. 1558.

21.PEG, V, 628–30, Philip to Granvelle, [29] July 1559.

22.Ibid., 643, Philip to Granvelle, 24 Aug. 1559.

23.TR, IV, 318–23, Valdés to Philip, 14 May 1558.

24.Ibid., 434–6, Philip to Valdés and the Suprema, and GRM, I, 302 n. 1, Philip to Juana, both ‘del Campo’, 6 Sep. 1558.

25.González Novalín, Inquisidor General, II, 214–21, Valdés to Paul IV, 9 Sep. 1558, together with the ‘Relación’.

26.AGS PR 29/33, Testament of Philip, London, 2 July 1557, naming ‘la persona que yo oviere proveído por arzobispo de Toledo’ to take over ‘la administración y gobierno general’ of Spain and ‘regir y gobernar la persona del dicho príncipe’ Don Carlos.

27.TR, IV, 589–90, Philip to Juana, undated but Nov. 1558, copy.

28.Ibid., 687–91, Fray Hernando de San Ambrosio to Carranza, Brussels, 5 Apr. 1559; DH, V, 183, Philip to Carranza, Brussels, 4 Apr. 1559.

29.TR, IV, 680–3, Carranza to Philip, holograph draft, undated (but written shortly before his letter to the king dated 5 Apr. 1559, ibid., 692–4).

30.Ibid., 600–1, Paul IV to Valdés, 7 Jan. 1559; and 763–5, Suprema to Philip, 16 May 1559.

31.Ibid., 831–2, Philip to the Suprema, 26 June 1559.

32.Ibid., 889, Juana to Carranza, 3 Aug. 1559. For the arrest, with its undertones of Monty Python’s ’No one expects the Spanish Inquisition’, see DH, II, 327–32 and TR, IV, 196–9.

33.TR, IV, 696–7, ‘Mandamiento’ of Valdés to the university of Alcalá, 11 Apr. 1559.

34.Serrano y Sanz, Autobiografías, 157, account by Diego de Simancas; Cabrera de Córdoba, Historia, I, 202.

35.TR, IV, 969–72, Pragmática of 22 Nov. 1559.

36.Ibid., 953–4 and 995–6, Feria to Bishop Quadra (his successor as Spanish ambassador in England), Mechelen, 4 Oct. 1559 and 21 Jan. 1560.

37.DH, II, 358, Carranza’s accusations against Valdés, 4 Sep. 1559.

38.DH, V, 336–8, Carranza’s response to new charges by Fiscal, 8 Jan. 1563.

39.RAH Proceso Carranza 9/1804, fo. 83v, Philip’s testimony on 12 Jan. 1560.

40.DH, III, 404–5, Philip’s testimony, 13 Oct. 1562.

41.Tellechea Idígoras, Felipe II y el Papado, II, 44–5, 48 and 80, Philip to Gregory XIII, undated, but spring 1574 (holograph), 21 July 1574, holograph, and 11 June 1576.

42.Cabrera de Córdoba, Historia, I, 204; GRM, II, 465–9, Juana to Charles, 8 Aug. 1558.

43.GRM, I, 449–50, Quijada to Felipe, 13 Dec. 1558; AGS Estado 128/28, Philip to Quijada, undated minute apparently dictated to, and amended by, Francisco de Eraso. Italics added.

44.Gachard, Don Juan, 51–2.

45.Fernández y Fernandez de Retana, España, I, 602; Alvar Ezquerra, Felipe II, la corte y Madrid, 12, quoting Horozco.

46.PEG, V, 673, Philip to Granvelle, 27 Dec. 1559; Alvar Ezquerra, Felipe II, la corte y Madrid, 19, royal cédula of 8 May 1561.

47.AGPM CR 1/242 and 2/36–38v, royal cédulas of 14 Feb. 1556 and 22 June 1557; and 2/52v–55, Philip to Gaspar de Vega, 15 Feb. 1559; Gérard, De castillo a palacio, 12 and 73.

48.CODOIN, XCVIII, 53–4, ‘Las condiciones con que verná Su Majestad en la tregua’, 5 Mar. 1559; ibid., 57–9, Philip to count of Luna, his ambassador at the Imperial court, undated (but Apr. 1559); AGS Estado 1210/91, Philip to the governor of Milan, 8 Apr. 1559; and AGS Estado 1124/278–302, Instructions of Philip to his ministers in Italy, 15 June 1559.

49.BNE Ms 5938/440–441v, ‘Divisa’ by Gabriel Rincón; Mameranus, Carmen Gratulatorium, an item still in the Escorial library.

50.AGS Estado 1124/257, Don Bernat de Guimaran to Philip, 21 July 1559.

51.BR Ms II–2319/16, Pérez to Granvelle, 6 June 1560.

52.Paris, Négociations, 555, Laubespine to Catherine de Medici, 26 Sep. 1560.

53.CMPG, II, lxii–xiii, Philip to Margaret of Parma, 15 July 1562.

54.AGRB Audience 475/84, Josse de Courtewille, in Madrid, to Viglius, in Brussels, 24 May 1563.

55.BMB Ms Granvelle 8/189, Pérez to Granvelle, 19 Feb. 1564.

56.IVdeDJ 61/1, Hoyo to Philip, undated (but probably May 1562).

Chapter Eight: ‘I would rather lose a hundred thousand lives if I had them’: keeping the faith, 1562–1567

1.PEG, V, 674, Philip to Granvelle, 27 Dec. 1559; BR Ms II–2249, unfol., Gonzalo Pérez to Granvelle, 19 Nov. 1560; PEG, VI, 166, Granvelle to Philip, 12 Sep. 1560.

2.Japikse, Correspondentie, I, 143–4, Egmont to Orange, 1 July 1559.

3.Tellechea Idígoras, Felipe II y el Papado, I, 44, Philip to Paul IV, Brussels, 24 Apr. 1559, holograph.

4.[Strada], Supplément, II, 267–8, Hornes to Eraso, 19 Dec. 1561. AGRB Audience 478/3, Philip to Hornes, 9 Feb. 1562, mentioned this letter, which proves that Eraso had shown it to him.

5.AGRB Audience 475/84, Josse de Courtewille to Viglius, Madrid, 24 May 1563; BNF Ms f.f., 15,587/3–7, Memorial of Limoges, citing the analysis of François Baudouin, 1563.

6.CODOIN, IV, 307, Philip to Margaret, 23 Apr. 1564.

7.AGRB Audience 779/30, minutes of the council of State, Brussels, 24 Mar. 1564.

8.CCG, I, 27, Secretary Bave to Granvelle, 4 Dec. 1565.

9.AGRB Audience 779/120, minutes of council of State, Brussels, 26 Jan. 1565, reporting news from Venice dated 14 Dec. 1565 that included ‘nouvelles venues de Constantinople du 3e de decembre passé’.

10.CMPT, II, 51–3, Memorial of Egmont to Philip, and AGS Estado 527/5, Philip to Pérez, both 24 Mar. 1565.

11.AGS Estado 527/5, exchanges between Philip and Pérez, 24–25 Mar. 1565.

12.AGS Estado 527/4, ‘Instrucción al conde de Egmont’, 2 Apr. 1565.

13.PEG, IX, 275, Granvelle to Polweiler, 12 June 1565; GCP, I, 349, Egmont to Philip, 9 Apr. 1565.

14.GPGP, II, 474, and AGS Estado 146/147, Pérez to Philip and reply 4 and [10] Apr. 1565.

15.Wauters, Mémoirs, 268, account by Hopperus of Egmont’s report to the council of State, 5 May 1565.

16.CMPT, I, 59, Margaret to Philip, 22 July 1565; Cahier van der Essen X/19, Armenteros to Pérez, 10 Oct. 1565.

17.GPGP, II, 536, Pérez to Philip, 3 Sep. 1565, with rescript.

18.Rodríguez-Salgado, ‘Amor, menosprecio y motines’, 218, Guzmán de Silva to Ruy Gómez, 24 Nov. 1565.

19.CMPT, II, 258, Margaret to Philip, 19 July 1566.

20.UB Leiden Hs Pap 3/2, Alonso de Laloo to count of Hornes, Segovia, 3 Aug. 1566.

21.CMPT, II, 269–74, Philip to Margaret, 31 July 1566; AGS Estado 531/52–3, ‘Registro de la scriptura que Su Magestad otorgó en el Bosque de Segouia a 9 de agosto 1566’; Serrano, I, 316–17, Philip to don Luis de Requesens, his ambassador in Rome, 12 Aug. 1566; CMPT, II, 313–15, Philip to Margaret, 9 Aug. 1566.

22.Gilles de Pélichy, ‘Contribution’, 105–6, Egmont to Philip, 29 Aug. 1566; AGS Estado 530, unfol., Margaret to Philip, 27 Aug. 1566 (précis in GCP, I, 452–4); and CMPT, II, 326–32, same to same, 27 and 29 Aug. 1566.

23.UB Leiden Hs Pap 3/4, Alonso de Laloo to count of Hornes, Segovia, 20 and 26 Sep. 1566.

24.IANTT TSO: CG, livro 210/14–14v, Pereira to King Sebastian, 23 Sep. 1566; Cahier van der Essen XXXIV/18–19, Miguel de Mendivil to Margaret of Parma, 22 Sep. 1566.

25.Cabrera de Córdoba, Historia, I, 358–63, and Osorio, Vida y hazañas, 331–42, describe the crucial debate on 22 Oct. 1566.

26.La Roca, Resultas, 85–7.

27.HSA Ms B 2010, Alba to ‘Vuestra Señoría Ilustrísima’ (Espinosa), ‘Aranjuez, miércoles a las 8 de la noche’ [= 16 Apr. 1567], holograph.

28.All quotations that follow from AA 5/59, Philip to Alba, Madrid, 7 Aug. 1567, holograph original with the passages coded by Philip transcribed en clair by Alba’s secretary – the only reason we now know the king’s plans.

29.Berwick y Alba, Documentos escogidos, 81, Alba to the bishop of Orihuela, 18 Sep. 1567, minute; Epistolario, I, 694, Alba to Philip, 24 Oct. 1567.

30.Epistolario, I, 694, holograph royal apostil on Alba to Philip, 24 Oct. 1567; Serrano, II, 204, Philip to Pius V, 22 Sep. 1567.

31.ADE, VII, 235–7, ‘Parecer’ of Alba, 11 Apr. 1565.

32.AGS Estado libro 16/213–16, ‘Coniuración del Marqués del Valle’; AGI Justicia 997, no. 4, r. 3, investigation of Don Gonzalo de Zúñiga, Madrid, 12 Sep. 1562: AGI Patronato 29 r. 13, ‘Relación muy verdadera de todo lo sucedido’, and r. 18, Juan de Vargas Zapata to Diego de Vargas, Puerto Rico, 1 Aug. 1562; CODOIN América, IV, 191–282, ‘Relaciones’ of the Aguirre rebellion.

33.IANTT TSO: CG, livro 210/51v–53, Pereira to King Sebastian, 23 Mar. 1567; Douais, I, 204, Fourquevaux to Charles IX, 15 Apr. 1567.

34.AGI Patronato 208, r. 4, Philip’s Instrucción to his commissioners, copy, May 1567; AGS Cámara de Castilla, Diversos 6/50, ‘Las personas que están pressos en la cárcel real’ (s. f., but 1569); Flint, ‘Treason or travesty’, 42–4.

35.CODOIN, CI, 357–8, Philip to Luis Vanegas de Figueroa, his special envoy to the emperor, 28 Jan. 1568, minute.

Chapter Nine: Family life – and death

1.HHStA Spanien Hofkorrespondenz, Karton 1, Mappe 3/161 and 4/27 and 129, and Kamen, Philip, 62, Philip to Maximilian, 12 June 1550, 25 Sep. 1551, 24 Apr. and 17 July 1555.

2.CODOIN, CIII, 251 and 257, Philip to Luis Vanegas and Baron Chantonnay, 31 July 1569, and to Vanegas, 2 Aug. 1569.

3.CODOIN, XXVI, 563–4, Vanegas to Philip, 30 Sep. 1567; CODOIN, CX, 78, Philip to Monteagudo, 29 Sep. 1570.

4.Galende Díaz and Salamanca López, Epistolario, 246–7 and 263–5, María to Philip, 3 Sep. and 29 Nov. 1573. Maria referred to her brother as ‘Your Highness’ because the children of Charles V always reserved ‘His Majesty’ for their father.

5.CDCV, IV, 40, Charles to Philip, 30 Apr. 1554.

6.DH, III, 407–8, sworn deposition of Juana, 26 Oct. 1562.

7.IANTT TSO: CG 210/136–8, Pereira to Sebastian, Juana’s son, 19 and 21 Jan. 1568; González de Amezúa, Isabel, III, 412, Juana to Catherine de Medici, 2 May 1569.

8.BL Addl. 28,354/542, Philip to Ladrada, 20 Dec. 1572; CODOIN, VII, 89, account of Fray Juan de San Jerónimo.

9.González de Amezúa, Isabel, I, 229–37 and III, 515–20, describe the queen’s various entertainments.

10.Paris, Négociations, 807–8, Mme de Vineux to Catherine de Medici, 31 Jan. 1562; Firpo, Relazioni, VIII, 396, ‘Final Relation’ of Paolo Tiepolo, 19 Jan. 1563.

11.Rodríguez Salgado, ‘“Una perfecta princesa”’, II, 85, quoting Pereira to Sebastian, 21 June and 7 Aug. 1563. Pereira’s source was impeccable: his nephew Ruy Gómez.

12.González de Amezúa, Isabel, III, 231–3, St Sulpice to Catherine, Monzón, 25 Nov. 1563.

13.AGS PR 30/28, Isabel’s holograph testament, dated 27 June 1566.

14.Douais, I, 6, Fourquevaux to Catherine, 3 Nov. 1565; González de Amezúa, Isabel, II, 346 n. 31, Fourquevaux to Charles IX, 26 Aug. 1566.

15.Douais, I, 51, Fourquevaux to Catherine, 4 Feb. 1566.

16.Cabié, Ambassade, 432–3, ‘Notes diverses’, Sep.–Oct. 1566; Douais, I, 110–12 and 117–18, Fourquevaux to Catherine, 18 and 26 Aug. 1566.

17.González de Amezúa, Isabel, III, 378–90, descriptions of the queen’s illness and death.

18.Ibid., II, 533 n., Philip to Catherine, 28 June 1569.

19.Tellechea Idígoras, El Papado y Felipe II, I, 199–202, Pius V to Philip, 20 Dec. 1568, holograph.

20.AA 7/75, Philip to Alba, 14 Apr. 1569, holograph.

21.Berwick y Alba, Documentos escogidos, 99–103, Don Diego de Córdoba to Alba, 1 Feb. 1571; CODOIN, XLI, 245, Zayas to Arias Montano, 21 Apr. 1571; BL Addl. 28,354/230, 240 and 294, Philip to Ladrada, 10 June, 12 July and 24 Nov. 1571; AA 44/84, Dr Milio to Juan de Albornoz, Madrid, 4 Dec. 1571.

22.AGPM 3/360v–361, royal cédulas dated 12 July 1572.

23.Firpo, Relazioni, VIII, 721, ‘Final Relation’ of Alberto Badoero, late 1578.

24.BL Addl. 28,354/422, Philip to Ladrada, 10 July 1572. None of these letters has survived: we only know of them through the references in the king’s correspondence with Ladrada.

25.BL Addl. 28,354/314, 476 and 542, Philip to Ladrada, 17 Dec. 1571, 26 Sep. 1572 and 20 Dec. 1572.

26.BL Addl. 28,354/490 and 492, Philip to Ladrada, 2 and 4 Oct. 1572.

27.BL Addl. 28,354/25–6, Espinosa to Ladrada, 11 Apr. 1570; and 394–5, Philip to Ladrada, 17 May 1572; BL Addl. 28,342/322, Philip to Fray Buenaventura de Santíbañez, chaplain of the infantas, 27 May 1581.

28.IVdeDJ 51/170 and 21/576, Mateo Vázquez to Philip and rescript, 20 and 21 July 1575.

29.El oro y la plata, 663, Philip to Francisco de Garnica, undated but 1575.

30.IVdeDJ 22D No.30, Don Pedro Niño to Mateo Vázquez, 11 Oct. 1577.

31.Bouza, Cartas, 88, Philip to the Infantas, 30 July 1582. By contrast, after Catalina’s departure in 1585 the king preserved all her holograph letters to him: they are today in BL Addl. 28,419.

32.Bouza, Cartas, 77 and 85, Philip to the Infantas, 19 Mar. and 4 June 1582.

33.Ibid., 116–17, Philip to Catalina, 18 June 1585. Cock, Relación del viaje, 145, notes that Catalina had cried her eyes out as she said farewell to her father a few days earlier.

34.Bouza, Cartas, 120–1 and 157, Philip to Catalina, 17 July 1585 and 14 June 1588.

35.Ibid., 99 and 109, Philip to the Infantas, 25 Oct. 1582 and 26 Oct. 1583.

36.Ibid., 75 and 40–1, Philip to the Infantas, 5 Mar. 1582 and 1 May 1581.

37.Ibid., 64 and 94, Philip to the Infantas, 20 Nov. and 25 Dec. 1581 and 1 Oct. 1582.

38.Grierson, King of two worlds, 166, Philip to Granvelle.

39.Khevenhüller, Diario, 286; CODOIN, VII, 364, 367 and 370; Sigüenza, 100–1.

40.Bouza, Cartas, 68, 71 and 81–2, letter to the Infantas, 29 Jan., 19 Feb. and 7 May 1582. Philip certainly had an excellent memory for dates: he said farewell to his sister in 1548, when he left Spain, and saw her again briefly only in 1551 in Zaragoza and in 1556 in Brussels.

41.Khevenhüller, Diario, 286–7.

42.Tormo y Monzó, En las Descalzas Reales, 186–7, Margarita to Philip, undated.

43.Khevenhüller, Diario, 287; Tormo y Monzó, En las Descalzas Reales, I, 187–90.

44.Khevenhüller, Diario, 287–8. Charles V had also feared that marrying a teenage bride might kill Philip: chapter 1.

45.Khevenhüller, Diario, 271.

46.Tellechea Idígoras, ‘La mesa’ (2002), 186–7 and 201–2, ‘Serva Tadea’ to Philip, Rome, 8 Dec. 1560.

47.BMO, II, 378, Philip to Parma, 19 Oct. 1586.

48.MacKay, The baker, 154, Ana de Austria to Philip, Nov. 1594.

49.Gachard, Don Juan, 192–3, Granvelle to Margaret of Parma, 13 Oct. 1579.

50.AGS CSR 133/108 (total debts), 129 (cédula of July 1559) and 113, ‘consulta de descargos’ and rescript, 11 Feb. 1579.

51.AGS DGT Inv. 24 903 No. 1, Inventory of the goods of Don Carlos, 9 Feb. 1568, audited on 6 Sep. 1586; CODOIN, XXVIII, 567–9, cédula to Diego de Olarte, 2 Apr. 1577.

Chapter Ten: The enigma of Don Carlos

1.NA SP 70/101/10, Dr Man to William Cecil, San Sebastián, 6 Aug. 1568, italics added.

2.Duke, ‘William of Orange’, 28; Anon., Diogenes, first published at Liège. Lieder, The Don Carlos theme, lists the different accounts of the prince’s fate down to 1930. Schiller’s Don Karlos may even have inspired the ‘plot’ of George Lucas’s 1977 film Star Wars: see High, Who is this Schiller now?, 13–14.

3.IANTT TSO: CG 210/136–7, Pereira to Sebastian, 19 Jan. 1568 (‘ffoy ouvir missa a capella, e o principe con ele’).

4.My account of the arrest draws on four sources, the first two related to Ruy Gómez: IANTT TSO: CG 210/136–7, Pereira to Sebastian, 19 Jan. 1568; Gachard, Don Carlos, 689–90, ‘Avviso d’un Italiano plático y familiar de Ruy Gómez’; ibid., 674–8, Nobili to Duke Cosimo, 25 Jan. 1568, and ibid., 684–7, ‘Relación histórica’ by a gentleman of the prince’s household.

5.IANTT TSO: CG 210/136–7 and 148v–150, Pereira to Sebastian, 19 Jan. 1568 and 11 Feb. 1568; Gachard, Don Carlos, 395, Charles de Tisnacq to Viglius, 31 Jan. 1568; Douais, I, 314, Fourquevaux to Charles IX, 22 Jan. 1568.

6.Gachard, Don Carlos, 677, Nobili to Duke Cosimo de Medici, 25 Jan. 1568; IANTT TSO: CG 210/137–8, Pereira to Sebastian, 21 Jan. 1568.

7.ASMa AG 583/164, Philip to duke of Mantua, 22 Jan. 1568; Douais, I, 318, Fourquevaux to Catherine de Medici, 22 Jan. 1568.

8.AGS Estado libro 16/191, Philip to Queen Catherine, 20 Jan. 1568, copy by Juan de Verzosa (slightly different copy in IANTT Miscelaneas Manuscritas, 964/187–8). Cabrera de Córdoba, Historia, I, 409–10, printed the letter but asserted incorrectly that it was addressed to María and Maximilian and dated 21 Jan. 1568.

9.Koch, Quellen, Dietrichstein to Maximilian, 7 Feb. 1568; ASF MP 4898/226v–228, Nobili to Duke Cosimo, 13 Apr. 1568.

10.IANTT TSO: CG 210/146–50, Pereira to Catherine, 7 Feb. 1568 and to Sebastian, 16 Feb. 1568.

11.AGS Estado 150/11–12, Philip to María, heavily corrected minute and fair copy, [19] May 1568.

12.Rodríguez Ramos, ‘Los comienzos’, and personal comunications from Dr Rodríguez Ramos.

13.AGS PR 29/35, Codicil signed by Philip, Ghent, 5 Aug. 1559.

14.CODOIN, XXVII, 207–10, Felipe to the corregidor of Gibraltar, 13 Sep. 1561, and reply.

15.BAV VL 7,008/351 ‘Proceso de la beatificación y canonización de San Diego de Alcalá’, testimony of Dr Diego López. I thank Andrew Villalon for this reference and for the translation.

16.Gachard, Don Carlos, 110, Paolo Tiepolo to Doge of Venice, Madrid, 20 June 1562; CODOIN, XVIII, 557.

17.HSA Altamira 13/I/10, Philip to Don García de Toledo, undated but summer 1563.

18.Strohmayer, Korrespondenz, I, 203 and 231, Dietrichstein to Maximilian, 22 Apr. and 29 June 1564.

19.Pérez Mínguez, Psicología de Felipe II, 106, quoting Philip to Alba, undated; Gachard, Don Carlos, 229 n. 1, Philip to Chantonnay, his ambassador in Vienna, 12 Sep. 1564.

20.Douais, I, 321, Fourquevaux to Charles IX, Madrid, 5 Feb. 1568, reporting a conversation with Ruy Gómez on 27 Jan.

21.Firpo, Relazioni, VIII, 443–5; Álvarez de Toledo, Alonso Pérez, II, 279, Prior Don Antonio to Don García de Toledo, ‘early 1566’; Douais, I, 200, Fourquevaux to Charles IX, Madrid, 15 Apr. 1567.

22.Douais, I, 220, Mémoire dated 30 June 1567; AGS Estado 657/39–40, 51 and 64, Chantonnay to Philip, 17 Apr. 67 (received in Madrid 16 May); 9 July 1567 (endorsed by the king on 4 Aug.); and 30 Aug. 1567 (received 10 Nov. and endorsed by Pérez ‘to be seen while His Highness is present’) – the latest example I have found.

23.BL Addl. 28,262/329, Pérez to Philip, undated, but spring 1567; Cahier van der Essen XXVI, fos. 20–21, Margaret of Parma to Don Carlos, 20 Apr. and 6 July 1567; AGS CC 387/2, Josse de Courtewille to Don Carlos, 16 June 1567.

24.Gachard, Don Carlos, 672–3, Cavalli to the Doge of Venice, 11 Feb. 1568.

25.Douais, I, 165–6, Fourquevaux to Charles IX, 4 Jan. 1567.

26.AGS DGT Inv 24, leg. 903 No. 1, Inventory of 9 Feb. 1568; Gonzalo Sánchez-Molero, ‘Lectura y bibliofilia’ (Morisot), and a personal communication dated 26 Mar. 2009 on Theuerdank. On the artefacts, see Cervera Vera, ‘Juan de Herrera’.

27.CODOIN, XXVII, 138, testimony of Juan de Espinosa, who ‘was present and saw this happen’, as part of an audit of Lobón’s accounts in 1583.

28.Douais, I, 257, Fourquevaux to Catherine de Medici, 24 Aug. 1567; van der Hammen, Don Juan, fos. 39–40, writing in 1627 (partly published in Gachard, Don Carlos, 321–2 and 335–6).

29.CODOIN, XXVII, 82, ‘Cuentas fenescidas’; AGS DGT Inv. 24, leg 903 No. 1, ‘Cuentas con Antonio Fúcar’.

30.Gachard, Don Carlos, 676–7, Nobili to Duke Cosimo, 25 Jan. 1568; ASMa AG 594, unfol., Roberti to duke of Mantua, 13 Apr. 1568.

31.Gachard, Don Carlos, 684–6, ‘Relación histórica’; van der Hammen, Don Juan, 40; ASMa AG 594, unfol., Roberti to duke of Mantua, 3 Mar. 1568, decoded folio.

32.Douais, I, 322, Fourquevaux to Charles IX, 5 Feb. 1568; IANTT TSO: CG 210/137–8, Pereira to Sebastian, 21 Jan. 1568.

33.All the letters in AGS CC 387 were written in 1567 except for one from Miguel López de Legazpi, which began ‘I left New Spain at the end of the year 1564’. The presence of the same unctuous phrases in this letter, written from Cebu in the Philippines, proves that they were already in vogue before he left.

34.In a brilliant piece of historical detection, Martínez Hernández, El marqués de Velada, 75–99, reconstructs the membership, interests and influence of the ‘Academy’.

35.Serrano, II, 299, Castagna to Alejandrino, 4 Feb. 1568, cyphered; Gachard, Don Carlos, 366, quoting a letter from Fourquevaux dated 8 Feb. 1568.

36.Herrera y Tordesillas, Historia general, 681 (book I, xv. 2).

37.Gachard, Don Carlos, 387, Philip to Alba, 6 Apr. 1568, holograph.

38.IANTT TSO: CG 210/155v–156v, Pereira to Catherine, 25 Feb. 1568.

39.MHSI Borgia, IV, 649, Lerma to Francisco de Borja, 1 Oct. 1568.

40.Fernández Álvarez, Felipe II, 423, Philip to the university of Salamanca, 27 July 1568.

41.Douais, I, 371, Fourquevaux to Charles IX, 26 July 1568; MHSI Borgia, IV, 649, Lerma to Borja, 1 Oct. 1568; Berwick y Alba, Documentos escogidos, 412, Dr Milio to Alba, 16 Aug. 1568; CODOIN, XCVII, 460, Zúñiga to Don Rodrigo Manuel, 28 Apr. 1568. The last three letters were all private, written to confidants, which makes them more reliable.

42.González de Amezúa, Isabel, III, 54, Isabel to Fourquevaux, [19] Jan 1568; Douais, I, 319, Fourquevaux to Catherine de Medici, 22 Jan. 1568.

Chapter Eleven: Years of crusade, 1568–1572

1.IVdeDJ 38/70, Espinosa to Philip, with rescript, undated but Nov. 1569.

2.BL Addl. 28,704/270v, Espinosa to Alba, 4 Dec. 1571, register copy; AA 44/84, Dr Milio to Juan de Albornoz, Alba’s secretary, Madrid, 4 Dec. 1571.

3.CODOIN, XXXVII, 84, and CODOIN, IV, 497–506, Alba to Philip, 6 Jan. and 9 June 1568. Unless otherwise stated, all quotations in the next two paragraphs come from the second document.

4.CODOIN, IV, 506–13, Alba to Felipe, 23 Nov. 1568.

5.AA 6/75, Philip to Alba, 14 Apr. 1569.

6.CODOIN, IV, 521–5, Philip to Alba, Córdoba, 4 Apr. 1570, minute, corrected by the king.

7.Ibid., 533–8, Alba to Philip, Brussels, 18 Mar. 1570, with death sentence dated 4 Apr.

8.Gachard, Etudes, 85.

9.CODOIN, IV, 560–6 and 539–40, Philip to Alba, 3 Nov. 1570, and to Peralta, 17 Aug. 1570.

10.The account in this and the following paragraph rests upon CODOIN, IV, 542–9, Instruction of Dr Velasco to Alcalde Arellano, 1 Oct. 1570; idem, 550–1 and 559–60, Peralta to Philip, Simancas, 10 and 17 Aug. 1570; idem, 554–9, Fray Hernando del Castillo to Dr Velasco, 16 Oct. 1570; and idem, 560–6, ‘Relación de la muerte de Montigni’ drawn up by Philip for Alba 2 Nov. 1570 and his covering letter dated 3 Nov.

11.AGS Estado 542/88, holograph memorial written by Montigny, Simancas, 15 Oct. 1570; Gachard, ‘Floris de Montmorency’, 61–2; CODOIN, IV, 565–6, Philip to Alba, 3 Nov. 1570.

12.Ramos, ‘La crisis indiana’, 11, quoting Dr Francisco Hernández de Liébana.

13.Ibid., 8–9, opinion of Fresneda, and 25, Toledo’s summary of the junta’s discussions, Nov. 1568.

14.Ibid., 52–3, quoting Toledo; AGNM CRD 1bis/20, registered the fifty or so royal cédulas issued between 30 Nov. 1568 and 11 Sep. 1569. Abril Castelló and Abril Stoffels, Francisco de la Cruz, II, 130–94, print the full text of the recommendations sent by the Junta Magna to Philip. See also Brendecke, Imperium, chap. 7 on the Junta’s goals and achievements.

15.Martínez Millán and Carlos Morales, Felipe II, 119, quoting the royal cédula of 18 Nov. 1566. Fuchs, Exotic nation, 23, lists the prohibited practices.

16.IVdeDJ 38/70, Espinosa to Philip and rescript, undated but Apr. 1569.

17.BL Addl. 28,354/45–6, Martín de Gaztelu to marquis of Ladrada, Córdoba, 26 May 1570. Édouard, L’empire imaginaire, 140, describes the royal entry into Córdoba on 22 Feb. 1570.

18.Domínguez Ortiz and Vincent, Historia, 51, Instruction to Alonso de Carvajal, commissioner of Baza; Alcalá-Zamora, ‘El problema’, 342.

19.Adams ‘The genetic legacy’, 732.

20.Serrano, III, 251, Don Juan de Zúñiga to Philip, 7 Mar. 1570.

21.IVdeDJ 21/43, Espinosa to Philip, with rescript, undated but Jan. 1571.

22.Serrano, IV, 445, Philip to Don Juan de Zúñiga, his ambassador in Rome, 28 Sep. 1571, minute; Vargas-Hidalgo, Guerra y diplomacia, 767, Don John to Ruy Gómez, 16 Sep. 1571, holograph.

23.Cervantes, Novelas Exemplares, prologue; García Hernán and García Hernán, Lepanto, 44, Doria on 9 Oct. 1571; BL Addl. 28,704/270v, Espinosa to Alba, 4 Dec. 1571, register copy; Lesure, Lépante, 151–2, orders from the Council of Ten to Admiral Venier, Venice, 22 Oct. 1571.

24.Serrano, II, 360, Philip to Don Juan de Zúñiga, 8 Mar. 1568.

25.Serrano, IV, 382, Castagna to Rusticucci, 9 July 1571.

26.AA 7/58, Philip to Alba, 14 July 1571, cyphered with decrypt; BL Addl. 28,336/76, Dr Velasco to Espinosa, 9 Aug. 1571. See similar incredulous statements from other ministers at this time in chapter 5.

27.Cabrera de Córdoba, Historia, II, 602; IVdeDJ 67/1, Don Luis de Requesens to Andrés Ponce de León, a prominent minister in Madrid, Jan 1574, copy, relating Alba’s ‘exit interview’.

28.Galende Díaz and Salamanca López, Epistolario, 238–41, María to Philip, two letters dated 13 Feb. 1572.

29.Groen van Prinsterer, Archives, 1st series III, 362, Orange to Count John of Nassau, 20 Feb. 1570.

30.CCG, IV, 594–5 and AGS Estado 553/4–2, Philip to Alba, Feb. and 16 Mar. 1572, minutes.

31.CCG, IV, 146–52, Morillon to Granvelle, 24 Mar. 1572.

32.AGS Estado 553/94 and 99, Philip to Alba, 20 Apr. and 17 May 1572, minutes corrected by king.

33.CCG, IV, 428, Morillon to Granvelle, 16 Sep. 1572; Groen van Prinsterer, Archives, 1st series III, 505, and IV, cii, Orange to John of Nassau, 21 Sep. 1572.

34.Epistolario, III, 251 and 261, Alba to Philip, 28 Nov. and 19 Dec. 1572.

Chapter Twelve: Years of adversity, 1573–1576

1.BPU Ms. Favre 30/30, Philip to Requesens, 30 Jan. 1573, copy of the holograph original.

2.AA 8/45, Philip to Alba, 8 July 1573, received 19 Aug.

3.AGS Estado 8340/242, Alba to Don John of Austria, 18 Sep. 1573.

4.BPU Ms. Favre 30/71–4, Philip to Requesens, 20 Oct. 1573, copy of the holograph original.

5.CODOIN, CII, 277–306, Philip’s Instructions for Requesens, undated but 21 Oct. 1573.

6.AGS Estado 554/146, Requesens to Philip, 30 Dec. 1573.

7.AGS Estado 561/25, ‘Consulta de negocios de Flandes’ by Gabriel de Zayas, 24 Feb. 1574.

8.AGS Estado 561/77, Philip to Requesens, 12 May 1574, minute; BRB Réserve précieuse/Kostbare werken, Hs. 1678A, General Pardon, signed 8 Mar. and promulgated 6 June 1574, original.

9.HSA Altamira 3/II/12 Granvelle to Don Juan de Zúñiga, 6 Dec. 1573, copy; AGS Estado 561/25, vote of the count of Chinchón; CODOIN, LXXV, 236–40, Alba to Zayas, 8 July 1573.

10.AGS Estado 554/89, Philip to Alba, 18 Mar. 1573.

11.Gachard, Don Juan, 126–8, Don John to Margaret of Parma, Genoa, 4 May 1574.

12.AA 33/156, Hernando Delgadillo to Juan de Albornoz, 9 July 1574; AGS Estado 559/104, Requesens to Philip, 12 Dec. 1574; HSA Altamira 3/V/15, Granvelle to Don Juan de Zúñiga, 23 Sep. 1574.

13.AA 28/3, Alonso de Laloo to Juan de Albornoz, 9 Oct. 1574.

14.AGS Estado 560/74 and 91, Requesens to Philip, 16 Sep. 1574, and Francisco de Valdés to Requesens, 18 Sep. 1574.

15.AGS Estado 561/122, Philip to Requesens, 22 Oct. 1574, minute, with holograph corrections by Philip, based on the translation in Waxman, ‘Strategic Terror’, 344–7.

16.AGS Estado 560/8, Requesens to Philip, 6 Nov. 1574; Pi Corrales, España, 89, 103 and 181–4, and 191–6.

17.IVdeDJ 53/3/64, Philip to Vázquez, 17 May 1574 (on Menéndez’s pessimism); Pi Corrales, España, 214–17, Menéndez to Pedro Menéndez Márquez, 8 Sep. 1574.

18.AA 131/167, Philip to Covarrubias, holograph, undated, but apparently written just before IVdeDJ 21/233, ‘Para las juntas de los presidentes’, 19 June 1573, Vázquez draft of Philip’s charge to the junta; IVdeDJ 76/530, and Carlos Morales, Felipe II, 131, Minutes of the Junta of Presidents, 24 June 1573.

19.Martínez Millán and Carlos Morales, Felipe II, 168–9, Philip to Covarrubias, 4 and 23 Jan. 1574.

20.IVdeDJ 76/491–503 and 507–9, Ovando’s ‘Relación’ to Philip, 11 Apr. 1574, Easter Day. Drelichman and Voth, Lending, 110–11 and elsewhere, argue that the king’s outstanding debts to his bankers in 1575 were less than 15 million ducats, a figure calculated only from the debts included in the great rescheduling operation known as the Medio General (chapter 13), excluding all other loans. They dismiss the higher estimates of Philip’s debts made by his own treasury officials as ‘a gross exaggeration’ (ibid., 14). Álvarez-Nogal and Chamley, ‘Debt policy’, 195, argue that even the rescheduled debt totals ‘given by Drelichman and Voth are overstated’, arguing instead that the total capital of loans outstanding in 1575 was 10.4 million ducats. I believe Philips’ officials.

21.BL Eg. 1506/18–19, Quiroga to Philip and rescript, 16 Mar. 1574.

22.IVdeDJ 53/3/56, 51/30, 53/3/43, and 51/31, Philip to Vázquez, 13, 15, 24 and 31 May 1574. See chapter 5 for yet more complaints to the same minister during these desperate weeks.

23.IVdeDJ 51/33, 53/3/87, and 53/3/77, Philip to Vázquez, 20 June, 4 and 18 July 1574.

24.Pizarro Llorente, Un gran patrón, 352–4, citing consultas of the council of State and of the Suprema in Nov. 1575; BL Eg. 1506/54, Quiroga to Philip, 6 May 1577, with rescript.

25.BZ 144/34, Vázquez to Philip and rescript, 10 Dec. 1574.

26.Gachard, Don Juan, 128–30, Don John to Margaret of Parma, Trapani, 3 Oct. 1574.

27.IVdeDJ 38/69, Philip to Vázquez, 19 Jan. 1575.

28.IVdeDJ 24/103, Ovando to Philip, 25 Mar. 1575.

29.Gachard, Don Juan, 131, Don John to Margaret of Parma, 19 June 1575; IVdeDJ, 44/119, Vázquez to Philip, and rescript, 10 May 1575.

30.IVdeDJ 67/271 and 106, Requesens to the count of Monteagudo, Spanish ambassador at the Imperial Court, 6 Mar. 1575, and to Don Juan de Zúñiga, 9 July 1575.

31.BZ 144/61, Vázquez to Philip, and reply, 31 May 1575.

32.Carlos Morales, Felipe II, 154–5, Philip to Don Juan de Idiáquez, 8 Sep. 1575; and 191, Philip to all corregidors and judges of Castile.

33.Ibid., 193, Martín de Gaztelu to Don Juan de Zúñiga, 9 Nov. 1575; HSA Altamira 7/III/29 Domingo de Zavala to Philip, Madrid, 17 Nov. 1575, copy; IVdeDJ, 37/72, Requesens to Zúñiga, 12 Nov. 1575.

34.IVdeDJ 60/138–43, Pérez to Philip and rescript, 23 Mar. 1576.

35.Carlos Morales, Felipe II, 264, Juan Fernández de Espinosa to Philip, 1577; IVdeDJ, 53/5/35, Philip to Vázquez, 22 Feb. 1576.

Chapter Thirteen: The crisis of the reign, 1576–1577

1.AGS Estado 489, unfol., ‘Lo que se platicó y paresçió en consejo destado a ix de mayo 1578’ with royal apostils; GCP, IV, 426–7, Philip’s notes for his final interview with Don John of Austria, Oct. 1576; AGS Estado 556/5, Alba to Philip, 8 Jan. 1573.

2.Riba, 25–26, Vázquez to Philip, 21 Mar. 1576.

3.Marañón, Antonio Pérez, 6; González Palencia, Fragmentos, 7.

4.BL Addl. 28,262/568–70, Pérez to Philip, and rescript, undated but July 1573.

5.Marañón, Los Procesos, 56, testimony of Jerónimo Díaz, 11 Aug. 1585; AGS Estado 1134/123, Don John to Pérez, Messina, 11 Nov. 1571; TMLM, Ms. 129960, Pérez to Philip, 30 Nov. 1574.

6.IVdeDJ 38/62–75 (unfoliated carpeta), Vázquez to Philip and rescript, 25 June 1575; Vargas-Hidalgo, Guerra y diplomacia, 1002–3, Philip to Juan Andrea Doria, 29 July 1575.

7.AGS Estado 570/133, Philip to Don John, 8 Apr. 1576, minute; idem, fos 140 and 150, Pérez to Escobedo, 8 Apr, 1576, minutes heavily corrected by the king.

8.AGS Estado 570/149, Pérez to Escobedo, 8 Apr. 1576, minute, and fo. 133, Philip to Don John, 8 Apr. 1576.

9.IVdeDJ 60/225–6 Pérez to Philip, undated but May or June 1576; and 36/38, same to same, 16 June 1576, with rescripts.

10.BL Addl. 28,262/207, Antonio Pérez to Philip with rescript, 1 July 1576.

11.ASF MP 2860/115–16 and 297–316, ‘Avisos’ from Genoa, 10 and 15 June 1576, and from Milan, 12–29 July 1576.

12.CODOIN, XV, 547–53, Pérez to Escobedo, 16 Apr. 1576.

13.AGRB Gachard 666/187, Don John to duke of Urbino, Milan, 8 Aug. 1576, copy.

14.Belda, ‘Carta’, 475, Zúñiga to Philip, 3 Dec. 1578.

15.GCP, IV, 346–7, patent for Don John and letters for Netherlands ministers, and NA SP 70/139 fo. 123, Philip to Queen Elizabeth, all signed by Philip on 26 Aug. even though dated 1 Sep. 1576 (see FBD, 1263, n 43).

16.GCP, IV, 321–2, Don John to Philip, Barcelona Roads, 22 Aug. 1576, and the king’s reply, undated but 29 Aug.

17.BL Eg. 1506/38–42 and 44–5, Quiroga to Philip, 24 Aug. (with rescript dated 29th) and 31 Aug. 1576 (with a rescript on the following day).

18.Gachard, Don Juan, 92, Margaret to Don John, 22 Aug. 1576.

19.BL Addl. 28,263/62–3 and 53, Philip to Vázquez, 27 Oct. 1576, and 19 Sep. 1576.

20.BL Eg. 1506/42 and 46–47v, Quiroga to Philip, 29 and 30 Sep. 1576, with rescripts.

21.GCP, IV, 426–7, copies of two sets of notes in the king’s hand, undated but Oct. 1576.

22.Porreño, Historia, 427–8, Don John to Philip, Irún, 24 Oct. 1576, holograph.

23.Kervijn de Lettenhove, Relations politiques, IX, 15–21, and GCP, V, 27–8, Instructions of Philip to Don John, 11 Nov. 1576, drafts.

24.CODOIN, L, 298–9 and 303–4, Escobedo to Philip, St Dié in Lorrraine, 28 Nov. 1576, and Luxemburg, 8 Dec. 1576.

25.AGRB Gachard 666/297, Don John to the duke of Savoy, Bastogne, 19 Dec. 1576, copy.

26.BL Eg. 1506/42 and 50, Quiroga to Philip, 29 Sep. and 3 Oct. 1576, with rescripts.

27.Luna, Comentarios, 35 (‘el oficio de espía doble’).

28.AHN Inq. libro 284/94 (new foliation 103), Quiroga to Philip, and rescript, 18 Mar. 1578; AGS Estado 569/150bis, Don John to Philip, 21 Nov. 1576, with apostils presumably written at least two weeks later. Ungerer, ‘La defensa’, 133, notes that Pérez and Los Vélez both studied at Alcalá in 1558–9.

29.AGS Estado 569/133–4, Don John to Philip, 6 Dec. 76, ‘visto por los dos’; ASF MP 4910/178, Luigi Dovara to the Grand Duke of Tuscany, 25 Feb. 1579.

30.BL Addl. 28,262/599–601, Pérez to Philip, with rescript (undated, but probably Apr. 1577); Morel-Fatio, L’Espagne, 111, Don John of Austria to Don Rodrigo de Mendoza, 9 Dec. 1576.

31.Gachard, Don Juan, 74, Don John to Margaret of Parma, 8 Nov. 1573; Fórmica, Doña María, 19, Octavio Gonzaga to Pérez, 20 Oct. 1578.

32.BL Addl. 28,262/219–21 and 225–6, Pérez to Philip, 1 Jan. and 8 Feb. 1577.

33.Porreño, Historia, 454, Don John to Philip, 22 Dec. 1576; CODOIN, L, 300–1, Escobedo to Philip, 10 Jan. 1577.

34.AGS Estado 2843/3, Philip to Don John, 31 Jan. 1577.

35.BL Addl. 28,262/236–237v, Pérez to Philip, with rescript, 12 Feb. 1577.

36.BL Addl. 28,262/236–237v, ut supra.

37.AGS Estado 570/65, Philip to Don John, 12 Feb. 1577.

38.Gachard, Don Juan, 140–2, Don John to Margaret of Parma, Marche, 17 Feb. 1577.

39.Voci, ‘L’impresa’, 381, cardinal of Como to Don John, 2 Apr. 1577; and 423, same to Ormanetto, 12 Apr. 1577.

40.Ibid., 424–5, Ormanetto to Como, 26 Apr. 1577.

41.BL Addl. 28,262/256–7, Philip to Pérez, 4 Apr. 1577; Voci, ‘L’impresa’, 424–5, Ormanetto to Como, 26 Apr. 1577.

42.BL Addl. 28,262/243–4 and 250–3, Pérez to Philip and rescript, 28 and 29 Mar. 1577; GCP, V, 282–8, Philip to Don John, 6 Apr. 1577.

43.Griffiths, Representative government, 460, ‘Vraye narration des propos … à Gheertrudenberghe’, an Orangist account of the conference held 13–23 May 1577.

44.Porreño, Historia, 477–80, Don John to Philip, 26 May 1577. ARA Staten Generaal 11,915 contains numerous transcripts of intercepted and decoded letters from Escobedo and Don John from 1577 about England. See also BL Cott. Cal. C. V/97v–98, Escobedo to Philip, 9 Apr. 1577, coded original with decrypt and English translation.

45.BPU Ms. Favre 28/185–7, Philip to Sessa, 28 Aug. 1577 (two letters, both originals); AGS Estado 1247/133, Philip to marquis of Ayamonte, 28 Aug. 1577, minute; AGS Estado 571/56, Philip to Don John, minute apparently drafted by Zayas on 27 Aug. and corrected by the king the following day (fo. 53), and sent 1 Sep. 1577.

46.BL Eg. 1506/207–9, Quiroga to Philip, ‘Thursday’ [= 12 Sep. 1577], describing the council meeting of the day before, and AGS Estado 2843/1, ‘Parecer de los V del Consejo de Estado’, 11 Sep. 1577, both with rescripts.

47.BPU Ms. Favre 28/195–6, Philip to Sessa; AGS Estado 571/88, Philip to Don John; and HSA Altamira 1/I/46), Diego de Covarrubias to Philip, with rescript, all dated 11 Sep. 1577.

48.IVdeDJ 36/21, Don John to Zúñiga, 30 Sep. 1577.

49.González Palencia, Fragmentos, 77–9, Pérez to Doña Juana Coello, 23 Feb. 1590. Mignet, Antonio Pérez, 280–5, explicitly denied that in 1577 Don John made contact with Guise; but AGRB Audience 1685/3, 1686/1 and 1779/2 all contain an extensive correspondence between the two men about supplying food and troops at this time.

50.AGS Estado 572/142, Don John to Philip, 20 Nov. 1577; AHN Inq. libro 284/83 (new foliation 87), Quiroga to Philip, with rescript, 1 Oct. 1577.

51.BNF Ms. Esp. 132/11, Philip to Juan de Vargas Mexía, 24 Jan. 1578.

Chapter Fourteen: Murder most foul?

1.Marañón, Los Procesos, 186, testimony of Don Pedro de Mendoza, 25 Sep. 1589; ASVe SDS 11/65, Badoer to the Doge and Senate of Venice, 3 Apr. 1578; Valente, Un dramma, 55, Juan de Samaniego to the prince of Parma, 4 Apr. 1578; ASMo CD Ambasciatori Spagna 11, 1578, No. IX, Orazio Maleguzzi to the duke of Ferrara, 4 Apr. 1578. In their dispatches, all the Italian ambassadors used ‘Italian time’, in which the circadian cycle began half an hour after sunset; so when they stated that the murder of Escobedo occurred ‘a un’ hora di notte’, they meant ninety minutes after sunset – which in March, in Madrid, meant around 9 p.m.

2.IVdeDJ 51/161, Philip to Vázquez, the Escorial, 1 Apr. 1578 (also in Muro, Vida, appendix 12); ASF MP 4910/57, Baccio Orlandini to Grand Duke of Tuscany, 2 Apr. 1578.

3.ASMo CD Ambasciatori Spagna 11, 1578, No. X, Maleguzzi to duke of Ferrara, 12 Apr. 1578, minute.

4.Marañón, Los Procesos, 23 and 201–2, Auto by Antonio Márquez, secretary of the tribunal, 29 Dec. 1589; and 207, ‘Traslado del papel de Su Magestad que está escrito de su real mano’, 4 Jan. 1590.

5.Ibid., 217–18, ‘Diligençia en el tormento con el secretario Antonio Pérez’, 23 Feb. 1590; KB Hs. 128.b.3/12v–16, Escobedo to Pérez, 7 Feb. 1577, copy presented by Pérez to the Justicia of Aragon.

6.Marañón, Los Procesos, 217–18, ‘Diligençia en el tormento con el secretario Antonio Pérez’, 23 Feb. 1590. A few hours later, Pérez sent his wife an almost identical account of what he had confessed after torture: González Palencia, Fragmentos, 77–9, Pérez to Doña Juana Coello, 23 Feb. 1590.

7.HSA Ms B 1252/4, Alba billete, almost certainly addressed to Zayas, undated but probably 11 or 12 Sep. 1577.

8.For the order to bring Orange ‘dead or alive’, see chapter 15; for Pérez, see chapter 18. For examples of other extrajudicial executions, see chapter 16.

9.Marañón, Los procesos, 220, ‘Declaración de Diego Martínez’, 24 Feb. 1590.

10.Ibid., 220, ‘Declaración de Diego Martínez’; 116–21, ‘Declaración de Antonio Enríquez’, 30 June 1585; and 97, supplementary question to Enríquez on 1 Feb. 1590.

11.Ibid., 121–2 (Enríquez), 221 (Martínez) and 65, ‘Declaraçión de Martín Gutiérrez’, 20 Dec. 85.

12.Pérez, Relaciones y cartas, I, 272–3, ‘Memorial que Antonio Pérez presentó’.

13.Marañón, Los procesos, 161–8, Pérez to Philip, 3, 16, 23 Feb. and 17 and 26 Mar. 1589.

14.Ibid., 46, testimonio of Castro, Lisbon, 5 June 1582.

15.ASF MP 4910/177–8, Dovara to Grand Duke, 25 Feb. 1579.

16.AGS Estado 574/66 and 79, Don John to Philip, 17 Feb. 1577, two holograph letters; BL Addl. 28,262/263–4, 266–9 and 546, Pérez to Philip, 5 and 6 Apr. 1577, and undated (but July 1577); AHN Inq. libro 284/83 (new foliation 87), Quiroga to Philip, with rescript, 1 Oct. 1577.

17.Marañón, Los procesos, 227, ‘Declaraçión del Licenciado Bartolomé de la Hera’, 2 Mar. 1590; and 172, ‘Declaraçión de Doña Beatriz de Frías’, 18 Sep. 1589 (‘era un suçio’). Dadson and Reed, Epistolario, 77–84, 161, 210–11, 217–18, 233–4, 234–9 (the princess’s longest surviving letter), 241–2, 269–70, 271–3 and 278–9 print all of Ana’s known letters and commissions to Escobedo, starting in 1558.

18.Marañón, Los procesos, 251–2, ‘Declaraçión’ of Favara, 22 Oct. 1590.

19.Ibid., 215 and 217, ‘Diligençia en el tormento con el secretario Antonio Pérez’, 23 Feb. 1590.

20.AGS Estado 570/139, Pérez to Escobedo, Apr. 1576, minute. The same happened the following month when Philip extensively revised letters to Escobedo purportedly written by Pérez: chapter 13.

21.BNF Ms. Esp. 132/ 179–80 and 66, Pérez to Vargas Mexía, 26 Jan. 1579 and 15 June 1578.

22.Cabrera de Córdoba, Felipe II, III, 1392, quoting a comment made by Quiroga in 1590.

23.Pérez Mínguez, Psicología, 37–8, Pérez to Andrés de Prada, 15 Oct. 1578.

24.Dadson and Reed, Epistolario, 403–4, Ana’s warrant appointing Antonio Enríquez ‘mi criado’ as her ‘contador’, 20 Mar. 1581, backdated to 4 June 1580 ‘because that is when he began to serve me’, and 530–1, salary increase from 1 Jan. 1583; BZ 142/7 bis, Vázquez to Philip II and rescript, 28 July 1578 (printed with some alternative readings in Muro, Vida, appendix 165).

25.Riba, 177–8, Vázquez to Philip, 24 May 1578.

26.Muro, Vida, appendix 14, Pedro Núñez to Vázquez, 26 Dec. 1578, and appendix 17, Dr Milio to Vázquez, 6 Jan. 1579, both referring to the anger of the princess.

27.BZ 144/224, Philip to Vázquez, 15 Nov. 1578.

28.IVdeDJ 51/181, Vázquez to Philip, the Escorial, 28 Dec. 1578.

29.IVdeDJ 44/57–8, Vázquez to Philip and rescripts, 11 and 15 Apr. 1574.

30.Martínez Hernández, ‘El desafío’, published these love letters, undated but from 1566, for the first time.

31.CODOIN, VIII, 487–8, Alba cédula to Don Fadrique, Madrid, 2 Oct. 1578.

32.Riba, 192–3, Vázquez to Philip, 30 Nov. 1578.

33.HSA Altamira 1/I/101, Pérez to Philip with rescript, 2 Jan. 1579.

34.CODOIN, VIII, 509–11, Pazos to Philip with rescript, 6 July 1579; Martínez Hernández, ‘El desafío’, and idem, El marqués de Velada, 163–78.

35.Valente, Un dramma, 53, Bologna to Cardinal Farnese, 4 Aug. 1579; Muro, Vida, appendix 18, Vázquez to Dr Milio, Jan. 1579 (Milio acted as an intermediary between the secretaries).

36.Muro, Vida, appendix 30, Pazos to Philip, with rescript, 7 Mar. 1579. This appears to be the first time Philip referred to the Pérez affair as something that affected his conscience.

37.Ibid., appendix 31, Vázquez to Philip, with rescript, 16 Mar. 1579; ASF MP 4910/216, Dovara to the Grand Duke, 25 Mar. 1579; AST LM, 2, unfol., Carlo Pallavicini to the duke of Savoy, 29 Mar. 1579.

38.CCG, VII, 352–3, and Mignet, Antonio Pérez, 104, Philip to Granvelle, 30 Mar. 1579; ASG AS 2416, unfol., Passano to Doge of Genoa, 6 June 1579.

39.Sigüenza, 92–3.

40.ASV NS 22/170, Sega to the papal secretary of state, 11 May 1579, reporting on his audience; BL Addl. 28,263/225–6, Vázquez to Philip with rescript, 21 June 1579.

41.BZ 143/207–8, Vázquez to Philip, the Escorial, 24 June 1579; Muro, Vida, appendix 47, Instructions of Vázquez to the count of Barajas, 9 July 1579.

42.The only known text of the princess’s note appeared in Pérez, Relaciones, I, 113–15, a tainted source; but since many ambassadors summarized it in similar terms – see, for example: Valente, Un dramma, 53, Samaniego to Parma, 1 Aug. 1579; ASMo, CD AS 11, 1579, No. XXIII, Malaguzzi to Ferrara, 4 Aug. 1579 – I accept it as genuine. So do Dadson and Reed, Epistolario, 381–3.

43.BZ 162/6 bis, Philip to duke of Infantado, 29 July 1579; CCG VII, 443, Granvelle to Margaret of Parma, 12 Sep. 1579.

44.BZ 143/212, Vázquez to Philip, 26 July 1579.

45.BZ 143/212, rescript of Philip to Vázquez, 26 July 1579; Marañón, Antonio Pérez, 445, citing Jerónimo Zurita; BZ 143/211, Vázquez to Philip with rescript, 26–27 July 1579.

46.CODOIN, LVI, 212–14, Philip to Pazos, undated but 28 July 1579, holograph, and Pazos’s petulant reply the following day: ‘This morning at seven o’clock one of my servants brought me Your Majesty’s note …’

47.Muro, Vida, appendix 53, Pedro Núñez to Vázquez, 1 Aug. 1579; Valente, Un dramma, 53, Bologna to Cardinal Farnese, 4 Aug. 1579

48.ASMo CD AS 11, 1579 No. XXII, Maleguzzi to duke of Ferrara, 29 Aug. 1579, minute.

Chapter Fifteen: Years of triumph, 1578–1585

1.BL Addl. 28,262/ 632–5v, Pérez to Philip, and rescript, 13 Aug.1578; Sigüenza, 86; CODOIN, VII, 229.

2.AGS Estado 489, unfol., ‘Lo que se platicó y paresçió en consejo destado a ix de mayo 1578’.

3.ASVe SDS 11/51, Alberto Badoer to Doge, 6 Jan. 1578, quoting a letter ‘di pugno di Sua Maiestà’; AGS Estado 395/197, Philip to Silva, 31 May 1578, copy; CODOIN, XL, 87–8, Silva to Philip, 4 Oct. 1578.

4.HSA Altamira 1/I/24, Vázquez to Philip and reply; AGS GA 88/244, Philip to Delgado; and BL Addl. 28,262/285–6, Philip to Pérez, and rescript, all dated 13 Aug. 1578.

5.BL Addl. 28,262/632-5v, Pérez to Philip, and rescript, undated [= 13 Aug. 1578].

6.BL Addl. 28,262/632–5v, ut supra.

7.CODOIN, XL, 137–8, 160 and 169–70, Moura to Philip, Lisbon, 26 Aug., 25 Sep. and 23 Oct. 1578.

8.Fernández Conti, ‘La Junta Militar’, 292 n. 24, rescript of Philip on a consulta from Delgado, 26 Oct. 1578, enclosing plans from Alba and Santa Cruz; AGS GA 88/317, 362 and 353, Delgado to Philip, 30 Oct. and 1 and 13 Dec. 1578, each with a long royal rescript.

9.CODOIN, XL, 143 and 196, Moura to Philip, 26 Aug. and 25 Nov. 1578; Fernández Collado, Gregorio XIII, 53–4, quoting Nuncio Sega’s account of Philip’s denial at an audience early in 1579.

10.AGS GA 89/196, Delgado to Philip, undated but July–August 1579, with a long royal rescript; ASF Urbino I/185/19, Bernardo Maschi to duke of Urbino, 10 Jan. 1580.

11.BSLE Ms &III.12, San Pedro, Diálogo llamado Philippino, fo. 5v (expertly discussed by Bouza, Imagen y propaganda, 75–83); CODOIN, XL, 198, Moura to Philip, Lisbon, 25 Nov. 1578.

12.CODOIN, VI, 30–2, 78 and 350, Moura to Philip, 29 Nov. 1578, and Philip to Moura, 26 Jan. and 14 Apr. 1579.

13.CODOIN, VI., 661, Philip to the duke of Osuna, his special envoy to King Henry, 24 Aug. 1579.

14.AGS GA 94/26 and 28, Philip to Delgado, 30 Jan. 1580.

15.Suárez Inclán, Guerra, 222, Moura to Philip, 4 June 1580; ASVe SDS 12/74, Morosini to Doge, 8 Feb. 1580; Kamen, Philip, 173, Philip to Don Juan de Zúñiga, 13 Feb. 1580; CODOIN, VIII, 516–19, Pazos to Philip, 15 Feb. 1580.

16.Suárez Inclán, Guerra, 96–7 and notes, Philip to Moura, 16 Feb. 1580, with a copy of Delgado’s billete.

17.Porreño, Dichos y hechos, 29.

18.CODOIN, XXXV, 61–2, Philip to Alba, Badajoz, 5 Aug. 1580, holograph.

19.CODOIN, XXXII, 482 and 489, Alba to Philip, 28 and 30 Aug. 1580.

20.CODOIN, XXXIII, 234, Philip apostil on a letter from Arceo to Zayas, Lisbon, 4 Nov. 1580.

21.Velázquez, La entrada, fo. 69; IVdeDJ 56 carpeta 21, unfol., Vázquez to [Hernando de Vega], 17 Apr. 1581.

22.Bouza, Cartas, 35, Philip to his daughters, 3 Apr. 1581; BL Addl. 28,357/498, cédula of Aug. 1581; Bouza, Cartas, 89 n. 192, letter of Gaspar de los Arcos, Tomar, 20 Mar. 1581.

23.Rodríguez Salgado, Felipe II, 171, Don Juan de Zúñiga to Philip, 19 July 1581; AGS Estado 939/128 and 143, Philip to Zúñiga, Lisbon, 8 and 23 Oct. 1581.

24.CODOIN, XXXII, 480–3 and 507–10, Alba to Philip, 28 Aug. 1580, with apostil, and Philip to Alba, 31 Aug. 1580.

25.Freitas de Meneses, Os Açores, I, 82–4, and II, 66, Figueroa to Philip, 3 Aug. 1582.

26.Muro, Vida, appendices 66 and 73, Hernando de Vega to Vázquez, 25 Aug. and 17 Sep. 1579; ibid., appendix 64, Pedro Núñez to Vázquez, 25 Aug 1579; Pérez, Relaciones y Cartas, I, 122.

27.Muro, Vida, appendices 104 and 116, Pazos to Philip, 19 Dec. 1580 and 17 Apr. 1581, with rescripts.

28.Marañón, Los procesos, 46–51, testimony of Don Rodrigo de Castro and Don Fernando de Solís, 5 and 9 June 1582; CODOIN, LVI, 397–406, Pazos to Philip, 4 and 18 Nov. 1581, with rescripts; HSA Altamira 1/I/6, Mateo Vázquez to Philip, with rescript, 7 Sep. 1581.

29.Riba, 217, Philip to Sancho Bustos de Villegas, 12 Feb. 1580, holograph; Bratli, Philippe II, 235, Philip to Salazar, 8 June 1581, also holograph.

30.Marañón, Los procesos, 35–7, testimony of ‘Luis de Overa’ [= Luigi Dovara], Lisbon, 30 May 1582; Muro, Vida, 196–8, Philip to Rodrigo Vázquez, 27 Aug. 1582, minute (which explains why it survives, despite the royal injunction to burn the original).

31.CODOIN, LVI, 419–20, Pazos to Philip, 8 Sep. 1582, with rescript; Muro, Vida, 196–200, Philip to the princess of Éboli, 8 Nov. 1582

32.HSA Altamira 1/I/6, fos. 189 and 191, Mateo Vázquez to Philip and rescript, 7 Sep. 1582; Fernández Duro, Conquista de los Azores, 396–9, Instruction for Santa Cruz, the Escorial, 6 June 1583.

33.IVdeDJ 51/105, Mateo Vázquez to Philip and reply, 22 Aug. 1583.

34.ASMa AG 598, unfol., Lepido Agnello to duke of Mantua, Madrid, 6 June 1579; Bouza, Imagen y propaganda, 85–6.

35.Keeler, Sir Francis Drake’s West Indian Voyage, 245–6 and 315, ‘A summarie and true discourse of Sir Francis Drake’s West Indian Voyage’ (1589).

36.ASC 48/3, Santa Cruz to Philip, Angra, 9 Aug. 1583, draft, and Philip to Santa Cruz, 23 Sep. 1583 (partially printed in BMO, I, 406).

37.NMM Ms PH 1B/435, Olivares to Don Juan de Zúñiga, 24 Sep. 1583, deciphered with royal holograph apostil.

38.Benítez Sánchez-Blanco, ‘De moriscos, papeles y archivos’, 116–17, account by Don Juan de Idiáquez of the deliberations of a committee on the ‘Morisco problem’ in 1581–3.

39.Massarella, Japanese travellers, 250.

40.IVdeDJ 76/161–2, Vega to Philip and reply, 24 Mar. 1582, copy.

41.IVdeDJ 68/306 and 286, Vega to Philip and rescripts, 8 June and 22 Aug. 1583.

42.CCG, XI, 58–9 and 64, Granvelle to Philip, 3 Aug. 1584, and to Idiáquez, 4 Aug. 1584 (Anjou was also duke of Alençon); and HSA Altamira 5/V/3, Vázquez to Philip, with reply, 3 Aug. 1584.

43.NA SP12/179/36–8, Examination of Pedro de Villareal, 13 June 1585 OS; and NA SP 12/180/59A, captured letter from Juan del Hoyo, merchant, 5 July 1585 NS.

Chapter Sixteen: ‘The most potent monarch in Christendom’

1.Salazar, Política española, 24; González Dávila, Teatro, 1; Feltham, A brief character, 84–5; Camden, Historie, book IV, 131.

2.Bratli, Philippe II, 222, Relation of Philippe de Caverel, Lisbon, 1582; Longlée, 48, to Henry III, 20 June 1584; CCG, X, 126, Granvelle to Bellefontaine, Madrid, 3 Apr. 1583.

3.Sánchez Cantón, Inventarios reales, II, 41, 77, 115–21, 145 and so on; Bouza, Cartas, 57 and 88–9, Philip to his daughters, 2 Oct. 1581 and 30 July 1582.

4.Lhermite, Passetemps, II, 116; AGPM 237, Inventarios reales, 3/278r–279v, ‘Las dibersas pieças de plata para servicio de la barbería’.

5.Bouza, Cartas, 53–4 and 103, Philip to his daughters, 21 Aug. 1581 and 14 Feb. 1583; BZ 143/46 and 50, Vázquez to Philip, and reply, 16 and 20 Mar. 1588.

6.IVdeDJ 53/5/35, HSA Altamira 1/I/19, HSA Ms B 228, and BL Addl. 28,700/151 and 155, Vázquez to Philip, and replies, 22 Feb. 1576, 17 Dec. 1584, 13 Jan. and 7 and 9 Feb. 1587.

7.BL Addl. 28,357/13, Philip to Alba, 28 July 1573; IVdeDJ, 55/IX/ 217, Vázquez to Philip and reply, 17 Oct. 1588.

8.DHME, V, 111; AHN Inq. Libro 100/551, Juan Ruiz de Velasco to Mateo Vázquez, 23 Aug. 1588.

9.BL Addl. 28,354/490, marquis of Ladrada to Philip, and rescript, 2 Oct. 1572 (‘Terrible gente son los físicos’).

10.BL Addl. 28,354/479–80 and 506, Ladrada to Philip, and rescripts, 27 Sep. and 16 Oct. 1572; IVdeDJ 7/95, Vázquez to Philip, and rescript, 24 Sep. 1590.

11.Bratli, Philippe II, 222, ‘Relation’ by Philippe de Caverel; BZ 142/67, Philip to Vázquez, 3 Feb. 1584.

12.HSA Altamira 1/II/52 (i) and 53, Vázquez to Philip, with replies, both dated 4 July 1584.

13.BL Addl. 28,362/1, count of Barajas to Vázquez, 1 Jan. 1584.

14.BAV UL 1115/108–9, ‘Aviso’ from Madrid, 10 Jan. 1587; Cabrera de Córdoba, Historia, III, 1172; Martínez Millán and Fernández Conti, La Monarquía, 318, quoting contemporary accounts.

15.BL Addl. 28,361/110, corrected draft of the Pragmática, 11 Sep. 1586, returned to Mateo Vázquez who (sarcastically?) endorsed the file ‘Coronets and courtesies’. Numerous drafts of the Pragmática, each one festooned with royal apostils, fill fos 31–145 of the same volume, even though (in retrospect) ‘no importa nada’.

16.IVdeDJ 55/XI/153, Vázquez to Philip and reply, 10 Aug. 1588; AHN Inq. Libro 100/551, Juan Ruiz de Velasco to Vázquez, 23 Aug. 1588.

17.IVdeDJ 21/740 and 374, notes by Philip and Mateo Vázquez on a letter from the general of the Jeronimite Order, 12 Sep. 1589, and Jerónimo Gassol to Philip, and reply, 8 July 1591.

18.IVdeDJ 51/175, and BZ 142/6, Vázquez to Philip, 29 Dec. 1577 and 4 Nov. 1580 (concerning Don Antonio de Padilla).

19.Escudero, Felipe II, 536, Vázquez to Philip, and rescript, undated but 1577; BZ 80/540, Memorial from Francisco de Mendoza to Philip with rescript, Naples, 22 Dec. 1588; González Dávila, Teatro, 369–70, Dr Hernández de Liévana to Philip, autumn 1572.

20.IVdeDJ 62/853, Philip to Vázquez, 23 Mar. 1575; BL Addl. 28,263/213–14, Vázquez to Philip, and rescript, 20 Feb. 1579.

21.CODOIN, LVI, 293–4, Pazos to Philip, with rescript, 29 Feb. 1580.

22.Morel-Fatio, ‘La Vie’, VII, 235 and 251.

23.HSA Altamira, 1/I/44, Medina Sidonia to Vázquez, 29 Feb. 1588, and idem, 1/I/46, Vázquez to Philip, 8 Mar. 1588, with rescript.

24.Martínez Millán and Carlos Morales, Felipe II, 227, Chaves to Mateo Vázquez, Mar. 1586.

25.Hernando Sánchez, ‘Estar en nuestro lugar’, 286 n. 230, Philip to viceroy of Naples, 4 Oct. 1579; Encinas, II, 311–15 (an order reissued five times during the reign).

26.Schäfer, El consejo real, I, 149–50, consulta of the council of the Indies, with rescript, 7 July 1583, concerning licenciado Salcedo.

27.Cabrera de Córdoba, Historia, III, 1397.

28.BL Eg. 1506/92–3 and 94, Quiroga to Philip and rescript, 15 and 19 Nov. 1578

29.BL Eg. 1506/20, Quiroga to Philip and rescript, 17 Mar. 1574; AHN Inq. libro 101/226 and 208, consultas of the Suprema, 23 and 24 Nov. 1592, with rescripts.

30.AGPM CR 3/164v–166 and 274, cédulas of 22 Dec. 1569 and 18 Oct. 1571; AGS CSR 275/2 fos 60, 74 and 87–8 (cédulas from 1569 about disciplining the Pardo poachers).

31.Herrera y Tordesillas, Historia general, II, 46–7; Las Heras, ‘Indultos’, 129–30; Velázquez, La entrada, fos 79–81.

32.BZ 142/201, Vázquez to Philip, 22 Jan. 1587; Arrieta Alberdi, ‘Gobernar rescribiendo’, 93, consulta of the council of Aragon, and rescript, 16 July 1588; IVdeDJ 21/586, Philip to Don Diego de Covarrubias, 14 Dec. 1575.

33.AGS PR 29/35 codicil signed by Philip, Ghent, 5 Aug. 1559.

34.AGS PR 26/143, Instruction to Ruy Gómez and the duke of Alburquerque, London, 13 Apr. 1557; Muro, Vida, 198–200, Philip to the princess of Éboli, 8 Nov. 1582.

35.AHN Inq. libro 249/550v–551, royal cédula to Joan Sánchez, 30 May 1589, register copy. This volume contains hundreds of similar cédulas.

36.ASMa AG 598 unfol., Lepido Agnello to duke of Mantua, 8 June 1580; IVdeDJ 21/148–57, correspondence of Vázquez with Philip, Jan.–Mar. 1583; CSPV, VIII, 174, Gradenigo and Lippomano to Doge and Senate, 25 June 1586. FBD, 790–2, lists the known attempts to assassinate the king.

37.Sigüenza, 76; Muro, Vida, appendix 12, Esteban de Ibarra to Mateo Vázquez, undated but Apr. 1578.

38.Iñiguez de Lequerica, Sermones funerales, sermon of Dr Aguilar de Terrones, fo. 7.

39.Porreño, Dichos y hechos, 74; Jorzick, Herrschaftssymbolik, 47–8, Philip to the viceroy of Peru, 1573, and 62 n. 39, memorial to Philip, 2 Nov. 1593.

40.NA SP 70/6 fo. 15, Challoner to Elizabeth, Ghent, 3 Aug. 1559, draft; DHME, IV, 4 (Sepúlveda, ‘Historia’); Cock, Relación, 47, 52.

41.Santullano, Obras completas de Teresa de Jesús, 1394, Teresa to Doña Inés Nieto [1576–7]; Donà, 75–8, letter to the Doge of Venice, 1 Oct. 1570; Iñiguez de Lequerica, Sermones funerales, sermon by Dr Terrones, fo. 12.

42.AHN Inq. libro 100/242, 243, and 294, Philip to Quiroga, 26 July, 16 Feb. and Oct. 1576, all holograph; AHN Inq. Libro 101/325, consulta of the Suprema and rescript, 11 Jan. 1592; ibid., fo. 695, Philip rescript to Licenciado Arenillas, 4 Dec. 1594.

43.Donà, 340, letter to Venice, 1 Aug. 1571

44.UB Leiden Hs Pap 3/3, Alonso de Laloo to the count of Hornes, 31 Aug. 1566; Firpo, Relazioni, VIII, 670, Final Relation of Donà, Jan. 1574.

45.BL Addl. 28,264/26–7, Philip to Emmanuel Philibert, 9 Aug. 1557, holograph postscript; CODOIN, XCVIII, 483, Philip to the count of Luna, 8 Aug. 1563; AGS Estado K 1448/197, Philip to Don Bernardino de Mendoza, 28 July 1588.

46.CODOIN, XXXV, 61, Philip to Alba, 2 Aug. 1580, holograph postscript; AGS CJH 324/27, ‘Gastos Secretos’ of Don Bernardino de Mendoza while ambassador in England, payment in Aug. 1578.

47.AMAE (M) AEESS 11/28, Philip to the duke of Sessa, 5 Feb. 1592.

48.Ugolini, ‘Le comunicazioni postali’, 321.

49.Douais, II, 127–8 and 142, Fourquevaux to Charles IX and report attached, 31 Oct. 1569.

50.Woltjer, Friesland, 3, count of Aremberg to Margaret of Parma, 15 Sep. 1566.

51.AGS Estado K 1490/50, Philip to Emmanuel Philibert, 26 July 1557, holograph; AA 5/69, Philip to Alba, 7 Aug. 1567, holograph; AGS, Estado 561/122, Philip to Requesens, 22 Oct. 1574, minute.

52.HSA Altamira 5/III/14, Vázquez to Juan Fernández, 8 Dec. 1585; BMO, III, 1274 and 1225, Philip to Santa Cruz, 21 and 10 Oct. 1587.

53.Watts, ‘Friction in future war’, 91; and Jablonsky, The owl of Minerva, 33–6.

Chapter Seventeen: The ‘Enterprise of England’, 1585–1588

1.BMO, I, 478, royal apostil on a letter from the count of Olivares to Philip, 4 June 1585, with rescript.

2.BMO, I, 496 and AGS Estado 946/229, Philip to Olivares, 2 and 22 Aug. 1585.

3.OÖLA KB 4/137, Khevenhüller to Rudolf II, 13 Oct. 1585; BR Ms II–1670/180, Philip to Licenciado Antolinez, 31 Oct. 1585.

4.Villari and Parker, La política de Felipe II, 110–15, Zúñiga to Philip, undated but late 1585.

5.CCG, XII, 133–5, Granvelle to Charles de Mansfelt, 29 Nov. 1585.

6.IVdeDJ 23/385, Castro to Hernando de Vega, president of the council of the Indies, Seville, 15 Nov. 1585, together with the council’s consulta to Philip dated 30 Nov. 1585, with royal rescript.

7.BMO, I, 536–7, ‘Lo que se responde a Su Santidad’, undated but 24 Oct. 1585.

8.BMO, 564–7, Santa Cruz to Philip, 13 Feb. 1586, and Philip and Idiáquez to Santa Cruz, 26 Feb. 1586 (February is the correct month, not ‘January’ as the volume states).

9.BMO, II, 108–11, Parma to Philip, 20 Apr. 1586, and 195–6, ‘Lo que dixo Juan Bautista Piata’.

10.HSA Altamira 7/II/24 ‘Memoria de algunas de las cosas que se han avisado passan estos días en Madrid’, Mateo Vázquez, at the Escorial, to the count of Barajas, in Madrid [18 July 1586].

11.BMO, II, 212, ‘Parecer’ of Don Juan de Zúñiga (June/July 1586). After the death of his father in Sep. 1586, Alexander Farnese, formerly prince of Parma, became duke of Parma.

12.Heredia Herrera, Catálogo, I, 597, consulta of the council of the Indies, and rescript, 3 Sep. 1586.

13.BMO, II, 305–7, Don Bernardino de Mendoza to Philip, 13 Aug. 1586 (with copious royal apostils) and 338–9, Philip’s reply, 5 Sep. 1586.

14.BL Addl. 28,376/336, Andrés de Prada to Don Juan de Idiáquez, 17 May 1587; BL Addl. 28,363/116, Juan Ruiz de Velasco to Mateo Vázquez, 20 June 1587.

15.BMO, III, 1967–8, Philip to Santa Cruz, 14 Sep. 1587.

16.BMO, III, 1006–7, Philip to Parma, 4 Sep. 1587.

17.BMO, III, 1069–70, Philip to Parma, 14 Sep. 1587.

18.BMO, III, 1225 and 1274, Philip to Santa Cruz, 10 and 21 Nov. 1587.

19.ASVe SDS 20, unfol., Lippomano to Venice, 14 Sep. 1587, enclosing a copy of Santa Cruz’s letter of the 4th.

20.BZ 143/87, memorandum by Philip, 7 June 1588; BZ 141/160, Philip to the count of Barajas, 18 June 1588, copy.

21.OÖLA KB 4/311–12, Khevenhüller to Rudolf II, 13 July 1588.

22.CSPV, VIII, 273, Lippomano to doge and Senate, 9 May 1587; BL Addl. 28,363/50, Zayas to Vázquez, 10 May 1587.

23.Maura, 258–61, Medina Sidonia to Philip, 24 June 1588, repeating what he had written in February (in a letter not yet found).

24.Oria, 152, Idiáquez and Moura to Medina Sidonia, 22 Feb. 1588.

25.KML MSP: CR 5/82, Philip to Medina Sidonia, 11 Mar. 1588. See p. 289 above on the duke’s attempt to secure favours from the king through blackmail.

26.BMO, III, 1964, Bertendona to Philip, 15 Feb. 1588.

27.BZ 142/171^a, Philip’s address to the Cortes, Jan. 1588, holograph; Oria, 152, Idiáquez and Moura to Medina Sidonia, 22 Feb. 1588.

28.Fernández Duro, II, 9–10, Philip’s Instruction to Medina Sidonia, 1 Apr 1588, minute.

29.Maura, 258–61, Medina Sidonia to Philip, 21 and 24 June 1588.

30.BZ 143/97 and 111, Philip to Vázquez, 18 and 28 June 1588.

31.Oria, 210–14, Philip to Medina Sidonia, 1 July 1588.

32.AGS Estado 455/320–1, Medina Sidonia to Parma, 10 June 1588, copy sent to Philip (with his comments).

33.Canestrini and Desjardins, Négociations, IV, 737, Filippo Cavriana to the Tuscan government, Paris, 22 Nov. 1587; Laughton, State Papers, I, 358–62, Hawkins to Walsingham, 10 Aug. 1588 NS; AGS Estado 595/32, Idiáquez to Philip and reply, Aug. 1588.

34.Van Meteren, Historie, book 15.

35.Parker, ‘Anatomy of defeat’, 321, Don Alonso de Leyva to Juan Martínez de Recalde, 12 Aug. 1588. Magellan’s fleet had taken three years to circumnavigate the globe, and few survivors saw Spain again in 1522.

36.AGS Estado 2219/84 and 87, Philip to Parma and Medina Sidonia, 31 Aug. 1588; idem, fos 85–6 ‘Apuntamiento en materia de armada que Su Magestad mandó hazer para que se considere y resuelva entre el duque de Parma, su sobrino, y el duque de Medina Sidonia’; and idem, fo. 91, notes by Idiáquez dated 15 Sep. 1588.

37.IVdeDJ 51/190, Vázquez to Philip, 4 Sep. 1588, enclosing a note from Pedro Nuñez written the previous day.

38.Parker, ‘Anatomy of defeat’, 319, royal apostil on a note from Martín de Idiáquez, Oct. 1588; BZ 145/76, Mateo Vázquez to Philip, and rescript, 10 Nov. 1588.

39.ASV NS 34/415–18 and 583–5, Novara to Montalto, 6 July and 8 Nov. 1588.

40.DHME, IV, 59, ‘Historia’; Sigüenza, 120.

Chapter Eighteen: Philip at bay, 1589–1592

1.MHSI, LX: Ribadeneira, II, 105–11, Ribadeneira to Don Juan de Idiáquez, undated but autumn 1588.

2.Ungerer, ‘La defensa’, published an annotated edition of the charges presented to Pérez in Madrid on 12 June 1584, and of his responses signed six days later. Quotations from pp. 100–4 and 148–9.

3.Marañón, Los procesos, 57–9, Enríquez to Philip, Lérida, 16 Aug. 1584.

4.AGS CJH 248/21/2, petition of Pérez to Philip, 25 Aug. 1587, with cédula of 8 Dec. 1584 on dorse.

5.Marañón, Los procesos, 116–26, declaration of Enríquez, Monzón, 30 June 1585; AHPM tomo 1104/1364–1414, ‘escriptura’ dated 20 May 1588 concerning the auction in 1585.

6.Marañón, Los procesos, 185, testimony of the count of Barajas, president of the council of Castile, 21 Sep. 1589.

7.AGS CJH 248/21/2, petition of Pérez to Philip, 25 Aug. 1587; Marañón, Los procesos, 148–51, suit by Pedro de Escobedo against Pérez and Martínez for murder, presented to them 2 Sep. 1587.

8.Marañón, Los procesos, 32–4, commission to Rodrigo Vázquez, undated but Aug. 1588.

9.Ibid., 195–8, Chaves to Pérez, the Escorial, 5 and 18 Sep. 1589, notarized copies; González Palencia, Fragmentos, 71, ‘Escrituras de concierto entre Antonio Pérez y Pedro [de] Escobedo’, 29 Sep. 1589. On the role and probable motives of Chaves, see Martínez Peñas, El confesor, 327–41.

10.Marañón, Los procesos, 199–200, Philip’s order to Rodrigo Vázquez to get this information from Antonio Pérez, and Vázquez’s order to the guards, and Interrogation of Pérez, all 21 Dec. 1589.

11.Ibid., 258–9, Auto by Pérez’s judges, 14 May 1590.

12.CODOIN, LVI, 454 and 466, part of the notarized account of the princess’s confinement.

13.Marañón, Los procesos, 197–8, Chaves to Pérez, 18 Sep. 1589, notarized copy.

14.Pizarro Llorente, Un gran patrón, 362.

15.AGS Estado 2851, unfol., ‘Lo que se platicó en el Consejo de Estado a 12 de noviembre 1588’, and consulta of 26 Nov. 1588 with Philip’s holograph response; ACC, X, 233–43, Actas of 22, 23 and 30 Aug. 1588.

16.ACC, X, 348–9, Acta of 7 Dec. 1588.

17.ACC, X, 397–8 and 422–3, Acta of 8 Feb. 1589.

18.BZ 143/203, Vázquez’s proposal to the Junta de Cortes, 23 June 1589; Lilly Library, Bloomington, Indiana, Bertendona Papers, no. 21, Philip to Bertendona, 23 June 1589.

19.AGS Estado 2219/197, Philip to Parma, 7 Sep. 1589.

20.IVdeDJ 51/1, Vázquez to Philip, and rescript, 8 Feb. 1591.

21.Bouza, ‘Corte y protesta’, 21–2, Proclamation of 29 Jan. 1591; and 30–1, quoting the confession of Juan de Soria.

22.Luna, Comentarios, 29–30, prints the manifesto.

23.Ruiz, A king travels, 156.

24.CODOIN, XV, 464–5, ‘Declaración de Diego de Bustamente’, Jan. 1591. KB Hs 128.c.3 appears to be one of these thirty copies – perhaps the only one to survive.

25.BL Eg. 1508/215–18, ‘Relación de las causas y procesos de las personas que fueron condenadas’, evidence against Tomás de Rueda and Nicolás Blanco, burned for their role in the riots of 24 May 1591.

26.CODOIN, XII, 269, Fray Agustín Labata to Fray Andrés de Sanmillán, 20 July 1591; CODOIN, XV, 499, count of Morata to count of Chinchón, Zaragoza, 21 Aug. 1591.

27.Luna, Comentarios, 178, Gandía to Idiáquez, undated but summer 1591; Lovett, ‘Philip II, Antonio Pérez’, 141, Junta Grande on 25 July 1591; AHN Inq. libro 101/226 and 208, consultas of the Suprema, 23 and 24 Nov. 1592, with royal rescripts dated 7 Dec.

28.Lovett, ‘Philip II, Antonio Pérez’, 152, Junta Grande on 31 July 1591, and rescript; BL Eg. 1508/215–18, ‘Relación de las causas y procesos de las personas que fueron condenadas en auto público de fee’, evidence against Andrés de Naya, burned at the stake for his role in the riots of 24 Sep. 1591.

29.Pidal, Historia, II, 201, Philip to the ‘universidades’ of Aragon, 15 Oct. 1591, and 233, to the deputies of the kingdom, 2 Nov. 1591.

30.AHN Inq. libro 101/339 and 324–5, consultas of 2, 9 and 11 Jan. 1592, with royal rescripts.

31.ACP Bobadilla B–7a, Bobadilla to Chinchón 1 Mar. 1592, with reply on the 10th.

32.Gracia Rivas, La ‘invasión’, 157–8 and 165, Bobadilla to Philip and Chinchón, both 18 Mar. 1592.

33.ACP Bobadilla B–7a, Bobadilla to Chinchón, 9 May 1592.

34.AHN Inq. libro 101/283 and 264, consulta of the Junta of Aragon, 18 June and 9 Aug. 1592, with royal rescripts; BL Eg. 1506/180 and 186, Suprema to Philip, with rescripts, 31 Oct. and 7 Nov. 1592.

35.Marañón, Antonio Pérez, 666–70, narrates the arrest, imprisonment and death of Villahermosa and the count of Aranda; quotations from the count of Luna’s Comentarios, and Céspedes y Meneses, Historia apologética.

36.AHN Inq. libro 101/233, consulta of the Suprema, 7 Nov. 1592, and royal rescript.

37.Lhermite, Passetemps, I, 200–1.

38.AHN Inq. libro 101/226 and 208, consultas of the Suprema, 23 and 24 Nov. 1592, with royal rescripts dated 7 Dec.

39.Lhermite, Passetemps, II, 206–8 (‘183 leagues’).

Chapter Nineteen: Towards the tomb – and beyond, 1593–1603

1.Herrera, Historia General, III, 291; Bouza, ‘Servidumbres’, 166 (Velada on 25 July 1590) and 174.

2.Longlée, 272, to Henry III, 19 July 1586; Bouza, Cartas, 152, Philip to Catalina, 2 July 1587.

3.Bouza, Cartas, 154–5, Philip to Catalina, 12 Mar. 1588; Longlée, 367, to Henry III, 30 Apr. 1588; BAV UL 1115/112, ‘Aviso’ from Madrid, 7 Feb. 1587.

4.Lhermite, Passetemps, I, 257–8.

5.BL Addl. 28,263/560–1, Vázquez to Philip, 6 Apr. 1591, and rescript; Tellechea Idígoras, El ocaso, 139, Caetani to Aldobrandini, 20 Oct. 1594.

6.Tellechea Idígoras, El ocaso, 44–5 and 168–9, Caetani to Aldobrandini, 8 and 16 July 1596.

7.Pérez Mínguez, Psicología, pp. 356–7, Gassol to Philip and rescript, 29 Sep. 1593.

8.Cabrera de Córdoba, Historia, III, 1486–8, ‘La orden que se ha de guardar en la Junta que ahora he ordenado’, the Escorial, 26 Sep. 1593; Martínez Hernández, El marqués de Velada, 320–4.

9.IVdeDJ 21/404, Philip to Moura, 29 Oct. 1594.

10.AGS Estado 176, unfol., Philip to Don Martín de Padilla, count of Santa Gadea, 3 Oct. 1596.

11.BL Addl. 20,929/104, Silva to Philip III, Apr. 1599.

12.ACC, XII, 372–7, ‘Discurso’ of Rodrigo Vázquez de Arce, 23 Feb. 1593; ibid., XVI, 166–7, Juan Vázquez de Salazar to Philip, 28 Apr. 1593.

13.ACC, XII, 456, procurador of Seville, 19 May 1593; ibid., XVI, 170, procurador of Burgos, summarized by Juan Vázquez de Salazar, 6 May 1593.

14.ACC, XVI, 169 and 173, Philip to Vázquez de Salazar, 28 Apr. and 6 May 1593.

15.ACC, XVI, 195–7, Philip to Vázquez de Salazar, 23 July 1593; Jago, ‘Taxation and political culture’, 52.

16.Thompson, ‘Oposición política’, 45, Poza to Moura, 4 Apr. 1596.

17.Céspedes del Castillo, ‘La defensa’, 403; ACC, XVI, 415–17, and XV, pp. 45–6, Philip to the Cortes, 5 July 1596.

18.Thompson, ‘Oposición política’, 56, Philip to the Cortes, 27 Aug. 1596.

19.BL Addl. 28,378/69–73v and 75–6, Poza to Moura, 9 and 13 June 1596.

20.BL, Addl. 28,378/128–31, Poza to Moura, and rescript, 28/31 July 1596; Martínez Millán and Carlos Morales, Felipe II, 285, ‘Relaçión y tanteo de lo que Su Magestad deve’; Drelichman and Voth, Lending.

21.Tellechea Idígoras, El ocaso, 183, Caetani to Aldobrandino, 30 Nov. 1596; RAG AB 604, Albert to Count Frederick van den Berg, Arras, 21 Oct. 1597. Compare the deleterious effects of the Decree of 1575 on the war in the Netherlands: chapters 12 and 13 above.

22.Tellechea Idígoras, El ocaso, 183, Caetani to Aldobrandino, 30 Nov. 1596; ACC, XV, 272–3, Philip to Cortes, 28 Nov. 1596.

23.BL Addl. 28,378/41–48v, rescript of Moura to Poza, 15 May 1596.

24.Casey, ‘Spain: a failed transition’, 214 and 211.

25.Alemán, De la Vida del Pícaro Guzmán de Alfarache, II, ii.

26.HSA Altamira 18/IV/3c, Yepes to Philip, 1 July 1597; and 12/I/1, No. 13, Yepes to Moura, 27 May 1598.

27.Carlos Morales, Felipe II, 291–310, describes the tortuous path to the general settlement (Medio General) agreed on 14 Nov.1597 and published on 14 Feb. 1598. Drelichman and Voth, Lending, use the loan contracts in AGS Contadurías Generales, legajos 84–93, to calculate the total sovereign debt affected by the 1596 Default Decree at 7,048,000 ducats. By contrast, both Philip and Poza (head of the treasury) estimated the total debt early in 1596 at 14 million ducats and claimed that ‘we have already spent all His Majesty’s revenues until the year 1599’ (pages 346–7 above) – a claim consistent with a total debt of 14 million, but not with 7 million. Now the surviving documents of the treasury of Castile (and Poza, like Drelichman and Voth, referred only to Castile) are a labyrinth, making certainty on such matters impossible; but it seems that AGS Contadurías Generales, legajos 84–93, contain details only on loans from bankers who agreed to lend again under the general settlement, not to all those affected by the Default Decree. Drelichman and Voth appear to be correct that the treasury imposed a ‘haircut’ of 20 per cent on the 7 million ducats rescheduled by the general settlement – but overlook the probability that the king also defaulted on the other 7 million. See p. 401 note 20 above for similar doubts concerning the Default Decree of 1575.

28.Rodríguez Salgado, ‘“Ni cerrando ni abriendo la puerta”’, 645 and 656, Philip to Albert, 29 July 1596 and 13 Apr. 1598.

29.Tellechea Idígoras, El Papado, II, 258–64, Clement VIII to Prince Philip and to Albert and Isabella, 12 Apr. 1597.

30.Bouza, Cartas, 154–5 and 165, Philip to Catalina, 12 Mar. 1588 (she married on 11 Mar. 1585), and 6 July 1589; DHME, IV, 181–3 (Sepúlveda’s account).

31.AGS Estado K 1567/64, Don Bernardino de Mendoza to Don Martín de Idiáquez, 14 Apr. 1588.

32.AGS PR 29/47, ‘Papel de Su Magestad Católica, que aya gloria, declarando que es su voluntad’, undated but Mar. 1594.

33.González Dávila, Historia, 17–18, Zúñiga to Philip, 1585.

34.Martínez Millán and Carlos Morales, Felipe II, 224, bishop of Guadix to Mateo Vázquez, 15 Mar. 1586.

35.ACA CA 36/325, consulta of the council of Aragon, 25 Mar. 1594; Tellechea Idígoras, El ocaso, 221 and 213, Caetani to Aldobrandini, 10 Sep. and 22 Jan. 1597; Danvila y Burguero, Don Cristóbal, 701, Don Juan de Silva to Moura, Jan. 1599.

36.González Dávila, Historia, 26–30; Atarés, ‘Consejos instructivos’, 170–2.

37.Cervera, Testamento auténtico, 109–16.

38.AGS PR 29/37, ‘Papel de Su Magestad Cathólica, que aya gloria, hecho a 5 de agosto de 1598’. FBD, Appendix III, explains why I consider this to be the ‘other paper of advice’ that Philip gave his son.

39.Martínez Hernández, El marqués de Velada, 344 n. 126, Velada to Archduke Albert, 6 July 1597; Lhermite, Passetemps, II, 1.

40.Feros, Kingship, 48, duke of Feria to Thomas Fitzherbert, 28 Feb. 1597 and 1 June 1598; Tellechea Idígoras, El ocaso, 256, ‘Aviso’ from Madrid, 11 July 1598.

41.Martínez Hernández, El marqués de Velada, 354–5, Velada to Juan de Sosa, the Escorial, 10 Sep. 1598 – three days before Philip’s death.

42.Eire, From Madrid, 269, quoting Pérez de Herrera, Elogio; Sigüenza, 167; Tellechea Idígoras, El ocaso, 255–6, ‘Aviso’ from Madrid, 11 July 1598.

43.Vargas-Hidalgo, ‘Documentos’, 410, from a Relation apparently sent by Moura to Archduke Albert.

44.Tellechea Idígoras, El ocaso, 97 and 264–7, Caetani to Aldobrandini, the Escorial, 17 Aug. 1598, the same day as the audience; AGS PR 29/39, ‘Papel de Su Magestad’, 19 Aug. 1598 (on Charles V’s Instruction of 1548, see chapter 2).

45.Lhermite, Passetemps, II, 115–19.

46.Sigüenza, 177; Lhermite, Passetemps, II, 123; Eire, From Madrid, 322–47.

47.Sigüenza, 180.

48.Lhermite, Passetemps, II, 145–7; Sigüenza, 189.

49.Sigüenza, 189.

50.Cervera de la Torre, Testimonio auténtico, 134; Glorias efímeras reproduces the thirteen surviving funeral canvases displayed in Florence.

51.BR Ms II–2214/68, Juan Ramírez Freile to Don Diego Sarmiento de Acuña, 12 Sep. 1598; Fernández Álvarez, Madrid bajo Felipe II, 31, resolution of the Madrid city council, 13 Sep. 1598.

52.Eire, From Madrid, 257 and 300–1; BR Ms II/2459, ‘Justas poéticas celebradas en Salamanca’.

53.AM Palencia Libro de Acuerdos, 1595–1600, fos 362–3, resolution of 25 Sep. 1598; AM Cádiz Ms. 10.001, ‘Libro de Acuerdos’ 1596–9, fos 127–135v and 142–144v, resolutions of 22 Sep., 8, 19 and 26 Oct., and 23 and 27 Nov. 1598.

54.García Bernal, ‘Las exequias’, 117–18, resolution of 17 Sep. 1598; Cervantes Saavedra, ‘Al túmulo del Rey Felipe II en Sevilla’, based on the translation in Laskia Martin, Cervantes, 210.

55.Carvajal y Mendoza, Epistolario, 98, to Isabel de Velasco, 15 Sep. 1598; AMAE (P) MDFDE 239/49–93v and 417–39, Ibañez de Santa Cruz, ‘Las causas de que resultó el ignorante y confuso gobierno que hubo en el tiempo del Rey nuestro señor, que sea en gloria’. See the discussion on this work in Feros, Kingship, 61–2.

56.Álamos de Barrientos, Discurso político, 27–8, 31 (this tract, although unpublished until the nineteenth century, circulated widely in manuscript).

57.Iñiguez de Lequerica, Sermones funerales, fos 85v–86, Ayala sermon on 15 Nov. 1598; Mariana, De rege, 359; González de Cellorigo, Memorial, 94.

58.CSPV, IX, 346, Soranzo to Doge and Senate, 27 Sep. 1598; AGS Estado 840/166, Padilla to Felipe III, 10 Dec. 1601.

59.Martínez Hernández, El marqués de Veleda, 357, Velada to Juan de Sosa, 13 Sep. 1598; Cervera de la Torre, Testimonio, 130.

60.González Dávila, Historia, 48; Quevedo, Obras, II, 438b; Bouza, ‘Felipe II sube’, 305; Antigua, Desengaño, 82–3 and 116–17.

61.Daza, Quarta parte, 266–7.

62.Ibid., 267 (arithmetic was clearly not Daza’s strong suit: five years, not four, separated the king’s death in September 1598 from the vision in September 1603); dedication and pp. 137–8 (on Charles).

Epilogue

1.Iñiguez de Lequerica, Sermones funerales, sermon of Terrones, fos 16–17. (Porreño, Dichos, 21, quoted part of this sermon, with variations, but attributed it to Fray Antonio de León.)

2.Douais, I, 204, Fourquevaux to Charles IX, 15 Apr. 1567.

3.IVdeDJ 82/444 and 419, Sessa to Zúñiga, 28 Sep. 1600 and 9 Nov. 1602, minutes.

4.Tellechea Idígoras, El ocaso, 105–7 and 286–8, ‘Juicio sobre Felipe II’ by Camillo Caetani, Madrid, 13 Sep. 1598; Serrano, I, 316–17, Philip to Requesens, 12 Aug. 1566; AGS Estado 2855, unfol., ‘Sumario de los quatro papeles principales que dio el presidente Richardot’ and ‘Lo que Su Magestad es servido que se responda a los quatro papeles’ (11 Sep. 1589).

5.Diego Pérez de Mesa, Política o razón de Estado, quoted by Carlos Morales, Felipe II, 336.

6.Kervijn de Lettenhove, Relations politiques, VII, 397, Thomas Wilson to Walsingham, 27 Dec. 1574.

7.BZ 144/61, Vázquez to Philip, and reply, 31 May 1575.

8.Galende Díaz and Salamanca López, Epistolario, 238–41, Empress María to Philip, 13 Feb. 1572.

9.CCG, I, 314–18, Granvelle to Philip, 19 May 1566; AGS Estado 2843/7, consulta of the council of State, 5 Sep. 1577, opinions of the duke of Alba and Cardinal Quiroga.

10.Levi, The drowned and the saved, 48.

11.BMO, I, 62–4, Philip to Alba, 14 Sep. 1571.

12.Herrera Oria, La Armada, 210–14, Philip to Medina Sidonia, 1 July 1588; Raleigh, A history of the world, 407. See also the similar analysis by the Venetian ambassador in 1587 of why Philip refused to heed his field commanders: pp. 313–14 above.

13.BL Addl. Ms 28,336/76, Dr Velasco to Espinosa, 9 Aug. 1571.

14.Elliott, ‘Felipe II y la monarquía española’, 43–4.

15.IVdeDJ 61/325, Philip rescript to Pedro de Hoyo, undated (but early Aug. 1563); Cabié, Ambassade, 432–3, ‘Notes diverses’ by the French ambassador, Oct. 1566.

16.AGNM Mercedes V/248–249v, Philip to Don Martin de Velasco, 2 Feb. 1561; BMO, I, 64, Philip to Alba, 14 Sep. 1571.

17.BMO, III, 1274, Philip to Santa Cruz, 21 Oct. 1587. Brendecke, Imperium, provides many more examples of self-delusion: see especially chap. 7, ‘Entera noticia’.

18.Botero’s Dalla Ragion di Stato (1589) and Relationi universali (1591) quoted by Gil, ‘Visión europea’, 79.

19.Sigüenza, 99; [Eliot,] Ortho-epia Gallica, 44–5; ambassadors quoted by Hillgarth, The mirror, 96.

20.Sigüenza, 408–11, an impressive analysis of the economic impact of ‘El dinero que se ha gastado en esta fábrica’.

21.Mulcahy, Philip II, 312 n. 2, marquis of Velada to count of Benavente, the Escorial, 25 Nov. 1590.

22.ASV NS 19/192, Novara to Rusticucci, 3 May 1587; BCR Ms 2417/39, Silva to Esteban de Ibarra, 13 Aug. 1589.

Note on Sources

1.Mercedes Noviembre, the organizing genius of the library, published a short history: La Biblioteca de Francisco de Zabálburu. For more details, see Llera Llorente, La Biblioteca Francisco de Zabálburu.

2.Osma, Instituto de Valencia de Don Juan. Osma modelled the Instituto on the Hispanic Society of America, founded in 1904 by Archer M. Huntington, with whom he ‘had a friendly rivalry’ for acquiring material: Proske, Archer Milton Huntington, 16–17. It therefore seems an amazing coincidence that each man, unknown to the other, acquired an important part of the Altamira collection.

3.Gayangos, Catalogue; Micheli, Inventaire (a catalogue modelled on that prepared by Gayangos for the British Museum collection). On the European story of the collection, see Andrés, ‘La dispersión’.

4.I thank Mitchell Codding, John O’Neill and Patrick Lenaghan of the Hispanic Society of America for information, assistance with the cataloguing, and general encouragement in the ‘Altamira project’. See also Rodríguez-Moñino and Brey Mariño, Catálogo, III, 12–52 (on Sancho Rayón), 53–106 (on the marquis de Jerez de los Caballeros) and 158 (the sale contract for the ‘entire library’ of the marquis, 15 Jan. 1902. In addition, BR, AHN, the National Library of Scotland in Edinburgh and the Biblioteca Menéndez y Pelayo in Santander all hold other fragments of the Altamira collection.

5.Riba, Correspondencia privada, printed half of BL Addl. 28,263. Although he entitled it ‘volume 1’, Riba died soon after transcribing the material and no more volumes ever appeared.

6.Heredia Herrera, Catálogo, printed an analysis of over 4,000 consultas and the full text of Philip’s rescripts (vol. I covers 1529–91, vol. II covers 1592–9) – but only of consultas in AGI, not those in other collections.

7.BL Egerton 1506, one of seven volumes of Inquisition papers purchased in 1856, contains consultas from Inquisitor-General Gaspar de Quiroga to Philip on a wide variety of issues 1574–95, with his holograph rescripts.

8.AHN OM 3509–3512, entitled ‘Papeles curiosos’, are full of papers about Philip’s plans to intervene in England and France. They should be in AGS Estado.

9.AGS Estado K, the papers of the council of State concerning France, returned from Paris in 1942, have been heavily used. By contrast, documents stolen from other series, now filed in AGS Estado 8334–8343, have been little used, even though two detailed catalogues were made when they were still in Paris: Daumet, ‘Inventaire’; and Paz, Catálogo. AMAE (P) still has photocopies of all the documents returned, as well as a few originals retained.

10.To sample this wonderful resource, type PARES [Portal de Archivos Españoles] into your browser and choose the option ‘Búsqueda Sencilla’. Under ‘Buscar’ type ‘Felipe II’, in ‘fechas’ enter ‘1597’ and ‘1598’, and select the option ‘registros digitizados’. The next screen offers different ‘archivos y fondos’, from which choose ‘Archivo de Simancas, Patronato Real’. Eight of the 66 documents displayed are the last documents ever signed by the king, in August 1598, discussed in chapter 19 above. Wherever you live, you can now read each document online, and print out whatever interests you.

11.HHSTA Hofkorrespondenz, Kartons 1 and 2, contain letters from Philip and his sister Juana to their Habsburg relatives; Galende Díaz and Salamanca López, Epistolario, published María’s holograph letters to her brother in AA; BL Addl. 28,264 and AGS Estado K 1490 contain Philip’s holograph letters to the duke of Savoy, 1557–8. Giovanna Altadonna, ‘Cartas’, published 117 of his letters to Duke Charles Emmanuel of Savoy.

12.FCDM AH 166 R7–20, Philip to Feria, 7 Dec. 1558; Allinson, A monarchy, chaps 3 and 4. Rayne Allinson and Geoffrey Parker are preparing a scholarly edition of Mary’s drafts of two letters to Philip.

13.Bouza, Cartas, published 39 letters written 1581–5, mostly to both daughters, and 94 written to Catalina in 1585–96. Catalina’s letters, in BL Addl. 28,419, remain unpublished.

14.Bouza Álvarez, ‘Guardar papeles’, discussed the history and size of their archive, and published the inventory of the 766 legajos and 54 libros left by Zúñiga at his death in 1586.

15.March, Niñez, published many papers from the Arxiu about educating ‘Felipito’.

16.The two ‘Recueils de la correspondance de Granvelle’, containing messages exchanged between the cardinal and Philip II and his closest advisers 1579–84, were BRB MS 9471–2 and 9473 until 1979, but in that year they became AGRB Manuscrits Divers 5459 and 5460, respectively. CCG, XII, published some of these documents, but with numerous errors of transcription. PEG and CCG published most of his correspondence in BRB, albeit with an important hiatus in 1564–5.

17.The magnificent Epistolario del III duque de Alba published most of the letters written by the duke, but not those he received. CODOIN IV and XXXVII contain many royal letters to Alba while in the Netherlands; and CODOIN XXXII, XXXIII and XXXV contain many more written during the Portuguese campaign. AA cajas 5–8 contain the duke’s correspondence with Philip and cajas 26–56 his correspondence with others, especially during his tenure as governor-general of the Netherlands, arranged alphabetically by correspondent.

18.Maura Gamazo, El designo, published excerpts from the royal letters now in Santa Barbara.

19.See details in Dierickx, ‘Les “Carte Farnesiane” de Naples’. Luckily, many more of Parma’s papers survived than Dierickx feared and they may be consulted in ASN (albeit some are charred around the edges). Gachard’s copies from ASN are in AGRB Collection Gachard 565, 572 and 666. Léon van der Essen copied many letters by and about Philip into his ‘Cahiers’. Some are now in the university archives at Louvain-la-Neuve, but others remain in private hands.

20.Fernández Álvarez, Testamento, 92–3. The three surviving letters (Fernández, Historia, 278–9; HSA Altamira 18/IV/3c and 12/I/1, No. 13) are discussed in chapters 5 and 19 above.

21.Marañón, Antonio Pérez, 1040–2, listed the various editions of Pérez’s work, and discussed them in chap. 30. Alfredo Alvar Ezquerra published a critical version of the 1598 edition of Relaciones y Cartas. FBD Appendix I explains why the source is tainted.

22.Morel-Fatio, ‘La vie’.

23.Serrano y Sanz, Autobiografía y memorias, 151–210. See also Lynn, Between court and confessional, chap. 2.

24.Tellechea Idígoras, Fray Bartolomé Carranza. Documentos históricos.

25.Paris, Négociations; Cabié, Ambassade; Douais, Dépêches; Mousset, Dépêches; Brunetti and Vitale, Corrispondenza.

26.State Papers Online: the Tudors, 1509–1603, Part II, provides not only the calendars in ‘searchable’ form but also a link to the digitized original of each document calendared.

27.Firpo, Relazioni, VIII, 232–938; Serrano, Correspondencia; Voci, ‘L’impresa’; Mosconi, La nunziatura di Spagna; Tellechea Idígoras, El ocaso.

28.Khevenhüller, Diario; Khevenhüller-Metsch and Probst-Ohstorff, Hans Khevenhüller.

29.BNF Ms f.f. 16,104–16,108 contain St Gouard’s dispatches; IANTT TSO CG livros 209 and 210 are Pereira’s own registers of his correspondence. CSPV contains long English summaries of the dispatches from Venetian ambassadors in Spain that concerned England.

30.Details in Kagan, El rey recatado.

31.Kagan, ‘La Historia’, 105–6, quoting from Herrera’s own account of the audience, written in 1599.

32.Orazio della Rena, Compendio della vita di Filippe secondo re di Spagna (BNF Ms Italien 446): see Volpini, ‘D’un silence’.